Reading the Riot by Eddie Chambers

READING THE RIOT ACT

EDDIE CHAMBERS

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DATE 17 April 2013

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Reading the Riot Act

Eddie Chambers

Published online: 17 Apr 2013.

To cite this article: Eddie Chambers (2013): Reading the Riot Act, Visual Culture in Britain, DOI:10.1080/14714787.2013.782156

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14714787.2013.782156

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EddieChambers

ReadingtheRiotAct

Thisarticleexploressomeofthewaysinwhichtheactofriotinghasbeenvisualized,firstlywithinreggaemusicandsecondlywithintheworkofseveralblack Britishartists.ThearticlebeginswithaconsiderationofimagesofburningbuildingsthatwerecapturedduringthecourseoftheriotsinEnglandinthesummerof 2011,beforebrieflydiscussingsomeofthepitfallsintheterminologyandlanguage ofthe‘riot’.Thearticlediscussesthesomewhatcounter-culturalviewofriotingas reflectedinreggaemusic,andtheprofoundlyempatheticviewofriotersthatis arguablyadvancedintheworkofseveralkeyblackBritishartists,acrossseveral generations.Itarguesthattheworksitdiscussesdomuchtoshedlightonwhyany givenriot,involvingblackpeople,takesplace.

Keywords: rioting,reggaemusic,blackBritishhistory,blackBritishartists,album covers

London,summer2011.Inascenereplicatedacrossthecapital,ahuge homefurnishingsshopisablaze.Thespectacleisaveritabledisplayof dramaticpyrotechnics,asnear-theatricalexplosionsareemittedthrough theorificesofthebuildingthatis,bynow,waybeyondanysortofsaving. OnesuchstorewasHouseofReevesinCroydon,southLondon,which, likeothersuchill-fatedbuildings,dominatedthestreetintersectionsofa cityblock(Figure1).Thestorehadfirstopenedin1867andhad,sosections oftheBritishpresswerefondofrecounting,survivedtwoworldwars.This snippetofinformationwasmeanttobemuchmorethananincidental detail.ThefactthatHouseofReeveshadsurvivedtheFirstWorldWarwas prettymuchneitherherenorthere–theurbanfabricofBritainwashardly troubledbytheGreatWar.Instead,itscasualtiesweretheyoungmenof Europe,whodiedinunprecedentedandquitehorrificnumbersonthe battlefieldsofEurope.ButsurvivingtheBlitzandtheSecondWorldWar wasquiteanothermatter.ContemporaryconstructionsofBritain’s nationalidentitywereheavilyreliantonnotionsthatthisplucky,undersiege,sceptredislehadwithstoodtheonslaughtofHitler’ssustained bombingcampaignsandhademergedbloodiedbutunbowed.Notonly that:Britainanditscharacteristicbulldogspirit,undertheguidanceof WinstonChurchill,hademergedvictoriousinthefightagainstfascism andthefightforfreedomandjustice.Inthisregard,HouseofReeveshad stoodasabeaconofBritishsteelyresolveinthefaceofintimidation,andit wasthisresolvethat,inpartatleast,madeBritainthegreatnationitwas. Bydestroyingthestore,thoseresponsiblehad,accordingtosectionsofthe media,raisedametaphoricalmiddlefingertoBritain’sself-image.1 There issomethingquitemesmerizingaboutphotographsofthelargestburning buildingsthatwere(alongwiththetragiclossofhumanlife)themost conspicuouscasualtiesofthesummerriots.Thismight,inpartatleast,

VisualCultureinBritain, 2013 http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14714787.2013.782156 # 2013Taylor&Francis

havesomethingtodowiththeself-evidentinabilityoffirefightersto contain,letaloneextinguish,thesetoweringinfernos.Inthecourseof ourregularday-to-day,month-to-month,year-to-yearexistence,we wouldneverseebuildingssospectacularlyablaze.Mostfiresinour townsandcitiesareisolatedoccurrences,rapidlybroughtundercontrol, bysprinklersystemsorthebriskdeploymentoffirefighters.Theimageof riot-tornneighbourhoods,frequentlydistinguishedbythetropeofthe well-ablazebuilding,representsadifferentkindofurbanenvironment, onemadeoverintherioters’image.Itisthisnotion,ofthevisualizingof thedifferentspacescreatedbyrioters,thatthisarticleseekstoexplore. Whileriotshavetakenplaceforcenturies,inagreatmanydifferent countries,settingsandcircumstances,Iproposetoexplorethenotionof theriotasitexistsinaspectsofcontemporaryCaribbeanvisualandaural culture.(Andinturn,thewaysinwhichsuchculturalresonanceshave arguablymadetheirwayintothepsycheofriotersinEngland.)

Overthepastseveraldecades,asignificantproportionoftheriotsin mainlandBritainhaveinvolvedsomeproportionorotherofAfricanCaribbeanmales.2 Insomeinstances,theproportion,ornumbers,of African-Caribbeanyouthcaughtupinriotingmaywellberelatively small–Britain’sblackpopulationis,inpercentageterms,verymuchat themodestendofthesingle-figurespectrum–but,giventhefactorof conspicuousness,thedarkerskinsofblackBritishyoungstersmeanthat theyareinvariablytheonesidentifiedbythepoliceandthemediaasbeing keyparticipantsinriotsthatoccur.Thepathologywherebythe riot becomes raced isperhapsmostexplicitintheAmericanterminology, race riot.WhenapercentageofthosecaughtupinurbanunrestinAmerican citiesareperceivedtobeblack,themainstreammediatendtolabelsuch disturbancesasraceriots.Thereis,though,noequivalentorcorrespondingtermforwhenwhitesriot.Consequently,theTulsaRiotofMay31and June1,1921(whichwasawidespread,raciallymotivatedconflict,inwhich whitesattackedandeffectivelydestroyedthethrivingAfricanAmerican

Figure1.HouseofReeves. Photo:EddieMulholland. Reproducedbypermissionof TelegraphMediaGroup Limited(TMG).

neighbourhoodsofTulsa,Oklahoma)hasbyandlargepassedintoobscurity,notbeingtypicallyregardedasaraceriotinthecommonlyunderstood useoftheterm.Furthermore,thedominantsocietyhas,seeminglywithout difficulty,createdapathologicalspaceinwhichtoeffortlesslyinsertthe notionofthemenacingblack troublemaker.AsKobenaMercerhasnoted, ‘Onthefrontpageheadlinesblackmalesbecomehighlyvisibleasathreat towhitesociety,asmuggers,rapists,terroristsandguerrillas:theirbodies becometheimago[sic]ofasavageandunstoppablecapacityfordestructionandviolence’.3

Atthispoint,terminologyisofconsiderableimportance.Onestruggles, moreoftenthannot,toidentifyanalternativewordthatisfreefromthe media’snotionofariot.Mainstreampresscoverageofriotsinevitablycast themasmindlessanarchicspreesofcriminality,inwhichthemob,consistingbyandlargeofincorrigiblyferalyouth,goontherampage.This seeminglyindelibleassociationwithmindlessviolenceensuresthatthe word riot isinessence,hugelyproblematic.SectionsoftheBritishmedia, seekinganeasilyunderstoodandeasilydigestiblesummation,labelledthe 2011riotsas‘shoppingwithviolence’.Theterm,though,doeslittleto nothingtodeepenanysortofgenuineunderstandingofwhathappened duringthosedays.Yetwerunintodifficultieswhenreachingforalternativeadjectivesforburningandlooting,asMartinKettleandLucy Hodgeshavefoundanddiscussed.4

ExistingEnglishlaw,forinstance,definesariotinaveryspecificway.Itrequiresthreeor morepeoplewithacommonpurposetobepreparedtohelponeanother,byforceifnecessary, againstanyoneopposingthem.Iftheythencarryoutthatpurposeandforceorviolencetakes placethatwould‘alarmatleastonepersonofreasonablefirmnessandcourage’,then,saysthe law,thatisariot.5

Thelimitationsoflegaldefinitionsofwhatconstitutesariotwerethrown intosharpreliefinthesummerof2011,inanumberofEnglishcities.A quasi-officialreport6 andnoendofpressandmediacoveragenotwithstanding,itisimpossibletodeterminecategoricallythatthosecaughtupin theriotingwereactingwithanysortof‘commonpurpose’.And,rather thanbeing‘preparedtohelponeanother’,lootersaremorelikelytobe motivatedbywhattheythemselvesasindividualscanharvestfromany givenopportunityforlootingthatmightpresentitselforbecreated.Kettle andHodgescontinued:‘Thecommonusageofthewordis,however,much broader.Mostpeoplewouldprobablyagreethatwhenalargegroupof peopleuseviolenceinpublicagainstpeopleorpropertyandtheauthoritiescannotimmediatelycontrolthem,thenthatisariot.’Quitecorrectly, theauthorsadded,‘Evenso,thisleavesscopefordisagreementand differentinterpretations.Somewouldobjectonprincipletotheuseofthe wordriotatall.’

