Spiraling Into Control: Architectural Adaptations to Mid-Century High Schools by Benjamin Janes

SPIRALING INTO CONTROL Architectural Adaptations to Mid-Century High Schools: A Case Study of a Wisconsin Public School

Benjamin Webster Janes Submitted under the supervision of Gail Dubrow to the University Honors Program at the University of Minnesota-Twin Cities in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Science, Summa cum Laude in Architecture. May 11, 2020

Acknowledgments Many people were integral to this process and have my lasting gratitude: Professors Thomas Fisher and Julia Robinson, my wonderful readers who were a source of inspiration and bountiful ideas; Professor Gail Dubrow, my advisor, purveyor of knowledge, expertise, timely criticism, fruit and excellent baked goods; Jim Pliner, Doug Debroux, Dave Ebert, Erik Haakensen, and Jeffrey Dyer for supporting my research and opening up their school and classrooms to me; Tony Cauthorn and Rachelle Hallberg, my thesis colleagues and friends, for embarking on this challenge with me and always offering new perspectives and input; Sydney Swift, my best friend, constant source of comfort, and behind the scenes sounding board for bad ideas; And finally, my parents and family, for their tireless love and support through this process and beyond. Iâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;d never be here without your desk to hide under, Mom.

Spiraling Into Control

Summary The state of mental health among teens in America is

Building on prior ideas and research, this project uses a

nearing a crisis. Students in Minnesota and across the

case study of Oregon High School, - a suburban

country report rising rates of depression and anxiety

Wisconsin public school built in the 1960s and renovated

symptoms, which impacts not only their well-being but

in 2017 - as a model for similar schools in Minnesota and

also their academic performance. While many factors

across the country. Research methodology included a

may contribute to this crisis, one of the most significant

student survey, spatial observations, and conversations

pieces of the puzzle both as a cause of stress and a

with teachers. Results generally concluded that while

possible place of relief might be the schools themselves.

improving spaces to align with contemporary ideas

Over the last century, changes in school infrastructure

decreased student stress, there were still holes in

have failed to keep pace with changes in pedagogical

addressing their mental health needs, especially in

methods and cultural practices, creating learning

creating adequate spaces of retreat for emotional self-

environments that are often detrimental to mental and

regulation.

physical well-being. With this stagnation in progress and continued issues of mental health among students,

The goal of the project is to create broad

schools and teachers are often left to deal with emotional

recommendations to address spaces for self-regulation

crises through disciplinary action, which can have its own

and wellness through grassroots design solutions and

negative consequences.

capital construction that can be the basis for further collaboration and study. In doing so, students are re-

This project examines the history of educational design

framed as active participants in the design process,

practices, emerging trends in school architecture and

rather than abstract stakeholders. Engaging students,

the psychological and emotional needs of adolescents

parents, and teachers more actively in the design

as well as potential healthy coping mechanisms, seeking

process not only provides better access to first-hand

to answer the question: â&#x20AC;&#x153;How do students deal with

knowledge of design needs, but also promotes equity

their stress now, and how can schools and design help

and an opportunity for a community dialogue about

improve the ability for students to self-regulate and

mental wellness.

de-escalate emotional crises?â&#x20AC;?

Summary

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgments

Summary

Introduction & Background

Literature Review

Methodology

Findings

Implications & Impact

Appendix: Student Survey

Notes

INTRODUCTION + BACKGROUND

Author’s Introduction Mental health has always been a topic close to my heart.

out my body, the sudden and crippling nausea, my short,

Not always on my mind, but never far away either. As a

ragged breathing, the sense of worry and panic that

designer, one of the things that has interested me the

overwhelmed and hijacked my thought process. These

most has been the way our environments shape our

feelings seemed to come out of nowhere, and I remem-

thoughts and emotions, and the ability of a good designer

ber not knowing what was happening but knowing that I

to manipulate those emotions to communicate a mes-

couldn’t continue sitting at my desk, trying to learn cursive

sage. In many cases, this is done for effect as part of an

or whatever was on the agenda that day. I got up and ran

aesthetic and creative decision - not necessarily out of

out of the classroom, away from my elementary school

vanity, but not always to improve people’s lives either.

and across the parking lot towards the other elementary

Today, as architects and designers grapple with ques-

school across the street. I remember showing up at one

tions of who we serve as a profession, it’s important to

of the side doors and begging my mom, a special edu-

remember the power our choices have in effecting good

cation teacher there, to let me into her classroom. She

for people in their daily lives. Mindfully designing around

did, and I remember going straight to her room and hiding

mental wellness is one opportunity we have to create a

under her desk for a while, until I finally managed to calm

better, people-centric built environment.

down.

I had my first series of panic attacks when I was about 9

This same feeling repeated every morning for the next

years old. I can still remember the feeling of heat through-

week or so, until my father figured out what was really

Spiraling Into Control

happening. There was a doctor’s appointment and expla-

majority of their time growing up, can have an enormous

nations that I had developed the same anxiety disorder

effect on how students are taught to deal with these emo-

that seemed to run in my family. Over the next year or so,

tions. I know it because I lived it. I needed the techniques

I would meet with a school counselor every other week

and the programs, of course, but in that first moment, I

or so, and I was taught what was happening in my body

also needed that desk to retreat under - somewhere fa-

to trigger this response, and a number of relaxation and

miliar I felt safe and alone. Many schools have access to

coping techniques for when I felt it starting to happen

counselors and psychologists, and may teach a few les-

again. I remember getting some accommodation from

sons on mental health in a science class or health class

one of the vice principals, who would take time to play

once a year. And that’s better than nothing. But as data

basketball with me in the gym before school as a distrac-

seems to suggest students are still struggling with these

tion for my mind.

issues at rates even higher than adults, it’s worth having a conversation about how we could be better addressing

It’s a combination of techniques and strategies I can now

these issues in our schools, and more importantly for us

recognize as rooted in Cognitive Behavioral Therapy

as designers, how the school building itself facilitates or

and mindfulness, but it didn’t necessarily matter if I knew

prevents student mental wellness.

what it was or not. What mattered was that someone had taken the time to teach me those techniques, and that the school tried their best to accommodate my needs.

Background

It seemed to pay dividends down the road; I’ve had that same type of panic attack a handful of times since, and

Safety and achievement are two of the biggest topics in

like many people have struggled with stress and my men-

American education – and not inexplicably so. American

tal health at various points. But those same tools I learned

students have continued to fall behind other developed

when I was 9 have been vital for my own coping.

countries in terms of academic achievement, while also having to contend with the fact that their schools, a place

I realize now in a lot of ways, I was lucky. I was lucky to

that should be a safe community of knowledge and explo-

have had a parent who could relate to my experience and

ration, have continued to be on the front lines of the Amer-

knew what was happening. I was lucky to have doctors

ican gun crisis. Both issues have also made their way into

and counselors and teachers who helped me understand

the world of architecture and the way new and existing

and cope. I am still lucky to have relationships and people

schools are designed, as districts across the country

I can lean on when I need help. Not everyone is so lucky.

push through capital improvements aimed at bettering their test scores and locking down their schools. The

Part of my intent with this project has been to plant a seed

year after I graduated high school, for example, my home-

for conversation. Even if they don’t experience panic at-

town school district in Oregon, Wisconsin underwent a

tacks, or have diagnosable mental health disorders, many

massive, $54 million renovation of every single school

students struggle with stress and depressive emotions.

in the district, from elementary school to high school, to

Our schools, as the place where students spend the

make improvements aimed at creating flexible learning

Introduction + Background

spaces to provoke exploratory and collaborative learning,

83% of adolescents with EBD scored lower than normal

as well as creating secure entries in all buildings. All this

across a range of subjects when tested,6 suggesting not

despite the fact that Oregon is one of the highest achiev-

only that mental health has an impact on learning, but

ing school districts in the state, with no history of violence

that impact becomes more acute as students progress

to prompt these measures.

through the educational system.

Yet there’s a second crisis in American adolescents and

Perhaps the most tragic statistics come from the CDC,

youth, one which perhaps underlies problems like safety

who recently reported suicide rates for teens 15-19 had

and achievement – mental health.

risen 76% between 2007 and 2017, to become the sec-

ond leading cause of death in that age group.7 Indeed, Studies have consistently shown that rates of mental

the Minnesota Student Survey confirms these troubling

health issues among children and adolescents are much

trends: 38% of female students and 21% of male students

higher than those in adults – often twice as high. The

in the state considered suicide in 2019, while 12% and 7%

2019 Minnesota Student Survey revealed 25% of 11th

attempted to take their own lives.

grade students had a history of mental health issues, which is up from 20% in 2016, and 10% in 2013. Addition-

Clearly, mental health issues are of vital importance, not

ally, 25% of female students and 16% of male students

only for the overall health and safety of American youth

reported feeling depressed or hopeless more than half

but also for the profound impact they seem to have on ed-

the time, while 34% and 15% reported they could not stop

ucation. And with school districts ready to spend money

worrying (while Wisconsin’s survey was less compre-

on creating safer and better learning spaces, is it time

hensive related to mental health, its findings were com-

they started considering spaces for dealing with mental

parable in terms of trends among high school students.)

health as an integral part of that?

While not a clinical diagnosis, these are clear descriptions of anxiety and depression – disorders which, for refer-

The Minneapolis Public Schools (MPS) are a prime local

ence, only affect 7.1% (depression) and 19.1% (generalized

example of a school district for which mental health adap-

anxiety disorder) of American adults.

tations could be beneficial, especially in the 10 public high

schools the district operates. Due to a number of issues The Student Survey also found links to truancy in Minne-

and other political decisions, beyond the scope of this

sota teens; 25% of 11th grade female students and 16%

thesis, the MPS primarily serves a population of students

of 9th grade female students reported missing school

that don’t actually match the demographics of the city

for emotional and health issues (the statistics for male

itself. Many of the high schools, for example, are majori-

students were 10% and 6%, respectively). Furthermore, a

ty-minority schools. Additionally, almost all have achieve-

University of Kansas study found students with Emotional

ment rates, attendance rates, and graduation rates well

and Behavioral Disorders (EBD) were less likely to grad-

below the state-wide average. The gap becomes stark

uate from high school or undertake a post-secondary

when one compares the MPS high schools against the

education. Additionally, they found 56% of children and

high schools of the neighboring suburbs, such as

Spiraling Into Control

Figure 1. Current Mental Health Figures

Percentage of 11th grade students reporting a history of mental health issues, 2013 - 2019 2013

2016

2019

10.0%

20.0%

25.0%

Students with EBD who had lower academic achievement levels

History of Mental Health Issues in 11th Grade StudentsStudents with EBD Who Saw Lower Academic Achievement History2016 of Mental Health Issues in 11th Grade Students2019 History2013 of Mental Health Issues in 11th Grade Students-

83.0%

Female students who felt Female students who felt Male students who felt Male students who felt ‘depressed or hopeless’ they could ‘depressed or hopeless’ they could Female Students Whothan Felt 'Depressed or Hopeless' Who Felt 'Depressed or Hopeless' more half the time more than ‘not stop worrying’ Male Students more than half the time more than ‘not stop worrying’ Half the Time

Female Students Who 'Could Not Stop Worrying'

Half the Time

Male Students Who 'Could Not Stop Worrying'

25.0%

34.0%

16.0%

15.0%

Female students who considered or attempted Female students Female who students reported who reported suicide -considering 38% (12%) considering suicide - 38% suicide - 38%

Male students who considered or attempted Male students Male who students reported who reported suicide - suicide 21% (7%) considering considering suicide - 21% - 21%

Oregon High School Building Timeline Oregonvs. vs.Minneapolis Minneapolis High School Renovation Timeline Renovations First Completed

2020 2010 2000 1990 1980 1970 1960 1950 1940 1930

Attempted

HS on re g O

Considered

Th o

as E inn diso n ea po HS lis Pa N. tri ck HS H M inn enr yH ea S po M inn lis ea S. HS po lis S.W W .H as hb S u Ro rn H S os ev elt HS

1920

Introduction + Background

Figure 2. Exterior of Minneapolis South High School

Figure 3. Exterior of Minneapolis North High School

Figure 4. Exterior of Oregon High School, original building

Figure 5. Exterior of Oregon High School, new front entry

Photo - Oregon High School, Exterior

Spiraling Into Control

Photo - Oregon High School, Exterior

Wayzata, which are not only among the highest achieving

massive amount of funding required to execute large

public schools in the state, but in the entire country.

scale renovations and new building projects, school

Additionally, when looking at the ages of the Minneapolis

districts are hard pressed to undertake these projects

high schools, many were built in the 1920s and were ren-

regularly. This has left Americans with an educational

ovated in the 1970s and 1990s, while the others were built

stock that is often decades old and often out of alignment

in the 1970s and also renovated in the 1990s.

with current pedagogical and cultural styles.

The age of the school buildings, as well as the achieve-

This project’s goal is to investigate and propose possible

ment and engagement of their students, makes this

solutions for adapting existing school buildings to create

statement by the MPS Facilities department all the more

spaces that foster mental wellness in students who are

interesting:

in crisis. The hypothesis is that by targeting students in crisis and attempting to reduce the number of crisis

“Minneapolis Public Schools is a large and dynamic enter-

events through design solutions, students will feel better

prise. People and programs are quite dynamic; instruction-

integrated into the classroom and school community,

al programming, pedagogic theory and community expec-

which in turn will help reduce the amount of crisis events,

tations continuously evolve and change over time. These

creating a cycle of positive change, as opposed to the

changes place different demands on district facilities

stereotypical downward spiral of mental health issues.

assets, as witnessed by the marked differences in school buildings built at different times.

This project will use Oregon High School in Oregon, Wisconsin as a case study for how schools currently handle

“While MPS facilities are well maintained and remain

mental health, how renovations to an existing building can

serviceable, years of program evolution in an aging build-

change their operation, and how new educational design

ing inventory intensifies the future risk of acute building

ideas either address or don’t address the issues with

obsolescence that could negatively impact instructional

existing buildings. As a case study, Oregon High School

programming and student achievement. Therefore, the

is well situated because it is physically representative of

District seeks to comprehensively and strategically eval-

many schools across the country, as well as emblematic

uate remaining facilities and envision the facilities that will

of the waves of school construction this country has

be required by the District to provide pre-kindergarten

experienced. The first iteration of the current school was

through high school educational programming for the next

a single story, masonry building constructed in 1966, with

five to twenty years.”

the traditional ‘cells and bells’ layout, including many fully

interior classrooms lacking windows or skylights. Like The Minneapolis Public Schools, per their own state-

many of its counterparts, it was built to replace an aging

ments about building obsolescence and its negative

school built half a century earlier - the original Oregon

impacts on instruction, are due for an improvement plan

Red Brick School built in 1922. After its initial construc-

based around mental wellness. This is not unlike many

tion, the current building itself was added on to several

schools and school districts nationwide. Because of the

times, often to boost capacities and the number of

Introduction + Background

classrooms but without major changes in structure or

beanbags, headphones and fidgets. 12

style.11 However, in 2016 a new wing was added, which was meant to create more open and flexible learning

In more extreme cases, teachers may call into the of-

spaces when coupled with renovations to the existing

fice requesting backup from a predetermined group

school.

of teachers. This group of teachers then comes to the classroom to deal with the student individually, while the

Because school buildings as a typology are often very

classroom teacher takes the rest of the students out of

similar from location to location, spaces in Oregon High

the classroom to join another class until the situation is

School are likely to be representative of schools else-

resolved. Although it has become rarer in that district

where built in the same time periods. This encompass-

and across the country, the students in crisis may then be

es many of the countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s schools - for example, here in

brought to a bare room inside the main office, where they

Minneapolis, all of the public high schools were built in

are watched through a window by a teacher until they are

either the 1920s or the 1970s. This means that solutions

calmer. Recently, an extreme case made headlines when

addressing mental wellness in Oregon could be applied

a 6-year old girl was involuntarily committed for two days

in the Minneapolis Public Schools or many other school

in Florida because of an emotional outburst. 13

districts in need of infrastructure upgrades, with some contextual adaptations, of course.

These types of extreme methods are becoming less popular as public opinion turns against them. The state

Without these updates and changes, teachers are often

of Illinois recently banned the use of isolation rooms in

left to their own devices when it comes to dealing with

almost all situations, for example.14 However, it should be

mental health. Schools also employ psychologists and

noted that even some of the milder methods still contrib-

counselors to help students, but rarely is the physical en-

ute to the stigma surrounding mental health and behav-

vironment of the learning space considered as a potential

ioral issues, like being sent into the hallway. Others are

tool to combat mental health issues.

even more disruptive to the whole class, such as moving an entire class and calling in other teachers for support.

