RememberingtheCrackoftheWhip:
African-CaribbeanArtistsintheUK
VisualiseSlavery
EddieChambers
ThispaperexploressomeofthewaysinwhichBlack-Britishartistsofthe1980svisualised slavery.Thepaperbeginswithaconsiderationofthesocialandpoliticalfactorsthatcontributedtotheworkoftheseartists,beforebrieflydiscussingsomeofthewaysinwhich slaveryandabolitionhavebeenconstructedwithinBritainandthewaysinwhich blackartists’practicemightchallengesomeoftheseconstructs.Thepaperdiscussesspecific worksbyartistssuchasMowbrayOdonkor,DonaldRodneyandKeithPiper.Thepaper arguesthattheworksitdiscussesdomuchtoshedlightonthewaysinwhichhistoryand identityplayoutintheworkofblackartists,particularlyduringthefascinatingdecadeof the1980s.
TheworkofBlack-Britishartistsofthe1980swas(andinmanywayscontinuedtobe, intothe1990sandbeyond)overwhelminglyfigurative.Whilstasmallnumberofpainters,suchasAnthonyDaley,SylbertBoltonandDavidSomerville,eschewedrepresentingformsthatwererecognisablyderivedfromhumanlife,thevastmajorityofblack artistspursuedpracticesthathadattheircorepronouncedelementsoffiguration. Whilstweshouldbewaryofgeneralisations,itisnonethelessthecasethatmuchof theworkproducedbyBlack-Britishartistsduringthe1980sconcerneditselfwith socialnarratives,suchasvisibility,autobiography,societalcomment,historyandidentity.Oneofthemostcompellingsubjectstobeutilisedbyanumberoftheseartistswas depictingthe memory,the experience,ofslaveryandtheslavetrade.Bytheearly1980s, itseemedtoanumberofblackpeoplethattheirsocialstatusasBritishresidentsand citizenswaslittlemorethanperipheral.ThetragichousefirethatoccurredinNew Cross,SouthLondon,earlyin1981,whichclaimedthelivesofsome13young blackpartygoers,rapidlybecameknown–incertainquarters–astheNewCross Massacre,reflectinganemphaticallyheldbelief,amongstsome,thatthevictims
EddieChambersisAssociateProfessorofArtHistory,teachingAfricanDiasporanArt,intheDepartmentofArt andArtHistory,TheUniversityofTexasatAustin,2301SanJacintoBlvd,StopD1300,Austin,TX78712-1421, USA.Email:eddiechambers@austin.utexas.edu
# 2013Taylor&Francis
Downloaded by [Eddie Chambers] at 02:24 31 May 2013
diedasaresultofaracistarsonattack.1 ThesubsequentblackPeople’sDayofAction, servedtofurthercrystallisethesense,amongstsomeblackpeople,thattheirblack skinsbequeathedthemawretchedbirthrightofdiscrimination,marginalisation, downpression andwhatonesociologisttermed endlesspressure.Theperceivedsense ofsocietalandgovernmentalindifferencetothetragedyservedasamarkerfor blackalienationandoutrage.Forgoodmeasure,theurban disturbances involving blackyouthandothersinBristolin1980,andBrixtonandelsewhereayearlater, wereinterpretedasbeingcompellingprotestagainstthemultipleracialgrievances thatsomeblackpeoplealleged.Intheearlytomid-1980s,whenitcametoallegations ofracism,pettyandnot-so-pettydiscrimination,poorhousing,underachievementat schoolandbeyond,aswellastalesofpolicebrutality,formanyBlack-Britishyoungsters,theircuprannethover.
Itwasduringthissociallychallenging,yetartisticallyfertileperiodthatBlack-British artistsproducedsomeoftheirmostpoliticallydynamicandcompellingworkthatgave visualformtothesortsofgrievancesjustmentioned.Itisinthiscontext,andthis sense,thatBlack-Britishartists’practicethattouchesonaspectsofslaveryisparticularlyimportant.Withinthiswork,slaveryisvisualisednotsomuch,ornotmerely,asa seismictragedythatgaverisetotheAfricanDiaspora.Instead,slaveryisvisualisedasa motiforasymbolofongoingmiseryandtorment.Inthisregardthereisapronounced racial dynamictothewaysinwhichslaveryisremembered.Bluntlyput,slaveryis rememberedbyWhite-Britishpeopleinwaysthataremarkedlydifferenttoits memoryamongstBlack-Britishpeople.Somehistoriansaside,White-Britishpeople tendtoconstructtheirmemoryofslaverynotaroundthesystematicbarbarityof thetrade,ofwhichBritainwasapioneeringforce;neitheristhismemoryconstructed aroundshenanigansofempire–thepeoplingofBritain’sCaribbeanpossessionswith stolenandenslavedAfricans.NorindeeddoestheWhite-Britishmemoryofslavery concernitselfwiththepillagingoftheAfricancontinentitself,asaseeminglyinexhaustiblesourceofhumancargo.WithintheculturalmemoryofWhiteBritish people, slavery existsnotsomuchasseveralhundredyearsofthesordidanddespicable degradationofAfricanpeoples,ledbyslavingnationssuchasBritain.Instead,the WhiteBritishculturalmemoryofslaveryhastendedtobeconstructedsolely aroundthebenevolentnotionof abolition (castasagooddeedreflectiveofthe Britishpeople’sloveforjusticeandfairplay).Consequently,culturalmemoryof slaveryisallowedtoexistinthemindsofWhite-Britishpeopleasanoftentimes vaguebutneverthelessdistincthistoricalfootnotethatinvariablycastsup,insplendid isolation,thekind-hearted,compassionateandbenignfigureofWilliamWilberforce. Bycontrast,the black memoryofslaveryexistsinaltogethersharperandmore dynamicfocus.Inlookingatthepracticeofblackartiststhatdealswithslavery, suchworkbringstomindpronouncedassociationsofloss,pain,sufferingandrighteousindignation.Simultaneously,suchworkbringstomindconspicuousandunmistakablesentimentsofsurvival,enduranceandtriumph.Itisthisimprobableduality thatmakestheseartists’work–frequentlyboundupinkeenlyobservedexplorations ofidentity–socompelling,sofascinatingandsomuchinneedofcontinuedacknowledgementandstudy.