Preciselywhatsortofnumbermightconstitute‘alargegroupofpeople’, KettleandHodgesdonotvolunteer.ThenubofKettleandHodge’s assertionwasthat‘[t]heuseofthewordriotisthereforeaproblem.But noneoftheotherwordsthathavebeenusedcausesanylessdifficulty. Hooliganism,publicdisorder,protest,rebellion,uprising–allpresent theirownproblems.Inthecircumstances,"riot"willhavetodo’.

But,whilewemightbestuck,forbetterorforworse,withtheterm‘riot’, thereisnounanimityaboutitsmeaning,thoughcertainmeanings–such asthoseadvancedbythepolice,thegovernmentandsectionsofthe media–doofcoursedominate.Settingsuchmeaningstooneside,Iseek toexplorewhatamountstoacounter-culturalperspectiveonrioting,as visualizedwithintheiconographyofreggaemusicandbyanumberof blackBritishartists.Iwouldarguethattheriotcouldbeunderstoodasan attemptbyrioterstoapplysomethingofanextrememakeovertothe decidedlyproblematicspaces(neighbourhoods,highstreets,shopping centres)inwhichtheriotersfindthemselvesortowhichtheygravitate. TheimagesofburningbuildingssuchasHouseofReevesresonatewith righteousretributionheapedupontheavariciousandtheungodly.We can,withoutdifficulty,comparemid-tolate-twentieth/early-twenty-firstcenturyvisualtropesofriot-affectedburningbuildings,suchastheblazinganddoomedHouseofReevesstore,withVictorianapocalypticpaintingssuchasJohnMartin’s TheDestructionofSodomandGomorrah,of1852. Martin,whowasoneofthemostpopularpaintersinBritainofhisday, specializedinvastcanvasesoftheancientworldinchaos,andungodly citiesinthegripofgodlyretribution.7 Liketheimageoftheburning furniturestoreacenturyandahalflater,Martin’s SodomandGomorrah is averitabledisplayofdramaticpyrotechnics,asawesomeandcatastrophicfireandbrimstoneraindowninrighteousdamnationofthe godlesscity,whichis,bynow,waybeyondanysortofsavingbyGodor man.

Furthermore,twentieth-andtwenty-first-centuryimagesofbuildings andshopsburningoutofcontrolrepresent,inthemostgraphicofways, afailuretoheedreggaegroupCulture’ssternadmonitionto‘MrRich Man’to‘sharethericheswiththepoor,beforetheysharetheirpoverty withyou’.8 Theseimagesrepresentavisualizingofadayofreckoning–capitalism(oratleast,itsaccessiblesymbols)beinggivensomethingof anurbanshakedown:thoseshopsthatcouldbeplunderedbeingduly relievedoftheirinventoriesandotherbuildings,otherproperty,going toblazes.

Certainriotshaveoccurredatkeyhistoricalpointsthathaveservedto benchmarkthebirthandtestygrowthofblackBritain.Assuch,the‘rioter’ hasonoccasionbeenframedasoccupyingacertainblessedpositioninthe vanguardofstruggle.A.Sivanandanrecalled,‘Bythemiddleofthe1970s, theyouthhadbeguntoemergeintothevanguardofblackstruggle.And theybroughttoitnotonlythetraditionsoftheireldersbutanexperienceof theirown,whichwasimplacable[sic]ofracismandimpervioustothe blandishmentsofthestate.’9 Thispositionfrequentlyandmostclearlytook theformofanactiveresistancetopolice‘downpression’.Thepolicecame tosymbolizeandembodytheforces,theinstitutionsandthevariousforms ofendlesspressurethattormentedsomuchofyoungblackBritain.Bythe mid-1970s,thisresistancewasbeginningtotaketheformofanti-police ‘rioting’.The‘inner-city’riotwas,foryoungblackBritain,anewvoice,a newformofexpression.Armedwiththeweaponsoftheweapon-less, ‘bottlesandbricksandsticks’,10 someyoungblackmalesrefusedtoyield territory,theirterritory,withoutafightandgladly,willingly,shouldered

Figure2.Ayouthcarryinga fire-bombonthesecondday oftheHandsworthriotsin Birmingham. # Press AssociationImages.

theburdenofself-appointedghettodefenders.AnumberofblackBritish artistsmadeworkthateffectivelyempathizedwiththeseyouths.Donald Rodney,oneoftheartistsdiscussedinthistext,wouldmakeextensiveuse ofanewspaperphotographofsuchaghettodefender,describedasa ‘prowlingWestIndianpetrolbomber’whomadeanappearanceinseveral newspapers(Figure2).Theloneyouthpicturedstrodepurposefully,confidently,righteously(somemightsaymenacingly)withpetrolbombin hand,presumablyidentifyingandapproachinghisquarry,during thecourseofariotinRodney’snativeBirmingham.Inbestowingonthis ‘rioter’analmosticonicstatus,DonaldRodney,likeLintonKwesiJohnson beforehim,wasunderliningthemilitancy,dedication,consciousnessand importanceoftheseghetto youths whowere‘measuringthetimeforbombs andforburnin’.11

Intheirbook, Race,PoliticsandSocialChange,JohnSolomosandLesBlack describeandcontextualizethepressimageasfollows:

Thedominantnewspaperimagewasapictureofayoungblackmancarryingalitpetrol bomb.Thepicture...documentedaskirmishthattookplaceintheaftermathofavisitto BirminghambytheHomeSecretary,DouglasHurd.The DailyExpress,the Mirror,the Sun,the Observer andthe DailyMail allusedthephotograph.Thepapersannouncedthearrivalofthe latestracialinsurgent:‘Hewalkswithachillingswagger,apetrolbombinhandandhate burninginhisheart.’(DailyTelegraph,September11,1985)

SolomosandBlackthenquotedawhollyfictitiousaccountwhich,inthe mannerofsuchreports,hadrapidlyassumedthestatusofirrefutablefact thatchimedwithdominantpathologiesofviolent,derelict,homicidal blackyouth,towhichimagesofindustrious,entrepreneurialAsiansprovidedsuchastarkandnoblecontrast.

AblackthugstalksaBirminghamstreetwithhateinhiseyesandapetrolbombinhishand. TheprowlingWestIndianwasoneofthehoodlumswhobroughtnewraceterrortothecity’s riot-tornHandsworthdistrictyesterday...TwoAsianbrothersscreamedinagonyasWest Indianriotersbeatthem–andleftthemtoburnaliveinthepetrol-bombedsub-postoffice. (Sun,September11,1985)

AsSolomosandBlackreasoned:

Thedominantthemeofthereportingoftheseeventssuggestedthata‘raceriot’hadtaken placeandthatthedeathoftheMoledinabrotherswasaresultoftensionbetweentheAfricanCaribbeanandAsiancommunities.Thiswasdespitefactualdetailssuchasthepresenceof largenumbersofwhitesandAsiansonthestreetswhowerearrestedduringthisincident,and thefactthatthepersonchargedfortheMolendinamurderswasinfactwhite.