The Oregon School District employs several strategies

The promise seems to lie in concepts more like the quiet

for dealing with students in crisis, ranging from small-

corner, which is closer to allowing students a place to

er disruptions to major interventions. For example, if a

retreat while also keeping them somewhat integrated

student is starting to act out or be disruptive, teachers

into the classroom. But to really understand what types

may ask them if they need a break, where they will then

of interventions would be helpful, it is first important to

walk around in the hallway for a while or go to the gym to

examine the history and current practice of school design

get a little bit of physical activity before returning to the

and therapy techniques.

classroom (alternatively, some teachers force a break by sending students into the hall for a period of time). Other teachers have dedicated a corner or portion of their room to taking a break, equipped with things like rocking chairs,

Spiraling Into Control

Figure 6. Example of a typical student isolation room, used in extreme behavioral outbursts Figure 7. Examples of different restraint holds used by teachers on students in crisis

Introduction + Background

LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction At the beginning of his book Blueprint for Tomorrow,

century, and how do current ideas relate to student devel-

Prakash Nair writes about the state of America’s school

opment and mental wellness?

buildings, noting that the country has roughly $2 trillion tied up in its school infrastructure, the majority of which is between 30 and 50 years old. As study after study

School Design: Past & Present

comes out showing US students falling behind other countries in terms of academic success, American

Prakash Nair is a principal at Fielding Nair International,

school districts spend approximately $12 billion annually

one of the world’s largest and most awarded school plan-

to renovate their existing schools and build new ones.15

ning and architecture firms, and before that spent time

As this project has already noted, all of this comes at a

as the director of operations for New York City’s school

time when mental wellness among children and teenag-

construction program. Drawing on this experience, his

ers is trending downward.

aptly named book acts as a roadmap for schools looking to build new educational facilities or upgrade and update

It’s clear that as school districts face the inevitability of

existing ones, but with a specific focus on ‘student-cen-

having to rethink their buildings, designs that actively

tered learning,’ which is the direction he sees as the future

improve their students’ mental health need to be a part

of education. Based on discussions with teachers and

of the conversation. The questions asked here are: what

other educational professionals, school designers, and

ideas have driven school designs through the last

so on, that seems to be the consensus. When it comes to

Spiraling Into Control

giving students the time and space to deal with their men-

Beyond Student-Centered Learning, Nair identifies 5

tal health more appropriately, this seems to be a good

other educational strategies that he believes architects

direction. However, implementing this type of approach

and designers should focus on:

will take a lot of seismic changes in the way Americans

(1) Promoting Teacher Collaboration,

think about education.

(2) Creating a Positive School Climate,

(3) Connections to the Environment, Community,

For one thing, embracing student centered learning will

and Global Network,

mean shifting away from a ‘Teacher-Centric Learning’

(4) Integrating Technology, and

model. This mode of teaching would be familiar to the

(5) Flexible Scheduling. 18

majority of Americans, whose memories of the classroom

These ideas are all closely interwoven and all seem vital

are of a teacher standing in the front of the room giving

to making student-centered learning work. However,

a lecture to the entire class of 25 or so students, who

three seem to stand out when it comes to promoting

are seated in fixed desks arranged in rows. This view of

mental wellness: creating a positive school climate, con-

education, according to Nair, assumes that children work

nections to the environment, and flexible scheduling.

best when they are “continuously directed by a teacher.” 16 Here, the teacher is almost solely responsible for

Most of the book tackles a myriad of ways to improve

making sure students master knowledge, regardless of

school climate and connect students better to their envi-

their different learning styles or abilities - which evidence

ronment and the community, while flexible scheduling is

suggests is a very hard thing to do.

the key to making most of these ideas possible.

Student Centered Learning, meanwhile, flips the par-

Some of these ideas can be as simple as being more

adigm on its head; teachers act more as facilitators,

thoughtful about the way schools incorporate color

mentors, and guides, as students work more individually

into their design; bright colors may be perceived as fun

to learn, often through personalized modes of inquiry or

and playful but can become overstimulating when used

project based learning. Classrooms may be composed

carelessly, while color schemes that are too monotonous

more of smaller nodes of desks, lab stations, computer

can negatively impact an occupant’s anxiety, depression,

work areas, and different types of seating that accommo-

irritability, and concentration.19 Nair also places great em-

date more learning styles than a traditional classroom,

phasis on the spaces near a school’s entrance, where vis-

and students may work alone or in small groups while

itors and students first interact with the building because

a teacher bounces between groups to guide learning.

it leaves an impression on them at the very beginning of

Student Centered Learning has been supported by many

the day. These spaces are primed for social spaces like

studies over the last few decades, with part of the ratio-

sitting steps, signature art pieces or murals, or even small

nale for this system stemming from the idea that it better

cafes to wait in. 20

prepares students for the contemporary workplace, and that it promotes more ‘deep understanding’ of material

Many of the ideas Nair presents hinge on the presence of

than rote memorization.

natural light. Lighting seems to be incredibly important to

Literature Review

Figure 8. A typical classroom organization

Figure 9. A more flexible classroom setup that utilizes the hallway

providing the right atmosphere for learning - bright natu-

students and a teacher generally gives each student less

ral light but without glare is ideal, while artificially lit spaces

personal space than what’s allocated to prisoners in their

can also work well as long as they avoid the pitfalls of

cell.24 As noted before, oftentimes these classrooms are

harsh, standardized fluorescent lighting.21 Ample natural

set up in a very static way, with desks all facing a white-

light also implies greater connection to the outdoors,

board from which the teacher lectures. Teachers and

which have been shown in several studies to help relieve

schools can start to change their classrooms in low-cost

cognitive fatigue and improve concentration, especially

ways to transform them into “learning studios,” which are

for students with ADHD.

intended to cater to more different learning styles at once.

Environments that allow for

“soft fascinations” - watching water fall down the glass of

This can mean grouping together desks into collaborative

a window, or watching the clouds go by through a skylight

pods, creating a reading nook, maintaining a small assem-

- allow the mind to take a break and effortlessly focus on

bly area for lectures, setting up spaces to use computers

an object, and have proven beneficial for cognitive perfor-

to do research, and so on.

mance and restoration over time.23 On the more extreme end, schools can open their classBut perhaps one of the biggest but most important

rooms up into the hallway, which is vastly underutilized

changes a school could make is to make their class-

space in traditional schools. Adding work benches,

room spaces more open and connected; as Nair notes,

counters, and comfy chairs to the average hallway not

a traditional, 750 square foot classroom split among 25

only reclaims more active educational space without

Spiraling Into Control

Figure 10. Cuningham Group’s New Sartell High School

Figure 11. Cuningham Group’s Alexandria Area High School

having to add-on to a school, but it also gives more of

interactions and learning immediately becomes much

a variation in scale for students who need more time

higher.

alone or prefer to work in small groups. Breaking down the walls of classrooms into the hallway or into other

Local examples in Minnesota of this type of school design

classrooms is relatively inexpensive, but can have radical

include the Alexandria Area High School and the New

results on increasing student-centered learning and,

Sartell High School, both by Cuningham Group and com-

therefore, independence for students.

pleted within the last five years. These schools feature common spaces with comfortable seating dispersed

This idea also goes hand-in-hand with the idea of the

among the classrooms, as well as more collaborative

‘small learning community,’ or SLC, which essentially

teacher spaces and informal assembly areas to aid in

works as a miniature school within the school. As class-

different types of instruction and collaboration.

room barriers start to come down, they can be arranged around the new hallway or common space, with breakout

These types of ideas aren’t all that radical when one ex-

areas and soft seating that can be used for collaborative

amines the history of school design and trends through-

work, reading, eating lunch, etc.25 Nair includes a drawing

out the world in the 20th Century, and student-centered

of what these types of communities can look like in plan,

design is no exception. In reference to the modernist take

as compared to traditional schools. The space becomes

on school construction in England following World War II

much more dynamic, and the potential for more intimate

in the early 1950s, architect William Caudill wrote: Literature Review

Typical classroom and hallway layout (‘Cells and Bells’ model)

Alternate layout that dissolves the hallway-classroom boundary (Small Learning Community model)

Figure 12. Classroom and spatial organization comparisons

“The ‘pupil [centered] approach’ insists that school plan-

the popularization of the assembly line and industrial en-

ners should begin with a clear and scientifically accurate

gineering during this time and the ‘cells-and-bells’ meth-

realization of the actual physical and emotional needs of

od, which resulted in highly repetitive and generic designs

the pupil...these needs are to be met for the purpose of

for schools in the early 20th century.

helping the pupil to perform at peak efficiency in a school designed to function as a positive and flexible aid in the

Many contemporary design trends revolve around trying

educational process.” 26

to create a happier, healthier, more independent student population. As a premise for design, that idea can

Even back in 1921, the idea of designing for the needs of

be traced back to the idea of the ‘Open-Air’ Schools in

the student was already an idea being talked about by

Amsterdam, which Dutch architect Herman Hertzberger

architects, with John Donovan writing “the child should be the motive for the architecture of...school buildings.”

notes in his book Space and Learning were built on the 27

idea of increasing hygiene but above all else promoted

These were all movements against the traditional “cells-

“liberation from the customary heavy brick and stone

and-bells” schools of the late 19th Century and early 20th

buildings.” 28 While these schools often still maintained

Century, essentially a double loaded corridor of identical

the traditional structure of the hallway and cell-like class-

classrooms that students were stuck in until the bell rang,

rooms, they promoted much greater transparency, with

when they would all move through the hallway to their

glass walls that could be slid or folded away to open the

next class. Interestingly, Nair draws a parallel between

classroom up to nature.

Spiraling Into Control

The idea of the school connected to nature caught on in the US in warmer climates like California, where architects like Ernst Kump toyed with his idea for ‘finger plan schools’ - single loaded exterior hallways that allowed classrooms to receive light from both sides via curtain walls and clerestories, and eventually through skylights as well. However, by the late 1950s and 1960s, Kump had started to move the tide of school design in the other direction, clustering classrooms together into groupings

Figure 13. ‘Open Air School,’ Amsterdam, Floor plan

that often lacked windows, in pursuit of “an apparently perfected neutral container available to any mode of educational delivery.” 29 It was during this time that some school districts in the US began to experiment with ‘open schools,’ essentially just a traditional school but without the walls of a classroom. While in theory similar to the more open idea of SLC’s and learning studios, there’s a subtle distinction - open

Figure 14. ‘Open Air School,’ Amsterdam, Exterior

schools are more about flexibility of space as opposed to agility. Nair expands on this idea, writing that agile spaces are designed so that “users can have a rich variety of learning experiences but in spaces that are suitable and have the proper ambiance…” while flexible spaces focus simply on multiple uses.30 Essentially, contemporary schools may be more open, but their learning nodes are still designed for more specific situations, rather than being completely unprogrammed. Without these quiet

Figure 15. A California classroom in the mid-century designed by Kump

zones, enclosed spaces, proper acoustic treatments, and so on, learning spaces aren’t effectively differentiated enough to work, Nair writes. A better balance seemed to be the Montessori-style schools of the Netherlands, which incorporated more open classrooms and workspaces in the hallway, along with a ‘resting room,’ which Hertzberger describes as a separate space with “fixed benches with cushions where you can read or lie down... this is where you can withdraw from the bustle of the

Figure 16. ‘Ideal’ classroom organizations, Ernest Kump

Literature Review

class so as to concentrate on your work.” 31 The distinction between a truly open space and an open space with places of retreat is something that American offices have also been grappling with in the past few years. Many office buildings embraced the open plan in the mid-century, and even more during the 2000s as startup-culture became prominent. Like open schools, the underlying premise was that the change would facilFigure 17. A simple Montessori classroom, with separate kitchen and resting room spaces to the right

itate greater collaboration and interaction between coworkers.32 However, this was quite the opposite of what happened; the Harvard Business School found that face to face interactions fell by 70% in an open office.33 As this has become evident, new office renovations often include smaller spaces that workers can utilize when they need to concentrate on a task, make a call, or just take a break. Meditation rooms, phone booths, mini-meeting rooms,

Figure 18. A modular office pod for additional private meeting space

and the like are designed into offices or even ordered online and retrofitted into a space as a prefabricated solution. When CIC in Miami installed Meditation pods as a trial, they found that the pods were used on average 9 times per day over a 10 month period. This is perhaps one of the biggest critiques for both existing schools and for the types of contemporary schools Nair and others envision. In contemporary schools, this place of retreat and refuge simply doesn’t exist, outside of a bathroom stall. And in contemporary schools, they may have more comfortable places to work alone and a more casual atmosphere, but they still leave students out to dry in this regard by virtue of how open they are - when a student needs to be alone in order to weather out a mental crisis, they’re still left to resort to the bathroom. That’s not to say Nair’s proposals and ideas about new educational spaces are bad by any means. Ideas about

Spiraling Into Control

opening up schools to nature, breaking down the rigidity

building is crucial not only for contemporary learning and

of the traditional classroom, providing more intimate and

design ideas to work, but for any type of space that might

comfortable working and seating options, and being con-

help students self-regulate an emotional crisis.

scious of color and material selection are all great ideas not only for educational effectiveness, but for boosting the baseline level of mental wellness among students and

What Do Students Need?

staff. It’s also important to question the extent to which schools It’s worth noting that Nair, Caudill, and others promote

are satisfying the mental, physical, and emotional needs

intimate spaces where students can be alone in their

of their students, especially at such a crucial time in their

work and concentrate. Hertzberger wrote, “People and

development. Schools, of course, are primarily places

things require nooks and crannies to inhabit in space...

of learning and cognitive growth, but also of great social,

with the kangaroo as our ideal.” 34 But the issue is that

emotional, and cultural growth. This wide ranging impact

in the way designers describe these spaces, very rarely

makes them a pivotal space and place in which students

do they imply much about a private nook’s ability to be

grow. If a student is like a plant, and schools the soil from

an area of refuge in mental crisis - it’s too often still about

which they grow, there needs to be the right mixture of

productivity. At the end of the day, the discourse is still

nutrients embedded within the soil for the plant to thrive.

about creating spaces that will help students learn better

This is true not only for ”normal” students, but even more

and be more productive. These places, in the mind of

so for students with underlying mental health issues,

the designer, are for reading course materials away from

physical and mental disabilities, LGBTQ+ students,

group discussions, for working on a hard math problem

minority students, and so on. Yet while students all have

or writing a paper. They are not for listening to music,

unique personalities and their needs can vary greatly,

drawing, or simply letting the mind wander.

there are some fundamental human needs they all subscribe to.

There are other challenges these ideas face: pedagogical and logistical problems. Nair acknowledges that for

One of the most prominent modern ideas related to uni-

these types of design changes to succeed, they would

versal human needs and motivations came in the form of

need to be accompanied by changes to teaching practic-

Maslow’s Hierarchy, first theorized by psychologist Abra-

es, assessments, and more flexible schedules.35 Getting

ham Maslow in 1943. Maslow’s initial theory broke human

that type of buy-in for structural change can be hard

needs down into 5 hierarchical categories, ranging form

when the current system is so established. For example,

the most basic needs to the most complex human needs,

while teachers may be comfortable transitioning to acting

which people moved through progressively and linearly

more like facilitators, are they and school administrations

as they satisfied those needs.36 He summed up the

ready to get rid of school bell systems for high school stu-

theory as follows:

dents altogether, as Nair suggests? Solving the problem of how students can move more freely about the school

“It is quite true that man lives by bread alone - when there is

Literature Review

no bread. But what happens to a man’s desires when there

is plenty of bread and when his belly is chronically filled?

At once other (and ‘higher’) needs emerge and these,

appreciate beauty, form, balance, color, and

rather than physiological hungers, dominate the organism.

so on in our world.

And when these are in turn satisfied, again new (and still

‘higher’) needs emerge and so on. This is what we mean

our personal potential, feel self-fulfilled,

by saying that the basic human needs are organized into a

or “become everything one is capable of

relative prepotency.”

becoming.”

create new meaning. (6) Aesthetic Needs: our need to search for and

(7) Self-Actualization Needs: our need to realize

(8) Transcendence Needs: our need to be

His initial theory included the categories of Physiological

motivated by values beyond the self, such as

Needs, Safety Needs, Love and Belongingness Needs,

helping others, religious experiences, pursuit

Esteem Needs, and Self-Actualization Needs. However,

of science, and so on. 38

over time he expanded his theory and added categories, until finally in 1970 he had expanded his pyramid to 8 cat-

The bottom four needs were described by Maslow as ‘de-

egories, still ranging from basic to complex needs:

ficiency needs,’ meaning that deprivation of those needs

was what motivated them, and that the longer they went

(1) Physiological Needs: the biological

requirements for human survival, such as air,

without fulfilling those needs the stronger the motivation

food, water, shelter, sleep, warmth, clothing,

would become. The top four needs, on the other hand,

and sex.

are ‘growth needs,’ which stem from a person’s desire to

(2) Safety Needs: our need for order,

grow as a person.39 According to Maslow, everyone is

predicability, and security, such as emotional

capable of reaching these levels of motivation, although

security, financial security, law and order,

most people do not because they are held back by unful-

freedom from fear, social stability, physical

filled deficiency needs.

and mental well-being.