294 EddieChambers Downloaded by [Eddie Chambers] at 02:24 31 May 2013
ThereareotherreasonswhythevisualisingofslaverybyBlack-Britishartistsissuch animportantaspectoftheirpractice.Suchworkformsabridgetootherscattered componentsoftheAfricanDiasporaand,indeed,formsabridgetothemotherland, Africaitself.Depictingslaveryisawayofblackartistsmakingsenseof,orcomingto termswith,theirscattered,fracturedandvulnerableexistenceasstrangersinastrange land,easilyspottedandeasilyvictimisedbythecolouroftheirskin.Bydefinition, whatunitesthepeoplesoftheBlackAtlanticistheirsharedhistoryofslavery.Thus, withintheworkofKeithPiper,DonaldRodney,MowbrayOdonkor,TamJoseph andothers,thattouchesonslavery,wecanidentifyanemotivereachingoutto,and empathywith,blackpeoplesoftheAmericas,particularlytheUSAandtheCaribbean. Thisjoininghandsacrossthesea,togetherwithadeclarationoffracture,lossanddisconnectfromAfricaitself,canbeperceived,timeandagain,inthepracticeofthese artists.Oneofthemostfascinatinginterplayswithintheworkbrieflydiscussedin thischapteristheinterplayofslaveryandmigration,frequentlyportrayedthrough thesymbolismoftheshiportheboat.Insimpleterms,movementacrossthe oceansiswhatcreatedtheAfricanDiaspora,nolessthanmovementacrossthe oceanssubsequentlycreatedthefamilyhistoriesoftheseindividualartists.
Anumberofblack-Britishartistsfoundthemselvesmesmerisedbyarchivalimages ofslavery,particularlytheinfamouslithographsofaslaveship,theBrookesofLiverpool,depictingitshumancargopackedbelowdeckintheholdoftheslaveship,likeso manysardinesinatin.Theoriginsoftheselithographsofslaveshipsandtheir contentsdatebacktotheabolitionistmovementsofthelate-eighteenthandearlynineteenthcenturies.Theabolitionistshadseizedonthissimplebuteffective graphicdeviceasameansofdrivinghomethehorrorsthathadtobeenduredbycapturedAfricansduringtheMiddlePassage–thenightmarishjourneybyseathattook enslavedAfricansfromtheirhomelandstoslaveryanddeathinthe‘NewWorld’.As onehistorianhasnoted:‘Ofallthedetailsoftheslavetradethatappalledantislavers,themostimmediate–becausetheeasiesttovisualise–werethoseofhow thehumancargoeswerestowed.Thearrangementsweremadewidelyknownin drawings ... ’2
However,thesepowerfullithographswouldintimetakeonasignificancethatwent waybeyondtheirpropagandavalueoftheirday.Thepassageoftimedidlittleor nothingtodiminishthememoryofslaveryonthecollectiveandindividualpsyche ofNewWorldAfricansandtheirdescendants,inwhatwenowcommonlyreferto astheAfricanDiaspora.Indeed,acenturyandahalfafterthephasedabolitionof slaverybytheBritishparliament,plansofladenslaveshipswerestartingtobecome iconicshorthandgraphicsignifiersforthemiserable,wretchedlegacyofslaveryand themyriadwaysinwhichthatlegacyspawnedathousandblackliberationstruggles. Therearethosewhomightregardslaveryassomethingfromthedimanddistant andunspecificpast,butformanyblackpeople,theexperienceseareditselfonthe psycheinawaythatfewnon-blackpeoplecouldfullyunderstand.Thisisoneof themostprofoundwaysinwhichslaveryhas,formanypeopleoftheAfricanDiaspora, becomeasignifierofidentity.TheuseoftheslaveshipmotifbyartistssuchasKeith Piper,GodfriedDonkor,MaryEvansandothersencapsulatedanddenotedmuchin
Slavery&Abolition 295 Downloaded by [Eddie Chambers] at 02:24 31 May 2013
thewayofblackhistory,particularlyas lived bythemselves.Thesignifiersofenslavement,exploitation,bondage,tortureanddeathareneverfarfromtheirreadingsofthe slaveshipimage.Butneitheraretheredemptiveexpressionsofsurvival,perseverance andthestruggleforhumanity.
Betweentheearly-seventeenthcenturyandthemid-nineteenthcentury,theAmericasweretransformedby,amongstotherfactors,themasspresenceofpeopleof Africanorigin,whohadbeensoldanddrivenintoslavery.Inthisregard,the MiddlePassageassumesasymbolismofseismicproportions,describingasitdoes thehorrendousnightmarishjourneysoftheslaveshipsfromAfricatotheAmericas. Inthemid-twentiethcentury,Britain,the‘Motherland’,theseatoftheBritishEmpire, wasinvolvedinanotherperiodofmigration,movementandtransformation,thistime involvingsignificantnumbersofAfrican-Caribbeanmigrantswhotravelledbyship fromtheislandsandcountriesoftheCaribbeantotheindustrialheartlandsand majorcentresofurbanpopulationofEngland.Theseimmigrantscameseekingto fillemploymentvacancies,andseekingabetterlifeforthemselvesandtheirfamilies. Insodoing,theirpresenceimpactedon,andindeedtransformed,thesocietalmake-up ofmuchofurbanBritain.Oftenmeetingwithpronouncedracism,discrimination, hostilityandresentment,theexperiencesofCaribbeanmigrantsassumedwretched overtonesthatwere,asfarascertainartistswereconcerned,partofamosaicof blackexperiencethatalsoincludedslaveryandtheslavetrade.
Intitlingthistext RememberingtheCrackoftheWhip:African-CaribbeanArtistsin theUKVisualiseSlavery,IseektomakeuseofBobMarley’spowerfulsong, Slave Driver,from CatchaFire,themajor-label-debutalbumforJamaicanreggaeband TheWailers,releasedonIslandRecordsinthespringof1973.Inthesong,which despiteitspowerfulcontent,lastssomewhatlessthanthreeminutes,BobMarley sings,‘Ev’rytimeIhearthecrackofawhip,mybloodrunscold.Irememberon theslaveship,howtheybrutalisedourverysouls’.In BobMarley:Lyrical:Genius, KwameDawesobservesthat‘In“SlaveDriver”Marleyrevealsthelessonsthathe haslearnedaboutthehistoryofslaveryandexploreshowthishistoryshapesthe lifeofaghettoyouthinJamaica’.3 Withinthissong,Marleylinkshistorical memories oftheslavetradetotheplightofthemodern-dayJamaican sufferer andotherpoor blackpeople’smodern-daypoverty,degradationandservitude.Thisisoneofthe mostprofoundwaysinwhichslaveryhas,formanypeopleoftheAfricanDiaspora, becomeasignifierofidentity.Thispaperwillseektoexploretheiconographyof slaveryintheworkofBritishartistsofAfrican-Caribbeanbackground,andthe waysinwhichtheseartists–whotendedtobethechildrenofthemid-twentieth centurypioneeringgenerationofblackimmigrantstoBritain–haveremembered whatBobMarleycalled thecrackofthewhip.Theseartistsevokeamemoryof slaverythatlocatesthisactofremembering,ofvisualising,attheheartofcontemporaryexpressionsofblack-Britishidentity,thatcrystallisedinthewakeoftheNewCross Massacreandthe‘riots’oftheearly1980s.
