The Use of Ultrasonography in Dairy Management Visit our learning zone at www.bcftechnology.com for a wide range of clinical guides and learning materials. A special thanks to Yolanda Trillo DVM- International Distribution Manager at BCF technology and Cyril Gonzalez- Sales Manager at BCF technology France, for taking the time to develop this booklet for BCF technology.
There are at least 3 variables which play a key role in the overall management of a herd (Diagram 1). These are, the cows themselves (genetic and breed) and external variables influencing the cows performance, the barn where the cows live and the people who develop the jobs within the cow environment.
Training
MOTOR
People Coordination
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Milking
Walking
ENVIRONMENT
Resting
Feeding Ventilation
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PROFIT
Cows Reproduction
Diagram 1. Scheme of the key management variables involved on the herd performance.
Production
80% of revenue on a dairy farm comes from milk production. However, cows must become pregnant first in order to produce milk. Therefore, workers are responsible for managing the whole farm but focus on the reproduction management to create profitability. Additionally, the barn requires resting, walking, milking, feeding, ventilation and biosecurity areas to ensure the comfort of the cow and the cow’s health. All of these areas of the barn have to be properly managed as many factors (including cleaning, overcrowding at stalls and headlocks, grouping cows by health/reproductive status, etc.) have been shown to depreciate reproduction and
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The Use of Ultrasonography in Dairy Management production income (Gillund et al., 2001; Reneau et al., 2005; Espejo et al., 2006; Fulwider et al., 2007; 2008; Roche et al., 2009). Therefore, teaching, training and giving protocols is required to ensure good practice, so by acting at the right time, the highest level of efficiency can be achieved.
risk of developing post-parturient diseases due to over-conditioning. •
Economical loss per non-pregnant cow over 100 days in milk has been estimated at $0.42 to $4.95 per day, depending on the stage of lactation (French and Nebel, 2003). These days open (DO) can be influenced by factors such as: •
Length of Voluntary Waiting Period (VWP): this is a time during early lactation in which cows are not inseminated even when estrus shows up, and such decision is taken to allow optimum uterine involution and recovery from negative energy balance (NEB). The VWP varies with parity number, breed, breeding strategy (synchronization programmes may increase the VWP), calving season and milk yield. In general, the uterine tract is not fully recovered from previous calving before 40 to 50 days in milk (DIM) therefore AI must take place after that period to allow for high conception results. If the cow becomes pregnant too early, the dry off would be done when cows are still producing a reasonable amount of milk. In contrast, a late pregnancy will increase DIM, reduce milk yield, and increase the
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Heat detection accuracy: failure to detect heat and errors in heat detection are the two primary causes of poor reproductive performance and low reproductive efficiency. This affects herd profitability such as: 1) Longer calving intervals, lower lifetime milk production and fewer calves, 2) Breeding cows unsuitable for insemination leads to a decrease in conception rates and wasted semen and time - both very costly, 3) Combinations of unrecognized estrus and low conception rates may lead to culling of normal cows, 4) Insemination of pregnant cows mistakenly identified in heat may cause abortion (Groenendaal, et al 2004). AI management includes breeding techniques as well as semen quality and storage conditions. The conception risk is not only maximized when personnel accurately identify cows in heat and administer the appropriate synchronization programmes, but also when semen is correctly thawed, using hygiene procedures, maintaining thermal protection of straws during AI gun assembly and transportation to the cow (Dalton et al., 2004). Post AI management: in order to reduce the calving interval, early pregnancy diagnosis is key to iden-
tifying open animals, timely treating them and rebreeding so as to maintain a postpartum interval close to 60 days. Pregnancy diagnosis can be quickly and precisely identified using ultrasound as early as 26 days post AI. However, to ensure fetus viability, scanning at 30 days pregnancy (Fig 1) is recommended, as well as pregnancy confirmation at 60 and even 90 days (variations must be considered depending on body condition). Reproductive efficiency increases with early detection of embryonic mortality and twin pregnancy (Fig 2). Embryonic mortality contributes to reproductive inefficiency because fertility assessed at any point during pregnancy is a function of both conception rate and embryonic mortality (Fricke, 2002). Moreover, twin pregnancy represents a management problem in dairy cattle since the risk of pregnancy loss increases at around 69 days after IA, and the profitability of the herd diminishes drastically as the frequency of twin births increases. Ultrasound vs transrectal palpation is a less invasive technique for early pregnancy diagnosis (Paisley et al., 1978) and may also contribute to minimizing the rare incidences of palpation-induced abortions. Moreover, depending on the image quality of the scanner, transrectal ultrasonography has the added advantage of providing additional information on ovarian (Photo 3) and uterus structures (Photo 4), determination of foetal viability, sex (Photo 5) and age (Fricke, 2002).