(3) Love and Belongingness Needs: our needs to

One of the most common critiques of this model is

be in meaningful social relationships, like

the rigidity of the hierarchical structure Maslow uses.

friendships, social groups, and families that

Although it should be noted that Maslow relaxed the

produce feelings of intimacy, trust, and

structure later in his career, 40 there was evidence that

acceptance.

humans are capable of moving between these tiers with-

(4) Esteem needs: our needs for respect both

out satisfying all of the lower needs - some famous artists

of oneself, with dignity, achievement,

were able to achieve aesthetic needs and self-actualiza-

independence, and mastery of skills, as well

tion needs while going hungry, for example. A 2011 study

as respect from others, through status and

came to similar conclusions, and proposed that there was

prestige.

no hierarchy at all, but that all of these needs are more

(5) Cognitive Needs: our need to become more

independent of one another. 41 The authors noted,

knowledgeable, be curious, explore, and

“Although the most basic needs might get the most

Spiraling Into Control

Higher Level ‘Growth’ Needs

More Basic ‘Defi ciency’ Needs

(8)

Transcendence Needs

(7)

Self-Actualization Needs

(6)

Aesthetic Needs

(5)

Cognitive Needs

(4)

Esteem Needs

(3)

Belongingness Needs

(2)

Safety Needs

(1)

Physiological Needs

Figure 19. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

attention when you don’t have them, you don’t need to

Maslow’s hierarchy can be used then as a sort of guide,

fulfill them to get benefits from others. Even when you’re

useful at least for identifying some of our most universal

hungry, we can be happy with friends...we need them

human needs, and for the idea that satisfying our most

all.”

primal needs first can be beneficial to us becoming our

best selves. And isn’t that exactly what we should want While this is a valid critique of Maslow’s system, it can still

for our students?

be argued that one can still see a hierarchy present, even if it’s possible to bypass some steps in the process. For

Because of the interaction between all of these com-

example, it might be possible to ace an exam on an empty

peting needs and the environment, it’s reasonable to say

stomach after pulling an all-nighter and skipping break-

that control over our environment is also a fundamental

fast to study, but it’s much easier to reach the same level

human need. In fact, it’s perhaps one of the most import-

of achievement when those more basic needs have been

ant needs, because it facilitates so many of our other

met. Tay and Diener even seem to acknowledge this

needs. Controlling of our environment may make us feel

themselves; if basic needs seem to get the most atten-

safer, more sheltered, more stable, more independent,

tion, wouldn’t it be beneficial to satisfy those needs first

and so on. Following Maslow’s theory, this would mean

in order to free up more mental capacity to take on other

that controlling the environment is key to achieving higher

needs?

levels of motivation and accessing more growth related needs. For students, this might mean being able to Literature Review

control a space of retreat that allows the body and mind

consuming to adolescents.” 48 The idea of being stig-

to feel safe from the judge of peers and calmer about

matized or seen as ‘other’ for high school students is

what was disturbing, and thereby better preparing the

extremely powerful, and its effects are wide ranging. For

brain to return and be ready to take on more cognitive

example, while exercise and good nutrition are important

growth than it would be able to otherwise.

needs for everyone, they can become especially important for adolescents obsessed with ‘fitting in.’ 49

Of course, students in the period of adolescence - typically 10-18 years according to the American Psycholog-

Yet this is one area where the APA notes that schools

ical Association (APA)43 - can have their own needs, and

seem to be failing their students. Gym classes are one

place heightened importance on some of those needs

easy way for students to consistently exercise, but the

identified above. In the APA’s professional guide on ado-

APA notes that enrollment in physical education classes

lescent development, there are a few recurring areas of

drops from 79% for high school freshmen to just 37% for

emphasis when it comes to adolescents.

seniors. 50

First, there’s a need for reassurance of their competency

Stigmatization of mental health can have similarly harm-

and a complementing need for guidance from trust-

ful effects, while being facilitated by the school spaces

worthy adults. High school students are at an age when

themselves. The traditional classroom setup, for exam-

they are starting to experience huge growth in cognitive

ple, can make it hard for students to make meaningful

ability,44 while also being bombarded by a myriad of often

connections with their teachers, even though that’s one

important choices. While students are inclined to try to

of the things adolescents need to develop. 51 Students

flex their new cognitive abilities, they often still look for

might be intimidated to raise their hand to ask for help, to

guidance from parents, teachers, and other trusted adults

answer questions, or participate in discussions for fear of

on the academic, financial, and social issues they face. 45

looking ‘stupid’ or embarrassing themselves. This means

However, there’s also a powerful need for adolescents to

that only the most outgoing students form connections

experiment, try new things, and take risks. The APA notes

with their teachers, even though the shy, quiet students

that while risk-taking is normal, it can become dangerous

may be the ones who need those connections the most.

when adolescents aren’t presented with healthy ways to experiment and take risks. 46

Traditional classrooms also can make collaborative work less intuitive and make classroom community building

Adolescent students also have a need to feel accepted

harder. Both of these are not only detrimental to creating

by their peers while simultaneously creating a unique

meaningful peer connections and a supportive commu-

identity. An important part of creating an identity is the

nity for students, but also leave students less prepared

development of self-beliefs, 47 which for Maslow would be

for the working world, where collaboration has become

the basis for future self-actualization. However, this has

a vital skill. 52 Contemporary schools could be better

to balance with the idea that for teens, where a “preoccu-

than traditional ‘cells and bells’ schools, since new ideas

pation with how their peers see them can become all

about flexible and varied workspaces not only promote

Spiraling Into Control

Figure 20. Traditional lecture style classroom

Figure 21. More varied work spaces lead to increased interaction with teachers

group work and more individualized paces for study, but

fundamental to fulfilling human needs and giving them

also allow for more face to face time between students

the support they need to thrive. Furthermore, “being

and teachers in smaller settings, where more intimate

emotionally healthy depends on understanding, express-

relationships can start to take root. It’s possible that

ing, and regulating or controlling one’s own emotions, as

under this model, students would feel more comfortable

well as perceiving and understanding others’ emotions,”

opening up to teachers about their emotional needs and

which is influenced by how those students also perceive

asking for help.

external expectations from teachers, family, and their peers. 54

Emotional regulation is another area where the traditional classroom fails students in the face of their need to be

However, traditional classroom setups aren’t especially

accepted by their peers, especially when combined with

conducive to allowing students to control their environ-

the need to experiment and take risks. The APA notes the

ment - row after row of identical seats and desks don’t re-

importance of emotional regulation in the school setting,

ally allow for personalization of the learning environment,

writing, “the components of emotional well-being includ-

let alone create more personal spaces for emotional self-

ed sense of self, a sense of control over oneself and one’s

regulation. This problem is compounded by the fact that

environment, general feelings of well-being, and capacity

the external expectation from teachers is often to remain

for responding in healthy ways to everyday stress.” 53

seated and attentive during lessons, and family and peer

This ties back to the idea that environmental control is

expectations often reinforce the authority of the teacher. Literature Review

This creates a lack of places to go and means with which

assumption that ‘instruction is only intended for those

students can self-regulate their stress and emotions.

who are ‘ready to learn’ and that the learning environment

Students have to self-regulate at their seats, under the

will be improved if those who disrupt or distract from it

watchful eye of all their peers and teachers. If a student

are removed,” but promotes the idea that ‘good’ behavior

is feeling burnt out from learning, for example, they don’t

can be taught, especially through proactive disciplinary

have anywhere to go and take a break, so they’re faced

strategies that use misbehavior as an example for other

with only a few options; they might take a risk, act out

students. 57 While some of the bones of this argument

and misbehave, which will certainly get them in trouble

seem fair to students, such as the recognition that stu-

and also ostracize them from their peers - devastating to

dents need to be ready to learn in order to successfully

their sense of self-esteem. Alternatively, they do nothing

receive instruction and strategies to ensure this should

and zone out to take a break, but in doing so lose out on

be proactive, the disciplinary nature of the guide still

valuable cognitive growth. Even if a student decides to

misses the mark. Schools need dedicated spaces for

take a small risk and take out their phone to relax for a few

students to self-regulate their emotions in a healthy way,

minutes, many teachers will see this as a disruption and

because the system reinforced here matches the puni-

tell the student to put it away. Essentially, their choices

tive attitude schools tend to take towards misbehavior,

to regulate their emotions have been reduced to doing

rather than seeing it as a sign of underlying distress that

absolutely nothing and continuing to feel the negative

deserves healthy coping options. The current classroom

emotions or taking a risk and doing something that will be

system simply doesn’t work in this regard.

equally damaging due to the effect on their self-esteem. Of course, there are some things that schools do well; This dilemma also contributes to a lack of resilience

generally speaking, schools are relatively safe places for

among students. The APA writes that resilience is used

students to be and provide them with food and shelter

to refer to “having good outcomes despite threats to

during the day. They also provide students with a place to

healthy development,” and that resilience can be facili-

grow socially and cognitively, and develop close net-

tated by reducing the level of risk, but also by “promoting

works of interpersonal relationships with peers. Howev-

competence and strengthening assets.”

er, it should also be clear that the built environment can

This is exactly

what providing better spaces for students to self-regulate

have a profound effect on human thoughts, feelings, and

in would do. Adding more options for ways students can

behavior, and the school is no different.

deal with their emotions would also support better decision-making by students, according to the APA.56

When adolescents are starting to more fully develop the cognitive ability to create their feelings of self, their

Additionally, creating this option for students to self-reg-

identities and their beliefs, it’s important for them to have

ulate more effectively both supports the educational idea

the skills to understand these thoughts and detect when

that only students ready to learn should be taught, while

emerging ideas might be untrue or dangerous. Therefore,

also addressing some of the problematic aspects of that

providing the time and space for this to happen would

idea. In their advice to teachers, the APA recognizes the

be vital for promoting positive beliefs and self-esteem

Spiraling Into Control

among students. That’s exactly where Cognitive Behav-

stress, fear, and anxieties impact their lives. Dr. Seth

ioral Therapy and Mindfulness come in.

Gillihan, a psychologist and researcher at the University of Pennsylvania, writes that even when our fears don’t

Mindfulness, MBSR, and CBT

reach the levels of a diagnosable anxiety disorder, worry can still have a profound effect on our lives based on the decisions we make out of fear. 60 Among diagnosable

The way schools are designed and organized doesn’t

disorders, battles with anxiety can range from specific

always work optimally for “normal” students, let alone

phobias to generalized anxiety disorder to panic

students with anxiety, depression, and other mental

disorders and PTSD.

health issues, or students who identify as LGBTQ+ or other minorities. These students are even more at risk for

Generally speaking, we know that anxiety and panic are

feeling marginalized by the failings of their school spaces

a result of a misfiring of the ‘fight or flight’ response in the

to address their needs to regulate their emotions prop-

brain, which floods the body with adrenaline and cortisol

erly. Students with learning disabilities, for example, are

in order to prepare for action. 61 In some situations that’s

two to three times more likely to experience emotional

a good thing - a small amount of stress can generally be

distress, according to the APA, while LGBTQ+ students

helpful in motivating us to do something we might care

are more likely to feel alienated from the school commu-

about, or to help get us out of a situation that might actu-

nity and thus are at a higher risk for mental health issues

ally be dangerous. The problem with stress and anxiety is

and suicide. 58

that the thought process that triggers this type of response has been miscalculated, meaning we’ve overes-

Understanding the basics of what happens to a person

timated the threat we face. This initial response can then

psychologically when they begin to feel emotionally

trigger downward spirals, as Dr. Gillihan notes: “When our

overwhelmed and what strategies exist for dealing with

fear is activated, we’re likely to have thoughts that terrify

these moments is the other fundamental issue that needs

us even more.” 62

to be considered when beginning to design for self-regulation in schools. As far as strategies for dealing with

Depression, while somewhat different, can build on this

these types of crisis situations go, Cognitive Behavioral

spiral - anxieties and other negative events can cause

Therapy (CBT) and Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction

people to lose motivation and experience low moods,

(MBSR) both have proven track records with psychia-

which then cause them to lose enjoyment in the things

trists, therapists, and with researchers when it comes to

that typically would bring joy. 63 This creates its own cy-

treating mental health issues such as anxiety and depres-

cle, as they stop doing activities that balance out our lows

sion.

and the depression grows deeper.

It’s first important to acknowledge that mental health

Under a CBT model, these thoughts and feelings are then

issues come in many varieties and many potencies, and

understood as influencing our negative actions. 64 This

many students may not actually be aware of the way

could be acting out in a classroom, running from school

Literature Review

or avoiding class, or withdrawing from friends and family when feeling depressed. Anger is often symptomatic of

Triggering Situations

stress and anxiety issues, which would suggest that the violent outbursts schools see from students have less to do with that student being inherently ‘bad’ or ‘naughty’ but

Thoughts

rather that they haven’t properly alleviated their stress. The core principle of CBT, then, is the idea that breaking the pattern of these negative thoughts, feelings, and actions helps to end the cycle and rewire the brain to be

Feelings

more resilient in the face of stressors. 65 There are several methods for retraining the brain, but most of them start with the patient identifying errors in

Physical Sensations

their thought patterns, such as over-generalizations, catastrophizing, discounting the positives, black and white thinking, and so on. 66 Once these errors have been identified, a patient might start to try to trace those errors back to some of their underlying assumptions about themselves. For example, if a student doesn’t study much for a test and gets a bad grade, they might think “I’m watching too much TV and procrastinating too much,” which might lead to “I have no self control,” which could lead to the thought “I’ll never accomplish my goals.” After taking time to examine that spiral of negative thoughts, that same student should then identify the errors and weigh them against the facts they have overlooked perhaps they didn’t study much because they had to work more hours than usual at their job. This type of repudiation after considering all the facts can give patients the opportunity to construct a more accurate statement or thought pattern, and see the way it changes their subsequent behaviors. 67 At its deepest level, this type of self-examination that CBT encourages helps people change and improve on their core beliefs essentially giving themselves a stronger, healthier bed-

Spiraling Into Control

Actions Figure 22. The CBT model of thoughts, actions, and behaviors

rock for their thoughts to grow on. People often create a self-empowerment phrase that they use to brush off their negative thoughts and return to more positive beliefs when presented with the beginnings of a downward spiral. Traditionally, this type of work is done either as part of a support group or one-on-one with a therapist. However, there is some research suggesting that individuals can practice CBT on their own, with the occasional guidance of a therapist or a written manual. MBSR, and mindfulness in general, is similar in its central premise to CBT, and the two are sometimes combined into a method called Mindfulness Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT). Although it’s rooted in many Eastern religious practices, Dr. Gillihan describes mindfulness being “as simple as bringing our awareness to the present.” 68 Most of the time, the mind is thinking about the past or the future, and that’s often what causes the most stress -

worrying about something that has already happened, or

While CBT focuses much more on taking time and space

being anxious about things that might happen.

to dissect our own thoughts, often through journaling or talking with someone else, mindfulness is often practiced

Think about it like this: a student might be actively

through various forms of meditation. Jon Kabat-Zinn, a

stressing out about upcoming tests and assignments,

researcher and pioneer of MBSR, identifies several dif-

which takes part of their consciousness away from focus-

ferent modes of meditation that make practitioners more

ing on what’s happening in the present during a class. As

aware of their thoughts and their body: sitting meditation,

a result, they don’t absorb as much of the information,

walking meditation, and body scan meditation, as well as

which leads to lowered performance on the same as-

yoga, breathing exercises, and simply being more obser-

sessment they were initially worried about. This is how

vant of actions throughout the day - savoring the aromas

a downward spiral can start when students spend too

and taste of your food, feeling the texture of a book’s

much time worrying about the past or the future, instead

paper and so on. 71

of engaging in the present. This scenario lends credence to the idea that accommodating mindfulness activities in

Mindfulness and CBT aren’t the only two ways to keep

schools would not only boost mental wellness, but could

the mind healthy, of course - Gillihan notes that getting an

also improve attention in class and student performance

appropriate amount of sleep, exercise, and good nutrition

as a result of better mental health.

can boost mental wellness, as well as simply carving out time to do enjoyable activities and taking breaks from

By contrast, mindfulness aims the brain’s focus solely on

working. 72

the present, and simply trying to observe the things happening around the body as facts, rather than casting judg-

Both CBT and Mindfulness practices would be aided by

ment on them as good or bad.

spaces that allow students or practitioners to be alone,

Note that this is similar

to the idea of providing ‘soft fascinations’ in educational

closed off from distractions to allow them to focus. These

environments - essentially, those spaces allow students

spaces should be comfortable as students sit on either

to focus on what is happening around them, giving the

the floor or a chair to meditate, journal, or just breathe.

mind a break and a chance to recharge.