Subsequently,theresearcherssummarized:‘The‘‘blackmugger’’was surpassedbyanewfolkdemon,the‘‘blackbomber’’.Thisshiftnotonly associatedblackyouthwithcrimesagainstthepersonbutalsocrimes againstsociety.’12

Fire,thatmostprimevalofelements,hasaplaceofgreatsignificancein NewWorldAfricandiasporaculture.Fireisalongstandingmetaphorfor lightandassortedmanifestationsofillumination.Butitisalsoasymbolof judgement,destructionandGod’sdayofreckoning.Inthewordsofthe Negrospiritual,‘GodgaveNoahtherainbowsign,nomorewater,thefire nexttime’.Withintheabidingimageryoftheriot,weseenotsomuch the firenexttime,as thefirethistime.Thenotionof thefirethistime wasseized uponbythe Economist,whichusedthewordsasthetitleofoneofits reportsonthedisturbancesofsummer2011.13 Thisnotionofwillingthe firetodoitsbest(or,perhaps,doitsworst)hasanabsorbingandcompellingantecedentinthelegendaryphrase‘Burn,Baby,Burn’.14 Though manyriotshavenoexplicit racial dimension,whatsomemightregardas asatisfyingspectacle,ofjustifiableconflagration,isindeliblylinkedto centuriesofdreadfultreatmentmetedouttoblackpeople,beginning withtheslaveshipandtheauctionblock.DestructionbyfireisGod’s work,andthelooters,whoseeminglyareanintrinsiccomponentofthe riot,takeupwhereGodleftoff.Thepopularcounter-culturalframingof the riot is,Iwouldargue,onethattakesasitsblueprinttheseminaltrackby theWailers,‘Burnin’andLootin’’,takenfromtheir1973album, Burnin’.

In‘Burnin’andLootin’’Marleyhadnamedandidentifiedtheriotasa positiveactofpurification,redemptionandpoliticalintegrity.Thisaudaciousandprofoundlyempatheticactstruckaninternationalcordwith fractiousblackBritishyoungstersandJamaicanghettosufferersalike. Thereafter,riotingwouldneverbeconsideredbymanyofthosecaught upinsuchsituationsasbeingthenegative,destructiveandanarchicact thatothers,particularlythemainstreammediaandtheforcesof‘lawand order’tookittobe.WhentheWailerssang:‘That’swhywe’regonnabe

burnin’anda-lootin’tonight...burnin’allillusionstonight,burnin’all pollutiontonight’riotingwas,forsomepeopleatleast,forevermore transformedfromaviolentexpressionofprotestagainstperceivedinjusticesintoanalmostsacredactofrighteousness,ofpurification,ofjudgement.Fouryearslater,BritishreggaegroupMergeragaincelebratedthe ‘riot’inasongcalled‘77’.Offeringatransgressivealternativetothe Queen’sSilverJubileecelebrationsof1977,theysangabouttheyear being‘afestivalofdestructiontime’.15

MaureenSheridanofferedthefollowingappraisalof‘Burnin’and Lootin’:

‘Datsongaboutburnin’andlootin’is[about]illusions...theillusionsofcapitalistsanddem peoplewiththebigbankaccounts,’saidMarley.

Tosaythat‘Burnin’andLootin’’wascontroversialinacountrywhereangry,frustrated peopleroutinelyblockroadswithburningtiresjusttohavetheirvoiceheard,isfartoomilda waytodescribethesong’sactualimpact.Jamaica’svolatilesocietyhasalwaysbeenopento theincendiarymessagesofitsmusicalidols.AlthoughMarleycouldsayacoupleofyears laterthatthetunewasabout‘illusions’,whatitwasreallyaboutwas‘burnin’andlootin;’and givingtheghettoyouththego-aheadtohelpthemselves.

CurfewsarenolongerascommonastheywereintheSeventies,andwhenthey’reenforced, they’reusuallywarranted.Butaswellasbeingusefulincurbingspontaneousoutbreaksof violence,curfewsareacleverwaytocontrolrebellion.WiththegrowinginfluenceofRasta andreggaemusic,rebellionoftheself-styled‘sufferahs’wasbutadrumbeataway,andthe authoritieshadtofindawaytostopit.

‘Babylonnuhwaanpeace,Babylonwaanpower,’wasBob’sdefenceofhismilitant approach.‘Mysongshaveamessageofrighteousness’,heexplained.Butinanother interview,hemadeitclearthathewasn’tapacifist.‘Medon’lovefighting,butmedon’love wickednesseither.’16

AnumberofblackartistsfoundthemselvescharmedbyMarley’sreferencetotheburningofillusionsandpollution.In1981,filmmakerMenelik Shabazzhadmadeafeature-lengthfilmwhichhetitled BurninganIllusion. Itspublicitydescribeditasbeing‘thestoryofablackwoman’sawakening’.Yearslater,inconversationwithLubainaHimid,DonaldRodney referredtosomeoftheinfluencesthatlaybehindthemakingofoneof hispieces: TheLordsofHumankind (1986).Thiswasawork,dealingwith slaveryandthepoliticalandpsychologicalconsequencesofitsaftermath, thatreliedheavilyonwrittentext,surroundingcentralimagesofa shackledslaveandplansofslaveshipscrammedwithhumancargo.The imagesandtextwereexecutedoncottonsheetsthatwerethenextensively burnedaroundpartsoftheiredges.Thesheets,whensuspendedfromthe galleryceiling,cametoresembleagroupingofflags,displayingaterrible assortmentofexigentmessages.Himidreferredtotheburnedandconspicuouslydamagednatureofthework.Rodneyresponded‘Iburntthe flags,that’swhatthat’sabout.Burningthattypeofhistory...Ilovethat phrase–‘‘burninganillusion’’–that’sprobablywhyIuseburningalot.’17

‘Burnin’andLootin’’cameoutofaparticularmomentinJamaica’s history.Merelyadecadeafterthecountry’sindependence,usheredin withsomuchpronouncedoptimism,Jamaicawasbytheearly1970sin thegripofinflation,economicstagnation,labourunrestandthepolitically sponsoredterrorismthatheldsomanyJamaicansinfearandtrembling.

Furthermore,theisland’spolice,particularlyinthedenselypopulated capitalcityofKingstonanditssociallychallengedneighbourhoods,had quicklycometorepresentandembodyarepressivepublicbody, seeminglytheretofurtherbrutalizetheJamaican sufferer.Itwasinthis contextthatthesong‘Burnin’andLootin’’bridledatoppressionand proposedapointofreleaseforthosewho‘couldn’ttakeitnomore’. This blending,thisarticulation,offrustration,disaffection,politicalconsciousnessandriotingwasbutonemanifestationofthesociallychargednature ofreggaemusic.Themusichasalwaysbeenextraordinarilydiverseinits rhythms,lyricsandmessages,thoughthepronouncedinfluenceof Rastafaripresentsitselfasahugelyimportantstrandofthemusic.18

ReggaemusichasspawnednoendofBritishmanifestations,fromthe musicofgroupssuchasMerger,CapitalLetters,BlackSlate,Aswad, CimaronsandSteelPulsethroughtolaterdevelopmentssuchasjungle, hiphop,electronic,ragga,drum’n’bass,dancehall,garage,grimeand dubstep.Thisastonishingdiversityreflectsreggae’simportancetocurrent generationsofBritish‘subcultures’(black,white,Asian,etc.)Whilethese recentandcurrentgenerationsofsubculturesmightviewrootsreggaeand BobMarleyasancienthistoricalantecedents,itisunquestionablethat musicsuchas‘Burnin’andLootin’’andothersongsbytheWailerscreated anenduringtemplatethatistothisdayadiscernibleandrecognizable characteristicofthenarrativesofmorecontemporarymanifestationsof reggae.19

Anintriguingconsiderationisthepossibilitythattheseassortedmusical/subculturalmanifestationshavebeenlinkedtoacertainmainstream tendencyoverrecentyearsto‘racialize’thewhite underclass (mostexplicitlysincetheriotsof2011)intermspreviouslyreservedfortraditionally racistdiscourse,thushintingnotonlyatthecontinuingsignificanceof (someof)reggae’spoliticalmessages,butperhapseventheirpassagefrom the‘margins’tothecentre.ThehistorianDavidStarkeyofferedasomewhatunvarnisheddistillationofthissentiment.Usingapejorativevernacularexpressionforacertainembodimentoftrashywhiteworking-class culture,Starkey,speakingonBBC2’s Newsnight attheheightoftheriots, referencedthepreviouslymentionednotionof‘shoppingwithviolence’ andexpressedtheviewthattheriotsreflectedapervasiveandsomewhat sinisterinfluenceofJamaicancultureonpocketsoftheEnglishpopulace.

