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Brainspace INTERACTIVE MAGAZINE FOR SMART 8-14 YEAR OLDS

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ODD & NEWLY EVOLVED SPECIES Is Earth now entering

a new epoch?

Make FAKE SNOW + TIPS FOR

THE PERFECT SNOWBALL

Chilly Science

Why – and how – your body reacts to cold temperature

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SPY CODES: Substitution Cyphers

Brainspace is fully interactive.

Enjoy the extra digital content on the pages of this magazine. First,

download the free Blippar App at the App Store or at Google Play. Once the app is downloaded, simply tap the app to scan pages with the symbol and enjoy. Read, listen, watch, experiment and think.

COPY EDITING HOLLY BENNETT GRACE BUELER CONTRIBUTING WRITERS HOLLY BENNETT PASCALE BIDER GRACE BUELER TANYA DANIEL JOHN HOFFMAN BEN MAYCOCK TRISTAN SIMPSON VIDEO & ORIGINAL MUSIC SCORES: ALEX MIDDLETON FACT CHECKING JENNIFER ALEXANDER ART DIRECTION AND DESIGN GALEXY STUDIO PUBLISHER BRAINSPACE PUBLISHING INC. PRESIDENT AND CEO NICOLE MIDDLETON

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WE ARE DEEPLY GRATEFUL TO OUR PARENT/CHILD ADVISORY COMMITTEE Laurie and Kenny Weeden; Christine Bhumgara and Tia Nguyen; Rachel and Audrie Meredith; Catherine, Jill and Delia Jansen; Valerie and Alex Brown; Julianne and Michael McKall.

MISSION Brainspace magazine endeavours to produce intelligent and engaging articles for students ages 8 to 14 in a format that bridges the gap between print and digital technology to expand literacy and promote optimal learning.

NOTE The opinions expressed herein are those of the respective authors and not necessarily those of Brainspace magazine or of Brainspace Publishing Inc. Brainspace magazine and Brainspace Publishing Inc. will not be liable for any damages or losses, howsoever sustained, as a result of the reliance on or use by a reader or any other person of any of the information, opinions or products expressed, advertised or otherwise contained herein. Where appropriate, professional advice should be sought.

ADVISORY BOARD: PAUL EEKHOFF, CHRISTOPHER EMERY, JANE GERTNER, ROSEMARY SINCLAIR-MUNRO, ARMANDO IANNUZZI, BRYAN MIDDLETON, NIGEL NEWTON 2 brainspacemagazine.com /BrainspaceMagazine @BrainspaceMag

c ntents make it!

5 6 7 8 9

The Perfect Snowball: optimal texture and safety first Silly Snow: making artificial snow for the fun of it The Perfect Stressball: oobleck and balloons with a twist Écorce de Nöel: a yummy way to practice speaking French Une toupie dreidel: let’s play a Hanukkah game in French

technology + math

e

y

10 Substitution Cyphers: how to create them and why 13 Data Pollution: internet usage is raising concerns 14 Environmental Math: tackling charts and percentages with your cell phone bill

t in h, o

brain stuff 16 18

it gets making weird:

Emotional Brain: your brain processes emotions Brain Yack: good to know trivia about your brain

history

he pain signals20 to your Henry brain. Bates: the man who proved Darwin right 22 responsible Anthropocene: are we entering a new epoch? nal nerve is also for in thinks the pain is coming 24 Earth’s Geological Timeline: eons, eras, periods, and epochs ur mouth – which is why your overload!

tons of science 26 28 30 32 34 36

What Happens When Your Body Gets Cold?

Lichen: is it a moss, an algae or fungus? Neither.

Tallulah: why water is so important to our health So You Want to Be An Astronaut: or other cool space jobs New Species: brand new life forms Seeing is Not Believing: what you see isn’t always what your brain translates

brainspace WINTER 2017/2018

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Winter Wonderland As this wondrous planet continues to orbit the sun, we begin a new season. While our readers in Australia are looking forward to the next few months of summer, many of our readers are enjoying a new winter. Not all winters are alike. Our readers higher north of the equator are getting their boots, coats, hats and mittens out of storage. In contrast, our readers in Florida, Texas and California experience mild, warmer winters where snow is a rarity. The next few months will bring a different experience for each of us.

In this issue we look at how our bodies respond to the cold on page 26. Our brain is incredible at interpreting signals and triggering the appropriate response to help our bodies physically cope with extreme changes. This is the case for our emotions too and our feature on page 16 examines our emotional brain and how it processes feelings.

Evolution is a favourite topic for us at Brainspace and we are excited to have discovered a new movie about Henry Bates now in IMAX theatres. Bates proved Darwin’s Theory of Evolution – species really do gradually change and adapt in order to survive.

Enjoy this issue that is all about change! Enter the contest on page 38. As always, we love to hear from you so please send us your ideas and comments. Our address is on page 2. We love receiving your letters and art too.

We wish you a fun new season and a happy new year. Keep being fascinated with the world around you!

CORRECTION: Summer 2017 Tallulah We are grateful to Ms. Sandra Marr. Biology & Ecology Teacher of Collegiate School, for pointing out some scientific errors in our Summer 2017 issue of Tallulah. We make every effort to avoid confusing our readers with incorrect information. Please accept our sincere apology and note the appropriate scientific terms for Tallulah’s “how I was born” story.

Oxygen is an atom

not a molecule Hydrogen is an atom Water - H20 is a molecule.

It is made of 2 hydrogen atoms and an oxygen atom.

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Electrons are negative

never positive

brainspace SUMMER 2017

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How to Make The Perfect Snowball!

Snowballs are available for a limited time under perfect conditions. Here are some tips for top notch snowballs.

1

Use the freshest snow with the best texture.

Here’s a checklist: n Climate: the thermometer should be hovering around 0°C or 32°F n Sound: it should crunch when your foot sinks in. n Weight: it should be heavy n Texture: fluffy and moist but not wet

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2 Play nice, not with ice.

When packing a snowball, add gentle pressure until you feel it hold together. Snow packed too firmly is like a ball made of ice.

Ouch!

Snow Depth: A minimum of 20 centimeters or 12 inches deep gives a good thick base of snow, so you won’t scoop up any debris or stones from the ground which could potentially really harm your opponent. Be careful not to scrape the ground when scooping up snow.