In the case of yoga or Tai Chi, these spaces should be large enough for students to move around without feeling

The other piece to mindfulness is acceptance. When we

too confined. Additionally, both Gillihan and Kabat-Zinn

hold our preferences for a certain outcome more lightly,

recommend that some people may prefer dimly lit spaces

we stop fighting the way things actually are, thus relieving

to practice meditation or mindfulness in. 73 Of course,

the stress caused by feeling somehow wronged. 70 In tan-

walking meditation can be done anywhere, although a

dem with CBT, mindfulness helps make us more aware of

good balance of sensory inputs without overwhelming

our thoughts and emotions, which then makes it easier to

the senses is ideal.

find errors in thinking and respond to these more quickly, decreasing our reactivity in the behavioral realm.

Research has seemed to indicate that these methods are effective - for example, a study of individuals with

Literature Review

Figure 23. Meditation and Breathing Poses Figure 24. Example of a meditation room in a commercial office

Spiraling Into Control

recurrent depression found that MBCT lowered the

by school districts are primarily composed of staff,

risk of future depressive episodes by half compared to

teachers, and district administrators, with very few

other therapies.74 It would appear that school districts

students, if any. Of this subset, the wishes of adminis-

are starting to take notice. The Oregon School District

trators typically carry the most weight. In a school that

is starting to introduce some mindfulness techniques to

might contain hundreds or even thousands of students

their younger students, and staff district-wide are reading

and dozens of teachers, it doesn’t seem like a stretch to

a book about mindfulness as part of their professional

say who is traditionally determined to be a stakeholder in

development. However, it’s unclear whether Oregon High

the school design process is rarely representative of the

School or many high schools in general have spaces that

actual user of a new space. Staff and administrators may

would support these practices. Cognitive Behavioral

be long term users of the spaces in a school, but students

Therapy and mindfulness are both deeply introspective

are actually representative of permanent users - teachers

processes, which are best facilitated in solitude. As

may be there for years or even decades, but there will al-

the review of educational design ideas revealed, many

ways be students, even if they aren’t the same individuals.

traditional schools lack private spaces, and as contemporary schools become more open, districts run the risk of

It’s also important to note that this determination of who

sinking millions of dollars into a project that inadequately

makes up building design committees doesn’t fall entirely

provides these vital spaces of retreat.

on the architect. In many cases, district administration is equally to blame. It’s the superintendents, the business

Participatory Design

managers, directors of instruction and student services, school principals who determine what the makeup of these committees will be, and even which teachers

Setting aside the aesthetics and design ideas them-

should serve on them. If student representatives are

selves, there’s another fundamental issue plaguing

present, it might be a student body president or other

architects that’s due to the design process itself. Conver-

member of student government, selected by the ad-

sations with an architect at Bray Architecture, a leading

ministration. It’s not the kid struggling to come to school

educational design firm in Wisconsin, revealed that

because of depression, or who’s constantly on edge

project designers do indeed meet with stakeholders of

because of the stress of working two jobs to help their

a project with relative frequency. These meetings and

family, or whose parents are incarcerated or struggling

conversations include project descriptions and school

with addiction. It’s not the teacher who’s also a single par-

district needs, which help the designers create their

ent and can’t get a babysitter to attend the meetings after

series of recommendations and define the scope of the

school, or who is struggling with their own mental health.

work. More meetings may ensue until both sides are in agreement about the direction of a project.

The problem for designers is less one of picking the wrong people to be the stakeholders, but not standing

The problem with this approach is the way architects de-

up for those who weren’t picked and pushing for aware-

fine the stakeholders. Building committees put together

ness of these barriers. It’s being complicit when a district

Literature Review

intentionally or unintentionally excludes some of the

generating better solutions, which brings us back to

most important stakeholders in a project - the students.

Sutton’s methodology. Part of Sutton’s approach to

It’s falling into the trap that Sharon Sutton describes as

participatory design is to incorporate social science re-

“reflecting a contractual model of commerce rather than

search methods, which helps round out the way informa-

the principled loyalty of guardianship.” 75

tion is gathered during the design process.

In an ideal world, architects would use a participatory

Designers seek to solve problems “not only to beautify

design process when designing educational spaces,

the environment but to also respond to human needs. 76

whether it’s large capital improvement projects like new

To do this, designers tend to use their past experiences

schools or major renovations or smaller scale projects

to study different elements, which helps them create

like the ones described so far as necessary additions for

a logic to the way they solve a problem. Studies of the

student mental wellness. Generally speaking, these prac-

design process have shown that designers analyze and

tices are able to draw input from a wider pool of people

understand the problems they are trying to solve while

and turn more of the stakeholders in a project into active

they are coming up with solutions. In group settings, this

participants, something that could be deeply insightful in

process can lead to greater interpersonal conflicts, but

this type of situation.

also makes use of a wider knowledge base to “generate more informed solutions.” 77 The tools of the designer

While this type of design process has mainly focused

are “visualization tools” which help non-designers think

on avenues away from education and learning envi-

about the space around them; these can include models,

ronments, architects and planners can look to leaders

sketches, maps, and photos.

such as Sharon Sutton or Rasmus and Jeanette Frisk as examples of how this process can work in educational

Social scientists and researchers, on the other hand,

settings. The Frisks are professors and practitioners,

value participation and democratic inclusion as a means

whose Copenhagen firm Arki_lab specializes in partici-

to pursue “social and collective good.” 78 Their methods

patory urban design and working with youths both in and

are more objective, using quantitative and interpretive

around schools. Dr. Sutton has decades of experience

methods such as observation, interviews, surveys, focus

in both academia at a number of universities as well as in

groups, and narrative analysis. These methods are

practice as a licensed architect. Her work has focused on

specifically used to help “realign the balance of power

increasing racial justice and using interdisciplinary design

between researchers and end users,” meaning by taking

and participatory design as tools for addressing urban

a step back to gather facts objectively, researchers

environmental issues, often with a focus around school

act more as a recording device than someone actively

communities.

making decisions. This more objective approach is more incremental and disciplined - unlike designers, social

Convincing a school district or building committee to use

scientists do not solve the problem as they go, but rather

participatory design as a way to include all of the real

create a series of hypotheses to test carefully. If a hy-

stakeholders may come down to explaining its value in

pothesis doesn’t prove true, it’s back to the beginning, but

Spiraling Into Control

Figure 25. An example of Sutton’s Participatory Charettes

Figures 26-7. Arki_lab using board games to gather community input

with a new understanding.

out a handful of ideas for how some of her students have

Together, the two approaches seem to complement

facilitated participatory design processes in the past,

each other. The approach of the designers is great for

from both a design and scientific point of view. These

getting community members and other participants in the

include creating a needs assessment with community

process to work visually and think critically about their

members, cognitive mapping, using photomontage and

built environments. This work is best supported when

collage to sketch ideas, mapping changes over time, and

there’s a wealth of data and input backing it up, which is

examining community photographs. Most of these were

better gathered in an objective way by the social science

implemented in a “charette” format, which she defined as

methods before design begins. The inclusion of objective

“intensive participatory workshops that addressed spe-

studies also has the effect of legitimizing whatever chang-

cific community problems.” 79 In these examples, teams

es are proposed in the end - people are always inclined

of architecture and social science students worked for

to resist big changes, like those of a boundary-pushing

about 40 hours over 5 days to produce design concepts.

design, when it’s different than what they’re used to. It’s usually easy to pass these off as ideas coming from an

The team at Arki_Lab employ some of the solutions

artist in an ivory tower, but when there’s hard data backing

above and have also developed some of their own

up decisions, it starts to speak more to our logical side.

through trial and error. For example, they created a game, similar in some ways to Monopoly, in which community

In addition to some of the methods above, Sutton lays

members move around a board, following prompts that Literature Review

Figure 28. Arki_lab prototyping design solutions with community members

Spiraling Into Control

ask them to annotate a map of a project site with their input to earn points.

situation, but incredibly vital here.

This proved to be a fun and engag-

ing way for children especially to give their input. Other

It should be clear by now that America’s schools do not

methods that they employ include giving participants

seem well equipped to handle their students’ emotional

disposable cameras to document issues, giving out jour-

needs. New ideas about what learning spaces can look

nals to document their thoughts about a site over time,

like might be improvements, but they’re not perfect, and

scavenger hunts, and so on. As they move to the next

traditional school organizations don’t seem to work at all.

stage, they may begin to build temporary installations and

These schools often leave students stranded on an island

mockups at scale with community members to test their

at their desks or in the hallways, surrounded by the peers

ideas and help the community understand the spatial

whose approval they constantly seek, and without an

aspects of their designs. 81

easy place to escape to and calm down. Reviewing the prominent ideas about school architecture, adolescent

These are the types of practices architects should be

development, self-regulation strategies, and design pro-

using for gathering better input and engaging more stake-

cesses seem to suggest that spaces of retreat and refuge

holders in the design process and turning them into active

are badly needed but missing in action, perhaps because

participants. Bypassing this system for the traditional

planners and designers aren’t listening to one of the most

type of planning commission excludes a lot of integral

important stakeholders in any educational design project

voices from the conversation. This is less than ideal in any

- the students.

Literature Review

METHODOLOGY

Introduction Building on the literature and ideas behind Dr. Suttonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s

methodology which still engages students in the process.

work in participatory design, this project attempts to

The goal is to show a glimpse at the power designers can

engage students as part of the design process, taking

harness from working with students, with their unique and

them from little-used stakeholder to active and primary

often untapped reservoir of knowledge about their envi-

participant. In an ideal world, the methodology of this

ronment, and how that can create more informed design

project would mirror that of Dr. Sutton or Arki_lab, starting

solutions.

with preliminary engagement and fact-finding to establish a wealth of information before beginning a co-design process grounded in charettes and prototype building.

Oregon + Oregon High School

Eventually, it could result in a final design solution built by the community itself, or else a more informed plan and

The environment and context of each school is import-

proposal that could be submitted to school administra-

ant to the foundations of any project, and this project is

tors for action.

no different. Oregon High School, or OHS, is located in the town of Oregon, in south-central Wisconsin. Itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s a

However, for a number of reasons, that is beyond the

fairly average sized town, with a population estimated to

current scope. Instead, the methodology used here takes

be around 10,264 by the U.S. Census Bureau as of July

inspiration from the first part of that process by incor-

2016, although it has been steadily growing since the

porating a more hands-on approach to the case study

1990s. 82 Its population is not very diverse, as over 92% of

Spiraling Into Control

1 MILE

7 MILES

Figure 29. Regional map of Oregon and the Madison suburbs

Figure 30. Town map of Oregon and the area around Oregon High School

respondents to the last census were white, while African

together is the activity around the schools, such as sport-

Americans make up 3% of the population, and Hispanics

ing events, musical performances, theater, art shows,

and Asians make up 1.3% and 0.4% of the population

and so on. This arguably makes Oregon High School and

respectively.

other district schools the centerpiece of town social life.

Oregon is also a predominantly middle

class to upper-middle class town, with a median household income of $73,565, roughly $20,000 more than the

As noted in the introduction, the current Oregon High

state average, and workers primarily employed in the

School was built in 1965, as a replacement for the original

education, business, science, and management sectors,

high school, known as the Red Brick School, which was

with some manufacturing. 84 Its residents are also highly

built in the early 1920s. OHS broadly follows many of the

educated, with 97% having graduated high school and

principles of educational design that were popular at the

40% holding a bachelorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s degree or higher. 85

time, comprising a single story of classrooms and support spaces, clad in dark brick exteriors with narrow windows.

Oregon is a near suburb of Madison, which is located

It follows a traditional â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;cells and bellsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; model, with dou-

about 10 miles north and plays a major role in the life of

ble-loaded corridors providing student locker space and

many residents in Oregon. Residents regularly commute

circulation space, with classrooms and support spaces

to Madison for work, shopping and leisure, so the need

on either side of the corridor. Additionally, the design

for industry and other businesses in Oregon itself is more

featured a number of classrooms that had no exterior

limited. As a result, one of the things that binds residents

connection, such as windows and skylights, making them Methodology

Figure 31. Diagram showing the progression of additions to Oregon High School

essentially â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;landlockedâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; from the outside world. This

have made their mark on the building, with student proj-

was another idea popular in the late mid-century among

ects hung outside rooms, trophies and awards displayed

school designers and architects, with the idea being that

in common areas, and many murals on the walls of the

these classrooms could be completely controlled boxes

hallways and ceiling tiles above. The school does contain

for learning.

two courtyards, although they receive only occasional use by teachers and classes when the weather cooper-

The building has been renovated and received several

ates in the spring and fall.

additions throughout its life, although the same ideas present in the original building were often replicated in the

The most recent renovations, first in 1996 and then in

additions. New classrooms were sometimes still land-

2017, marked the first real departure from its original form

locked, and the ones that did face the exterior had slightly

for the building. In 1996, new science classrooms were

larger windows, but by no means was it a very transparent

added, which featured a few more windows than earlier

building. Many of the interior walls are made of painted

classrooms did, while a performing arts center and band,

concrete blocks, and the ceilings are almost all white

orchestra, and choir rooms were also constructed and

acoustic ceiling tile, with primarily cream colored tile floor-

featured high ceilings and large clerestory windows that

ing in the hallways and dark carpeting in the classrooms.

made the rooms much brighter. The 2017 renovation, one

As a result of the limited glazing throughout the building,

of the primary areas of focus in this case study, involved

most of the school spaces are artificially lit. Students

the creation of a new wing of classrooms that included

Spiraling Into Control

more flexible work spaces in the hallway, larger windows,

This set of questions is followed by a series of

and a new second floor. This renovation also included

open-ended questions, which ask students to write about

new athletics facilities and an expanded cafeteria that

what causes them to feel stressed during school, how

was opened up to the outside with a large, glazed cur-

they have learned to cope with it in a positive way, how

tain wall. While these additional spaces were positively

much time they would need for that activity before feeling

welcomed by the school community, the case study and

ready to continue their schoolwork, and how these

survey were more focused on comparisons between the

activities were impacted by school rules. The intent here

new and old learning spaces.

was to understand the factors that can build to a student feeling overwhelmed, and the coping mechanisms they have already developed. Design interventions might be designed to facilitate these coping mechanisms, as well as address any time constraints or school rules that are

This Project

obstacles to implementation. Alternatively, should the results show that students have stress they arenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t able

The case study consists of a survey administered to OHS

to manage effectively, this may indicate that methods like

students, asking about their mental health, the healthy

CBT and Mindfulness are even more necessary to help

ways they deal with stress, and the way their coping

students learn to self-regulate.

mechanisms are either supported or unsupported by the school building. The survey was administered to 146

Another pair of open-ended questions then asked stu-

students in pre-calculus, AP calculus, and algebra sup-

dents to identify spaces in the school that made them feel

port classes, encompassing all grade levels and abilities

more and less stressed, and why they felt either relieved

to gather a sample roughly representative of the schoolâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s

or uncomfortable in those spaces. These are places that

population. This survey was then supported by spatial

could then be observed and analyzed, for their features

analysis observations and conversations with teachers

to either be replicated or avoided. More importantly, it

throughout the school.

helped to reveal the places where interventions should be targeted because of a lack of wellness infrastructure.

The survey begins with a series of rating questions designed to gather data about how often students are

The next set of questions were multiple choice questions

overwhelmed by stress, their peak stress levels, and their

that asked about current mindfulness practices among

stress level when they are at their least stressed (the

students and whether or not they engaged in conversa-

full survey is included as an appendix). This serves to

tions with their teachers or classes about mental health.

establish a kind of baseline for understanding the need

Like the first few questions, this served as a check on the

for spaces for self-regulation; high levels of peak stress

need for spaces to help students deal with stress - the

or high frequencies would indicate that there might be a

less it was being talked about and thought about, the

need for places students can alleviate their stress.

more students would need a place to go to relieve it on their own.