Oneofthefirstblackartistsofthe1980s’generationtopayparticular,considered anddeeplypenetratingattentiontotheiconographyofslaverywasDonaldRodney,a BritishartistofAfrican-Caribbeanbackground,borninSmethwick,Birmingham,in
296 EddieChambers Downloaded by [Eddie Chambers] at 02:24 31 May 2013
1961.4 Oneofthemostconsistentlyinnovative,resourcefulandintelligentartistsofhis generation,hebattledwithsickle-cellanaemia–afrequentlydebilitatingdiseaseofthe blood,fromwhichhesuffered–untilhesuccumbedtothecondition,dyinginMarch 1998.Rodney’swork,fromhisearliestdaysasanartstudentatTrentPolytechnic,in Nottingham,intheEastMidlandsthroughtohisfinalone-manshowatSouth LondonGallery,somesixmonthsbeforehedied,hadconsistentanddistinctivequalitiesthatmarkedhimoutasapractitionerofuniqueabilityandsensitivity.Inagesture thatwastypicalofhisdevastatingintellect,Rodneymadeaseeminglysimple,yetprofoundworkthatutilisedthefamiliar,everydayboxofhouseholdmatches,England’s Glory.ManufacturedbyBryantandMay,theboxesofmatcheswerecommonly usedbysmokers,householdersandanyoneelsewhoneededtostrikealight.Thetrademarkonthefrontoftheboxofmatches,garlandedbythewordsENGLAND’S GLORY,wasalithographofasea-goingvessel,aboveandbelowwhich,thewords MORELANDGLOUCESTERappeared,areferencetotheGloucestermatchmaker S.J.MorelandandSons,afirmwhomadeandsoldmatchesunderthetradename England’sGlory,andwastakenoverbyBryantandMayearlyinthetwentieth century.Inasimpleyetbrilliantact,Rodneyreplacedthefamiliarimageofthe vesselwithanequallyfamiliar,butaltogetherdifferentship,theBrookesofLiverpool, whichinfamouslydepictedcapturedandshackledAfricans.Withthissingular montage,RodneyeffortlesslyparodiedEngland’sgloryandinsodoingadvanced thepropositionthatEngland’sglorywasmoreaccuratelyEngland’sshame.
TheartisticdeviceoflinkingBritain,orEngland,withthehistoryofslaverywasa hugelyimportantone,usednotonlybyRodneybutalsootherBlack-Britishartists.As mentionedearlier,Britishpeopletendedtoregardslaveryasanabominationthathappenedelsewhere,andwasthefaultortheenterpriseofotherpeople.Thiswasperhaps aconsequenceofsorelativelyfewAfricansinservitudebeinglandedonBritain’s shoresduringthecenturiesoftheAtlanticSlaveTrade.Withrelativelyfewenslaved Africansinthecountryduringthecenturiesofslavery,Britain’ssubsequent memoryofitsinvolvementinslaverysufferedfrompronouncedboutsofhistorical muddleandselectiveamnesia,inwhichslaverywascastprimarilyasanAmericaniniquity,fromwhichwretchedAfricansandNegroeswerefreedbythegoodgracesof WilliamWilberforceandothers.However,RodneywasheretotellBritishpeople thattheywereinvolvedinandimplicatedinthewholesordidenterpriseofslavery, asmuchasevil-doerselsewhereintheworld.
Rodney’swork,eventhosepiecesthattouchedonissuesofslaverysometimescontainedamarkedanddistinctivehumour,andwerealwaysexecutedwithconsiderable intelligence.Hisworkoftheearly1980sconsistedlargelyofloose,exuberantpaintings oncanvasandwall-mountedassemblages,suchas 100%Cotton,theSouth’sFavourite Cloth,alargediptychwhichdepictedawhiteladyandamilitarygentlemanofthe ConfederateSouth,waltzingataball,theirfacestwistedingrotesque,manicgrins. Noimagesofslaveships,noimagesofbrutalisedblackpeople.Yetthepainting’smessageswereclearanditsreadingswerestrong.Twofigures–herballgownpuffedoutby foldsofcottoncanvas–usedtocomprehensivelyreferencethewholewretchedenterpriseofAmericanslaveryanditsattendantlegaciesandmanifestationsofracism.To
Slavery&Abolition 297 Downloaded by [Eddie Chambers] at 02:24 31 May 2013
some, 100%Cotton mayatfirsthaveseemedharmlessenough,playfuleven.Others, moreperceptively,couldseetheunmissablemenaceofitssubtextthatlayimmediately beyondthehumourofthepaintingandtheeffective,seeminglyeffortlesswaysin whichitparodied GonewiththeWind andthefrequentlytroublingnostalgiathat thefilmevokedincertainquarters.
Mentionwasmade,earlierinthistext,ofthenotionthat,bluntlyput,slaveryis rememberedbywhitepeopleinwaysthataremarkedlydifferenttoitsmemory amongstblackpeople.Thedecidedlyproblematicwaysinwhichwhitepeoplefrequentlyapproachthememoryofslaveryisnowheremorekeenlyhighlightedthanin theproliferation,duringthe1960sand1970softrashy,pulp-fictionnovelsofsexand slavery,setintheantebellumSouthernstates.Thepioneeringworkinthisregardwas KyleOnstott’sepicnovel,Mandingo,whichfirstappearedinthelate1950s.Mandingo spawnedanentiregenreofsex-on-the-plantationpotboilersthatrecastastitillationthe brutalityofthesexualexploitationofmen,womenandchildrenbyslavemastersand othersclosetothem.Suchpotboilersweregivenawholenewleaseoflifewhen filmedversions,namely Mandingo and Drum,bothstarringKenNorton,werereleased inthemid-1970s.Onstotthimselfprofferedtheviewthat‘TheMandingoinmynovelis thehandsomeslavearoundwhomacomplicatedfabricofviolentandrawemotional turmoilevolves’.5 Thesequelto Mandingo, Drum,declareditselftobe‘anelectrifying noveloftheslave-breedingSouthanditslegacyofpassion,violenceanddepravity’.6 Thecoversofthesenovelsfrequentlyleftlittletotheimaginationintheirallusionsto inter-racialsex,setintheever-presentcontextofawistfulrememberingofthegreat daysofthechivalrous,sociallyorderedandwell-manneredSouth.7 Suchbooks,and theirunmistakablecovers,intriguedDonaldRodney,whomadeuseofthecoversof sexandslaverypotboilersforhiscontributionto BlackMarkets:ImagesofBlack PeopleinAdvertising&PackaginginBritain (1880–1990).8 Rodney’swasoneof severalcontributionsmadebycontemporaryblackartists,setalongsidedisplaysof archivalmaterial.ItisworthquotingRodney’scataloguestatementinfull:
Thedominantculture:white,male,Christian,western,hasthroughouthistory foundcreativefocusinre-stagingthepast.
BookslikeMandingo,MasterofFalconhurst,BlackSapphireetc.etc.allbelongtoa particulargenredealingwiththeslavetrade.Thoseofuswhohaveresearchedthe slavetradewillfindlittleifanyrecognitionoftherealityofslaverywithinthese novels.Theyareatypeoffact/fictionutilisinggenuinehistoricalfactcombined witheroticisedromanticismofthattime.Thebooksrevolvearoundplantation lifebutusuallyhavekeycharacteristicsthatlinkthemall,blackstereotypesof sexualomnipotence;graphicdepictionsofasado-masochisticnatureandthe fear/thrillofmiscegenation.