Location, location: A grassy area is safest.

It’s soft on landings when dodging your opponent’s incoming snowballs.

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How to Make Silly Snow!

PO W

For our readers in warm climates, this may not be exactly like real snow, but it is fun. Try these combinations of ingredients to get different textures of snow from powdery to granular. Though these are non-toxic, we don’t recommend a snowball fight with this stuff.

R E D

YOU WILL NEED: • baking sode • shaving cream (white foamy kind) • large mixing bowl

YOU WILL NEED: • corn starch • shaving cream (white foamy kind) • large mixing bowl

CORNSTARCH and SHAVING CREAM

LA GRANU

We love that this snow is super soft and smells nice! It truly does pack like real snow when making a “snow” ball. The texture is similar to powdery “snow” which is perfect for skiing!

Put a cup of corn starch into a mixing bowl and add approximately 2 cups of shaving cream. Use your hands to mix it.

Wear latex gloves if you have skin sensitivities.

BAKING SODA and SHAVING CREAM This combination creates a slightly more granular feeling “snow.” The baking soda somehow makes this “snow” feel cooler and it packs a better “snow”ball, too. This recipe uses a 1:1 ratio which means 1 measure of baking soda to 1 measure of shaving cream.

Put a cup of baking soda into a big bowl. Add an equal amount of shaving cream. Mix to the desired consistency.

Use your hands to mix it. Wear latex gloves if you have skin sensitivities.

R

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The Perfect Stressball!

At the Brainspace office, we love to play with oobleck – a non-Newtonian fluid – whenever possible. Confession: we had an oobleck fight in our test kitchen. Great fun, but the mess was off the charts. Best to keep this fun outdoors.

We do, however, love this stressball, which contains oobleck and has a very cool squish factor.

It is easy to make and fun during the busy holiday season, or to help with the February blahs.

You will need: 1 balloon (round, white) 1 fruit net bag (like the ones you get oranges in) 1 cup corn starch ½ cup water

some food colouring funnel

large measuring cup Make the oobleck:

Make the stressball:

If you’re a Brainspace reader, you’ve seen our recipe for oobleck before. Scientifically referred to as nonNewtonian fluid, it is easy to make and fascinating to play with since oobleck doesn’t obey the laws of solids or liquids. Oobleck is what fills the balloon to give this stressball its unique texture.

3.

1.

2.

Put the corn starch in a large measuring cup.

Gently mix the corn starch and water together with a fork until it is smooth.

Add the food colouring to the mixture until you are satisfied with the shade of it.

4.

5.

Stretch the opening of the balloon over the tip of your funnel.

Once the balloon is securely on the funnel, pour the oobleck into the balloon.

Remove the balloon from the funnel and tie a knot at the very tip of the opening.

NOTE: Tying a knot towards the ball of the balloon can cause it to burst while squishing it.

6.

Wrap the netting around the balloon like a little pouch and tie it off with an elastic.

7. Squish. brainspace WINTER 2017/2018

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en français

Écorce de Nöel

Ce qu’il vous faut 1 paquet de pépittes de chocolat mi-sucré 1 paquet de pépittes de chocolat blanc 1 tasse de cannes de Nöel broyées, divisée

You will need 1 package semisweet chocolate chips 1 package white chocolate chips 1 cup crushed candy canes, divided

Préparation Lire la recette.

Preparation Read the recipe.

ÉTAPE 1 Chauffer le chocolat mi-sucré dans un bol microondable, à intensité MOYENNE, de 1 à 2 min ou jusqu’à ce qu’il ait presque fondu; remuer jusqu’à ce qu’il ait complètement fondu. ÉTAPE 2 Répéter les opérations dans un bol séparé pour le chocolat blanc. ÉTAPE 3 Incorporer ½ des cannes de Nöel broyées au chocolat mi-sucré et l’autre moitié au chocolat blanc. ÉTAPE 4 Déposer en alternance des cuillerées combles des mélanges de chocolat sur une plaque à pâtisserie tapissée de papier ciré. ÉTAPE 5 Marbrer délicatement avec la pointe d’un couteau. ÉTAPE 6 Réfrigérer 1 h ou jusqu’à fermeté. Briser la préparation en morceaux.

STEP 1 Heat the brown chocolate chips in a microwave safe bowl at MEDIUM power for 1 minute or until it is partially melted; stir until completely melted.

STEP 2 In a separate bowl, repeat the same steps for the white chocolate.

STEP 3 Stir in ½ the crushed candy canes in the brown chocolate and the other half in the white chocolate.

STEP 4 Alternate spoonfuls of white and brown chocolate onto a cookie sheet that is lined with wax paper.

STEP 5 Delicately swirl both chocolates into each other with the tip of a butterknife.

STEP 6 Refrigerate for one hour or until it is firm. Break it into pieces.

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Toupie (dreidel) Pour fabriquer la toupie tu as besoin: • du modèle sur cette page • d’une paire de ciseaux (à bouts ronds de préférence) • d’un peu de colle ou ruban gommé • d’un crayon pour mettre au centre de la toupie Fabriquer la toupie: Découpe le patron, plie sur les lignes, et colle les côtés ensemble pour que ça ressemble l’image à la droite. Met le crayon au centre de la toupie.

Pour jouer à la toupie tu as besoin: • d’une toupie (dreidel) • de 10 bonbons par joueur Pour commencer le jeux, chaque joueur doit mettre un bonbon au centre. Le gagnant est celui qui a réussi à avoir tous les bonbons!

Blipp this page for English instructions and a demonstration on how to make the dreidel.

Si la toupie tombe sur ce symbol (Shin), le joueur doit mettre deux de ses bonbons au centre.

Si la toupie tombe sur ce symbol (Gimel), le joueur prend tous les bonbons qui sont au centre et chaque joueur doit remettre un bonbon pour le tour suivant

To make the dreidel you will need: • the template on this page • a pair of scissors • a bit of glue or tape • a pencil to put in the center of the dreidel Make the dreidel: Cut out the template, fold it along the lines into the shape in the picture and glue down the flaps. Put in the center of the dreidel To play the dreidel game you will need: • a dreidel • 10 candies per player To begin, each player puts one candy in the center.

The player who wins all of the candy is the winner.