Amniotic membrane
Conceptus Allantoic Fluid
Fig 1. 30-day pregnancy
Foetuses
Fig 2.Twin gestation
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The Use of Ultrasonography in Dairy Management Additionally, the profitability of an ultrasound can be maximized through the scanning of other regions to accurately diagnose and properly apply treatments to infections and damages of the mammary gland (Fig 9), lungs, liver, bladder and kidneys, as well as identifying musculoskeletal and visceral structures (Fig 10), or eco-guide anesthesia techniques (Abutarbush et al., 2012; Hallowell and Palgrave, 2012). Many ultrasound systems are available on the market but not all of them are suitable for use on farm conditions (such as being portable, water proof, robust, strong image quality, comfortable and durable). Therefore, before purchasing an ultrasound scanner, personal needs should be clear and marketing or pricing must not be the key factor in making such an investment – proper use and interpretation of the results shown on the scanner will increase your work efficiency. •
Nutrition: poor energy may increase embryo mortality, therefore cows must be properly managed and fed with rations that meet requirements at different lactation stages. During early lactation, fresh cows should maximize dry matter intake (DMI) as quickly as possible to minimize the amount of time and the degree of NEB that occurs. By maximizing DMI during this time frame, less body fat stores are mobilized, resulting in lower blood concentrations of non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA) and ketones (e.g., beta-hydroxybutyrate –
Uterus
Follicles
Fig 3. Ovarian
Thicker wall of luteal tissue 34 mm diameter luteal cyst
Purulent material in uterine lumen
(Muco)purulent material in uterine lumen
Uterus
Fig 5. Endometritis
Fig 6. Pyometra
Hindlimbs
Tail Front limbs
Umbilical cord
Hindlimbs
Genital tubercule Genital tubercule
Fig 4. Luteal cyst
Fig 7. Male foetus
Fig 8. Female foetus
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The Use of Ultrasonography in Dairy Management BHBA-) and a liver that is more capable of making glucose to support milk production. Early disease diagnosis and intervention help to minimize the detrimental effects on DMI and lower the risk of culling a cow from the dairy herd. Therefore, body condition and metabolic profiles should be monitored. •
Synchronization programmes and the correct use of hormones: under veterinarian prescription requires knowledge on cow physiology.
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Postpartum management and disease: DO may increase by the time a diagnosis is made and treatment is applied. It is important to try and avoid postpartum diseases such as milk fever, ketosis, acidosis, displaced abomasum, mastitis, lameness, hypomagnesaemia, retained placenta, but if it occurs, it is necessary to diagnose and apply the right treatment (e.g. endometritis may increase DO by 22 to 85 days – Brick, 2011). Monitoring postpartum cows is recommended to allow proper uterine involution and ensure fertility as well as to avoid extended periods of unproductivity.
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Weather: cows may behave accordingly to the environmental conditions (tropical vs cold regions). This is, estrus behaviour, the maintaining of a pregnancy, placental function, calf birth weight, and milk production changes, types of diseases and recovery from disease, respiratory issues, etc. (Collier et al., 2006). These kinds of environmental stress conditions have to
be managed by humans through maintaining good ventilation on the barns (either cold or warm weather) and if there are high probability of heat stress, mechanical cooler systems may help.
Fig 9. Bovine udder with mastitis caused by Trueperella pyogenes
Ventral body wall
The previous statements show the importance of learning how to read cow signals and to understand cow behaviour which is subjected to environmental characteristics and management practices (e.g. it is difficult to show an estrus behaviour over slippery floors or in lame cows because of the pain). There are several measurements of the cow which can be monitored in order to improve reproduction management as well keep animal welfare. Some of the basic measurements to observe of the cow are: •
Musculophrenic vein
Diaphragm Reticulum
Craniodorsal blind sac of the rumen
Fibrinous deposits
Fig 10. Traumatic reticuloperitonitis
Body condition score (BCS) indicates the adequate condition for each stage of the productive cycle (e.g., on a 1 to 5 scale, a Holstein should get pregnant with 2.5 and calving from 3.5 to 3.75). An overweight cow is more susceptible to metabolic issues, infections and difficulties in calving (lack of reduction on total nutrient levels and grains, prolonged dry periods or overfeeding during dry periods) and thinner cows often do not show heat or conceive until they start to regain or at least maintain body weight (insufficient energy and
protein reserves – decrease on milk production and fat levels). •
Locomotion score: Infertility due to lameness accounts for roughly 15% of culled cows (Bicalho et al., 2007).
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Hygiene score: a dirty environment will be shown on the skin of the cow and it may suggest the proliferation of bacteria as well as other micro-organisms which could depreciate the herd health status (e.g. mastitis: cows clinically affected had 25 additional DO on average than uninfected cows, it decreases conception rate and also increases the incidence of pregnancy loss up to 15% -Chebel et al., 2004; Gunay, 2008; Rahman et al., 2012).