Iquestionwhatcanbeconsideredgenuineterritoryforhistoricalromance.Their I.S.B.N.classificationunderthisnameisbothoffensiveandtellingofthesociety theyoperatewithin.Thepastisbeingrewrittenbeforeus,andmarketedforusto consume.Thebookcoversthemselvesepitomisethisrewritingofhistory.With theiralmostpornographicimagery,itisthesecoverswhichfirstconfrontand seducethebuyer.
298 EddieChambers Downloaded by [Eddie Chambers] at 02:24 31 May 2013
I’verephotographedthecoversinandoutoffocus,distortinganddullingthe images.It’sanattemptasinmyx-raydrawingstofindwhat’sthetruthbelowthe surface.Ifourhistoryisbeingrewritten,whetheritbeundertheguiseoffiction, weshouldresist.9
In1996,justtwoyearsbeforehedied,DonaldRodneywasthesubjectofafilmmade bytheBlackAudioFilmCollective.ThoughthefilmwasbynomeansthemostcompellingworkproducedbytheCollective,itneverthelesscontainedseverallucidmoments, oneofwhichinvolvedRodneyspeakingaboutaworkhewasproposingtomake.The envisagedworkcomprisedascalemodeloftheTateGallery(whichinlateryears cametobeknownasTateBritain)madefromwhitesugarcubes.Thoughthework itselfwasnevermade,wecanperhapsvisualiseitand,certainly,wecanappreciate thesignificanceoftheideaandthewaysinwhichitanimates,withstartlingoriginality andsimplicity,issuesofslavery,artworldshenanigansandexclusion.Atastroke,with hissugar-cubescale-modelidea,Rodneyanimatednotonlytheuglyrealitiesofthe sugarindustryanditshistorybutalsothewaysinwhichexploitationwasatthefinancial andculturalbaseofoneofthenation’sgreatestinstitutionsofartappreciation,theTate havingbeenestablishedthroughthegoodgracesofSirHenryTate(describedinarecent TateBritainpublicationas‘oneofBritain’sforemostindustrialists’),anineteenthcenturyEnglishsugarrefinerandmerchant.10
Rodney’senvisaged SugarCubeTate piecetypifiedworkthatanimatednotonlythe historyofslaveryitself,butsimultaneouslyinvigoratedorgaveformtocontemporary grievances,inthisinstance,thedubiousfinancialcornerstoneofoneofBritain’sgreatest collectionsofart,andthewaysinwhichthatcollection–theTateGallery–continued toexistasasymboloftheexclusionofblackpeoplefromit,asartists,asseniorstaffand ascasualvisitors.SirHenryTatewasbornintoaworldinwhichthesystemsandmechanismsofslavery,particularlyasappliedtothecultivationofsugarcane,werestillvery muchinplacethroughouttheBritishCaribbeanandelsewhere,thoughthetradeitself wasintheprocessofbeingabolishedatthetimeofhisbirth.AsasugarrefinerandmerchantoftheVictorianera,Tatewasapronouncedbeneficiaryoftheeconomicrealities ofslavery’slegacies:aworkforcemadelargelycompliantthroughpoverty,whocould findnootherlabour,andanindustrialsystemthatcontinuedtoreaphugeprofitsfor industrialists(therebyenablingtheirphilanthropy).
MowbrayOdonkor’scompellingwork, OnwardChristianSoldiers from1987(otherwiseknownas Self-PortraitwithRedGoldandGreenFlag)(Figure1)isoneofthe definingworksofthe1980sthattakesasitscentralthemesslaveryandtheslave trade.OfcrucialimportancewithinthepaintingarethewaysinwhichOdonkor,a BritishartistbornofGhanaianparentageintheearly1960s,regardsthehistoryof slaveryasbeinginextricablyboundtogetherwithherownbeing,herownidentity. OnwardChristianSoldiers isaworkdividedintoseveralsections,andhavingin somewaysthestructureofanAsafoflag.SuchflagshavetheiroriginsinAsafocompanies,militaryorganisationsthatfirstexistedseveralcenturiesagoamongtheAkan peopleswhopeopledthesouthernpartsofwhatwenowrefertoasGhana.Dating backtotheseventeenthcentury,Asafocompanieswereineffectdisciplinedand
Slavery&Abolition 299 Downloaded by [Eddie Chambers] at 02:24 31 May 2013
Figure1 MowbrayOdonkor, OnwardChristianSoldiers,1987,Acryliconpaper,152 × 182cm.ReproducedwithpermissionfromArtsCouncilCollection,SouthbankCentre, London.
highlystructuredwarriorgroupsestablishedontheGoldCoast(thehistoricalnameby whichmodern-dayGhanawasknown).Uponcontactwithexplorersrepresenting Europeanpowers,AsafomemberswereonoccasionhiredbyEuropeansasauxiliary soldiers.Asafocompaniesexistuptothepresentday,thoughtheirfunctionisnow largelyceremonial.Theensignsofthesecompaniesfrequentlyfeaturedaversionof theBritishflaginoneorotheroftheuppercornersoftheapplique ´ work,pointing tothecolonialpowerthattookpossessionofthiswealthyandimportantareaof WestAfrica.AfterGhana’sindependence,thenowfamiliartricolouroftheredgold andgreennationalflag,completewithfive-pointedblackstarinitscentre,sometimes replacedtheUnionflaginAsafobanners.Possiblythemostimportantcharacteristicof Asafoflagswerethewaysinwhicheachflag,throughwords,imagesandsymbols, declareditsownproverb,reflectiveofthemilitarycompanyinquestion.AsisfrequentlythecaseinAfricancultures,proverbsinvolvinganimalsfeaturedprominently. Sometimes,theseanimalsareinstantlyrecognisable;atothertimes,theytooktheform ofstrange,multi-limbedorotherwiseunusualbeasts.ButtheAsafoflagsalsobear witnesstoprofoundEuropeaninfluencessuchasheraldry,royalcoatsofarmsand regimentalcolours.11 Lookingat OnwardsChristianSoldiers theviewerinstantly appreciatesthatOdonkor,offeringthevieweranumberofhugelyimportantaccess points,intothework,istellingmultiplestories.