Methodology

Figure 32. Current Floor plan of Oregon High School

Classrooms Flexible Work Spaces Library Computer Labs Maker Space Cafeteria + Commons Performing Arts Center Athletic Space Support Spaces Administration

0’ 12’

36’

108’

Spiraling Into Control

Methodology

The second half of the survey consisted of a picture

This project principally relied on the student survey

choice question supported by two open-ended ques-

for data about mental health and stress in schools. A

tions. Students were asked to select from a collection

day-long unstructured observation when school was in

of 11 images spaces that they would enjoy being in when

session added to my understanding of the spaces and

stressed, and then write what they liked about those

spatial qualities that students referenced in the survey.

spaces. The images were selected based on their per-

The newly renovated lunchroom, for example, was one

ceived opportunity to offer different types of spaces of

of the spaces that seemed to have an divisive impact on

retreat, ranging from very closed to more open, often with

the students’ experience, causing some students stress

different materials, colors, and lighting levels. Additionally,

because of the scale, noise, and number of people, while

two images were selected that were more similar to the

also providing a place to talk with friends that was stress

existing flexible work areas in Oregon High School, to

relieving. Being able to see that space in person and

see if students preferred those spaces over spaces of

observe how students operated within it helped to clarify

retreat. The final question attempted to reduce the bias

what students were saying about their needs.

of the image selection process by allowing students to openly write about what they would do to change their

One additional layer of analysis came from my own

classroom, school building, or exterior school spaces to

experiences as a student at the school. As I observed

reduce their stress.

change over time in the building and reflected on student comments, I brought my own perspective to bear on the

Two additional questions were asked of students in the

problem of designing for wellness. When applicable, I

pre-calculus classes, both closed-ended ‘yes or no’ ques-

was able to use my own memories from different spaces

tions that asked their opinion of the flexible classroom

of the school building – the spaces I felt uncomfortable in,

space where that math class is held, and which part of

the places I would go when I felt overwhelmed and need-

the space they typically used. These questions helped

ed escape – as another lens through which to analyze

indicate on a broader level if contemporary design ideas

the building and it’s changes. This personal perspective

were preferred by students over the traditional school

helped to supplement, without supplanting, the observa-

layout, and how much in-class use the flexible spaces

tions of current students and staff.

were actually seeing. After compiling this data, a wealth of community knowlFollowing this survey, I went to the spaces indicated by

edge can be combined with the theoretical knowledge

students as helpful and harmful to their mental wellness

gleaned from studying CBT, MBSR, and school design

and observed firsthand the features they had called out.

theory to produce some working guidelines and ideas for

If possible, I would also observe a few minutes of a class,

architects and educational communities to build on.

just to note behavioral patterns. I also spoke with the teachers in these rooms about their how the building’s

While much of this research was focused on engaging

characteristics affected their mood, pedagogical method,

students, it’s fair to argue that teachers would be equally

and its impact on students.

important to engage in similar ways. And again, in an ideal

Spiraling Into Control

scenario, teachers should definitely be involved in focus

future proposals, and creating the opportunity for a com-

groups, surveys, and participatory design processes

munity to learn more about itself.

along the way. Of course, there are some drawbacks and limitations to For the purposes of this project, I relied on my personal

this case study method. One important thing to note is

experiences with my mother, sister, and other teach-

time - with only one available day to conduct a survey,

ers, having spent invaluable time observing and having

interviews, and observations, each part had to become

conversations with them about the profession over the

more condensed and streamlined in order for everything

course of my life. This lent me great insight into teachers’

to function. With a longer period of study and multiple

practices for working with students who have mental

visits and rounds of survey, more nuances could be found.

health and behavioral issues, as well as the school ad-

Adding the ability to conduct focus groups and charettes

ministrator-teacher relationship and the pragmatics of

would also help, and move the project towards a true

classroom control and student behavior. This knowledge

participatory design process.

works as a stand-in for surveying groups of teachers, as I still had an insight into what could actually work in a

Additionally, there’s the demographics of Oregon as a

classroom setting. Additionally, I was able to reference

town; while the school itself is very representative of the

some of my own prior experiences with stress and mental

physical infrastructure of high schools around the coun-

health issues in schools, which helped me to evaluate

try, the town itself is less so. Oregon is overwhelmingly

some of the proposed therapies and reflect on the types

white and skews towards the middle to upper-middle

of spaces that might help.

class, so the problems students face there and the things they worry about could be wildly different than something

Even though it’s not the same as a true participatory

a student might worry about the urban schools of Minne-

design process, some of the advantages of this method

apolis or the rural schools of Bemidji. However, it’s rea-

are expanding the knowledge base designers can draw

sonable to assume that there are enough commonalities

from through multiple forms of inquiry, as well as directly

between students, such as school work-related stress,

engaging community members in the process. Both of

that recommendations and ideas from this project could

these are well-suited to creating more community buy-in

serve as a starting point from which projects could adapt

to a project, creating legitimacy and acceptance for any

to specific schools and their contexts.

Methodology

FINDINGS

Introduction

Survey Overview

While conducting multiple rounds of surveys, interviews

Beginning with the questions about stress levels and

with students and teachers, and guiding a co-design

frequency, student answers seemed to indicate that their

process would be ideal for a design project like this, the

stress levels are polarized throughout the week. When

single survey used for this project still returned a wealth

students were at their most stressed, students rated

of data. Across 146 total responses, aggregated from 8

themselves a 7.48 on average, while they rated them-

different math classes and students of all grade levels, the

selves only a 1.87 when they were at their least stressed.

students surveyed responded thoughtfully and serious-

When asked how many days per week they were at their

ly, and many seemed to take an interest in talking about

most stressed level, the average response was 2.25

what they liked and disliked about their learning envi-

days per week. Essentially, students were feeling very

ronments. Combined with in-person observations and

stressed for roughly half of the school week, but then

conversations with teachers around the school, these

were relatively stress-free the other half of the week and

results start to create a solid foundation for preliminary

weekend.

design ideas and future concepts for teachers, administrators, students, and designers to draw from and move

However, in the individual results, there was a wide range

forward with.

- some students may have bounced between a 5 and a 10 on the stress level scale and reported feeling

Spiraling Into Control

Figure 33. General Survey Results, stress causes and frequency

Total Number of Responses:

146 students

Stress Level High Point:

7.48 out of 10

Stress Level Low Point:

1.87 out of 10 2.25 days/ week

High Point Frequency:

Academic

What causes you to feel stress during the schoolday? [Out-of-Class Workload]

[n-Class Workload] [Assessments]

44 39

People

[General]

[Friendships + Relationships]

[Family]

[Public Speaking]

Work-Life Balance The Future Physical / Mental Health

16 9 8 8

Extracurriculars

Part-Time Job [Sports] [Arts] [Clubs]

7 4 1

Nothing

2 0

Findings

Figure 34. Coping mechanisms

How have you learned to positively manage stress that you would practice if the school allowed it?

Listening to Music

Exercising

Making Art

Reading

Taking a Break

Mindfulness / Meditation

Sleeping

Extracurriculars

Talking to Friends

Yoga

Studying / Working

Watching Videos

Making Music

Playing Video Games

Take a Break

Driving

Eating

Sleep

Petting a Dog

Social Media

Nothing

9 0

40 Number of Responses

Spiraling Into Control

overwhelmed up to 4 or 5 days per week. Meanwhile,

so many people in general as a source of stress. In the

other students reported feeling no stress for all but one

latter two cases, it seems to suggest that the classroom

day a week, and even on that day they would only rate

settings and broader school cater more towards large

themselves as moderately stressed.

group work and congregation, and that more small group spaces or individual spaces may be needed, or more time

When students were stressed, it seemed to be a private

allotted to working in smaller groups.

issue. Few students reported talking to their teachers about their mental health, and most reported either never

Several people reported feeling stress about future

or rarely discussing the issue as a class. This gives the

decisions, their responsibilities in different extracurricular

impression that students are more or less left to their own

activities, and their part time jobs. For some students, it

devices when it comes to dealing with their stress and

was the combination of all of these parts of their life that

mental health, which reinforces the need for spaces that

caused the most stress - they reported struggling to

students can utilize for self-regulation.

achieve a good work-life balance. Others pointed directly to their physical or mental health as sources of stress,

When it came to what caused students to feel stress,

some from underlying conditions and others from just a

there was some variety, but the overwhelming majority

broad worry about their health.

of answers were related to their academic work. Generally, their academic stresses fell into three categories:

Coping with stress took many forms for students, as one

assessment-related stress, stress about their in-class

might expect. However, nearly half of the responses in-

workload, and stress about their out-of-class workload.

cluded listening to music as one method students used to

Out-of-class workload, which generally meant homework

combat their stress. Exercise in various forms - running,

itself, was the top stressor for students. Several reported

organized sports, weightlifting - was also popular. Other

feeling overwhelmed with the amount of work, feeling

results like extracurriculars and talking to friends sug-

behind, or missing assignments as contributing factors.

gested that for some students their outlets were social,

In terms of in-class assignments, rigor of the work was

while other students preferred to read, meditate, do yoga,

the top factor in that stress for students, as well as sheer

sleep, or simply take a break and do nothing - quieter

amount of work. Assessments caused stress on their

and more individual activities. Another group of students

own, and students also pointed to overlapping deadlines

used creativity as an outlet, either through making music,

for assessments as a major factor in causing stress.

art, or drawing.

Another category of responses was the different forms

On average, students said that they would need 25 min-

of stress students felt from people. This could be rela-

utes of their given activity to feel energized to do school-

tionships with friends, family, or significant others. It also

work again. Again there was somewhat of a dichotomy

included people who specifically referenced fear of being

in the results; about half of the students had timeframes

called on in classes, or having to speak in front of groups.

closer to 5-15 minutes, while another chunk felt they

Another large group simply pointed to being around

needed closer to 45 minutes or an hour to relieve their

Findings

Figure 35. Stress Reducing Spaces

Are there spaces in the school that make you less stressed? No 22.6%

Yes 77.4%

What spaces in the school make you feel less stressed? 30

28 23

Number of Responses

20 14 12 10

11 8

7 5

Spiraling Into Control

ay ur

Ha llw

all

e ud

b La Fa b

-S No n 43

Th eC

cifi

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Figure 36. Stress Increasing spaces

Are there spaces in the school that make you feel more stressed?

No 39.7%

Yes 60.3%

What spaces in the school make you feel more stressed? 50

Number of Responses

30 22 20

14 11

10 3

The Library

The Hallway

0 Non-Specific

Existing Classrooms [Nonspatial]

The Commons

Existing Classrooms [Spatial]

New Classrooms

Findings

stress - a break that is almost certainly prohibitively too

than they had currently. Similar thoughts became the

long. Even at 25 minutes, a single break takes up half of a

dominant trend in the most popular images. Conversely,

50 minute class period.

the image of the red chairs and the image of the phone booth were not very popular, although the reasoning is

Students seemed able to answer this first set of ques-

unclear. Based on the positive responses to the other

tions very easily. When asked about spaces in the school

spaces, these images may not have conveyed those

that caused them to feel more or less stressed, a majority

same spatial qualities that proved desirable for students.

of students were able to point to things that they had noticed that either alleviated or increased their stress.

This question proved to have a lot of promise in getting

For example, a particular English room might have a quiet

students to think somewhat spatially, although in an

reading corner that students find soothing, or a dark

ideal situation a similar exercise could be done in smaller

history room might make students feel uncomfortable.

focus groups where designers could have a discussion

Many responses pointed less to a specific place in the

with students. While their input was enthusiastic on this

school but more to generalized conditions and attributes

section, students lacked the ability to articulate the nu-

of space that students felt had an effect on their emo-

ances of why they might like an image and often resorted

tions. Non-specific answers like “big windows and natural

to slang, with many simply calling their chosen spaces

light,” “open spaces,” and “more comfy seating,” were

“chill.” In a focus group setting, designers might be able

popular among spaces that lowered stress levels, while

to ask follow up questions to get students to come to a

“no windows,” “dark,” and “uncomfortable chairs” were

more complete understanding of their own thoughts and

conditions that raised their stress.

opinions, and therefore derive even more pertinent input to inform the design process. Unfortunately, this proved

However, there was a large section of responses where

to be beyond the scope of this project.

students reported specific rooms as stress inducing, but their reasoning had more to do with the course content

The final question seemed to be confusing to students,

itself. This suggests that the questions may have been

although many of the responses pointed towards many

confusing, but it also raises the question that even if it’s

of the same ideas about light, furniture, and spatial

not an issue with the space itself that causes students

needs. This created some well-defined patterns of

stress, locations near rigorous classes may still be prime

student needs, which were reinforced by some of the

locations for design interventions.

input I received from teachers and observations I made throughout the day in the spaces students had called out

Responses to the image selection question were similarly

as either places of support or harm to their mental health.

varied. The most popular image was of a hung egg chair in a bright space, which students said felt private but also

Generally, the case study supported the idea that

bright and open. Students often replied that they often

contemporary ideas about learning environments for

felt like they wanted to be alone when they felt stressed,

student-centered learning offered improvements over

and spaces like the egg chair allowed them more privacy

traditional spaces when it came to student mental health,

Spiraling Into Control

Figure 37. Mindfulness practice

Do you practice any type of mindfulness or meditation? Yes 17.1%

No 82.9%

What kind of mindfulness or meditation do you practice? 20 16

Number of Responses

1 0

Meditation

Yoga

Breathing Techniques

Mindful Thinking

1 Prayer

Findings

Figure 38. Conversations with teachers on mental health

Do you talk about your mental health with any of your teachers or staff at your school? Yes 17.1%

No 82.9%

especially when it came to spatial qualities. However, it also supported the idea that those improvements had

Spatial Qualities

not adequately addressed the inherent student need for

There are a few characteristics of space that stood out

discrete spaces that promote emotional self-regulation.

in the responses from students, conversations with staff, and observations as having an impact on mental health.

The findings support a number of conclusions about the

These were, primarily, lighting, feeling of spaciousness,

essential elements of student-centered learning spaces

and furniture selection. Unlike the specific spatial needs

that need to be present for students to feel better and be

addressed later, these elements of space are more

better prepared to cope with stress and emotional diffi-

intrinsic to learning spaces; they might be present in

culties - essentially, the spatial qualities. They also sup-

a school already but seem to be more emphasized in

port a few categories of necessary spaces that need to

contemporary learning spaces, and should certainly

be created in order for students to self-regulate - spatial

play a greater role going forward, including in any new

types, such as spaces to work, move, create, and relax.

spaces for self-regulation. Based on the research done

Of equal importance were the issues raised by these

here, these elements seem to have compounding effects

needs, many of which are the structural, organizational, or

on the spaces in a school, taking a good classroom to a

pedagogical challenges in place.

great one or exacerbating the negative effects of a poorly designed classroom, making them an essential

Spiraling Into Control

Figure 39. Frequency of conversations about mental health

How often do you and your class talk about stress or mental health with your teachers? 100

89 89

Number of Responses

50 33 25

16 7 1

Never

Rarely

Every Month

Every Week

Everyday

consideration of any design idea, especially as it might

images on the survey. The new wing of the school was

relate to mental well-being.

especially popular among students, who were drawn to its large windows and described the space as ‘calming,’

Light

‘bright,’ and ‘clean,’ at least part of which can be attributed

Lighting was one of the most mentioned elements of

to the effect of opening the building up to natural light.

space by students throughout the survey, from what they

Additionally, these openings also create visual connec-

liked or didn’t like about particular spaces, to what they

tions to the outside world, which was also something that

wanted from the images, to what they would change

students responded positively to.

about their school environment given the chance. The feedback dealt with both natural and artificial light, both

Even minimal visual connections seemed to help; stu-

of which appeared to have both positive and negative

dents called out the music rooms as a stress-reducing

impacts on student mental health.

space, and all of those rooms feature high clerestory windows that flood the space with natural light while allowing

Natural light, for example, was one of the most popular

views to the sky. In both of these cases, students get the

things that students either liked about a space in the

benefit of the light as well as the connection to nature,

school or wanted more of, and it was often mentioned

which can create opportunities for students to use ‘soft

as one of the factors that played into their selection of

fascinations’ to take a break and just observe something

Findings

Figure 40. Preference for classroom type

Do you prefer classrooms like this, where you can choose how you want to work? No 3.5%

Yes 94.1%

happening outside for a few minutes.

natural light affected him until he moved into his new classroom. After experiencing both types of classrooms,

Lack of access to natural light, meanwhile, was often

the differences I observed from being in either space for

something that provoked stress among students and

just a few minutes was stark. The classrooms with ample

staff alike. Many students pointed to some of the ‘land-

natural light felt much more free and relaxed, while the

locked’ rooms in the original building that lacked any

older classrooms felt much more claustrophobic and

windows or natural light as a source of stress. These

oppressive. In this more traditional model of education,

types of spaces, which were common in the late 60’s,

where teachers have their own classroom and rarely

were originally conceived of as a completely controllable

leave it, access to natural light and fresh air become even

learning environment. In reality, however, they work much

more important to their own mental health. Students may

more like a cave, according to one teacher. He teaches

be just as uncomfortable in these spaces, but they may

in one of these rooms, and often wishes he had another

only spend an hour in them at a time; teachers may be

classroom just to have windows, or wonders what his

there for eight hours per day. Even though the focus of

room would be like if he had a skylight or two.

this project is on students, this certainly should still be a focus for designers moving forward. Supporting better

Another teacher, who now works in the new wing but

mental health for teachers is not only good for the teach-

had a similarly landlocked classroom for nearly 30 years,

ers themselves, but the students as well - teachers who

remarked that he didn’t even realize how much not having

have taken care of themselves would be better able to

Spiraling Into Control

Figure 41. Flexible space use

Which space in the open classroom do you typically use? Both 3.5%

Flex Work Space 38.8%

Regular Classroom 57.6%

help their students.

possible, natural light is almost always best, and often alleviates the need for artificial lights at all.