Whatthisweekhasshownisthatprofoundchangeshavehappened...What’shappenedis thatasubstantialsectionofthechavs...havebecomeblack.Thewhiteshavebecomeblack.A particularsortofviolent,destructive,nihilisticgangsterculturehasbecomethefashion,and blackandwhite,boyandgirl,operateinthislanguagetogether.Thislanguage,whichis whollyfalse,whichisthisJamaicanpatois,that’sbeenintrudedinEngland.Andthisiswhy somanyofushavethissenseofliterally[livingin]aforeigncountry.20

Theimmediatevisualizationofreggaemusic–thereggaerecordcover–isrepletewiththeimagesandsymbolismofdestructionandconsumption byfire,withallitsbiblicalresonances.Oneneedlooknofurtherthanthe recordcoversproducedtohouserecordingsbyfirsttheWailers,thenby BobMarleyandtheWailers,duringthegroups’yearswithIslandRecords. ThefirstIslandRecordsreleasewas CatchaFire.Characteristicofthe

flexibilityofJamaicanpatois,thetitlewasbothdescriptiveandimploring. Theoriginal1973vinylrecordsleevewasoneofthemostsingularinthe historyofalbum-covergraphicdesign,andwastheworkofgraphicartists RodDyerandBobWeiner.The12-inchrecordwasencasedinacardboard sleevedepictingthatmosticonicofAmericanlighters,theZippo.The sleevefunctionedlikethecasingofarealZippolighter,openingataside hingetorevealtherecordwithin.Whentheupper‘lid’oftheZipposleeve wasopened,thereappearedagiantflame,printedonthepreviously concealedpartofthesleeve.Ineffect,eachtimetherecordsleevewas opened,asapreludetotherecorditselfbeingplayed,theholderofthe sleevewassparkinganearliteralbutprimarilymetaphoricalflame,to lightamarijuanacigarette,toilluminateapaththroughlife(theplayingof therecorditself,withitsmultiple,timelyandpropheticmessages)21 orto ‘bundungBabylon’.Theoriginalpressingof20,000copiesof CatchaFire hadthefunctionalZippocoverandsubsequentpressingshadthealternative(andmorepractical,butmuchlessdramatic)coverfeaturinga portraitofBobMarleyopenlyandunapologeticallysmokingamarijuana splifforjoint.

Followingshortlyafter CatchaFire was Burnin’,thesleeveofwhich featuredthetitleandnameofthegroupburned(orperhapsbrandedisa betterword)intohorizontalwoodenplanks,reminiscentofthewallsofthe sortsofshacksthatghettodwellers,fromKingstontoNairobitoSoweto, mightbuildforthemselves.Thebackofthesleeve,agatefold,again depictedBobMarleyopenly,defiantly,unapologeticallysmokingamarijuanasplifforjoint.Thistimethough,theportraitwasinprofileand,in keepingwiththegroup’sfacesonthefrontofthesleeve,wasdramatically tone-eliminated,leavingonlythesalientfeaturesofthesingersand musicians.22

Notwithstandingthepoweranddynamismofthe CatchaFire and Burnin’ recordsleeves,perhapsthemostsophisticatedBobMarleyand theWailersrecordsleevetoresonatewithaestheticsoffireandbrimstone was NattyDread of1975.DesignedbyTonyWright,therecordsleeve, perhapsmorethananyother,broughtforthRastafarianwarningsofthe imminentdestructionofBabylonand,indeed,theseverestobligations placedonGod’schosenpeople,ifnotto‘bundungBabylon’,thenat leasttofleeit.Itwasonthe NattyDread recordsleeve–possiblythemost unlikelyofplaces–thatanotherofJohnMartin’sbrimstone,fireand damnationpaintingsmadeanappearance.Butperhapsthesleevein questionwasnotsounlikelyafterall.Therecordcover’sdesigner,Tony Wright,offeredthisfascinatingrecollection,

IwasaskedtopaintaportraitofBobMarleyforNattyDread.Ihadthefacepaintedinand wanteda‘mayhem’forabackgroundbutIwasafraidtheeffectwouldbelightweightand cartoonish.Inthe‘TateGallery’inLondonIfoundaVictorianroomwithJohnMartin’s‘The GreatDayofHisWrath’.Itwasperfect.GoddestroyingBabylon...Usingaclassicalpainting asthebackgroundgavethepieceaweightyandseriousquality.23

Hiddeninplainsight,asabackgroundtoanimpassiveportraitofBob Marley,thesinger’sfaceetchedwithmeasuredresolve,therelaya croppeddetailofJohnMartin’s TheGreatDayofHisWrath.Itwas,as

Wrightrecalled,themostperfectoffits.Otherreggaerecordcovers,of recordingsbyotherartists,havesoughttovisualizetheriot.Ofparticular relevancewasthecoverof DreadBeatandBlood,a1978recordreferredtoin thenotestothistext.Thesleevefeaturedastarkbutfetchingpenandink drawingofariotinaprogress,asseenfromthe lines oftherioters.The mainprotagonist,ayoungwoman,bottleinhand,stridesforward,with greatconfidence,abouttostalkorconfrontthemassedranksofpolicewho stand,battle-ready,somedistanceoff.Alongsideher,amuchyoungerboy alsopreparestojoinbattle.Hetoohasaprojectileinhand.

AnumberofBritishartistsofAfrican-Caribbeanbackgroundhaveproducedkeyworksthatreferencethenatureandtheoccurrenceoftheriotin themakingofblackBritain’shistory.24 Frequently,thestocksymbolismof suchartworksistheimageoffire,or,moreaccuratelyperhaps,theimage offirecreatedbytheflightofpetrolbombs,theweaponoftenassociated withriotersandrioting.Thistextlooksatkeyworksbythreesuchpractitioners,DonaldRodney(1961–98),TamJoseph(b.1947),andKimathi Donkor(b.1965).Inreferencingthe‘riot’,artistssuchasthesewere simultaneouslyreferencingkeymilestones–albeittraumaticones–in themakingofblackBritain.(The‘riots’ofBristolin1980andthosethat occurredinotherpartsofthecountry,mostnotablyBrixton,in1981had, forseveraldecadesthereafter,dominatedthetermsofreferenceforblack people’spresenceinBritain.)

OnesuchworkisTamJoseph’s TheSkyatNight,madeinresponseto riotingthatwas,inturn,aresponsetothemaimingofoneblackwoman andthedeathofanother,inthemid-1980s.OnSaturdaySeptember28, 1985,MrsCherryGroce,ablackwoman,wasshotandparalysedduringa policeraidonherhomeinLondon.Grocewas,allegedly,shotinherbed, byamemberofateamofarmedpoliceofficerswhowerelookingforher son.Another,divergentaccounthasitthat,

ateamofarmedofficerswenttothehomeofMrsCherryGroceinBrixton,SouthLondon,to arrestherson,Michael,whowaswantedfor[allegationsof]armedrobbery.Infact,Michael Groce,nolongerlivedthere.Theofficerssmasheddownthedoorwithasledge-hammerand thenaninspectorrushedinshouting‘armedpolice’.MrsGrocesaystheofficersuddenly rushedather,pointingagunather.Shetriedtorunbackbutheshother.Sheisnowparalysed andconfinedtoawheelchair.25

Groce’smaimingsparkedriotinginthevicinityofBrixton,adistrictof southLondonwhichhadwitnessedextensiveriotingfouryearsearlier,in 1981.ThesenseofblackBritainbeingacommunityundersiegeandonthe unansweredreceivingendofcasualbutdeadlystate-sanctionedviolence wasfurtherheightenedwithinamatterofdaysofGroce’shorrificinjuries beingsustained.OnSundayOctober6,1985,anotherblackwoman,Mrs CynthiaJarrett,diedofaheartattackduringapolicesearchofher Tottenhamhome.26 (Again,itwasallegationsagainsthersonthatlayat thecentreofthispoliceaction.)Duringthemid-1980sthereweremany othersuchpersonaltragediesthatultimatelyspokeoftheblackBritish presencebeingasomewhatfractiousorill-at-easeone.Itwasduringthe ‘rioting’ontheBroadwaterFarmestate,sparkedbynewsofMrsJarrett’s death,thatPCBlakelockwasisolatedfromhisfellowpoliceofficersandset

uponandkilledbywhatwascommonlyreferredtoatthetime,inthepress andmedia,asa‘mob’.27 Inkeepingwiththetimes,therewasmuchabout blackartists’practiceduringthe1980sthatinculcatedanddeclaredmultiplesensesofopposition,alienationandprotest.