Si la toupie tombe ce symbol (Hay), le joueur prend la moitié des bonbons qui sont au milieu. S’ils sont en nombre impair il prend un nombre impair de bonbons (par exemple s’il en reste 5, il en prendra 3).

S’il ne reste plus qu’un seul bonbon au milieu après qu’il se soit servi, tous les joueurs doivent remettre un bonbon au centre pour le tour suivant.

Si la toupie tombe sur ce symbol (Nun), le joueur ne fait rien.

brainspace WINTER 2017/2018

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technology

Substitution

Ciphers How to use and create secret codes.

By Patricia Foster, for Beanz

Pssst... want to know a secret?

Whether you want a secret way to talk to your friends, or you’re just interested in creating your own, ciphers are a lot of fun.

A lot of computing’s early successes were in the field of codebreaking. During World War II, the Allies had to find a way to crack the German Enigma cipher in order to discover what the enemies were doing and where they were going.

Mathematicians stood up to the task, including

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Alan Turing, who would go on to become a father of modern computing. Powerful computers such as the Bombe were built solely for the purpose of processing the code and trying to crack the fundamentals on which it was built.

What’s the purpose of building a cypher?

To start, let’s take a look at a very simple cipher you can create in a few minutes: it’s a simple substitution code.

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What is Simple Substitution?

A simple substitution code really lives up to its namesake! The entire code is built around substituting letters for other letters, and it’s very easy to create. It involves swapping letters in the alphabet to create an unreadable sentence for anyone who doesn’t know the code.

For everyone who does, however, they can easily translate the sentence and unlock its true meaning.

First, you begin by creating an alternate alphabet.

This is done by creating a table two cells high and 26 cells wide. In the top row, write out the alphabet from A to Z. Then, in the bottom row, you “assign” each letter of the alphabet with a different, unique letter. For example, if you write down A, B, C and D in the top row, you can then write S, E, Z, and R underneath each of those letters in the bottom row.

Make sure none of the letters share a substitution (both A and G being assigned to S, for example) or else translating your code will get very confusing!

When you complete this from A-Z, you’ll have a normal alphabet above a scrambled one. This is your cipher! Easy, isn’t it? The idea now is that we spell words using our scrambled alphabet instead of the normal one (or else it won’t be much of a code!). We

give everyone we want to read our secret messages the table we created.

Then, when we write a message with the scrambled alphabet, people who have the code can match it back to the regular alphabet and decipher the message.

For instance, let’s say we want to write the word BAD. Look at the table we created below. We have W assigned to B, Y assigned to A, and T assigned to D. So, instead of writing BAD, we can instead use our cipher and write WYT by using the table. The sentence “a bad dad” through this cipher becomes the unreadable “Y WYT TYT.” The idea is that everyone else sees a “random” jumble of letters, but you and everyone with your table knows better; it’s just a sentence written using a scrambled alphabet!

An Example

So, let’s give simple substitution a shot! Let’s say you and a friend want to meet in secret somewhere to discuss your plans. You don’t want to risk other people learning where you meet, so you decide to use a cipher to tell each other where to meet.

One day, your friend sends you the following cipher alphabet:

a bcdef ghij klmn o pq r s t u vwx y z ywv t rpnljh fd b a c e g i kmo su q z x A little while later, he sends this message:

“Cfyz! Drm’k brrm mlrir ypmri kvlccd, tca’m wr dymr!”

Can you work out what he’s trying to say?

Similarly, if you wanted to respond with this:

“Okay! Let’s meet there after school, don’t be late!”

How would you write it using the cipher?

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With this knowledge, can you crack the sentence below without a key at all?

Breaking the Code (Advanced) Unfortunately, Simple Substitution isn’t a very strong cipher! This makes it inefficient for more high-tech codes, for military use and for top secret documents. So, why isn’t it great? Because of its nature of replacing letters of our own alphabet, you can reverseengineer the cipher by applying patterns of the English language to the problem.

If you see a letter on its own in a substitution cipher, there’s only really two solutions it could be: an A (A cat is here) or an I (I saw a cat). This then narrows down what the letter can be, and you can apply that knowledge to the rest of the cipher. For instance, if you see an X by itself, that X will be either an A or an I. Then if you see XN in the sentence, it might be an, if, is, etc., which gives you options for the letter N in the cipher.

If the person setting the cipher kept punctuation within their code, you’ll be able to deduce letters that way. If you had a cipher with GTSG’P in it, there’s a good chance the P might be an S (as in that’s), or a D (as in that’d).

Also, you can look for how often letters appear. If a specific letter ends up showing very little, you can probably deduce it’s one of the rarer letters in the alphabet, such as X or Z. A letter that occurs often might be one of the more well-used letters, such as vowels. Count the number of times the letter appears and gauge what it might be depending on where it appears!

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“y ma rkjn usk’zz xjmxb m xswn zybn iqyr! yi’r iss iman, mow usk’jn mtzn is rnn yir njjsjr mow tnmi yi yd usk iju!”

When making your own cipher, how can you dodge these kinds of flaws? Perhaps you can remove the grammar entirely and write the code so people can still understand it without the need for apostrophes or commas. Maybe you can also tackle short word length by combining them together.

Crack it!

A message reads as follows: “Let’s meet near the store by the park!”

In order to send “Okay! Let’s meet there after school, don’t be late!” use the cipher: “lsxe! wmj’d ammj jrmhm xcjmh dyrllw, qlf ’j om wxjm!”

The solution for cracking the code without a key is this: “I am sure you’ll crack a code like this! It’s too tame, and you’re able to see its errors and beat it if you try!”

Can you crack it?

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environmental math

E-waste and data pollution DID YOU KNOW? Social networking, cloud computing, big-data analytics and mobile communications have collectively led to increasing demands for shared data storage and high-speed data connectivity. Data centres for Internet providers are the backbone of the digital age.

They account for more than 3 per cent of the world’s electricity consumption and 3 per cent of the global carbon footprint, similar to that of the aviation industry.

There is a perception that the Internet is in the Cloud. However, the Cloud is not a cloud at all.

The Cloud is an infrastructure of buildings, cables and machinery.

It’s on the ground and it’s under the oceans. It isn’t floating in the sky. It’s right here on Earth.

As data traffic rises in tandem with the increase in the number of Internet users, Internet of things (IoT) technologies, and machine-to-machine traffic, so does energy consumption. The Internet is a huge part of global energy consumption. There has to be an effort made to monitor and reduce our usage in a sustainable way.