The issue of lack of natural light in the original building was often compounded by the bright, fluorescent lights

Spaciousness

used to artificially light those spaces. According to

One of the other spatial qualities students routinely point-

students, these also contributed to the oppressive feel of

ed to was the spaciousness, or lack thereof, in different

the spaces, and the teacher I spoke to agreed. However,

classrooms or spaces as a reason for either elevated or

without proper dimmer switches, the lighting levels aren’t

decreased stress levels. Along with the lighting, the ‘open’

very adjustable. Lights are often left half on or off, which

feeling associated with the classrooms and work spaces

can contribute to the cave-like feel of interior classrooms.

in the new wing were often cited as stress-relieving, while older and more ‘cramped’ classrooms tended to add to

The one workaround that students did seem to appreci-

student stress.

ate was compensating for this darkness with softer lamp lighting scattered throughout rooms. This often had the

The feeling of spaciousness is likely tied to lighting, as

effect of creating a ‘cozier,’ more comfortable feeling for

increased natural light can make a classroom or other

students. When natural light isn’t available, this seems like

space feel bigger and brighter than it actually is. However,

the best solution, and could be especially useful in new

the new wing’s classrooms do seem slightly larger, which

spaces for meditation and relaxation. Of course, when

is something one teacher said he appreciated compared Findings

13. Circle the photos below that you would want to be in when you feel stressed:

Figure 42. Spatial Inspiration

13. Circle the photos below that you would want to be in when you feel stressed:

Space 1 [31%]

Space 2 [37%]

Space 3 [26%]

Space 4 [49%]

Space 5 [23%]

Space 6 [21%]

Space 7 [3%]

14. Why would you like to be in that space circled above?

14. Why would you like to be in that space circled above? Space 8 you changeSpace 9 followingSpace Space 11 15. What would about the places to10 reduce your stress: a. standard classroom ? [29%] [26%] [8%] [27%]

14. Whyb.would youbuilding like to be school ? in that space circled above? 15. What would you change about the following places to reduce your stress: a. standard classroom? Spiraling Control outside c.Intospaces your school? b. school building? 15. What youon change about the following places to reduce your stress: d. would spaces your way to school?

to his previous classrooms. Since he had started at the

overwhelmed, while at the same time allowing teachers

school, he had taught in three classrooms, the first of

to continuously teach a lesson without having to stop

which was about a third the size of his current classroom,

and check on students working in the hall. The sense

and the second of which was in between those sizes.

of transparency and the feeling of spaciousness allows

Along with the natural light, he said this was one of the

for more flexibility, which can be beneficial in providing

contributing factors to making the new classroom feel

students the necessary freedom to self-regulate stress

better, something students tended to agree with.

and emotion.

Classrooms aren’t the only place where more space was

Furniture

needed - hallways were an issue as well. Compared to

Along with spaciousness in the new wing’s classrooms

the new wing, the corridors of the old school are much

and hallways, the variety of furniture there was also

narrower, which leads to congestion in the halls when

cited as a reason students preferred those spaces and

students are passing between classes. Some students

felt reductions of stress while working there. For some

mentioned this as a stressor outright, while it can be seen

students, it was the ability to work more independently in

as a factor in other students who cited being around too

class or during study hall at some of the work counters

many people in general as a stressor. Beyond circulation,

or tables out in the hallway that made them feel more

these more spacious hallways also create more oppor-

relaxed. For others, it was the variety of seating options

tunities for work spaces that can be used during class

available beyond the simple plastic desk chair most

periods, when there are fewer people moving about. This

classrooms are filled with that provided a source of relief.

can provide a quieter and more focused environment

Comfort was also something students were drawn to,

for students to try to work through some of their stress

remarking that the standard desk chairs were uncomfort-

without feeling like they need to move along. Of course, it

able and that they wished there were more soft spaces to

is still fairly public, so it’s not the perfect relaxation space

sit in the classroom and throughout the school.

either. Outside of the school itself, students often had similar The blurring of these boundaries by interior glazing might

concerns. The school features two courtyards, as well as

also have added to the sense of openness and spacious-

some other outdoor lawn spaces. Yet each of these are

ness in the new wing, even though some teachers were

sparsely populated with furniture besides a picnic table

initially skeptical. “At first I thought it would feel like living

or two and a few benches. This probably explains why

in a fishbowl, but now I can’t imagine not being able to see

many students wished they could add to the number of

into the hallway from my room,” one teacher remarked.

outdoor furniture pieces with more comfortable seating

For her, it provided not only easier supervision of students

options. Even though students are only allowed outside

working in the hallway, but also a greater sense of secu-

during their lunch period or if their teacher takes the class

rity. This is good news for both students and teachers;

outdoors, this still seems to be an important need among

it gives students more control over their working meth-

students, and maybe would be a good opportunity to get

od and an easier retreat out of the classroom if feeling

more students outside and more active.

Findings

Spatial Types

classroom in the new wing embodies these ideas more

Drawing from the various coping mechanisms students

between the more traditional classroom space and the

practiced, as well as the types of spaces in which they felt

quieter and more distinct work zone, which is furnished

less stressed, and their selection of images, four catego-

with barstools, cafe tables, work benches, and booths to

ries of different types of space for self-regulating stress

accommodate a variety of individual and group work situ-

emerged. Of course, there is a guiding principle behind

ations. The classes in this space are double the size of a

all of these spaces: the need to retreat. Whether it was

normal class, but are team-taught by two teachers. When

running, working on homework, meditating, breathing,

students arrive for class, they sign in on a sheet of paper

playing games on their phone, or talking to their friends,

saying how they want to learn that day, either through

students all reported a need to be able to take a break

lecture or independent study, and then they go to the

from school work, implying a need for privacy and sepa-

corresponding space. Once class begins, one teacher

ration from both the mental environment of the classroom

gives the lecture to a group of students in the more tradi-

but also its physical environment. These students need-

tional space, while the other bounces between the small

ed somewhere to go to do whatever it was that got their

groups of students working in the flexible space to offer

mind off of whatever was stressing them to be able to deal

help and guidance. Allowing a more free flow between

with the corresponding emotions effectively.

these spaces could be an interesting experiment to see if

fully. A slight offset in the walls creates a clear opening

it increases student agency, but given the organizational Spaces to Work

challenges that poses the current system seemed to

The first type of space that was supported by students

work just as well.

was the space to work, a support that came in various forms. For some students, working on homework and

That classroom teacher remarked that both students and

class projects and generally being productive towards

teachers liked what they saw in his space, and several

reducing their workload was the most effective way for

teachers had remarked that they wish their classrooms

them to reduce their stress, something facilitated through

were more similar to his. His students reacted over-

the flexible work spaces that were created in the reno-

whelmingly positively on the survey to this type of space

vation at OHS. Students often cited these new spaces

as well, and often preferred the flexible classroom to

as some of the stress reducing places in the building,

more traditional classrooms, even if they typically chose

perhaps partly for the more open feeling and the access

the more traditional lecture during class time. Additional-

to natural light but also because they offered a place to

ly, large chunks of students selected the images of open

work more individually and focus. This idea was sup-

work spaces on the survey, commenting that they were

ported by the teachers whose classrooms adjoin these

good places to be productive but also to socialize.

workspaces, who utilize these spaces for students taking tests, receiving peer tutoring, or just in need of a different

Even without building an entirely new wing, parts of the

environment to work while still being easily supervised.

original school seemed to have been altered in a way that

Taken towards the extreme, the open and flexible

improved their functionality and quality for students

Spiraling Into Control

Figure 43. Flexible work spaces in the hallway of the OHS addition

Figure 44. Connection between the lecture space and work spaces in the open classroom

Figure 45. The interior of the new classrooms

Figure 46. New flex work spaces in the original school

Photo - New Wing, Traditional Classroom

Photo - Existing Building, New Collaborative Work Spaces

Findings

Figure 47. The expansive and renovated cafeteria / commons

Figure 48. Typical school hallway

Figure 49. Typical windowless classroom in original building

Photo - Existing Building, Hallways

Spiraling Into Control

Photo - Existing Building, Landlocked Classroom

looking for a place to be productive and lighten their

through movement. Furthermore, walking meditation can

workload. A few classrooms in the original school were

be employed to combine some of the physical benefits of

demolished to create flexible work areas, which seemed

exercise with more active mindfulness and stress reduc-

to be used and enjoyed by students to a similar degree

tion techniques. In a school like Oregon, where the walls

to the spaces in the new wing. Similar spaces could also

of the corridor are often covered in student artwork and

be made out of outdated spaces like computer labs, or

murals, there are ample opportunities for students to ob-

modular pods built and placed throughout the school as

serve and meditate on their surroundings while walking,

an alternative method to creating these types of spaces

absolving the mind of emotional stressors. It may not be a

when major renovations aren’t possible.

workout that leaves students gasping for their breath, but it might be enough to break up their day and reintroduce

Spaces to Move

the kind of movement they seem to crave to relieve their

Spaces to move and exercise are also vital to relieving

stress.

stress for students. The second most popular method of relieving stress students used was exercise, which took

Spaces to Create

various forms from organized sports to running to lifting

Another common coping mechanism for students was

weights. Yet according to some other studies, students in

creating and making. Like exercising, this also took

that age range aren’t moving nearly enough. These same

various forms. For some students, it was as simple as

studies also show that exercise, even just light exercise

drawing in their notebooks during class. Others pre-

like working at a standing desk, walking around a mall, or

ferred singing, playing an instrument, or painting. Others

lifting heavy books and bags, can reduce rates of de-

still preferred building in the woodshop and metal shop,

pression and anxiety. 86 Exercise also tends to improve

or fabricating things on the 3D printer. Nonetheless,

self esteem, social support, and self efficacy - vital for

all these students felt most comforted by being able to

self-regulation among students. However, the ‘cells-and-

express themselves creatively in some fashion. Maybe

bells’ model of schooling and even contemporary spaces

they are more visual learners, and it’s soothing for them to

aren’t often reconciled well with this need.

doodle along to a lecture because it helps them understand the content better, or perhaps they’re more kinetic

While taking a break to go for a run or play sports might be

learners who might feel burnt out from a writing exercise

too much for schools to accommodate in terms of time

and need to build something with their hands.

and space, walking breaks could easily be supported by school infrastructure. Indeed, some students who asked

Here the most limiting factor is the inability to leave class

to go to the restroom ended up walking around the area

and participate in these creative activities when needed.

for a bit before coming back to class.

Most schools have art rooms, music practice rooms, wood shops, and so on; the lack of existing space for

Schools often consist of long corridors that sit empty be-

this type of self-regulation is less of a problem here, as

tween classes, which could make perfect walking routes

opposed to lack of access in times of need. It’s possible

for students who need to get their blood flowing and relax

then, that more accessible spaces could be deployed

Findings

around the school, through modular pods and prac-

example with the cargo net hammock creates a different

tice rooms and studios or other systems. Additionally,

type of separation from the main space, while still allowing

schools without these spaces could utilize unused or out-

visual connections, and the cocoon-like felt tent features

dated spaces, such as empty classrooms or computer

the ability to fully close off the world or open it slightly.

labs, to create spaces for creative expression. At Oregon High School, several unused classrooms were turned

Getting the scale of these types of relaxation spaces

into a Digital Fabrication Lab, where students can create

is key. The lunchroom, for example, is a divisive space

designs and objects with the help of 3D printers and other

among the high schoolers. People who pointed to it as

digital tools before school, during a technical education

a stress relieving space associated it with being able to

class, or during study halls.

hang out with their friends before school or during lunch, and saw it as a place where they could take their mind off

Spaces to Relax

work through social interaction. However, critics pointed

Perhaps the most popular and most important type of

to its scale and noise level as frustrating, and people who

space students identified was the space to relax - to

were stressed by people complained about the sheer

simply take a break from school and working. Activities

number of people who occupied it. This would seem to

like listening to music, sleeping, talking to friends, reading,

suggest that while students want spaces where they can

yoga, and just ‘zoning out’ seemed to prove that while the

relax and take their mind off schoolwork, they also need

exact methods of coping for students varied, the most

those places to be more intimate.

important thing was a break from working and doing anything at all. Students reported feeling like they could

It’s clear, then, that students need some kind of space

never take breaks and that they always had to be ‘on.’ For

with more privacy, to different degrees. At their most pri-

many of them, just stealing a couple minutes to listen to

vate, these spaces should allow students to be alone, to

music was all they needed to let their mind wander and

meditate, to think, or do whatever else they feel they need

decompress.

to do in order to understand and control their emotions. But these spaces should also allow for more private

There did seem to be two subcategories for this type of

interaction between people, whether it’s a student and

space: spaces to be alone, and spaces to be with others.

their friends or a student and a teacher, there needs to

However, these spaces could still be one and the same,

be a place for students to go to completely let go of their

as many students gravitated towards designs and photos

academic work for a short time and relax.

that allowed them to be more alone but still able to open up to a group. Many of the most popular images students selected had an element to them that created privacy and a degree of separation from the environment, without loss

Issues

of total connection. For example, the reading nook and the egg chair provide more enclosed spaces around the

One of the barriers to any of these changes is the issue

body, sheltering it from view except for one direction. The

of time. Specifically, many reported the inability to take

Spiraling Into Control

a break from schoolwork when needed, as they were

generally seemed much more responsible and able to

almost always expected to be actively engaged in class,

treat the spaces with respect. This suggests that with the

even if they were feeling overwhelmed. This expectation

right guidance from teachers and staff, places of self-reg-

could also be implicitly enforced by the notion that stu-

ulation could be successfully maintained and used by

dents often lack the freedom to make decisions on their

students.

own, so even if they could take a break, they would have to ask for permission from a teacher, which is a formida-

So while allowing students more freedom and flexibility

ble social barrier for students who may be on the verge of

would be a major pedagogical and cultural change, it

crisis. Both of these issues combine to create an envi-

seems necessary to be able to allow students to refresh

ronment where students feel like they can’t take a break,

their minds. The upside seems to be that if schools did

which they reported as both an obstacle and something

more toward employing more contemporary ideas of the

that negatively impacted their mental health.

classroom space, with decentralized and more individualized nodes of instruction as the standard, there would be

Of course, there are reasons for rules like this; teachers

fewer conflicts between class-wide instruction time and

will often cite a lack of maturity or responsibility in stu-

when taking a break can happen.

dents to be able to wield that amount of responsibility, and to some extent they’re right. Developmental psychology

One final barrier to implementation arose out of conver-

has shown that while high school students are very capa-

sation with one of the teachers at the school, who told

ble of high levels of cognitive thinking, they are prone to

me the backstory about the process of designing the

risk taking and often need guidance in their decision mak-

new flexible classrooms at OHS. During design, the math

ing to mitigate dangerous risks. In other words, students

department was asked for their input on how the class-

are becoming more aware of their thoughts, actions, and

rooms should be oriented and laid out by the architects

feelings, but still can lack the foresight of consequences

and the design team from the district. The department

to say, skipping class. And for some instructional purpos-

initially suggested a scheme of all flexible classrooms,

es, it’s important to have all students engaged in a lesson.

essentially consisting of double sized rooms that would be partitioned in the middle to split the room into lectur-

This example of immaturity by some students was

ing space and work space where teachers could team-

noted by some teachers when the new wing at OHS first

teach. However, when the designers came back with the

opened, with one teacher telling me that some of the

final plans, they had only created one flexible space, in

furniture in the flexible workspaces had to be removed or

the corner of the addition, with the rest of the classrooms

placed off limits because of student misuse. This could

resembling slightly enlarged by traditional classroom

give districts pause about implementing this type of work

spaces.