In1986,DonaldRodneyheldanexhibitioninLondon,atavenueknown astheBlack-ArtGallery.Theexhibitionwastitledthe‘Atrocity Exhibition’,andtheposterforitwasaremarkableconstruction.The mainbodyoftheposterfeaturedaclose-upimageofablackyouth’s expressionlessface,reproducedintheformofastark,tone-eliminated screenprint.Belowtheyouth’sdesolateeyesranaroughwhitestripthat literallyobliteratedmuchofthenoseandcheeksoftheboy’sface.Onto thiswhitestripwasprintedtheexhibition’stitleandothernecessary information.Butitwaswhatwashappeningwithinthelowerreachesof theposterthatmarkeditoutasexceptional.Asmentionedearlier,itwas injuriesinflictedononeblackwomanandthefatalityofanotherthat formedthecoregrievancesthatsparkedriotsinthemid-1980s. MemoriesoftheseriotswerefreshinthemindofRodneywhenheset aboutmakingworkfortheexhibition,and,intime,makingtheposter itself.Groce’stragedy,whichhadoccurredaboutayearbeforeRodney’s exhibition,wasallthemorepoignantbecausetheonlyimageofherthat wascirculatedwithinthepressandmediaintheaftermathofherinjuries wasliftedfromaweddingphotograph.Thecroppedphotograph,taken severaldecadesearlier,showedGrocewearingherweddingdayfineries. Nootherphotographofthehaplessvictimthatmayhaveexistedwas madeavailable.

ReportsofGroce’sinjuriesandJarrett’sdeathsparkedwidespreadriotingthroughouttheBrixtonareaofsouthLondonandtheTottenhamarea ofnorthLondonrespectively.Itwasfromthepresscoverageoftheseriots thatRodneygleanedhisimage,mentionedearlier,oftheavengingghetto defender.AcrossthelowerpartofRodney’sposter,inastarkhorizontal strip,Rodneyhadplacedtorn,fragmentedimagesofCherryGroce,theleft halfofherweddingdayportraitrunningofftheleft-handedgeofthe poster.Correspondingly,therighthalfofthesamepictureranofftherighthandsideoftheposter.Literallyandmetaphoricallytornintwo,thearea vacated(orthespaceopenedup)becameoccupiedbyRodney’srioter, completewithhisnewspapercaptiondescribinghim(‘Ayouthbrandishes apetrolbomb’).Rodneymadeitclearthatforhimtheyouthrepresented militancy,dedicationandrevolutionaryconsciousness.Oneithersideof thepetrolbomberRodneyhadplacedaquotebytheCaribbean-born writerNevilleDawes(Nevillehad,ontheposter,beenspelt‘Nevil’).The quoteread:

Thedayoftransitionisalongonethatisthelessonofallconsciousrevolutions.The revolutionarybytheway,isnotaman/womanwithagunaimedatafewpriviledged[sic] people–thatisagangster,abandit.Arevolutionbeginswhenawholepeoplestandbehinda gunasasymbolandfact,andaimitagainsttheirsufferingasanegativeweapon,andtowards theirreleaseasapositivemachine,capableofmovingmountains.

AsfarasRodneywasconcerned,his‘likkleghettoyout[sic]’wascentralto therevolutionaryvisionspelledoutbyDawes.And,inturn,what

Figure3.TamJoseph, TheSky atNight,acryliconcanvas, 134x235cm,1985. # Tam Joseph.

happenedtoCherryGroceandCynthiaJarrettcouldactasarevolutionary catalyst.Causeandeffect,actionandreaction.Thiswasthefirstofa numberoftimesthatRodney’srevolutionaryfriendwouldmakean appearanceinRodney’swork.

Itwasduringthispivotaldecadethatsomuchhighlyeffectiveand penetratingwork,commentingonawiderangeofcurrentsocialconcerns, wasproducedbyanumberofblackartists.BroadwaterFarmwasanarea ofnorthLondonthatwasnotmuchmorethanamileorsoawayfromthe homeofartistTamJoseph.Perhaps,giventhegeographicalproximityof thesceneofsuchcataclysmicevents,Josephrespondedtothebloody eventsofOctober1985bypainting,inthesameyear, TheSkyatNight,a workofastonishingclarity,gravityandsophistication(Figure3).The paintingwasadepictionoftheriotunderwayonBroadwaterFarm, afterdusk.28 Itfeaturedasitscentralcomponentadauntingblockof flats,atthebaseofandinfrontofwhichscatteredgroupsofriotershurled occasionalpetrolbombsatassembledranksofriotpolice.Adramaticand ominouscleavage,intheformofaliftshaftorstairwell,separatesthetwo wingsoftheblockofflats,convenientlycreatingorreinforcingthetwo sidesoftheconflictorstand-off.Atthebaseofonesideofthebuilding standthepolice.Facingthem,atthebaseoftheothersideofthebuilding, standtheonlookers,amongwhomthepolice’stormentorsarepresumably mingling.Giventhedramaofthescenedepicted, TheSkyatNight is neverthelessaquiet,almostunderstatedpainting.ThoughBroadwater Farmisdepicted,theblockofflatsshowncouldbealmostanywherein thecountry,orcouldbelocatedinotherpartsoftheworld,incitiesscarred bybloatedincomedifferentialsandurbandeprivation.Thearchitecture depictedisreminiscentoftheprojects–thehigh-densityinner-cityhousingthatishometosomanyoftheUSA’spoorerblack,Hispanicandother low-incomefamilies.Onasmallerscaleperhaps,theequivalentdwellings inJamaica,reflectiveofstateattemptstoprovideaccommodationforits poorercitizens,werereferredtoorknownasgovernmenthousing schemes(or governmentyard asBobMarleyandtheWailershadsungin

theiremotiveclassicofthemid-1970s,‘NoWomanNoCry’).29 Elsewhere intheworld,inthecitiesofFrance,suchhigh-densityhousing–thistime traditionallylocatedontheoutskirtsofcities–isknownas,orreferredto as, labanlieue. 30 Housingestates,councilestates,projects,housing schemes, labanlieue ...inallinstances,fromGlasgowtoParis,Kingston toLondon,thegovernmenthousingstrategyhasoftenbeentoerectwhat areoftencharmlessbrutalistboxesinwhichthosewithfewhousing optionsareforcedtoliveliterallyontopofoneanother.Notonlydid haplessresidentshavetolivecheekbyjowlinsuchhousing,therewere oftenfewamenities,suchasgoodschools,goodshops,goodhealthcare, libraries,parksorgardensincloseproximitytotheseconcretejungles.

AnotherCaribbean-bornartisttoproduceacompellingworkcommentingonthecorrosivenatureandeffectsofpoorhousingconditionswas TerryBoddie,fromtheislandofNevis,intheeasternCaribbean.Hisgrim, yethugelyengaging,print Blueprint featuredadramaticjuxtapositionof ananonymousandgrimtowerblockwithadetailoftheinfamous‘Planof aSlaveShip’depictingsimilarlyanonymousAfricanbodies,packedlike somanynon-humanentitiesintoeveryavailablespaceoftheslaveship. Thus,Boddiechallengestheviewerwithamoststartlingthesis:thatthe compartmentalizingofblackpeopleintowretchedandmiserablehousing conditionsisinsomanywaysreflectiveofthehistoricaldehumanizingof capturedAfricansduringthecenturiesofhorrorthatweretheAtlantic slavetrade.