Experts forecast an increase of between 50 and 60 percent in Internet usage per year. And that will continue each year until at least 2021. brainspace WINTER 2017/2018

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environmental math

Watch this video about e-waste by downloading Blippar on your mobile device.

What we can all do to help: • Ask for permission to see your family’s cell phone/internet bill.

• Check your data usage. Is it high?

• Graph a chart with each member of your family’s data usage.

• What is the average usage per month?

• Which apps use the most data?

416-230-5556 647-440-5554 519-590-5553 905-626-5552 286-836-5551

Go into “Cellular” in the Settings menu on your phone. Scroll down to see your apps and usage.

• Are there ways to reduce data usage?

Turn off the apps you don’t use and track data usage on your favourite apps.

• Check again when the next bill arrives.

Have you reduced data consumption?

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DO THE MATH: Ask the family to get their phones and do this exercise together. Through settings on your phone, go to cellular and scroll to the apps at the bottom.

Instagram 16.7 MB Facebook 238 MB Snapchat 193 MB Twitter 34.1 MB YouTube 188 MB

Mom’s

Instagram 0 MB Facebook 108 MB Snapchat 493 MB Twitter 4 MB YouTube 273 MB

Instagram 0 MB Facebook 0 MB Snapchat 3.2 MB Twitter 0 MB YouTube 0 MB

Instagram 1.2 GB Facebook 107 MB Snapchat 4.2 GB Twitter 0 MB YouTube 1.3 GB

Dad’s

Alex’s

Gabby’s 2,021.5

Averaging the app usage: Add up the family usage for one app - (i.e. YouTube usage is 188 + 273 + 1,300 + 9 = 1,770 MB) convert GB to MB by deleting the decimal and adding 2 zeros

Divide the total sum by the number of family members - (i.e YouTube usage 1,770 ÷ 4 = 442.5 MB) Repeat for each of the other 4 apps.

Chart the results.

500 450 400 350 304.2 300 250 200 150 113.3 100 50 0

442.5 MB

9.3

Averaging your usage: Add up a family member’s total usage for all 5 apps (even if one is off) - (i.e. Mom’s usage is 16.7 + 238 + 193 + 34.1 + 188 = 669.8 MB) Divide the total sum by the number of apps - (i.e 669.8 ÷ 5 apps = 133.96 MB) Repeat for each of the other 3 family members.

Chart the results.

To make a pie graph, calculate percentages:

59%

1,361.4 ÷ 2,311= .59 (x100) (Alex avg.) (grand total) (per cent)

27%

Add up the family’s average totals from above.

Divide each member’s average by the grand total: i.e. Mom’s total is 133.96 MB ÷ 2,311 = .06 or 6%

8% 6%

E-conserve:

Are there apps in your cellular settings that you can turn off?

Is it necessary to get the latest phone upgrade? Think of the waste that occurs when a new version becomes available. brainspace WINTER 2017/2018

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biology

by Holly Bennett

Songwriters and poets often talk about having a “heart full of happiness” or a “broken heart.” But guess what? Our feelings are the work of our brains.

Danielle Baribeau is a resident doctor at the University of Toronto, and a researcher with Holland Bloorview Kids Rehabilitation Hospital and the Ontario Brain Institute. Dr. Baribeau explains how the brain identifies and manages our emotions in this next section:

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The perspective taker

The manager

On the outer layer of the brain (the cortex), back near the ears, are areas that help us put our emotions in perspective, says Dr. Baribeau. For example, if a stranger grabbed you in the street you might feel a jolt of fear or anger. But what if just then a bus roared by that you hadn’t seen? This part of the brain would help you realize that the stranger was actually trying to keep you safe.

The prefrontal cortex at the front of the brain acts as the decision maker. You feel an emotion. You have some perspective on it. Now what are you going to do? In the example above, your “emotion detector” might register alarm and give you the urge to run away. Then your “perspective taker” looks at why the stranger grabbed you.

Then your “manager” reasons that since you were safe, there is no need to run.

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The Teenage Brain There’s a reason teens are sometimes accused of being “moody.”

During adolescence there are big changes in the brain, Dr. Baribeau explains. “The brain is maturing, but it matures from back to front.

The deep part is quite active, so it’s natural for teens to feel more intense emotions. At the same time the prefrontal cortex – the part that says, “Hold on, wait, that could get you into trouble” – matures last, leading to more impulsive behaviour.

However, it’s possible to strengthen our brain’s manager. Baribeau says, “Some of the therapies we do in child psychiatry really try to recruit that front part of the brain to help with the decision-making around feelings. If we practice using that part of the brain it can get stronger, and dampen down the deep part of the brain when it’s maybe a little overactive.”

The Emotion Detector Our emotions arise in some of the oldest parts of the brain, such as the limbic system and the striatum. “There are groups of structures deep inside the brain,” says Dr. Baribeau, “that detect emotions and their intensity.”

Some of these structures also regulate biological responses related to our mood, like the fast heart rate you experience when you are scared or angry. However, regions like the limbic system are quite primitive. Have you ever seen a toddler scream with fear at a loud noise or burst into tears over a broken cookie? It’s a bit like that. The limbic system triggers the “fight or flight response” that can save an animal’s life when it’s under threat. But the system is not good at interpreting or reasoning, so it can overreact.

When Feelings Are Too Much to Manage Emotions are normal, even the unpleasant ones. It’s normal to be sad, angry or anxious sometimes, and learning to deal with strong emotions is part of growing up. But sometimes emotions can become so intense that they are very difficult to deal with. If this happens, it’s important to tell someone and ask for help.

If you are feeling very sad, angry or anxious a lot of the time, or for a long time, talk to a parent or another adult you trust. You can also call Kids Help Phone (1-800-668-6868) and talk to a trained counselor. Sometimes just talking it through helps, but if the problem is more serious, your family doctor can connect you with professional help.

brainspace WINTER 2017/2018

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oNLy

Brain

10

Yack

Let’s taLk about something reaLLy smart.

by tristan simpson

The writers at Brainspace thought it may be fitting that we discuss the brain. It is our namesake after all. The brain is the big boss of the body. If you don’t believe it, go ahead and move your left thumb. Even though your thumb did the work of moving, your brain neurons fired the *message* through your Central Nervous System (CNS) to tell your thumb to move. Your CNS is Command Central for a network of information highways throughout your body. A bit like the Internet. Scientists have studied the brain for centuries. It is beautifully complicated and there’s still so much we don’t know about it. But there are many misconceptions about the brain. Let’s get smarter about a few of them.