300 EddieChambers Downloaded by [Eddie Chambers] at 02:24 31 May 2013
Inpart,theUnionflagintheupperleft-handcorneroftheworkpointstotheartist’s ownbiographyandidentity.OdonkorwasnotjustBritishbyupbringingandresidence,butBritainalsofeaturedprominentlyinthehistoryofGhana,thecountryof herparents’birth.LikecountlesspeopleacrossAfrica,Asia,theCaribbeanand indeed,otherpartsoftheworld,Odonkor’sparentsgrewupundertheBritishflag. ColonisedbyBritain,countriessuchastheGoldCoastfoundthemselvespartand parceloftheBritishEmpire,thelegacyofwhichisstillkeenlyfelttothisday. Withinthiswork,Odonkorconfrontsthehistoricallegacythatherbiography,and thatofherfamily,cannotescape.Simultaneously, OnwardChristianSoldiers, throughitsuseoftheBritishflag,utilisestheartisticdeviceoflinkingBritainwith thehistoryofslavery.ItisworthreiteratingthatBritishpeopletendedtoregard slaveryasanabominationthathappenedelsewhere,andwasthefaultortheenterprise ofotherpeople.Furthermore,withinthepopularimagination,Britain’shistorical involvementinAfricawasstillregardedasabenignandselflessone,inwhich heroicmissionariesandadministratorsworkedtirelesslytocombatslaveryandsuperstition,andliftAfricanpeopleoutofdarkness.Odonkorseekstoemphaticallycounter thisviewbyanexplicitcouplingofBritainwiththeenslavingofAfricans,because directlybelowtheBritishflagthereappearsatableauofaslavecoffle,agroupof slaveschainedtogetherinalineandcompelledtowalk,oftentimesmanymiles.
LikethelithographoftheBrookesofLiverpool,thedepictionofaslavecoffle,onwhich Odonkorbasedherowndrawing,isafamiliarandfrequentlyreproducedillustrationof thebarbarityoftheslavetrade.TheimagefirstappearedinabookbyDavidLivingstone andCharlesLivingstone, NarrativeofanExpeditiontotheZambesiandItsTributaries;and oftheDiscoveryoftheLakesShirwaandNyassa,1858–1864,firstpublishedinLondon 1865,andreprintedinNewYorkthefollowingyear.Withintheprint,some17shackled andmanacledAfricansarepresent,linkedonetotheother,thoughthecoffledepictedwas likelytohavebeenlonger,asthefirstoftheseenslavedpeopleexitsthelithographonthe left-handside,whilstthelastfigureenterstheprintontherightside.Thegroup,comprisingmen,womenandchildren,areshownbeingforcedtomarchthroughtheAfricanlandscapeunderthemercilesseyesoftwoarmedAfricanslavers.Threeofthewomeninthe cofflehavebabiesontheirbacks,andoneofthesewomencarriesasizeablebasketon herhead,asdoesaman,elsewhereintheline.12 Odonkorcropstheoriginalinfamous image,and,depictingonlysixofthegroup,insertsthewords OnwardChristianSoldiers aboveandbetweentheheadsofthecapturedAfricans.Onward,ChristianSoldiersisa tub-thumpinghymnwithanenduringpopularityinchurchservices.Itmayormay notbeironicthatthehymndatesfromtheprecisetimeperiodduringwhichtheslave cofflewasdepicted.Atastroke,OdonkorchargesChristianityandtheestablished churcheswithactivecomplicityintheenslavingofAfricanpeopleandthedespoiling oftheAfricancontinent.Inthehymn,‘Onward,Christiansoldiers’,arepictured‘marchingastowar’.InOdonkor’spainting,shackledAfricans–babiesincluded–aremarched torelentlessmiseryanddeath.
Andyet,Odonkor’sworkresonateswithprofoundnarrativesofChristianitythat mightwellruncounterto,oratleastcontrastwith,accusationsthatChristianitycolludedinthetormentingofAfricaanditspeoples.Intheself-portrait,Odonkordepicts
Slavery&Abolition 301 Downloaded by [Eddie Chambers] at 02:24 31 May 2013
herselfwithoutstretchedarms,asifboundtoanimaginaryornotexplicitlyvisible cross.Hence,theworkresonateswithsymbolismofcrucifixion,sacrificialoffering, martyrdom,sainthoodandsoon.Withinthecomposition,theviewerisobligedto speculateontheextenttowhichtoendureslaveryistoexperienceasortofmartyrdom.EarlyChristiansmayhavebeenhorriblypersecutedfortheirfaith,butenslaved Africanswere,overanightmarishlylongperiodofhistory,mercilesslypersecutedby theexperienceofslavery.Within OnwardChristianSoldiers,slaveryexistsasOdonkor’sstigmata.InChristiantradition,stigmatareferstomarkscorrespondingto thoseleftonJesus’bodybytheCrucifixion,andsaidtohavebeenimpressedby divinefavouronthebodiesofSt.FrancisofAssisiandothermartyrs.Butherein thiswork,Odonkorpositsthatslaveryhasleftitsownpainfulwoundsonthe psycheofitsvictims,ontheAfricancontinentitself,andonasocietythatrefusesto relinquishracism.
Odonkorpositionedherselfintheworkinfrontofanexpansiveandvisually dynamicrepeatedhorizontaltricolourofred,goldandgreen.Sincethe1970s,the colourshadbecomeinstantsignifiersofaparticulartypeofblackpresence.Numerous flagsofAfricautilisedthered,goldandgreencolours,inavarietyofcompositions,but primarilyashorizontalorverticaltricolours.ExamplesincludeSenegal,Ethiopia, Ghana,Rwanda,Benin,Cameroon,GuineaBissau,Guinea,MaliandCongo.(In thecaseofacountrysuchasRwanda,thecountry’sred,yellowandgreenverticaltricolour,completewithcapitalRinthecentreband,wasreplacedafterthehorrific periodofgenocidethatthecountrywentthroughinthemid-1990s.Thereplacing oftheoldRwandaflagwaspartofthecountry’sattemptstoshedassociationswith thatviolentandtraumaticepisodeofitsexistence.)