Previously,theWailershadbemoanedtheformidableconstraintsofthe ‘concretejungle’,31 anditwasthissenseofFanon’s‘wretchedoftheearth’ beingcorralledintourbanghettoesthatsoexercisedJoseph.Thenocturnal natureofthescenedepictedhadtheeerieeffectofmutingthesenseof inner-cityunrest.Noneofthefiguresinthepaintingappearedoverly animated.Thegroupsofpolicemenandthoseintentondrivingthemout bothappearedalmostlethargic,asifdarknessornightfallhasslowedthem down.Giventhemedia’scaricaturingofthe‘mob’,mostpeoplein TheSky atNight appeartobebystandersand,toallintentsandpurposes,observers ofwhatishappeningintheirmidst.Lightsareoninanumberoftheflats, therebyilluminatinginsilhouettethosewhoalsoarespectatorsorwitnesses.Thegroupsofpoliceofficersaredramaticallydepictedwithfires–theresultsofpetrolbombs–burningclosebyandinfrontofthemand theirriotshields.Thelightfromthefiresthrowsanumberofthepolice officersintosharpandeerierelief,theirdarkoutlinesdramaticallysilhouettedbytheflames.Ratherthanasceneofbloodlust,destructionand mayhem,initsparticularlyrestrainedway TheSkyatNight showsa communityofexhaustedandwearypeople,afewofwhom,undercover ofdarknessandafamiliaritywiththecut-throughsandwalkwaysofthe estate,areseekingtodobattlewiththepolice.

Inthewakeofthe‘riots’atthebeginningofthedecade,socialdeprivationandpoorhousingamongblackpeoplehademergedasoneofthe underlyingfactorsofthedisturbances.Here,indramaticfashion,Joseph presentedtheviewerwiththecauseandtheeffect,theactionandthe reaction.Withitsrelianceonthemodernistgrid, TheSkyatNight was, perhapsmorethananythingelse,acommentaryonthefailureofpost-war

urbanplanning.High-densitytowerblocksandequivalentlow-risehousingweresupposedtoprovideabravenewsolutiontobothchronichousingshortagesandaneedtomovepeopleoutofdilapidatedandinferior housingbuiltsomeconsiderabletimeago.Butbythemid-1980sestates suchasBroadwaterFarm,thoughconceivedasidyllicanddesirableplaces tolive,nowstoodasnear-conclusiveevidenceofthelimitations,failures and,indeed,theconsequencesofbadhousing,particularlywhenunemploymentandtalesofpolicebrutalityandharassmentwereaddedtothe mix.

Thetitlingofthepiecehasgreatsignificance,reminiscentasitisofthe long-runningastronomyprogrammeonBBCtelevision,famouslyfronted bySirPatrickMoore.Firstairedwelloverhalfacenturyago, TheSkyat Night wasperhapsacomfortingthrowbacktohowtelevisionusedtobe, howlifeusedtobe,howsocietyusedtobe,beforeallofthesethings becameevermoremixedupandfreneticasthecenturyworeon.Inthat regard,theBBC’s TheSkyatNight wasapolaropposite,inmorewaysthan one,toJoseph’spaintingofthesamename.Moore,theholderofpolitical viewsassociatedwithfar-rightpolicies,wasinthe1970schairmanofa groupingknownastheUnitedCountryParty,which,liketheNational Front,wasanti-immigration.MoorewastheninvolvedintheUnited CountryParty’ssuccessor,knownastheNewBritainParty,whichlike itspredecessorcampaignedtocurb,haltorreverseimmigration,atatime whenimmigrationwasparticularlysynonymouswithpeoplefromthe CommonwealthcountriessuchasIndia,Pakistanandthecountriesof AfricaandtheCaribbean.Joseph’sreferenceto TheSkyatNight representednotonlyurbanskirmishesafternightfallinnorthLondon,butalso theanti-immigrantsentimentsthatwereexpressedbyPatrickMooreata timeofparticularracialviolencemetedouttoblackpeopleinBritain.And yet,aspectsoftheBBC’s TheSkyatNight areindeedpresentwithin Joseph’spaintingofthesamename.Aboveandbehindtheblockofflats thenightsky,completewithtwinklingstars,isclearlyvisible.

Anotherartisttodocument,orrecall,theriotsthathadoccurredatthe otherendofLondon,inBrixton,aweekearlierthantheriotssparkedby thedeathofCynthiaJarrett,waspainterKimathiDonkor.His Coldharbour Lane1985 waspaintedsometwodecadesaftertheeventsthemselves (Figure4).InDonkor’spainting,theessentialelementsofJoseph’s The SkyatNight –thebrutalistandbrutalizinghousing,thebattlesandthe attemptstorepeltheneighbourhood’sinvaders–werepresent.Asmentionedearlier,Groce’smaimingsparkedriotinginthevicinityofBrixton,a regionofsouthLondon.BBCNews(‘RiotsinBrixtonafterpoliceshooting’, 1985)recalledthat:

RiotshavebrokenoutonthestreetsofsouthLondonafterawomanwasshotandseriously injuredinahousesearch.

ArmedofficersraidedahouseinBrixtonearlythismorninglookingforamaninconnection witharobbery.

Crowdsbegantogatheroutsidethedistrict’spolicestationwhennewsbrokethepolicehad accidentallyshottheman’smother,CherryGroce,inherbedwithapparentlynowarning. LocalpeoplehadalreadybeenverycriticalofpolicetacticsinBrixtonandamoodoftension explodedintoviolenceasnightfell.

Figure4.KimathiDonkor, ColdharbourLane1985,oilon canvas,152x153cm,2005. # KimathiDonkor.

Dozensofofficersdressedinriotgearwereinjuredastheywereattackedbygroupsof mainlyblackyouthswithbricksandwoodenstakes.32

Aswithprettymuchallmainstreammediacoverageofrioting,oneneeds perhapstobecarefulinprocessingsuchcoverage.Whilereportsofrioting routinelyincludetalliesofpoliceinjured,nosuchconsiderationof physicalfrailtyisgenerallyextendedtothosemembersofthepublic caughtupindisturbancesnotnecessarilyoftheirmaking.Notalliesof injuriessustainedby/inflictedonmembersofthepublic–eitheratthe handsofriotersoratthehandsofthepolice–areincludedinsuch reporting.Insimilarregard,weperhapsoughttobescepticaloftheprospectofatimelyandfortuitousavailabilityofmedieval-sounding‘wooden stakes’.

AlongwithRailtonRoad,ColdharbourLanehadoverthecourseofthe middletolatetwentiethcenturydevelopedoracquirednear-iconicstatus asoneoftheoriginal‘frontlines’,indicatingthecontestedterritory whereinthepoliceandblackyouthregularlyclashedorotherwisecame intoconfrontationalcontactwitheachother.Onamap,ColdharbourLane isoneofthemainthoroughfaresinSouthLondonleadingsouthwestwardsfromCamberwellintoBrixton.Althoughtheroadisovera milelong,withamixtureofresidential,businessandretailproperties,the stretchofColdharbourLanedepictedinDonkor’spaintingcentresona fewblocks,nottoofarfromBrixtonMarketandnearbyshops,barsand restaurants,whereColdharbourLanemeetsAcreLaneincentralBrixton. Donkor’spaintingrecallsatimewhenBrixtonwasverymuch,andvery muchregardedas,ablack(asindistinctlyAfrican-Caribbean)neighbourhood.Truetothe‘frontline’natureofColdharbourLane,Donkor’spaintingshowsthreeghettodefenders,eachinvariousstagesofhurlingrocksat themassedranksoftheirtormentors,locatedoutsidetheframeofthe

canvassomedistancetotherightofthedepictedrock-throwers.Inpointof fact,wedonotknowforcertainwhatthefirstrioterisabouttohurl,ashis hand/weaponarelocatedbeyondtheleftsideoftheartist’scanvas.Rock, half-brick,petrolbomb,whatevertheweapon,thefirstrioter,andtheone closesttous,isabouttoletitfly.Assomethingofadramaticbackdropto thegroupofthree,therestandsananonymoushousingblock,itsfa¸cadeof mutedcoloureffectivelypock-markedbywhatseemtobeimpossibly smallwindows,makingthebuildingmorereminiscentofaprison,ora low-rentMinistryofTruth33 building,ratherthanabuildingofhomesin whichLondonersaresupposedtolive.