There’s a myth that humans only use 10% of the brain. Legend has it that if we access the other 90% we may be able to use mind control or even telekinesis. You may have even seen this idea in science fiction movies like Star Trek or Doctor Who. The fact is, every part of the brain is used. According to academic experts at Psychology Today and the Smithsonian Institute, using only 10% of your brain could result in atrophy. what’s atrophy? Simply put, your brain can *shrink* and to *think* becomes a problem. In fact, even resting makes use of more than 10% of your brain.

it’S Not a

MUSCLe Though scientists believe that challenging your thinking and keeping your mind active can help it grow – like a muscle – none of the tissues in your brain are comparable to muscle tissue.

Your brain is an organ.

brain ticklers 1. What does a

brain do when it sees a friend?

Gives a brain wave.

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2. Where does a brain go on vacation?

The hippocampus.

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3. What did the hippocampus say at his retirement?

Thanks for the memories!

4. What do you call a fish that does brain surgery?

A neurosturgeon.

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5. Why do neurons love email?

They like to send and receive messages.

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The Cold Truth About Brain Freeze

Have you ever eaten ice cream really fast? Did it feel like painfully cold temperatures shot straight to your head? Ouch! Brain freeze!

Although it feels like your brain is in the Arctic, it actually isn’t freezing. In fact, the sensation of a numbness in your forehead isn't in your forehead at all. when cold food touches the roof of your mouth, the tissue freezes. Your body responds by swelling blood vessels to warm it back up.

Here’s where it gets weird: Your trigeminal nerve sends the pain signals to your brain.

The funny thing is the trigeminal nerve is also responsible for sensing facial pain, so the brain thinks the pain is coming from the forehead and not your mouth – which is why your forehead starts to hurt. Brain overload!

iain a WanLess

oUR RePtiLian BRain Another fun myth is that humans and reptiles have the same brain, called a reptilian brain. So does that mean if we put a human and crocodile brain side by side the pair would look like long-lost twin brothers? This sounds really cool, but we know it isn’t 100% true. "Reptilian brain" describes a small but very old portion of the human brain that is responsible for breathing, heart beat and body temperature. This small part does look similar to a reptile’s brain, but the human brain is way bigger and a whole lot smarter. brainspace 2017/2018 bRAiNSpACE WINTER magazine summer 2015

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geography

Henry Bates

TH E

MA

N W HO

HT MAN G I PROVED DARWIN WAS R JOHN HOFF Y B

The Amazon River

Henry Bates loved beetles. As a boy he often collected beetles and other bugs in the countryside near his home in Leicester, England. That passion for insects helped Bates become a famous naturalist: he is the one who found the most powerful evidence of Charles Darwin’s theory of natural selection.

The Theory of Evolution Two hundred years ago, almost everybody, including scientists, believed that new plant and animal species never appeared. In the 1800s Charles Darwin and other scientists questioned that idea. They noticed that plants and animals of the same species

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differed from place to place. Darwin’s theory of natural selection says that species evolve over time in order to adapt and survive in their environment. He also believed that new species appeared from time to time.

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One bug is not like the other Bates Explores the Amazon Every theory needs proof.

Bates and his naturalist friend, Alfred Wallace, travelled to the Amazon in 1848 to collect new species of insects. They planned to pay for their explorations by sending insect specimens back to England, where wealthy collectors would pay high prices for them.

Bates and Wallace were interested in Darwin’s ideas about species change.

While in the Amazon, they observed phenomena that supported Darwin’s theories.

For example, they noticed that samples of the same species of butterfly from one side of the Amazon differed from those who lived on the opposite side.

Bates’ most famous insect mimics were butterflies. He noticed that one type of butterfly flew so slowly that he could easily catch them in his hand. But birds never ate these slow fliers. Why not? Bates figured out that they were toxic and bitter tasting. Here’s where it gets interesting.

Bates noticed that some of these butterflies had six legs, while others had only four.* They were entirely different species, and only one was Non-poisonous dainty swallowtail, toxic to birds. He concluded that the non-toxic mimics the toxic species (the dismorphia) had gradually evolved to Cressida cressida resemble the toxic species (the ithomia). *All butterflies have six legs. But in some species, the front legs are so small they don’t get used as legs.

After Bates returned to England, he studied the many samples he had collected. He was able to find a chain of mimicking butterfly specimens that demonstrated the stages in the evolution between different species.

Darwin was excited! He called Bates’ finding “a beautiful proof ” of his theory. Since then, many other examples of “Batesian mimicry” have been discovered.

Do animals mimic on purpose?

No. Evolution starts with random gene variations. In the case of the butterflies, some dismorphia butterflies looked a little bit like ithomias.

Birds avoided eating them, so they were more likely to survive and reproduce. The more dismorphias looked like ithomias, the more they reproduced and passed on their genes. Now most dismorphias closely resemble ithomias.

Batesian mimicry: insect mimics

Bates and Wallace eventually went their separate ways. Bates stayed in the Amazon for 11 years. As he continued to study insects, he observed that some species mimic other things in their environment. In each case, mimicry makes the species less likely to be eaten by predators.

• The viper caterpillar whose head looks just like the head of a poisonous snake

• A grasshoppers that looks like a leaf

• A spider that looks like bird poop

brainspace WINTER 2017/2018

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BY JOHN HOFFMAN

A

n international group of earth scientists think it may be time to declare that Earth has entered a new geological epoch. Here’s a look at what it means to these geologists and why it is such a big deal.

What is an epoch?

Earth scientists define epochs by studying specific layers of rock called strata, sediment from the bottom of oceans and lakes, and samples of ice from ancient glaciers such as the Greenland Ice Sheet. By studying what materials (fossils, bones, chemicals, waste) were deposited in these layers of rock scientists can tell what chemicals, climate conditions, plants and animals existed at various times and how the Earth has changed over time. The main boundary between the Holocene and the Pleistocene contains evidence of global warming that caused the end of the Ice Age. “Many of the earth’s epochs are defined by sharp changes in the fossil record,” says Australian geologist 22

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Will Steffen in a TEDx Talk. Geologists find evidence of these massive changes in the dividing lines or “boundaries” between epochs that can be seen in the layers of rock they study. “A classic example is when the dinosaurs went extinct relatively rapidly, which is thought to have been caused by huge meteorite strike,” said Steffen. After the dinosaurs died out, less and less of their material (fossils, waste) appeared in the layers of rock that built up over the next millions of years.