Even if software is available to store and calculate some herd reproductive indicators, the proper data collection (such as record cows in heat, typing wrong data or missing some data as causes of culling) and interpretation (such as ultrasound image and the herd incidence, achievable targets or risk prevalence in the case of disease) is required to find issues and take actions to solve problems. In summary, tools may help to increase profitability but learning how and when use these tools is a key factor to get the most from them. Moreover, choosing the right tool to perform the best
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The Use of Ultrasonography in Dairy Management practice may result in a difficult task as many options are available on the market. However, not all ultrasound systems may meet your requirements and such requirements should not be forgotten when looking to make an investment. Research on the overall management of the herd is required to find the source of a problem in the farm as many factors can be involved, e.g. abortions could be a combination of management issues, such as rebreeding when already pregnant, contaminated semen, feeding errors or a lack of biosecurity/hygiene allowing viruses to get in.
References Abutarbush SM, Pollock CM, Wildman BK, Perrett T, Schunicht OC, Fenton RK, Hannon SJ, Vogstad AR, Kee Jim G and Booker CW. 2012. Evaluation of the diagnostic and prognostic utility of ultrasonographyat first diagnosis of presumptive bovine respiratory disease. Canadian Journal of Veterinary Research, 76:23-32. Bicalho RC, Vokey F, Erb HN, Guard CL. 2007. Visual locomotion scoring in the first seventy days in milk: impact on pregnancy and survival. J Dairy Sci. 90 (10):4586-91.
De Vries, A. 2006. Determinants of the cost of days open in dairy cattle. Dissertation (PhD). University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA. Espejo, L.A. and Endres, M.I. 2007. Herd-level risk factors for lameness in high-producing Holstein cows housed in freestall barns. J. Dairy Sci. 90:306–314. French, P.D., and R.L. Nebel. 2003. The simulated economic cost of extended calving intervals in dairy herds and comparison of reproductive management programs. J. Dairy Sci. 86: (Suppl. 1): 54 (Abstr.). Fricke PM. 2002. Scanning the future – Ultrasonography as a reproductive management tool for dairy cattle. J Dairy Sci. 85:1918-1926.
Brick, T.A. 2011. Impact of Intrauterine Dextrose Therapy on Reproductive Performance of Lactating Dairy Cows Diagnosed with Clinical Endometritis Following a Randomized Clinical Trial. Dissertation (Master Thesis). University of Ohio State, USA.
Fulwider, W.K., Grandin, T., Garrick, D.J., Engle, T.E., Lamm, W.D., Dalsted, N.L. and Rollin, B.E. 2007. Influence of free stall base on tarsal joint lesions and hygiene in farm cows. J. Farm Sci. 90:3559-3566.
Chebel RC, Santos JE, Reynolds JP, Cerri RL, Juchem SO, Overton M. 2004. Factors affecting conception rate after artificial insemination and pregnancy loss in lactating dairy cows. Anim. Reprod. Sci. 84:239. Dalton, J.C., A. Ahmadzadeh, B. Shafii, W.J. Price, and J.M. DeJarnette. 2004. Effect of thawing multiple 0.5-ml semen straws and sequential insemination number on conception rates in dairy cattle. J. Dairy Sci. 87:972-975.
Groenendaal, H.; Galligan, D. T. and Mulder, H. A. 2004. An economic spreadsheet model to determine optimal breeding and replacement decisions for dairy cattle. Journal of Dairy Science 87:2146-2157. Gunay et al., 2008. Effects of clinical mastitis on reproductive performance in Holstein cows. Acta Vet. Brno. 77:555.
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The Use of Ultrasonography in Dairy Management Hallowell G and Palgrave K. 2012. Ultrasound of the bovine mammary gland and its role in mastitis control. International Dairy Topics, 11:5:41-43. Paisley LG, Mickelsen WD, Frost OL. 1978. A survey of the incidence of prenatal mortality in cattle following pregnancy diagnosis by rectal palpation. Theriogenology. 9:481-489.
productivity health and welfare. J. Farm Sci. 92: 5769-5801. Souza, A. 2014. What’s the ideal voluntary waiting period for your dairy herd? California Dairy Newsletter. Vol. 6
Pieterse MC, Szenci O, Willemse AH, Bajcsy CSA, Dieleman SJ, Taverne MAM. 1990. Early pregnancy diagnosis in cattle by means of linear-array real-time ultrasound scanning of the uterus and a qualitative and quantitative milk progesterone test. Theriogenology. 33:697-707. Rahman MM, Mazzilli M, Pennarossa G, Brevini TA, Zecconi A, Gandolfi F. 2012. Chronic mastitis is associated with altered ovarian follicle development in dairy cattle. J Dairy Sci. 95(4):1885-93. Reneau, J.K., Seykora, A.J., Heins, B.J., Endres, M.I., Farnsworth, R.J. and Bey, R.F. 2005. Association between hygiene scores and somatic cell scores in farm cattle. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 227: 1297-1301. Roche, J.R., Friggens, N.C., Kay, J.K., Fisher, M.W., Stafford, K.J. and Berry, D.P. 2009. Invited review: Body condition score and its association with farm cow
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