Reminiscentofimagesofrock-throwingyoungPalestiniansofthe Intafada,someofDonkor’surbanwarriorsareatpainstomasktheirfaces, topreventsubsequentidentificationbypolicephotographersandsurveillancecameras,andthejudicialandextra-judicialretributionthatwould comewithsuchidentification.Onlythefaceofthethirdfigureisvisible, thoughheneverthelesswearsthetraditionalclothingofthedisaffected ghettodweller,thehoodie.Like TheSkyatNight, ColdharbourLane1985 consciouslyavoids(re)creatingasceneofbloodlust,wantondestruction andmayhem.And,likeJoseph’spainting,Donkor’s,initsparticularly restrainedway,showsasmallgroupofghettodefenders,seekingtojoin righteousbattlewiththeuniformedaggressorswhohavecomeintotheir midstandinvadedblackterritoryinthemostbrutalandrudestofways. ColdharbourLane1985 ischaracteristicofDonkor’sstyleofpainting.He fearlesslytackleskey,dramatic,monumentalmomentsofAfricandiaspora history,butdoessowithapainterlyprecisenessthatbordersonaesthetic frugality.Despitetheanimatedscenedepicted, ColdharbourLane1985 resonateswithanalmostdeafeningsilence,almostasiftheriotistakingplace withtheenvironmentalvolumeturnedrightdownormutedaltogether.As such,thepaintingstandsinmarkedandsalutarycontrasttotheshrill, hystericalandsensationalisttonesthatnormallyaccompanytelevision reportsofurbandisturbances,reportsthat,bytheirnature,offermorein thewayofheatthanlight,onthecausesandanatomiesofariot.

Notes

1Aswithagreatmanyotherriots,theriotsthattookplaceincertainEnglishcitiesinthesummerof2011 weresubjecttoallmanneroftheoriesbymediapunditsandothersastowhytheyhadhappened.There was,however,oneunavoidabletruth:theriotsstartedwithagrievance,thecentralcontributoryfactor beingtheshootingdeadbyarmedpoliceofTottenhamresidentMarkDuggan,a29-year-oldblackman, onAugust4,2011,incircumstancesprobablybestdescribedasunclear.Initially,riotinggrewoutofa palpablesenseoffrustration,onthepartofcertainpeople,becausethecommunityofDuggan’sfriends, familyandneighbourshadbeenunabletosecurefromthepoliceadequateorsatisfactoryresponsesto theirrespectfulandreasonabledemandsforsomesortofimmediateexplanation.Theatmosphereof questioningandsuspicionwasperhapsneedlesslystokedbythefamiliarreleaseofuntruthsand misinformationintheimmediatewakeofDuggan’sdeath.Chiefamongtheseuntruthswastheclaim, peddledbyanobligingmedia,thatDugganwasinvolvedinsomesortofshoot-outwiththepolice. Believingthemselvestobestonewalled,theangerofDuggan’scommunityoffriends,relationsand neighboursturnedtofrustration,andoutofthisfrustrationgrewrandomactsofdestructionbycertain individualsnotnecessarilyconnectedwiththespontaneousprotestthateruptedinthewakeof Duggan’sshooting.TheserandomactsofarsonquicklyspreadfirstthroughTottenham,thenthrough otherareasofthecapital,thenthroughotherareasofthecountry.TheshootingofMarkDugganis apparentlythesubjectofseveralformalinvestigationsand,todate,nodefinitiveexplanationhasbeen forthcoming.

2ImakementionofmainlandBritain,todistinguishsuchriotingfromthatwhichhastaken/whichtakes placeinthecitiesofNorthernIreland,BelfastandDerry,inwhichpredominantlyyoungerpeoplefrom bothsidesofthesectariandividehavedonebattlewiththepoliceoftheprovince.WithinBritainitself,

townsinthenorthofEnglandhaveperiodicallywitnessedriotingbyAsianyouth.Accordingto DominicCasciani,communityaffairsreporter,BBCNewswebsite,‘Inthesummerof2001,anumberof northerntownsinEnglanderuptedinviolentclashespredominantlysparkedbyracialtensions,mixed, tosomeextent,withorchestratedrivalriesbetweencriminalgangs.‘Oldham,BurnleyandBradford experiencedviolencewhichsawhundredsofyoungAsianmen(PakistaniandBangladeshi)taketothe streets.’http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/5032166.stm(accessedMay25,2012).

3Mercer,: WelcometotheJungle,178.

4KettleandHodges, Uprising!

5Ibid.,10.

6 AftertheRiots:TheFinalReportoftheRiotsCommunitiesandVictimsPanel. Thepanel(whosemembers wereDarraSinghOBE,SimonMarcus,HeatherRabbattsCBEandMaeveSherlockOBE)releasedits reportonMarch28,2012.

7FormoreonJohnMartin,seehttp://www.guardian.co.uk/artanddesign/2011/sep/08/john-martinpainting-the-apocalypse.

8‘SharetheRiches’appearedonseveralCDsbyJamaicanreggaegroupCulture,including Culture:Chant DownBabylon, CrucialRootsTunes,1989–1999,ReggaeCollectableslabel,1999.

9QuotedinSivanandan, ADifferentHunger.

10LintonKwesiJohnson,‘AllWiDoinisDefendin’,from DreadBeatan’Blood,thefirstlong-playingrecord ofpoetryreleasedbythisBritish,Jamaican-bornpoet,thenstylinghimself‘PoetandtheRoots’(Front LineRecords/VirginRecords,releasedin1978).AccordingtoWikipedia,‘Johnsonwasthefirstperson toaccuratelydescribethesituationoftheblackBritishyouthintheinnercitiesinthelate1970sand early1980s.Thisthemerunsthroughmostofthesongsonthisandhisotheralbumsbutitparticularly evidentinthelastvocalsongonthealbum‘‘AllWiDoin’IsDefendin’’’whichitisremarkablyprescient asitforeseestheBrixtonriot(1981)insomedetailandjustifiesitbeforeithadevenhappened.Allmedia commentatorsandpoliticianswereshockedbythisevent.NotLintonKwesiJohnson.Lyricsinclude ‘‘Sendintheriotsquadquickbecausewe’rerunningwild’’‘‘Allweneedarebottlesandbricksand sticks’’andthesewereindeedtheprincipalweaponsusedbythe1981rioters.‘‘AllWiDoin’is Defendin’sogetreadyforwar!’’forJohnsonwascorrectinseeingtheforthcomingriotasanessentially defensiveactbytheblackyouthofBrixtonafteryearsofvictimisationbythepolice.’http:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dread_Beat_an%27_Blood(accessedJune4,2012).

11LintonKwesiJohnson,‘BassCulture’,thetitletrackofalong-playingrecordbyLintonKwesiJohnson (IslandRecords,1980).In1976,duringthecourseoftheannualNottingHillFestival,violentstreet battleshaderuptedbetweenblackyouthandthepoliceinthevicinityofthecarnival.Butitwasthe riotinginStPaul’s,Bristol,in1980(plusmajoreruptionsthefollowingyearinBrixtonandelsewhere) thatemphaticallydeclaredthearrivalofthedissatisfiedurban-dwellingghettoyouth.Thesewere headydays.Theseyears,thelate1970sandearly1980s,madeuponeofthemostpolitically,culturally andraciallychargedperiodsofblackBritishhistory.

12SolomosandBlack, Race,PoliticsandSocialChange,81–2.