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What is this new epoch that scientists are talking about?

I’m way bigger than my great grandpa!

A group of geologists called the Anthropocene Working Group say this epoch should be called the Anthropocene (Anthro means human) because it is defined by huge increases in the way human activity is not only affecting the earth but actually changing it.

What are signs of increased human activity?

Future scientists might find these in rock layers millions of years from now: • Fossils of the modern domestic chicken. Today’s chickens are larger and much more numerous than the chickens of 200 years ago.

• Ash from the burning of coal. The burning of coal, for heat and to create electricity, produces a kind of ash that survives and can be found in rock.

• Chemicals produced by the radioactive fallout from the over 2,000 nuclear weapons tests that took place mostly between 1945 and 1996.

• Traces of plastic in the mud of ocean floors.

So, are we in a new epoch?

N

one of this has been officially decided yet. The Anthropocene Working Group has made a proposal to an international commission that the term Anthropocene should be recognized. It may take years of scientific debate before that actually happens.

Dr. Steffen notes that scientists are only beginning to understand where to put the boundaries between the Holocene and Anthropocene epochs. “We need to respect the boundaries that the planet sets for us.” brainspace WINTER 2017/2018

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history

Eon

Era

Period

QUATERNARY

CENOZOIC

Neogene

TERTIARY

Comet (15

MESOZOIC

Paleogene

A 66 M ut

km

arth ab o

hits E di.) in

CRETACEOUS

PRE-CAMBRIAN PHANEROZOIC

JURASSIC

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TRIASSIC

PERMIAN Pennsylvanian Mississippian

CARBONIFEROUS

PALEOZOIC

DEVONIAN SILURIAN

S FIR

T TRI

LOBITE 521 MA

S FIR

T JAW

LESS FISH 510

MA

ORDOVICIAN CAMBRIAN

LATE

PROTEROZOIC

MIDDLE

ARCHEAN

EARLY LATE MIDDLE EARLY

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Epoch

MA

MIOCENE OLIGOCENE EOCENE PALEOCENE

LATE CRETACIOUS EARLY CRETACIOUS LATE JURASSIC MIDDLE JURASSIC EARLY JURASSIC LATE TRIASSIC MIDDLE TRIASSIC EARLY TRIASSIC

248

LATE PERMIAN EARLY PERMIAN FIRST PL AN

TS A

BO

U

M 70 T4 A

LATE DEVONIAN MIDDLE DEVONIAN EARLY DEVONIAN LATE SILURIAN EARLY SILURIAN LATE ORDOVICIAN MIDDLE ORDOVICIAN EARLY ORDOVICIAN D C B A

256 290 323 354 370 391 417 423 443 458 470 490 500 512 520 543 900 1600 2500 3000 3400 3800 (?)

It is important to note that these dates are approximate and though geologists have scientific cause to state the approximate time of these major events in Earth’s history, verifying these as absolute truth without doubt is a tricky task. However, as technology improves, scientists continue to validate and correct their assumptions and theories on our planet’s geological evolution.

Earth’s Geological Timeline

PLIOCENE

0.01 0.8 1.8 3.6 5.3 11.2 16.4 23.7 28.5 33.7 41.3 49.0 54.8 61.0 65.0 99.0 144 159 180 206 227 242

LATE EARLY LATE EARLY LATE MIDDLE EARLY LATE EARLY LATE MIDDLE EARLY LATE EARLY

OLDEST TO YOUNGEST

HOLOCENE PLEISTOCENE

mega annum = 1 million years ago

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biology

by Pascale Bider

T

hink about when you’ve stood outside on a cold winter day. Did your teeth chatter? Did your nose run? That’s your body working hard to maintain homeostasis.

Goosebumps are

caused by the contraction of the muscles attached to your body hairs. When this muscle – called the arrector pili muscle – tightens, it causes the hair on our body to rise. Although this reaction might seem totally useless to us now, it was very important to our much hairier ancestors! For them, raising the hair on their body meant creating an insulating layer of warm air around themselves. This doesn’t work so well for us anymore, but we still have the reflex to fluff up and keep warm.

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Homeostasis is a

word that means “same state,” and it refers to how the body should be when it’s normal and healthy. For example, the body’s temperature at homeostasis is around 37°C. When it gets cold outside, your core temperature can drop below 37°C. In this case, your body sends a signal to the part of your brain called the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus then activates several special systems to keep body temperature up and avoid freezing. Some of the changes caused by these systems are easy to spot but others happen without you even knowing about it!

Shivering and chattering teeth: In the cold, the

hypothalamus sends a signal to your muscles, causing them to tighten and relax at very high speeds. This movement produces heat to warm you up!

When the muscles around your jaw tighten and relax quickly, it causes your teeth to hit together and make a chattering noise.

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“Metabolism” is a word for your body’s process of turning the food you eat into energy you can use. In the cold, your hypothalamus tells your metabolism to speed up. This creates more energy, and therefore more heat. Your metabolism needs food in order to function, so eating a snack in cold weather can raise your body temperature and help you stay warm. Metabolism speeds are not the same for everyone, and depending on where you’re from, your metabolism will behave differently to the cold.

If your ancestors lived somewhere cold, like the arctic, your metabolism will be able to speed up more than if your ancestors came from a warmer, tropical place.

Arterioles close

When you’re out in the cold, you might notice that your skin changes colour slightly. This is because the little blood vessels called arterioles, that carry blood to your skin, get smaller. This means that less blood is going to the surface of your skin. As a result, the warm blood stays closer to the inside of your body, and less heat is lost.

Watch this movie about why we shiver!

Hypothermia

When your body’s temperature drops too far below homeostasis, it is called hypothermia.