space or other dedicated areas for self-regulation. However, another teacher noted that while there was an initial

Apparently, there had been some concern amongst the

adjustment for students to get used to having access to

administrators in charge of the project about making

more independent spaces, after just a few years students

these classrooms ‘future proof,’ in case another

Findings

department had to be moved into those spaces in the

design process had been more inclusive of those teach-

future. One can understand why administrators might

ers, or better yet the students themselves.

show these hesitancies when there’s so much money on the line - it’s hard to justify what would have amounted to a radical pedagogical change when the alternative is seen as the tried-and-true option. However, based on what

Conclusions

teachers in the school said, based on student feedback, and based on the research about educational design

These are just a few ideas for how even after a major

ideas, it seems like a missed opportunity. Certainly cre-

renovation, there are still improvements that can be made

ating an entire wing of flexible spaces would have repre-

to a school to improve the way it educates its students

sented a shift in pedagogical style, but it also would have

and takes care of their mental well-being. That’s not to

created a system of organization that gave freedom back

discount the work that has been done already; the survey

to students when it comes to determining their environ-

results, observations of the space, and conversations

ment in order to self-regulate their stress. Nonetheless,

with the people who work there all suggest that the new

the teachers of that wing did agree that what they did get

spaces were a successful and needed addition to the

was a space that seemed to work better for them and

school. But they also revealed that there’s still work to

their students. Above all else, it seemed to be a place that

do in contemporary schools and renovation projects to

at least raised students’ baseline level of mental wellness,

ensure schools create the best possible environment for

even if it hadn’t yet addressed their needs for retreat. One

their students.

can only imagine how the space might be different if the

Spiraling Into Control

Figure 50. New work and casual seating in the commons

Findings

IMPLICATIONS + IMPACT

Introduction Thereâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s an image that architects often conjure when

the ideas employed at Oregon High School and recom-

talking about natural human tendencies and space.

mended by school designers right now encourage the

Imagine a dense forest, full of leafy trees with plenty of un-

former, while often not providing enough of the latter. Yet

derbrush, bordered by a wide, open prairie or grassland.

this case study seems to suggest that by engaging the

Humans, architects posit, are drawn to the very edge

student population in the design process, architects may

between these two different environments. From this po-

be able to create learning spaces that more fully support

sition, one can see and observe everything that happens

student mental well-being and prevent the types of emo-

out in the open, on the plains - all the comings and goings

tional crisis that interfere with the learning process.

of other animals, potential predators, changes in weather, and so on. At the same time, this position allows for a

This first method of creating change, grassroots actions,

hasty retreat into the forest if something threatening does

could be undertaken in a relatively short time period and

arise. This position balances our innate curiosity about

undertaken by a wide range of community members,

the world around us with our primal need for protection.87

from teachers and students to parents and local business people in order to make meaningful change in schools.

Contemporary learning environments should imitate

These types of solutions could be impactful in their own

this idea (Prospect Refuge Theory) - open enough for

right, but can also lay the foundations for more structural

supervision, observation, and collaboration with others,

changes in a school environment down the road. This

while offering easily accessible spaces of refuge. Many of

leads to the second important method of creating

Spiraling Into Control

The Forest: protective, concealing, place of retreat

The Prairie: open, vulnerable, exposed, ability to observe

Figure 51. â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Prospect Refuge Theory,â&#x20AC;&#x2122; Jay Appleton.

change - capital investments. Here more formal con-

schools that better facilitate various modes of self-regu-

struction projects can facilitate wide scale changes in

lation by students. Ideas about what these adaptations

the school building, creating an atmosphere that sup-

could be are countless, although the beauty of a grass-

plements the grassroots led efforts. Along the way, the

roots effort is that engaging students as participants in

design process and pedagogical practices will need to

the process rather than an abstract stakeholder allows

evolve, to increase participation and involvement by staff

designers and planners to tap into their pools of first-

and students in shaping the school environment, both

hand knowledge, which can drive design ideas forward.

physical and psychological. For example, survey results and observations from

Grassroots Design: Bold + Accessible

students at OHS strongly implied an interest in spaces where students could retreat into privacy either alone or with friends to take a break from lessons. Some students wanted to be able to just sit in a more comfortable seat,

The most direct way and immediate way to engage

others wanted to lie down, while others like the idea of the

students and other community members in beginning to

hammock and a feeling of cradled suspension. Others

reshape school environments would be through grass-

liked the ability to sit down and work, while those that

roots efforts to design modular and simple adaptations to

didnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t still liked to be able to gather and talk with a few friends. In the findings section, these needs were Implications + Impact

Yoga + Meditation Pod

Conversation Booth Pod

Hammock Pod

Daybed Pod

One promising idea that has gotten traction in the office spaces is the idea of the modular pod, around 5â&#x20AC;&#x2122; square. Schools could design and fabricate their own pods for much cheaper, using materials like plywood and dimensional lumber for the structure and felt or recycled fabric for soundproofing and privacy curtains.. These pods could be programmed in many different ways, and schools could even use pipes and fabric to create a tent-like structure that could give existing furniture more privacy or be more temporary.

Pop-up Pod Figure 52. New possibilities for grassroots design solutions

Spiraling Into Control

categorized as spaces to work, spaces to move, spaces

hung in the hallway to facilitate more private moments

to create, and spaces to relax.

and conversations.

One idea that starts to address these spatial needs could

In terms of movement, perhaps it’s the aforementioned

be a series of modular pods, each outfitted for a different

pods or tents that allow for yoga, or maybe it’s a curated

type of activity. One pod might have a daybed for quick

path through empty school hallways for walking medi-

naps or to lay down on, for students to read or listen to

tation. Schools might use vinyl stickers or mats to mark

music in a more private space. Another might offer a table

a specific path through a building, with murals or other

and chairs, like a small meeting room, or a couch and table

showcased student work for students to meditate on

for more casual conversation. There’s a potential that

as they do a lap before returning to class. There could

these pods could have hammocks or suspended cargo

also be an area painted like a whiteboard or chalkboard

nets to relax in, or be empty except for a cushioned mat

for students to write thoughts or feelings on, as a way to

on the floor for yoga or meditation. The pod becomes a

continue a conversation about mental health or other

sort of framework, that students can collaborate together

school issues. Additionally, creating a set loop or series of

on outfitting for their particular needs.

loops could make it easier for teachers and staff to keep an eye on students utilizing that space, while also lending

These pods could be made in sections by students and

students the feeling of legitimacy in taking breaks to walk

assembled on site in places scattered throughout the

around and regulate their emotions.

school, potentially in hallways but also in classrooms themselves. The cafeteria and other large common

There’s a movement in education to integrate the arts into

areas could also be prime locations, as they could offer

the STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathemat-

students a refuge from people and noise in these large

ics) fields, roughly re-framed as STEAM. The types of

spaces. Warm and calming materials like wood, felt, and

grassroots, student-led design solutions presented here

soft fabrics could be used, and curtains or translucent

have the same spirit, and are intended as a similar bridge

sliding doors added to allow the spaces more privacy and

between high school prep for STEM fields with arts ideas.

control over light levels.

Through careful cross-subject collaboration, an opportunity arises to not only fulfill standard curricula, but to add

Of course, that’s not the only idea. Perhaps it’s a tent-

to curricula and reinforce it in more meaningful ways.

like structure made of poles and fabric that can be built around some of the existing work spaces to add privacy.

With the last idea of the walking path, for example, geom-

This might look like traditional tents and be more en-

etry students could study different shapes and lengths

closed, or they might just be a half wall that goes around

for potential routes, while art students create murals and

a table, allowing teachers to see over it and check on

other work to populate the path. In building a pod or tent,

students but creating privacy from anyone sitting in class.

technical education students and staff might be able

Maybe it’s smaller cocoon-like pods that students can

to assist students in English classes, science classes,

crawl into and be alone for a few minutes, or egg chairs

history classes, and other subjects in learning how to

Implications + Impact

make structures out of wood or plastic pipes. This type

they have such a primal desire to fit in and feel support-

of collaboration could not only increase accessibility to

ed, so increasing the sense of community could make

technical knowledge for wide swaths of students who

students feel more comfortable addressing their own

might be too intimidated by gender norms and stereo-

thoughts and needs.

types to otherwise pursue that type of education, but also promote understanding and empathy between students.

Another benefit to the grassroots based approach is

Additionally, it could be an opportunity for students to

the potential timelines - capital investment projects that

learn about design thinking through guided participation

would radically rethink space could take years to plan,

in a co-design process led by a design student or

fund, and ultimately construct. Under a participatory

architect.

and co-design approach, however, ideas like the ones proposed above could probably be realized within a

Further community engagement could be done through

span of months or a year. Classes could integrate parts

working with PTO organizations to raise money to build

of the design and building process into their curriculum,

these adaptations, while local hardware stores and

while further development could happen during special

craft stores might be inclined to donate some of their

â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;advisoryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; classes that happen every few weeks. Most of

time, tools, and materials in order to foster an attitude

the time would probably be needed to gather input and

of making among students. Another opportunity pro-

explain how the design process works, along with idea

posed by Prakash Nair was to engage local businesses

generation and subsequent iterations before landing on

to donate old furniture after their own renovations; this

a few final ideas. Once this is done, each individual pod or

furniture is often still of high quality and could be used to

other intervention piece could probably be fabricated in a

create more flexible work spaces and lounge spaces for

few weekends by students volunteering their time.

students to relax for almost no cost. Including students in any of these processes can also be an opportunity to

Cost considerations are another positive factor to this

teach them about community outreach and engagement,

type of grassroots effort. Compared to a more traditional

and thus foster a stronger sense of support which could

process, these types of student-led projects could be

benefit their mental health going forward.

similarly effective at promoting mental wellness at fractions of the cost. Materials could be donated or recy-

Additionally, involving students in the design and con-

cled from students or local hardware stores, while labor

struction of these spaces would promote ownership,

would primarily be provided by students who also get

which often reduces the amount of misuse after con-

valuable experience out of the process. Guidance could

struction as noted by both Dr. Sutton and the team at

be offered by architects and design students who might

Arki_lab. Along the way, channels of communication are

donate their services as pro-bono, as many architectural

built between students and between teachers, which

firms do in order to give back to the community. So while

could result in a much stronger community and better

a professionally built modular office pod might cost a few

support system for everyone. This sense of community

thousand dollars a piece, itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s possible that a student-de-

is especially vital for teens and their mental health, since

signed and built solution might only cost a few hundred

Spiraling Into Control

Targeted areas for modular grassroots interventions Targeted areas for defined walking meditation circuit Targeted rooms for capital improvments (removing walls, creating skylights, new furniture, etc.): Unused classrooms and Computer Labs

Figure 53. Targeted areas of OHS for adaptations

dollars.

line with contemporary thoughts about education, design, and mental health needs that more serious overhauls

This combination of cost and time effectiveness should

of the physical environment are needed. Yet there are

be significant incentives to school districts to consider

some changes that schools should also make that can’t

this approach, especially because it also provides many

be easily solved through grassroots initiatives. Knocking

powerful avenues for community building and learning

down walls, adding skylights and windows, and building

opportunities among students and staff. Of course, it’s

additional spaces are beyond the scope of what students

still a very experimental and uncertain process, but there

and community members can do themselves, but they

is precedent for it being successful. When it works, it

can still push for these changes to happen in a more inclu-

seems to create winning scenarios for everyone, from

sive design process. That’s where a new vision for capital

administrators to teachers to students.

investments come into play.

Capital Investments: Extensive + Invaluable

The good news is that this is somewhat more familiar territory for designers and for school districts; schools like OHS can offer a good example for administrators and communities of some of the successful ideas about how

Throughout this project, it’s become more clear that for

to design learning spaces better tailored to the needs of

many schools the physical spaces are simply so out of

the students. Implications + Impact

One idea to give students a place to get some light activity is to create a defined loop in the school with vinyl stickers or paint on the floor. A loop with views to the outdoors can also create opportunities for walking meditation and soft fascinations, as can a loop that incorporates murals by students on the walls. Lockers that are personalized and decorated by each student could also work similarly. Finally, schools might want to make an interactive mural that can facilitate conversations about mental health on this path. Figure 54. Possible hallway adaptations for movement-based retreat spaces

Spiraling Into Control

The addition to Oregon High School offered a more

natural light and views outside in an effort to maximize

contemporary take on what school spaces should be

security. Verona, a neighboring town of Oregon, was

compared to the existing building, and based on what the

forced to change their design for a new high school when

students and staff said, many of those changes were ben-

some parents protested over the use of floor to ceiling

eficial in making occupants more relaxed throughout their

glass, with some saying they would refuse to send their

time in those spaces. Including generous amounts of

child there for fear of safety. 88 Safety and security are,

natural light and exterior windows into every classroom,

of course, just as important to feeling relaxed and calm.

for example, was almost unanimously cited by students

However, as studies including this one have shown, holing

and teachers as a benefit to their mental well-being that

students up in cinder block boxes is also detrimental

wasn’t always present before. These should always be

to their mental health and their ability to learn. Schools

high priorities in any new construction to ensure student

should be extremely cautious in the way they approach

and staff mental health.

this issue, and avoid overreactions that might be harmful to more students in the long term.

With existing buildings, adding these features can be a bit trickier. The original building at OHS contained many

Another broad recommendation for schools is to include

spaces that were completely landlocked to the interior,

more open classrooms and flexible work areas. Students

typical of school buildings from the era, and continues to

seemed to appreciate having more freedom and inde-

even with the renovations. However, even without access

pendence to work in ways that worked best for them. It

to exterior walls, there are still some steps schools look-

takes the strain off of having to conform to a single meth-

ing to renovate could take:

od of instruction, which might be draining and stressful for

(1) Introducing interior windows into landlocked

some students. Spaces that facilitated different modes

classrooms, allowing in natural light from

of instruction and different learning styles also are good

hallways and making the space feel less

at preparing students for what comes after high school,

enclosed and students feel less trapped

whether that’s a full time job or college. Both of those

(2) Adding skylights when applicable, which

lifestyles are much more independent, and this style of in-

allows direct natural light into a space while

struction and learning is much more similar to the college

also providing views of the sky for soft focus

model and could make that transition less stressful for

relaxation by students and staff

students.

It’s also important to make this a priority for any additions

Some of these types of spaces can be created through

schools might be considering, even when communities,

grassroots design solutions, like the pod, but devoting

administrations, or other groups might be inclined to do

large amounts of space to this idea would mean either

otherwise. America’s gun crisis affects every aspect of

extensive renovations or additions to most schools. An

life, but schools often bear the brunt of scrutiny when it

easy place for schools to start to experiment with cre-

comes to safety. As a result, designers can be pushed

ating more flexible work spaces could be converting an

towards ideas that might minimize glass and access to

old or unused classroom - these leftover, unutilized, and

Implications + Impact

obsolete spaces are ripe for opportunities to promote

Add in some interior windows or sliding doors into adja-

student well-being, especially for schools who are look-

cent classrooms, some cafe tables and workcoutners,

ing to renovate and open to trying new ideas but want to

and those spaces can easily become more flexible work

test those ideas first.

spaces. Alternatively, they could become cafe spaces that offer a quieter alternative to the main cafeteria, while

Transforming one of these spaces provides a small scale

still being a place to relax with friends over food. Or may-

space that flexible learning spaces, student lounges,

be it’s just an open student lounge with plenty of couches,

yoga studios, or cafe’s can be tested in, at relatively low

comfy chairs, and some reading nooks that students

cost by tearing down a few walls and adding some new

can take a break in between classes or during study hall,

furniture. This is also a great option for schools that

doing whatever it is that relieves their stress and takes

may not have the money for a full addition or large-scale

their mind off of schoolwork. There’s also the opportunity

renovation, but want to create spaces to improve student

to combine methods for change, by using capital invest-

well-being. Additionally, Prakash Nair suggests another

ments to open up underutilized spaces and then grass-

solution for lowering the cost of these types of renova-

roots design efforts to fill those spaces with spaces for

tions: forming partnerships between the school and local

self-regulation designed and built by students.

businesses, who would donate their used furniture to the school after undergoing their own renovations. 89 The

Of course, the renovations to OHS weren’t perfect, but

used furniture of businesses is usually still of high quality,

construction projects rarely are. There’s still improve-

and for urban school districts like Minneapolis, there are

ments designers can make, especially as it relates to

plenty of businesses that could be engaged in this type of

mental health and student welfare. But the architects on

partnership.

the cutting edges of educational design and architecture, firms like Cuningham Group in Minneapolis, Mahlum in

These types of spaces are also more plentiful than one

Portland, or Fielding Nair, are moving in the right direction.

might realize. Most schools, for example, have computer

The work those firms are doing moves the field forward,

labs. These spaces, which were once necessary tools as

and they can often be helped along by working more

computers started to be integrated into education, have

closely and better understanding the real needs of the

become increasingly unnecessary as tablets and laptops

students themselves.

have made using technology in the classroom even easier. As schools start to invest more in technologies which can be kept in a cabinet or cart, computer labs sit idle,

Process, Policy, and Pedagogy

and they can take up a lot of real estate in the school. For example, Oregon High School has 6 computer labs, each

As it’s been alluded to, one of the most vital pieces to mak-

roughly the size of their standard classrooms. If each

ing these spatial and environmental changes work has to

classroom is around 750 SF, reclaiming just 4 of those

be changes in pedagogy and school scheduling. Almost

computer labs adds 3,000 SF of new student space, just

none of the ideas presented here would be possible

by tearing down a few interior walls.

without dramatically shifting the way students are taught.