13‘RiotsinEngland:Thefirethistime/Theworstriotingindecadeswillcostthecountrymorethan money’, TheEconomist,August13,2011,http://www.economist.com/node/21525945(accessedMay 27,2012).

14Thoughothershavelaidclaimtoit,thephraseissaidtohaveoriginatedwithH.‘Rap’Brown,Student NonviolentCoordinatingCommittee(SNCC)nationaldirector,whocoinedthephrasewhenraceriots eruptedinthemid-1960s.SeeDierenfield, TheCivilRightsMovement,166.

15‘77’writtenbyMichaelDan,BarryFordandWinstonBennettandperformedbyMergeronthelongplayingrecord ExilesinaBabylon (SunStarMuzik,1977).

16Sheridan, SoulRebel,44.

17DonaldRodneyinconversationwithLubainaHimid, StateoftheArt,IlluminationsFilms,Channel4, 1986.

18Anumberofwritershaveattemptedtodetailvariousaspectsofthecultural,social,economicand politicalrelationsofreggae,bothinJamaicaandabroadand,importantly,includingrecent developmentsinreggaedancehall(inwhichthepoliticalsubtextsarenolesspowerfullypresentinboth commercialand‘slack’aswellasso-called‘conscious’exponents–ifpossiblymoreambivalentlywith respecttocontemporaryconditions).Seeforexample,Potash, Reggae,Rasta,Revolution;Partridge, Dub inBabylon;Foster, RootsRockReggae;Bradley, BassCulture

19Compellingevidenceofthisexistsintheformof AnEnglandStory:TheCultureoftheMCintheUK1984–2008,SoulJazzRecords,2008.

20 Newsnight,August12,2011,http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14513517(accessedSeptember30,2012).

21Oneofthemostcelebratedsongsonthealbumwas‘SlaveDriver’,withitshauntingmusicandpressing lyricsthatlocatedtheplightoftheJamaicansuffererinthelegacyofslavery:‘SlaveDriver,yourtableis turned.Catchafire,you’regonnagetburned.’.

22TheportraitofMarley,inprofile,ontherecord’sbackcoverwasfromaphotographbyEsther Anderson.Thealbumdesignfor Burnin’ wasbyVisualeyes.

23http://www.bobmarleymagazine.com/2011/11/interview-with-tony-wright/(accessedMay28, 2012).

24SubstantialpublicationsonblackBritishartists’practiceremainsomethingofararity,butsee,for example,Piper, RelocatingtheRemains,andRodney, Doublethink

25 TheTimes,January16,1987,quotedinInstituteofRaceRelations, PolicingagainstBlackPeople,26.

26ThesceneofCynthiaJarrett’stragicdeathwasmemorablyrecreatedbyKimathiDonkor,oneofthe artistsdiscussedinthistext,inhispainting MadonnaMetropolitan (2005,oilonlinen,152x152cm). MadonnaMetropolitan depictedacollapsedanddyingCynthiaJarrett,beingattendedtobyoneofher distresseddaughters,whileallaroundthempoliceofficerscontinuedtoturnthedomesticroomupside down,intheirsearchforheavenknowswhat.Forgoodmeasure,oneoftheofficersaggressively remonstrateswiththedaughter,jabbinghisfingermenacinglyinherdirection,evenwhilelifedrains fromtheheartattackvictim.

27Foradiscussionofthese‘riots’,seeRose, AClimateofFear.FormoreontheBroadwaterFarmriots,see Dabydeen,GilmoreandJones,eds, TheOxfordCompaniontoBlackBritishCulture,71–2. 28Ibid.

29‘NoWomanNoCry’,writtenbyV.Ford,BobMarleyandtheWailers, NattyDread,IslandRecords, 1974.

30TamJosephwasnottheonlyartistinterestedinthesefracturedandfractiousurbanenvironments. MohamedBourouissa,anAlgerian-bornphotographer,hasrecentlyemergedasanimage-maker whoselocationsdrawheavilyon labanlieue.MagaliJauffret,commentingonBourouissa,notedthathe wasanartist‘whohaschosentoworkonFrance’sghetto-likesuburbs’.Jauffret,‘TheSuburbsasVisual Object’.

31‘ConcreteJungle’,writtenbyBobMarley,performedbytheWailers, CatchAFire,IslandRecords,1973.

32http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/september/28/newsid_2540000/2540397.stm (accessedMay25,2012).

33TheMinistryofTruthwaswhereWinstonSmith,themaincharacterinGeorgeOrwell’s Nineteen Eighty-Four,worked.Inthebook,itisdescribedasanenormouspyramidalstructureofglitteringwhite concreterisingsome300metresintotheair,containinginexcessof3000roomsabovegroundlevel.To emphasizethesinisterandterror-ladenfunctionoftheMinistryofTruth,ontheoutsidewallofthe buildingthereappearedthreeslogansoftheParty:‘WARISPEACE’,‘FREEDOMISSLAVERY’and ‘IGNORANCEISSTRENGTH’.

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Dabydeen,David,JohnGilmoreandCecilyJones,eds, TheOxfordCompanionto BlackBritishCulture.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2007. Dierenfield,BruceJ., TheCivilRightsMovement.Harlow:PearsonEducation,2004. Foster,Chuck, RootsRockReggae:TheOralHistoryofReggaeMusicfromSkato Dancehall.Lakewood,NJ:BPICommunications,1999. InstituteofRaceRelations, PolicingagainstBlackPeople.London:IRR,1987. Jauffret,Magali,’TheSuburbsasVisualObject’,inMohamedBourouissa: Pe ´ riphe ´ rique:’TheSuburbsasVisualObject’,Galeriemunicipaleduchateau d’Eau,October1,2008.

Kettle,MartinandLucyHodges, Uprising!ThePolice,thePeopleandtheRiotsin Britain’sCities.London:Pan,1982.

Mercer,Kobena, WelcometotheJungle:NewPositionsinBlackCulturalStudies. LondonandNewYork:Routledge,1994. Partridge,Christopher, DubinBabylon:TheEmergenceandInfluenceofDubReggaein JamaicaandBritaininthe1970s.London:Equinox,2010. Piper,Keith, RelocatingtheRemains,London:INIVA,1997. Potash,Chris, Reggae,Rasta,Revolution:JamaicanMusicfromSkatoDub.NewYork: SchirmerBooks,1997.

Rodney,Donald, Doublethink,London:Autograph,2003. Rose,David, ClimateofFear.London:Bloomsbury,1992. Sheridan,Maureen, SoulRebel:TheStoriesBehindEveryBobMarleySong,1962–1981. NewYork:Thunder’sMouthPress,1999. Sivanandan,A., ADifferentHunger,London:PlutoPress,1982. Solomos,JohnandLesBlack, Race,PoliticsandSocialChange.London:Routledge, 1995.

EddieChambers isanAssociateProfessorattheUniversityofTexasatAustin, whereheteachesclassesandseminarsonarthistoryoftheAfricanDiaspora. Chambers’book ThingsDoneChange:TheCulturalPoliticsofRecentBlack ArtistsinBritain (RodopiEditions,AmsterdamandNewYork)appearedin2012. ReflectingChambers’interestinblack-Britishartists,thebookaddressesrecent developmentsintheprofileofblack-Britishartists,inanerainwhichBritishart hascometobedominatedbytheso-calledyBa(youngBritishartists)generation.In 2012Chambershadanessay(AnInglanStory,AnInglanHistory)inthecatalogue toaccompanytheautumn2012exhibitionofoneoftheUK’smostimportant photographersofblackBritain,VanleyBurke,atmac–MidlandArtsCentre–in Birmingham.Chambersalsohadanessay(‘Who’daThoughtIt?’)ontheinterplay betweentheworkofFridaKahloandblack-BritishartistDonaldRodneypublishedin arecentissueofWasafiri.Hiscurrentbookprojectisahistoryofblackartistsin Britainfromthemid-20thCenturyonwards(I.B.Tauris,London).AttheCollege ArtAssociationin2014,EddieChamberswillbeco-chairingapanelon‘Visualizing theRiot’.