If your body temperature is only a few degrees lower than normal, hypothermia might cause you to feel confused, clumsy and numb in some parts of your body. You might also have trouble speaking or thinking straight. If your body temperature drops below 30°C, it is enough to make you pass out. To avoid hypothermia, it’s important to dress warmly enough for the weather, eat lots of high-energy food, and make sure to go back inside if you begin to feel cold.

brainspace WINTER 2017/2018

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biology

by Ben Maycock

Lichen is a remarkable life form that has been around for hundreds of millions of years. It is very likely you have seen this superhero of nature with your very own eyes and not given it a second thought. Here is why you should. Lichen are everywhere. They can be found underfoot on the surface of rocks or up in the air clinging to trees. They grow on walls and roofs and gravestones.

Some look like carpets while others look like little bushes.

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This remarkable life form is actually the result of two very different organisms working together. In simplest terms, a fungus provides a structure on which the species can live while an algae provides food, turning moisture and sunlight into starches and sugars through photosynthesis.

This symbiotic relationship works so well that neither one would survive in the environment without the help of the other.

Symbiosis is the relationship between two or more organisms that live closely together, usually to each one’s benefit. Lichen survive in some of the planet’s most extreme environments, from the intense heat of the hottest deserts to the frozen North and South Poles. They can live atop the highest mountains in the world and also below the surface of the water.

There are about 200 different kinds of lichens in Antarctica.

Lichen have even been launched into space. As an experiment the European Space Agency sealed two species of lichen into a Russian rocket. Once in orbit the lichen was exposed to the vacuum of space, cosmic radiation and dramatic changes in temperature. After 15 days the lichen were retrieved and showed no sign of damage!

Lichen are some of the earliest life forms on the planet. The fossil record for the organism dates back at least 400 million years and it is thought that earlier forms may have existed over 600 million years ago. A key to the lichen’s long existence may lay in the fact that it does not need a regular supply of water. If conditions do not favour a healthy life, the lichen can go into suspension or “shut down.” When conditions improve, the lichen revives itself and carries on with its life.

And there are many species that are thankful it is so hardy. From the animals that feed upon it to those that use it for shelter, hundreds of species depend upon lichen. Reindeer feed exclusively on lichen in winter. Flying squirrels use it to make nests. Tiny insects live within it and feed upon it. Lichen even feed minerals to the soil when breaking down the rocks they live upon.

Unfortunately this seemingly unstoppable force of nature has a weakness that threatens not only its life, but those that depend upon it: air pollution. Because lichen absorb nutrients directly from the air and the water that washes over them, they are extremely sensitive to the atmosphere.

When air pollution is too great lichen cannot survive. This is why scientists believe the health of lichen is a very good indicator of the health of an environment.

If lichen are struggling then it is very bad news for the planet.

brainspace WINTER 2017/2018

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en français space

by John Hoffman

© Canadian Space Agency.

First:

Work hard at math and science.

Both are essential subjects for would-be astronauts.

On July 1, 2017, Prime Minister Justin Trudeau introduced Canada’s newest astronauts, Dr. Jennifer Sidey and Lt. Col. Joshua Kutryk. They are the 13th and 14th astronauts to be selected since the first group of six were picked in 1983.

Second:

All astronauts do something else first. Canada’s astronauts started out as pilots, engineers or – and this might surprise you – medical doctors. Before she was selected for Canada’s astronaut program, Dr. Sidey was a university teacher and combustion engineer, trained to design, install, fix and troubleshoot engines and machines that turn fuel (gasoline, oil, rocket fuel etc.) into energy. Joshua Kutryk was a test pilot and fighter pilot with the Royal Canadian Air Force.

When the Canadian Space Agency needs new astronauts, they launch a recruitment campaign. Between 3,700 and 5,000 people apply each time. But only a few are chosen for the final selection process.

Bottom line: to be selected as an astronaut candidate you need to be very intelligent, healthy, physically fit, well-educated and highly skilled in a number of areas.

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It depends who you ask. Astronauts have to learn many complex skills: operating robotic equipment, controlling the spacecraft during flight and dealing with emergencies, to name just a few. Col. Jeremy Hansen, who joined Canada’s astronaut corps in 2009, says the part of training he found the hardest was learning to fight fires and plug holes on a sinking ship. “The Canadian military has an amazing simulator in a big building in Halifax,” he says. “They can set it on fire and they can flood a compartment with freezing water. One day, we went through it in small groups and we spent the whole day fighting fires and plugging holes. It was really hard,” he told Maclean’s magazine in 2015.

Lots of things are awkward in space.

Weightlessness makes most people nauseous for the first few days of a flight. Astronauts have to sleep in a sleeping bag that is tied to the wall in a small sleeping pod. There are no pillows onboard because everything floats in micro gravity – including heads and pillows! Since floating liquids are hazardous to the equipment on space stations and shuttles, astronauts use a tiny amount of toothpaste, which they have to swallow rather than spit. They wash their hands by squeezing a little ball of slightly soapy water out of a bag, rubbing their hands together and then drying off with a towel.

Space program employees do various kinds of engineering jobs (aerospace, computer, robotics, electrical, mechanical).

Others are physicists who study space, time and matter. There are also jobs for astronomers, atmospheric scientists (weather), and avionics technicians, who fix electronic equipment on spaceships. There are even some pharmacologists, who look for ways to make new drugs from substances brought back from space.

Jamie Sevigny, from the Canadian Space Agency (CSA), teaches astronauts how to use robotic equipment, lke the Canadarm2 and Dextre, the robot “handyman” at the International Space Station.

Then there is going to the toilet. The astronaut must carefully pee into a tube where a gentle vacuum system draws the liquid away. The urine goes into the water system, where it is filtered and recycled as…drinking water. For a number 2, the space traveller must sit on a space toilet where the poop is sucked away and – get this – eventually launched into space so it can burn up in Earth’s upper atmosphere.

Watch Captain Samantha Cristoforetti explain the toilet on the International Space Station. brainspace WINTER 2017/2018

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O

ne of the biggest wonders of our remarkable planet is exactly how much life it holds. Scientists estimate that there are approximately 8.7 million species on

our planet. If we attempted to consistently discover a new species a day, it would take more than 23,000 years! Although we haven’t been able to discover a new species a day, scientists have definitely been working hard. In the past two years, 381 new species were found in the Amazon. Cool creatures can be found in the deepest oceans, in the densest forests, and the highest mountains. Here are three of some of the craziest new species discovered over the last year!

New Species

by Tanya Daniel

Telipogon diabolicus

Can you spot the diablo (devil)?