Spiraling Into Control

By eliminating a pair of computer labs, previously landlocked classrooms can be opened up to new flexible work and lounge spaces. Adjacent classrooms could implement sliding or folding doors to open up to the space and comfortable furniture brought in. Additionally, this could be an opportunity for bringing in natural light via common skylights, or adding some plants with a green wall. Of course, there should also be accommodation for self-regulation, and student designed pods could also be included. Figure 55. Possible adaptations to utilizing old computer lab space as student lounge and retreat spaces

Implications + Impact

History has shown that the design of classroom spaces

To best implement these ideas in a way that works for

and schools in general is deeply rooted in pedagogy, and

students, designers should adopt a more participatory

that the two often coevolve. Further studies would need

design model. Traditionally, design teams are made up of

to be done on how these changes would impact peda-

what’s perceived as long-term members of the commu-

gogy, and what types of responses would be necessary

nity, such as teachers and administrators, while students

from teachers and administrators to make these ideas

might be seen as more of a short-term user. However,

function optimally. Perhaps students are allotted a few

even though individual students might only be at a school

small breaks throughout the day; after every two or three

for a few years, they are representative of permanent

classes there’s an extra 10 minutes allotted to the passing

users.

period, which can be used to relieve stress. In an ideal scenario, the design process should include More radically, maybe schools have to move to a more

things like focus groups with students, visual thinking

collegiate system, of more spaced out classes and more

exercises and charrettes, analyzing photos and making

time to study and relax in between classes. Student

collages of ideas, and mocking up prototypes. Each of

lounges and work spaces in the school would work a lot

these steps not only moves the design process forward,

like the Union on a college campus in this model. Both of

but also creates a feedback loop for the designer to

these models are rough and would need plenty of study

make sure they are aligned with the learning communi-

and refinement to ensure their effectiveness and feasi-

ty’s thoughts and goals. Additionally, it might also create

bility, but they would be essential to changing the current

more buy-in and interest in the projects among students,

paradigm.

and promote ownership that students will take care of their new spaces.

It’s also worth taking a deeper look at what happens when educational communities reimagine how they do

Of course, that’s also just a rough idea and an actual pro-

their infrastructural improvement projects. Most districts

cess would need its own studies and refinement. It would

now may wait decades in between major capital projects

face some challenges; participatory design needs to be

on their schools, undertaken only when a school is far

facilitated well in order to prevent imbalances of power.

over capacity or seriously failing. This can leave educa-

Students and staff would need to feel comfortable and

tional spaces far out of date, not just aesthetically but in

welcome in the design process, that their opinions and

terms of pedagogical methods and supporting wellness.

spatial ideas are valued by designers. All of this would

Instead, districts could undertake smaller, but more

take trial and error to refine the process, but would be

frequent changes, which shortens the feedback cycle

worthwhile to study.

between trying something, learning what worked and what didn’t, and making those changes somewhere else. This could help keep schools aligned with current ideas about pedagogy and learning spaces, but also deserves further study into the exact effects of such a change.

Spiraling Into Control

Conclusion

The ideas presented here are just that - ideas. The hope

Until recently, controlling behavioral and mental health

ed to schools just like it around the country. There will be

issues has generally been a punitive practice in schools, and allowing the kind of activities students often use to cope with their mental health needs was viewed as rewarding bad behavior. Ironically, this project has attempted to disrupt that idea by offering students more freedom, a more permissive but structured set of options to self-regulate the spiral out of control caused by stress and emotion. It creates more space for healthy relaxation roots to take place, both literally and figuratively. It disrupts the convention by intercepting student-teacher conflicts and facilitating relief at the earliest possible moment - before situations have the chance to get out of hand, when students start to feel the pressure build. By acknowledging the problem facing students is a part of everyday life in high schools, the issue shifts form how to

is that they can be transplanted from Oregon and adaptdifficulties, adaptations, and stops and starts along the way. Part of design is trying new ideas, and even when those ideas are carefully considered they still might fail. But failure still yields knowledge, and the next idea will be better for it. My hope for this project was to plant a seed, but seeds don’t grow on their own. This was just one study, one collection of ideas, of what hopefully will be many. It’s a small step, but given the size of the problem, it’s an important one. The stigma and culture around mental health in a school is often understated but vital to the welfare and success of its students. One of the most heartwrenching yet unsurprising results to come out of the survey was the fact that 82% of students reported never talking to their

punish students to how to design for this inevitability.

teachers about mental health, while 84% reported either

There are still many things that need to be studied in or-

idea that students are often left to their own devices when

der to understand what these designs might be. For one thing, it’s unknown how designs might change when applied to a rural school district or urban school district like Minneapolis. The ideas presented here might not encompass relief for the problems that cause students in those communities to feel distress. But maybe they would - perhaps students are more alike than we think, regardless of context. The underlying theory throughout this project is the idea that regardless of individuality, humans have an innate need to be able to exercise some control over their environments in order to regulate their thoughts, feelings and behaviors. As this project has shown, that sentiment holds some truth. The other truth is that many schools today don’t adequately fulfill that need in their students.

rarely or never discussing it as a class. It reinforced the it comes to mental health, and yet, it also seems like our school systems have taken away those devices. The ideas presented here are meant to give these students options to be able to manage their own emotions and stress, but those options are weaker without a united school community standing behind them. Once that community makes it more acceptable to talk about mental health, to express feelings of being overwhelmed or on the verge of a downward spiral out of control, it makes the tools provided here more accessible to students; suddenly, they’re no longer afraid of the silent judgment from their peers for having to take a break and disengage. The community itself provides support, another push in the right direction to effectively manage emotion, stress, and anxiety. The spiral out of control ends, and a spiral into control begins. Implications + Impact

APPENDIX: THE SURVEY This survey is anonymous; do NOT write your name. Please answer the following questions to the best of your ability. 1. When you are at your MOST stressed, how stressed are you from 1-10? (no stress)

(unbearable stress)

2. When you are at your LEAST stressed, how stressed are you from 1-10? (no stress)

(unbearable stress)

3. How many times per week are you at your MOST stressed? 0 Days

1 Day

2 Days

3 Days

4 Days

5 Days

6 Days

7 Days

4. What typically causes you to feel stress during the school day? 5. How have you learned to positively manage stress that you would practice if the school allowed it? (Examples: yoga, reading, drawing, exercising, listening to music, etc.) 6. How do current school rules prevent you from doing the activity you listed above? 7. Please fill in the blank: “After doing this activity for ________ minutes, I would feel calm enough to continue my school work.” 8. Are there spaces or times in the school that make you feel less stressed? If so, what spaces? Why does that space make you feel less stressed? 9. Are there spaces or times in the school that make you feel more stressed? If so, what spaces? Why does that space make you feel more stressed? 10. Do you practice any type of mindfulness or meditation? If so, what? Yes

_________________________________

11. Do you talk about your mental health with any of the teachers or staff at your school? Yes

12. How often do you and your class talk about stress or mental health with your teachers? Never

Rarely

Every Month

Every Week

Everyday

13. Do you prefer classrooms like this, where you can choose how you want to work (traditional lecture vs. independent study?) Yes

14. Which space do you typically use in this class? Regular Classroom

Spiraling Into Control

Flex Work Space

15. Circle the photos below that you would want to be in when you feel stressed:

16. Why would you like to be in that space circled above?

17. What would you change about the following places to reduce your stress: a. standard classroom? b. school building? c. spaces outside your school? d. spaces on your way to school? Thank You!

Appendix: Student Survey

NOTES

1 Michaela C. Pascoe, Sarah E. Hetrick, and Alexandra G. Parker, “The Impact of Stress on Students in Secondary School and Higher Education,” (International Journal of Adolescence and Youth 25, no. 1, November 2019): pp. 104-112, https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2019.1596823 2 Scott De Laruelle. “OSD Building for the Future.” (Oregon Observer. Unified Newspaper Group, July 6, 2016.) http://www.unifiednews group.com/oregon_observer/schools/osd building-for-the-future/article_1226fece-90bb 5f76-b03d-06e99b715e67.html. 3 Lisa Burton and Ann Kinney. Minnesota Student Survey, Minnesota Student Survey (2019). 4 Kathrine McCoy, 2019 Wisconsin Youth Risk Behavior Survey, (Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction, Madison, WI: 2019.) https://dpi.wi.gov/sites/default/files/ imce/sspw/pdf/YRBS_2019_Summary_Re port_DPI_Web_Version.pdf 5 “Major Depression.” (National Institute of Mental Health. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, February 2019.) https://www. nimh.nih.gov/health/statistics/major-depres sion.shtml. 6 Ron J. Nelson, Gregory J. Benner, Kathleen Lane, and Benjamin W. Smith. “Academic Achievement of K-12 Students with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders.” (Exceptional Children 71, no. 1 (January 2004): 59–73. ) https://doi.org/10.1177/001440290407100104.

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7 “Products - Data Briefs - Number 352 October 2019.” (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, October 17, 2019.) https:// www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/databriefs/db352. htm. 8 “Minnesota Report Card.” (Minnesota Report Card. Minnesota Department of Education. Accessed November 29, 2019.) http://rc.educa tion.state.mn.us/. 9 “School Openings.” (General District History. Minneapolis Public Schools. Accessed November 29, 2019.) https://mpshistory.mpls. k12.mn.us/district-wide_archive. 10 “MPS Educational Index.” (MPS Capital Planning, Construction, and Maintenance. Minneapolis Public Schools.)https://facilities. mpls.k12.mn.us/mps_educational_index. 11 Florice Paulson, “Rural and Village Schools, 1846-1998: Modern Era.” (Oregon Area Historical Society. Accessed March 30, 2020. https://www.oregonareahistoricalsociety.org/ schools/modern_era1.htm. 12 Carrie Janes, interviewed by author, Oregon, WI, November 25, 2019. 13 Johnny Diaz, “6-Year-Old Held in Mental Health Center for 2 Days Without Mother’s Consent.” (The New York Times. February 18, 2020.) https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/17/ us/baker-act-love-grove-elementary.html?re ferringSource=articleShare. 14 NBC Chicago, “Illinois Restricts How Students Are Secluded and Restrained.”

(NBC Chicago, February 21, 2020.) https://www.nbcchicago.com/news/local/ illinois-restricts-how-students-are-secluded -and-restrained/2223297/. 15 Prakash Nair, Blueprint for Tomorrow: Re-designing Schools for Student-Centered Learning. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press, 2017.) 1. 16 Nair, Blueprint for Tomorrow, 3-4. 17 Nair, Blueprint for Tomorrow, 5-6. 18 Nair, Blueprint for Tomorrow, 12-16. 19 Nair, Blueprint for Tomorrow, 42. 20 Nair, Blueprint for Tomorrow, 49. 21 Nair, Blueprint for Tomorrow, 33. 22 Nair, Blueprint for Tomorrow, 130. 23 Nair, Blueprint for Tomorrow, 36. 24 Nair, Blueprint for Tomorrow, 29. 25 Nair, Blueprint for Tomorrow, 75. 26 W.W. Caudill, Towards a Better School Design. (New York, NY: FW Dodge, 1954.) 17. 27 J.J. Donovan, School Architecture: Principles and Practices. (New York, NY: Macmillan, 1921.) 27. 28 Herman Hertzberger, Space and Learning: Lessons in Architecture 3. (Rotterdam: 010 Publishers, 2008.) 15. 29 Philip Goad, “The Classroom Is Another Place? Ernest J. Kump’s ‘Ideal’ Learning Environments for Californian Schools, 1937 1962.” (In Designing Schools: Space, Place, and Pedagogy, 39–52. New York, NY: Routledge, 2017.) 30 Nair, Blueprint for Tomorrow, 10. 31 Hertzberger. Space and Learning. 26. 32 Jane Margolies, “A Quiet Respite in a Bustling Open Workplace.” (The New York Times. February 18, 2020.) https://www.nytimes. com/2020/02/18/business/office-work place-privacy.html?referringSource=article Share. 33 Ethan Bernstein and Ben Waber, “The Truth About Open Offices.” (Harvard Business Review. Harvard Business Publishing, October 22, 2019.) https://hbr.org/2019/11/the-truth about-open-offices. 34 Hertzberger, Space and Learning, 104. 35 Nair, Blueprint for Tomorrow, 161. 36 Saul Mcleod, “Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs,” Simply Psychology (Simply Psychology, March

20, 2020), https://www.simplypsychology.org/ maslow.html#evaluation 37 A. H. Maslow, “A Theory of Human Motivation.,” (Psychological Review 50, no. 4, 1943): pp. 375, https://doi.org/10.1037/h0054346 38 Mcleod, “Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs.” 39 Mcleod, “Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs.” 40 Mcleod, “Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs.” 41 Louis Tay and Ed Diener, “Needs and Subjective Well-Being around the World.,” (Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 101, no. 2, February 2011): pp. 354-365, https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023779 42 Tay and Diener, “Needs and Subjective Well Being.” 43 Jacquelyn H Gentry and Mary H Campbell, Developing Adolescents: A Reference for Professionals (Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association, 2002), https://www. apa.org/pi/families/resources/develop.pdf. 1. 44 Gentry and Campbell, Developing Adolescents. 11. 45 Gentry and Campbell, Developing Adolescents. 11. 46 Gentry and Campbell, Developing Adolescents. 31. 47 Gentry and Campbell, Developing Adolescents. 15. 48 Gentry and Campbell, Developing Adolescents. 21. 49 Gentry and Campbell, Developing Adolescents. 8. 50 Gentry and Campbell, Developing Adolescents. 9. 51 Gentry and Campbell, Developing Adolescents. 24. 52 Gentry and Campbell, Developing Adolescents. 17-18. 53 Joan Lucariello, Top 20 Principles from Psychology for PreK–12 Teaching and Learning (Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association, 2015), https:// www.apa.org/ed/schools/teaching-learning/ top-twenty-principles.pdf. 23. 54 Lucariello, Top 20 Principles from Psychology. 23. 55 Gentry and Campbell, Developing Adolescents. 33. 56 Gentry and Campbell, Developing Adolescents. 33. 57 Lucariello, Top 20 Principles from Psychology. 25. 58 Gentry and Campbell, Developing Adolescents.

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Image Credits All images by author unless noted otherwise. Figure 2: Image via Google Maps. Figure 3: Image via Google Maps. Figure 4: Image via Google Maps. Figure 5: Image via Google Maps. Figure 6: Courtesy Chris Lehman Figure 7: Courtesy Montgomrey County Public Schools. Figure 8: Courtesy Associated Press. Figure 9: Courtesy Fielding Nair International. Figure 10: Courtesy Cuningham Group. Figure 11: Courtesy Cuningham Group. Figure 12: Courtesy Prakash Nair. Figure 13: Courtesy Herman Hertzberger. Figure 14: Courtesy of Hidden Architecture. Figure 15: Courtesy of the office of Ernest J. Kump. Figure 16: Courtesy of the office of Ernest J. Kump. Figure 17: Courtesy of Herman Hertzberger. Figure 18: Courtesy of Framery. Figure 20: Courtesy of KCRG Cedar Rapids. Figure 21: Courtesy of Cuningham Group. Figure 23: Courtesy Jon Kabat-Zinn. Figure 24: Courtesy Gensler and Nuts.com. Figure 25: Courtesy Sharon E. Sutton and the University

of Washington

Figure 26: Courtesy Arki_lab. Figure 27: Courtesy Arki_lab. Figure 28: Courtesy Arki_lab. Figure 31: Courtesy Bray Architects.

Works Cited