Itwastheuseofthered,goldandgreencoloursintheEthiopianflag,completewith theimperialLionofJudahinthecentreoftheensign,whichledtothecoloursbeingso insistentlyused,worn,displayedandusedasadornmentbyadherentsofRastafari,first inJamaicaandsubsequentlythroughouttheinternationalblackworld.13 Withinthe contextofRastafarianditsattendant‘Dread’culture,thered,goldandgreen coloursrepresentedpowerfulsymbolism.PublisheddiscussionsofRastasfrequently alludedtothesymbolism.Forexample,‘Rastafarianism’ssacredcolorsarered(for thebloodofthemartyrs),green(forZion’sabundantvegetation),andgold(forthe wealthofAfrica)’.14 WhenRastaemergedinEnglishcitiesinthemid-1970s,neighbourhoods,buildingsandpeople,allwereidentifiedbythepresenceofcolours. Anothercommentatornotedthat‘thewearingofthecolours’red,goldandgreen wasa‘visiblesymbolwhichdenotestheRasta ... Oftenthecoloursareworninthe formofaknittedhat,buttheymayalsobewornasabadge,asepaulettes,or wovenintoacordtiedroundthewaist’.15 InEnglishcitiessuchasLiverpool,signs denotingstreetnamesin Frontline districtswerepaintedinthecolours,therebydecisivelydemarcatingtheterritory.Thisthough,wassimplyaversionofwhathadlong sincebeenhappeninginJamaica.‘EveryRastafariancommuneisidentifiablebythese colorswhichappeareverywhere,evenpaintedonthetrunksoftreesintheyards’.16
Thecolourscametosignifyaparticularly conscious typeofblackpresence.When wornonanindividual,thecoloursconfirmedthattheweareraspiredto upful
302 EddieChambers Downloaded by [Eddie Chambers] at 02:24 31 May 2013
living.Whenadorningmusicalinstrumentssuchasdrums,thecolourssignifiedthat thedrumsinquestionwereemployedintherighteoustaskof chantingdownBabylon. Andwhenthered,goldandgreencoloursadorneddwellings,themessagewentout thatno weakheartcannotenter.Thus,Odonkor’suseofred,goldandgreenemphaticallymarkedherasa consciousdawtah,a righteoussistah,ofAfricaanditsDiaspora.In theparlanceofAfrican-Americanlingoofthestreet,Odonkordeclaresherselftobe someone whoknowswhattimeitis.Atregimentedintervals,inthealternatebands ofgold,Odonkorplacedblackstars.These,though,werenotthefive-pointedblack staroftheGhanaianflag,butmoreindicativeofthesix-pointed ShieldofDavid, morecommonlyreferredtoasthe StarofDavid.Thus,Odonkorgaveanemphatic nodtothesensibilitiesofRastafarianditslanguageofTwelveTribesofIsrael,Zion andotherphraseologythatowedmuchtoOldTestamentstories.17
AnotherBirmingham-raisedartist,KeithPiper,maderecurringuseoftheslaveship motifthroughoutthe1980s.Oneofhisearliestuseswashisemploymentoftheimage intheposterforhisfirstsoloexhibition,whichtookplaceatTheBlack-ArtGalleryin 1984.Titled PastImperfectFutureTense,theexhibition’sposterwasamontagein whichthewords Imperfect and Tense fromtheexhibition’stitlewerelaidovercorrespondingimages.18 Imperfect waslaidovertheslaveshipdiagram,whilst Tense was laidoverthefour-timesrepeatedimageofablackSouthAfricanschoolboy,doing battlewiththeauthorities,duringtheSowetouprising.TheSowetouprisingwas theseriesofclashesinSowetothatbeganinmid-June1976betweenblackyouths andtheSouthAfricanauthorities.Theblackyouth–predominantlyschoolchildren –wereprotestingagainstbeingtaughtinAfrikaans,alanguagetheyjudgedtobethat oftheiroppressors.Theprotestgrewintoapronouncedanti-apartheiddeclaration, againstwhichtheSouthAfricangovernmentreactedwithgreatviolence.The Sowetouprisingrepresented,atthetime,thelatestbloodyandviolentepisodein theanti-apartheidstruggle.Overaperiodofsomeseveralmonths,‘Policeandsoldiers shotdeadmorethanathousandyoungpeople,woundingormaimingthousandsof othersastheuprisingspreadthroughoutSouthAfrica’.19 TheimagethatPiperused featured,incut-outanddramaticisolation,aschoolboyseekingtodefendhimself withtheaidofadustbinlid.(Intheoriginalphotograph,theyouthappearedinthe companyofanumberofotherprotesters,whowererespondingtoliveroundsfired atthembythrowingstonesattheirtormentors.)Intheposter,Piperdepicteda blackprotester,fearless,heroicallystandinguptothefullforceofoneofAfrica’s mostsophisticatedmilitaries,unleashed,withextremeprejudice,onunarmeddemonstratingschoolchildren.
Withinthestrikingmontage,weobservePiperbringingtogetherthetwinmarkers ofslaveryandapartheid.Slaveryandapartheidareinthesamemix,bothexistingas signifiersofblackdiasporicidentityinthelatetwentiethcentury.Thememoryandthe experienceofslaverywereherebeinginextricablylinkedtoanunderstandingof present-daydifficultieswhich,inthisinstance,tooktheformofSouthAfrica’sapartheidsystem.Notonlythat,butPiper’smemoryofslaverywasacompellingfoundation onwhichhebasedpresent-dayandfuturestrugglesofblackliberation.
Slavery&Abolition 303 Downloaded by [Eddie Chambers] at 02:24 31 May 2013
KeithPiperhadpoignantlyalludedtothesymbolismofTateandsugarinhiscompellingmixed-medianarrativeofthemid-1980s,‘TheSevenRagesofMan’(thetitle riffingoffthesevenagesofman,inthecelebratedmonologuefromWilliamShakespeare’splay AsYouLikeIt).Piper’sgrand,expansiveworkfeaturedsevenbusts, eachapartialcastofhisownhead,andeachsetagainstamontageofimagesand text.PipertooktheviewerthroughsevenstagesofhisexistenceasanAfricanman, beginningwitharecollectionoflifeinthepre-colonialdaysofAfrica’sgreatancient kingdoms.Thenarrativethenprogressedtoasectionrecallingthebrutalityand horroroftheslavetrade.Piper’ssecondandthirdsectionsrecalledthebarbarityof theMiddlePassage,lifeontheplantationandthedaysofslavery.Afourthpanel showedPiperasayoungCaribbeanimmigranttoBritain,callingtomindthe dapper-suitedyoungmenwho,havingarrivedasWestIndianmigrants,fullofconfidenceintheirabilitytomakegoodlivesforthemselvesinthe‘mothercountry’,often foundthemselvesonthereceivingendofthehostcommunity’sracismanddiscrimination.Thefifthpanel–depictingPiperasaconscious‘youtman’recalledthe‘riots’of theearly1980s–mentionedatthebeginningofthistextandthewaysinwhich‘the greatinsurrection’setthesocialandpoliticalagendaforyoungBlackBritain.(The yout inthispanelwearsthered,goldandgreencoloursbrieflydiscussedinrelation toMowbrayOdonkor’swork.)Thesixthpanellaidoutsomeoftheparametersof struggleandagendasformilitancythatPiperconsideredmustbeundertakenifapoliticallybrighterdaywastodawn.TheseventhandfinalpanelofPiper’shistoryanticipatedabright,liberatedfutureforaunited,socialistcontinentofAfrica,atoneandat peacewiththesonsanddaughtersofitsDiaspora,whosestrugglesforadvancementin Britainhadsimilarlybeenrewarded.Thougheachofthechronologicalsectionswas hugelyimportant,itwasperhapsthepanelsdepicting,orrecalling,theslaveryexperiencethatwerethemostarresting.