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A fascinating new species of orchid was recently discovered on the border between Putumayo and Nariño departments in southern Colombia.

Like other orchids, Telipogon diabolicus is an epiphyte. This means it grows on other plants for support in gathering resources, such as water and nutrients.

Don’t worry though, the reason this orchid is supposedly diabolical is not that it hurts the host plant. It actually gets its name from the reproductive part found within the flower petals – which resembles a devil’s head! The adult orchid is quite small, growing about 5 to 9 cm tall. This flower was only discovered in 2016, yet it is already classified as a critically endangered species.

Unfortunately, there are only 30 known plants growing in the world and their current habitat is under construction to restore a road.

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Potamotrygon rex In Brazil, a new species of freshwater river stingray was discovered. Like most stingrays, its body is gelatinous and fairly circular in shape. It also has a venomous stinger on its tail as a defense mechanism against predators. However, the specimen examined was approximately 1.10 m long and weighed a whopping 20 kg (44 lbs). Its immense size gave it the unofficial title as “king” among its discoverers.

The name became official when scientists named the new stingray species Potamotrygon rex (meaning reigning king). In addition to its monstrous size, the stingray displays a funky polka-dot pattern of yellow and orange spots over its black-brown skin.

This stingray can only be found in Brazil’s Tocantins River, particularly in the area where the river connects with Manuel Alves Grande River.

20 kg stingray is king!

Eulophophyllum kirki

Leaf or bug? Can you spot its head?

Undoubtedly, Earth is teeming with an incredible number of creatures. Life on our planet is simply beautiful and exceptionally diverse. There is so much yet to be discovered. Perhaps, one day, you’ll be the dedicated scientist who discovers a new species to add to our records.

While researchers were exploring for tarantulas and snakes in the Danum Valley Conservation Area, scientists discovered a new species of katydid.

The katydid is a type of insect that is nocturnal, or most active at night.

It often camouflages itself within its surroundings to look like a leaf. In 2016, the new species was officially named Eulophophyllum kirki. These insects are relatively small, being only about 4 cm in length. Like its relatives, this new insect species has a leaf-shaped body.

What is new is that it also features hind legs that mimic two smaller leaves. The males of this species are the typical green colour, however, what makes this katydid even more unique is that the females are dazzlingly pink! Despite the pink colouring, these insects are still able to blend flawlessly with the brilliant foliage in Borneo, Malaysia. brainspace WINTER 2017/2018

35

Anatomy

Optical illusions are a great example of how our brains trick us into believing we see something that isn’t really there. How these tricks work, however, has created as many theories as there are illusions!

BY BEN MAYCOCK For many of us, sight is the sense we use most to understand the world. Colour, light, shape and distance all inform us of the surrounding environment. It may then come as a surprise to you to learn that what you see is not always what is actually there.

Our eyes are the tools with which we collect information about our world but it is the brain that decides what we are looking at. Visual cues such as:

y ot an for an e th

FAST FACT: One third of our brain’s cortex is used for vision, mo r

r he

of

patterns

shadows

ou r

movement

sens es.

are fed to our brains so we can make choices as to what response we may take to this outside influence. Is this a threat? Is it a friend? Will it harm us or help us?

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g : h ou FACT T ST FA

hi

Have you ever seen a “shocked” face when looking at an electrical outlet or a happy face when two sunny-side-up eggs fry in a pan with a slice of bacon? That’s pareidolia (parr-i-Dohlee-ah), a simple trick your brain is playing on you.

Since the moment we are born, we are on the lookout for human faces. A human face represents food and shelter to us, especially when we are babies. Recognizing other human beings is so important to our survival our brains are constantly identifying faces where there aren’t any.

llusions distort reality, they are generally shared by most people.

One theory suggested by researchers is that to compensate for the amount of time between when something happens and when we are able to perceive it, the brain predicts what it thinks is about to unfold. These predictions are based on what the brain has learned from previous experience. And when that prediction does not match the reality, we see the “illusion” the brain has presented us with.

Illusions that show an inanimate object in motion have inspired another theory. In these cases, some scientists suggest it is the rapid movement our eyes make (saccades) that causes a still picture to appear to be moving. In most cases, the brain smooths out saccades, making them imperceptible to us, but in rare situations it does not or cannot. In these cases a picture may appear to be moving.

Watch this optical illustion video using Blippar. Stare at the middle of the movie image for a minute. Stay seated, then look at the room around you.

The eyes send an incredible amount of information to the brain. Add that information to the signals being sent from our other senses and the brain can very easily become overwhelmed trying to make sense of the outside world. To simplify the information the brain is receiving it creates shortcuts to help make a quick decision as to what is in front of us.

brainspace WINTER 2017/2018

37

EXCERPT FROM THE BOOK

Brainspace Book Selection We loved this quirky new book about how famous Canadian inventors got their ideas. It is now available in bookstores.

This young readers edition is an adaptation of the book Ingenious. It focuses on 50 kid-friendly Canadian innovations that changed the world, from canoes to whoopie cushions, chocolate bars to Pablum.

Co-written by Canada’s former governor-general the Rt. Hon. David Johnston. uricons.indd 26-27

John_9780735263017_5p_all_r1colo

contest: 38

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Tell us what you’d invent! Visit

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/BrainspaceMagazine

Work and Play Toboggan ons peoples of For thousands of years, the First Nati s for travel and to Canada’s Far North used toboggan e. The carefully transport goods from place to plac pulled by people designed vehicles were made to be enough to slide or dogs, and were long and narrow from larch within sled and snowshoe tracks. Built ggan’s tobo the , and birch wood found in the area r to move through front was curled up to make it easie thick snow. and trappers arrived in When European traders, hunters, tation innovation. Soon Canada, they jumped on this transpor took off at lightning speed, the sport of downhill tobogganing e slides became fashionable. and tobogganing clubs and elaborat sports such as luge, bobsled, From this slippery trend grew new popular Winter Olympic events. and skeleton—all of which are still s made of wood or plastic Today in Canada’s north, toboggan transport goods and people. are often used with snowmobiles to them speeding down And, all across Canada, you’ll find a hill!

SMALLER

27

7/10/17 1:57 PM

Innovation Nation. We’ll feature your ideas in our Spring issue of Brainspace! brainspace WINTER 2017/2018

39

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