TheenslavedAfricaninPiper’ssecondpanelwasshownmanacledbyhisneck,a fewlinksofchaindanglingearthwards.Stencilled(or,moreaccuratelyperhaps, branded)ontothechestofPiper’ssecondincarnation,asacapturedAfrican boundforhell,werethewords‘PROPERTYOFTATE&LYLE’.Liberallyreproduced, asabackdroptothebustoftheenslavedAfrican,wasthefamiliarmotifofthe BrookesofLiverpool.Thus,withinthissectionofSevenRagesofMan,thelongstandinglinksbetweensugarandslaverywerefurtherilluminated.Inthisgrand, panoramicwork,Piper‘remembered’beingaslave,‘remembered’theMiddle Passageandbeingtransportedontheslaveship,‘remembered’workingontheplantation.Thiswasmuchmorethanempathy;thiswasalmostdirectmemoryofearlier existencesaswellassteadfasthopesandexpectations,basedonstruggle,fora brightertomorrow.
Tate&LylewasoneofthelargestproducersofsugarintheCaribbean,andoneof thelargestdistributorsofthecommodityintheUK,withahistorythatstretchesinevitably,albeitindirectly,backintothedaysofslavery.Inthemid-twentiethcentury,Tate &Lyle’sJamaicansugaroperationwasknownlocallyasWisco–theWestIndiesSugar Company,thedominantplayerintheindustryinJamaica.20 Forgoodmeasure,it mightbeaddedthatWiscowascaughtupinthelabourunrestandstrikesthattook
304 EddieChambers Downloaded by [Eddie Chambers] at 02:24 31 May 2013
placeinJamaicain1938andmarkedsuchanimportantepisodeinthatcountry’squest fordignityofthelabouringmassesandsubsequentdemandsfornationhood.21 Ina simplebutprofoundway,Pipervisuallylinkedpresent-dayconsumerismwiththe mostbrutallegaciesandexperiencesofslaveryaswellaspost-slaveryindustrial abusesoflabouronsugarplantations.Somethingassupposedlyinnocuousas buyingabagofsugarinasupermarketorusingasachetofsugarwithone’scupof coffeeortea–thesethingsareforcefullyandvisuallylinkedwithslavery,theslave tradeandexploitationoflabour.Furthermore,Piper’sworkmadenone-too-subtle referencestotheTateGalleryandthewaysinwhichtheTatecameintoexistencein largepartthroughtheendeavoursofSirHenryTate,sugarmerchantandonehalf oftheoriginalTate&Lyle.Asreflectedinthisworkandthe SugarCubeTate envisaged byDonaldRodney,itcouldbesaidthatoneofthegreatcornerstonesofBritishart oweditsexistencetoslavery.AndtheTatewasaninstitutionthathadtraditionally excluded,orfailedtorecognise,blackartists.Therefore,inPiper’swork,layerupon layerofmeaningwereaddedtohisremembranceofthedaysofslavery.
Inthisinstance,someofthatlayeredmeaningtooktheformofaccusationsofmarginalisationanddiscriminationbeinglevelledattheTateGalleryforitsapparenttreatmentofblackartists.Alongwithitsseemingfailureorinabilitytorecogniseblack artists,otherchargeswere,duringthe1980sandearlytomid-1990s,madeagainst theTate.Suchgrievanceswerethatitresistedtheacquisitionofworkbyblack artistsforitscollection,andfailedtodevelopblackaudiences,beingindifferentto thenotionthataudiencesmightexistinsomesortofculturalorethnicplurality.Similarly,saveforcateringstaff,guards,caretakersandsecuritystaff,theTatehadthe appearanceofnotbeinginclinedtoemployblackpeopleorotherwiseseektheirservicesascurators,librarians,archivistsandsoon.
GenDoydrewgrimattentiontotheabsenceofblackpeoplefromthegalleriesofthe country,includingtheTate,asseniorstaffandasvisitors,inapassageofherbook, BlackVisualCulture.Herrecollectionmadeuncomfortablereading,assheclearly assertedthattheonlyblackpresencethatexistedintheTateGallery,ontheoccasion ofhervisit,tooktheformofoftentimes-peripheralsubjectmatterinthepaintingsofa modestexhibit.WroteDoy,
IwasremindedofthemanytimesIhavevisitedexhibitionswhereallthegallery attendantswereblack,buttheexhibitiondirectorsandorganiserswerewhite.In particularInoticedwhenIvisitedthesmallexhibitionentitled Picturingblackness inBritishArt,attheTateGallery,London,acoupleofyearsago,theonlyblack personintheroomwhowasnotinapaintingwastheattendant.22
In1987,PiperagaindeployedtheBrookesofLiverpoolmotifinanengaging,expansiveseriesofphotomontagestitled GoWestYoungMan. 23 Thefamouswords‘GoWest. YoungMan,GoWest’werefirstusedinanewspapereditorialtoencouragethewestwardmigrationofAmericans,inthemiddleofthenineteenthcentury.Accordingto DavidC.King, WestwardExpansion (AmericanHeritage,AmericanVoicesseries),in 1851,anewspapereditornamedJohnB.L.Soulewrotethosewordsinanewspaper, the TerreHaute [Indiana] Express.HoraceGreenley,well-knowneditorofthe
Slavery&Abolition 305 Downloaded by [Eddie Chambers] at 02:24 31 May 2013
New-YorkTribune,wassoimpressedbytheenthusiasticeditorialthatheprintedthe entirepieceinthe Tribune. 24
Inabrilliantgesturethatservedtocounterorchallengethepathologythatitwas perfectlyinorderfortheAboriginalpeoplesofAmericatobedispossessedoftheir land,Piperjuxtaposedtheromanticisedadmonitionofthenewspapereditorialwith theimageoftheslaveship.Insodoing,hecreatedaplethoraofnewmeanings. Oneofthemoststrikingofthesenewmeaningswastheinterplaybetweenforced migrationandperhapsmorevoluntary(oratleast,lessforced)formsofmigration. TheUSAisacountryofimmigrants,withtwostrikingexceptions.First,thoseAboriginalpeoplesmassacredanddispossessedoftheirlandand,second,thosecaptured Africanswhoarrivedinchains,andweredestinedfortheauctionblock.Theromanticisedmemoryofnoblemigrants,westward-bound,tooknorespectfulaccount(or indeed,interestin)thewoefulexperiencesofthosetwohaplessgroupsofpeople. Piper,though,obligesustodoso,astheslaveshiprepresentsinthemostgraphic andviolentoftermsforcedtravel,forcedmovementandforcedmigration.Itisthis interplaybetweenthesentimentalportrayalofthefrontiersman,andthewretched existenceoftheslave,thatgavethefirstpanelofPiper’s GoWestYoungMan,such power.Similarly,thisinterplayactedasasubstantialandscene-settingintroduction totheother13partsofthehistoricalpanoramathatPiperagainoffered.
Inthenextdecade,the1990s,moreimaginativeandpoignantworkreferencing slaverywastobecreatedbyotherBlack-BritishartistssuchasGodfriedDonkor, MaryEvansandTamJoseph.That,though,isanotherstory.
Notes
[1]Foranaccountofthetragedy,seeCecilyJones,‘NewCrossFire’,in TheOxfordCompanionto BlackBritishHistory,ed.DavidDabydeen,JohnGilmore,andCecilyJones(Oxford:Oxford UniversityPress,2007),341–2.Seealso TheNewCrossMassacreStory:InterviewswithJohn LaRose (London:AllianceoftheBlackParentsMovement,BlackYouthMovementandThe RaceTodayCollective,1984)andPeterFryer,‘TheNewGeneration’,inFryer, StayingPower: TheHistoryofBlackPeopleinBritain (London:Pluto,1985),387–99.SeealsoStephen Cook,‘Unsolved:AccidentorArson?’, Unsolved 4,no.42(1984):829–48.
[2]SusanneEverett, HistoryofSlavery (Lincoln:BisonBooks,1978),46.
[3]KwameDawes, BobMarley:LyricalGenius (London:Sanctuary,2002),56.Formoreon‘Slave Driver’seealso‘SlaveDrive’in SoulRebel:TheStoriesBehindEveryBobMarleySong1962–1981,ed.MaureenSheridan(NewYork:Thunder’sMouthPress,1999),35.
[4]ForinformationandmaterialonDonaldRodney,seeRichardHylton,ed., Doublethink (essays byEddieChambersandVirginiaNimarkoh)(London:Autograph,2003)and‘HisCatechism: TheArtofDonaldRodney’, ThirdText 44(Autumn1998):43–54.
[5]Fromtheauthor’sintroductiontoKyleOnstott, Mandingo (NewYork:FawcettCrest,1978).
[6]FromthecoverofKyleOnstott, Drum (NewYork:FawcettCrest,1965).
[7]Therealitiesofsexualexploitationduringslaverywerealtogetherandimmeasurablymore brutal,violentandhorrificthanthesexualencountersdepictedinsex-and-slaverypulpfiction.
[8] BlackMarkets:ImagesofBlackPeopleinAdvertising&PackaginginBritain (1880–1990)(Manchester:Cornerhouse),27October–2December1990,thentouringtovenuesinWolverhampton,LondonandCoventry,betweenMarchandJuly1991.
[9]Artist’sstatementinthecatalogue BlackMarkets,n.p.
306 EddieChambers Downloaded by [Eddie Chambers] at 02:24 31 May 2013
[10]MartinMyrone, TateBritain (London:TatePublishing,2001),n.p.
[11]FormoreonAsafoflags,seePeterAdlerandNicholasBarnard, Asafo!:AfricanFlagsoftheFante (London:Thames&Hudson,1992).
[12]AnoriginalcopyisintheSpecialCollectionsDepartment,UniversityofVirginiaLibrary,which providesthefollowinginformation.
Menlinkedbyforkedlogs,childrenandwomenattachedbychainsorropes,withtheirAfrican guardsarmedwithguns.Captionreads:‘GangofCaptivesmetatMbame’sontheirwayto Tette.’ThescenewaswitnessedinJuly,1861.Mbamewasavillagechief,friendlytoLivingstone. Tette/Tete,avillage(nowatown)ontheZambeziRiver,locatedinpresent-dayWestern MozambiquewasthelastPortugueseoutpostontheZambezi.Thisimagewaspublishedin Harper’sNewMonthlyMagazine (vol.32[Dec.1865–May1866],719)notlongafterthe appearanceoftheNewYorkeditiontoaccompanyanarticle,‘Livingstone’sLastAfrican Expedition’(pp.709–23);thearticlegivesasummaryaccountoftheLivingstones’‘Narrative ofanExpedition’.ThecaptivesshowninthisillustrationweredestinedfortheEastAfrican trade Theimageanditshistoricalcontext,aswellassourcesinwhichitisfound,isdiscussed atlengthinJeromeHandlerandAnnisSteiner,‘IdentifyingPictorialImagesofAtlanticSlavery: ThreeCaseStudies’, SlaveryandAbolition 27(2006):52–4.
[13]IntheiconographyofRastafari,‘TheLionofJudah’symbolisestheEmperorHaileSelassieIof Ethiopia,whowascrownedin1930,takingthetitlesKingofKings,LordofLords,Conquering LionoftheTribeofJudah,ElectofGodandPoweroftheTrinity.RastafariansholdHaileSelassieinthehighestesteem,believinghimtobeadirectdescendantoftheIsraeliteTribeofJudah, tracinghislineagethroughthelineofKingDavidandSolomon.Further,Rastafariansassert thatHaileSelassieisthepersonageoftheLionofJudahmentionedintheNewTestament BookofRevelation.
[14]NicholasJ.Saunders,ed., ThePeoplesoftheCaribbean:AnEncyclopediaofArchaeologyandTraditionalCulture (SantaBarbara,CA:ABC-CLIO,2005),235.
[15]JohnPlummer, MovementofJahPeople:TheGrowthoftheRastafarians (Birmingham:Press Gang,1978),38.
[16]LeonardE.Barrett, TheRastafarians:TheDreadlocksofJamaica (Kingston,Jamaica:Heinemann/Sangsters,1977),143.
[17]AmarkedandpronouncedinterplaybetweenRastafarianismandJudaismcharacterisedoneof Rastafarianism’smostdominantsects,theTwelveTribesofIsrael.Adherentsof TwelveTribes are distinguished,inpart,bythetakingofthenameofoneofJacob’stwelvesons(Reuben,Simeon, Levi,Judah,Dan,Naphtali,Gad,Asher,Issachar,Zebulun,Joseph,andBenjamin),chosenon thebasisofthecalendarmonthinwhichthebelieverwasborn.‘Thus’,wroteStephenDavis, ‘blackpeoplewouldrecognizethemselvesasthetruelosttribesofIsrael,strugglinginBabyloniancaptivity,yearningforredemptionandZion.’SeeStephenDavis, BobMarley:Conquering LionofReggae (London:Plexus,1994),195.OneVernonCarrington,alsoknownastheProphet Gad,foundedtheTwelveTribessectin1968.SeeChrisPotash, Reggae,Rasta,Revolution: JamaicanMusicfromSkatoDub (London:BooksWithAttitude,1997),54.
[18]KeithPiper, PastImperfectFutureTense,TheBlack-ArtGallery,June7–July22,1984.
[19] UnityinAction:APhotographicHistoryoftheAfricanNationalCongress (London:African NationalCongress,n.d.,circa1982),122–3.
[20]MonaMacmillan, TheLandofLookBehind:AStudyofJamaica (London:Faber&Faber,1957),129.
[21]Ibid.,129.
[22]GenDoy, BlackVisualCulture:ModernityandPostmodernity (London:I.B.Tauris,2000),54.
[23]KeithPiper, GoWestYoungMan,photographonpapermountedonboard,in14parts,each: 840 × 560mmonpaper,unique.TateCollection.
[24]DavidC.King, WestwardExpansion (Hoboken,NJ:JohnWiley,2003),85.
Slavery&Abolition 307 Downloaded by [Eddie Chambers] at 02:24 31 May 2013
