Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela Ministry of Popular Power for Education IUP “Santiago Mariño” extentionmerida
Kingdom plantae
constituent: yulexy molina I.C. 20.940.660
October, 2013
Introduction In the world there is a great diversity of living things , will know an estimated 3 million different organisms , but it is said that there can be from 5 to 30 million of them without having the species extinct in the past. From the beginnings of human knowledge has been a need to classify the various agencies in the world , group and sort them according to anatomical, morphological , etc. . For they will come to the need for a classification system which studies the various features thereof, the beginning of these systems appears Aristotle is considered the father of botany as it is the first that begins to look a classification model .
The classification of living things or Botany as such is based on discipline encompassing taxonomy phylogeny and evolution of organisms . The modern systematic botany is a branch of botany that is not only based on the external morphology of the plant , also considers the anatomical constitution , their genetic traits , their ecology , their range , their ancestors , to try to form a system according to true affinities of plants , ie the degree of relationship between the various groups of plants. This topic classification system is subdivided into four groups which are: artificial , natural, and Cronquistengler which are the result of various studies from Greek philosophers like Aristotle and Linnaeus Carlvon through current reaching Adolf Engler and Arthur Cronquist .
Kingdom plantae United, the Latin word regnum, is a term with multiple uses and meanings. It may be the region ruled by a monarchy (where the highest office is held by a king) or the specific context of an activity. In the field of biology, a kingdom is one of the subdivisions that enables the distribution of living things according to their characteristics. The notion of kingdom plantae is part of biology. Plant is a taxon that is included within the category taxonomic kingdom. The most widespread meaning of this category overlaps with the object of interest of botany. PLANTAE MAY INCLUDE THE KINGDOM TO PLANTS , ALGAE , AND FUNGI CYANOBACTERIA . HOWEVER, THE USUAL LOCATED A CLASSIFICATION MORE ALGAE , FUNGI AND OTHER KINGDOMS CYANOBACTERIA , SO THE ONLY PLANTAE TAXON OF PLANTS TO include . THEREFORE, MAY BE SAID THAT THE UNITED PLANTAE ALL THOSE AGENCIES COVERED TYPE MULTICELLULAR , eukaryotic cell HAVING CELL WALLS AND ORGANIZED BY CERTAIN FUNCTIONAL SPECIALTY GRADES . PLANTAE MEMBERS RECEIVE THE UNITED ENERGY FROM SUNLIGHT THAT ABSORB THE CHLOROPHYLL THROUGH YOUR CELL CHLOROPLASTS . THROUGH PHOTOSYNTHESIS , H2O AND TRANSFORM THE SUGAR IN USING CO2 AS ENERGY SOURCE FOR SURVIVAL . LIVING THESE ALSO HAVE THE ABILITY nurture yourself ( are autotrophic ) THANKS TO THE MINERALS , WATER AND SUBSTANCES THAT COLLECT SOIL AND AIR . ALTHOUGH MOBILITY PLANTS ARE NOT SUCCESSFUL, EXPLORE THE SURROUNDING ENVIRONMENT AS BODIES THROUGH THE ROOTS , ABSORB WHAT ALLOWS NUTRIENTS TO DEVELOP DIVERSE PROTEIN AND OTHER MOLECULES . THE DIFFERENT KINDS AND REPRODUCTION THERE AROUND 400 MIL SPECIES THAT ARE INCLUDED IN THIS REALM WIDESPREAD ALL ALONG THE GLOBE , EXCEPT THE POLAR CAPS , MORE COLD REGIONS OF PLANET WHERE LIFE IS NOT POSSIBLE PLANT . THE UNITED AGENCIES CAN NOT MOVE BECAUSE PLANTAE ROOTS HAVE LAND gripping , HOWEVER , FOR PROCREATION , ITS SEEDS- SPORE YES MOVING TO SETTLE IN ANOTHER PLACE . SPORES ARE MADE BY CELL ONLY HAVE THAT ALL PLANT AND SPLIT TO MULTIPLY MOTHER AGENCY , IN THE CASE OF HIGHER PLANTS ( SOME TREES , PLANTS WITH FLOWERS )
MULTIPLICATION IS MADE FROM SEEDS THAT OFTEN MOVING THROUGH THE WIND OR OTHER BODIES LIVE FAR FROM WHERE IS YOUR PARENT TO BECOME A NEW KIND GUY . MENTION THAT FITS IN THIS KINGDOM , WE FIND FOUR KEY : mosses ( Bryophytes ) FERNS ( pteridophytes ) CONIFER ( GYMNOSPERMAE ) PLANTS AND FLOWERS ( ANGIOSPERMAE ) . Bryophytes BETWEEN PLANTS ARE OLDER OR NOT HAVE GLASS PIPES TO TRANSPORT AND OTHER MINERAL SUBSTANCES TO LIVE, FOR THIS REASON ENOUGH YOUR SIZE IS REDUCED IN COMPARISON WITH OTHER VEGETABLES. Pteridophytes , gymnosperms and angiosperms , HOWEVER, HAVE TWO TYPES OF VASCULAR TISSUE : ONE TO MOVE FROM THE GROUND WATER TO EACH AGENCY REGION CALLED XILEMA , AND ANOTHER TO DISTRIBUTE FOOD HAS BEEN PRODUCED FROM THE PHOTOSYNTHESIS , RECEIVING NAME phloem . IN REGARD TO THE TYPE OF PLAY AS WE HAVE ALREADY SAID BETWEEN DIFFERENT ONES AND OTHER . DO FERNS SPORES THROUGH , THE CONIFER WITH FLOWERS AND PLANTS FROM SEEDS , THE NAKED SEEDS HAVE FIRST , AS IS THE CASE OF THE PINES ( PINEAPPLE ) AND OTHER ARE COVERED BY THE FRUIT ( CHERRIES ) . CABE MENTION THAT THE EXISTING PLANT VARIETY are very extensive . MANY OF THEM HAVE BEEN DISCOVERED AND CLASSIFIED , OTHER . A NUMBER OF THEM FAIRLY HIGH , BUT ALSO BEEN OBSERVED SCIENTISTS AGREE NOT GET ABOUT HOW SHOULD classify AND IN A THIRD GROUP , ALL THOSE PLANTS ARE STILL UNKNOWN SONABSOLUTAMENTE ; VALE BELIEVED TO ADD ARE VERY MUCH .
VEGETABLE 1. - General Features : Plants are multicellular organisms whose cells are organized into tissues. their cells have a more rigid outer membrane rich in a substance called cellulose . They are autotrophs , which means that make their own food and they do from solar energy, carbon dioxide, air , minerals and water. (This process is called photosynthesis ) . Another feature of plants is that they can move on their own . Two . - Rating: • Bryophytes : These are plants that lack tubes for distribution of body fluids , such as result are small and live in places of high humidity. They reproduce through spores. Examples: Mosses . • Tracheophyta : They have ducts for the distribution of liquids by their body. Can reach large dimensions and resist drought periods as soil moisture taken through the roots. In the body can distinguish three parts: root, stem and leaves. There are three kinds of tracheophytes : ferns , gymnosperms and angiosperms . Ferns : They have large leaves called fronds . They have a small underground stem with roots. They reproduce by spores. Gymnosperms : are trees or shrubs leaf perennial . They have flowers though lacking calyx and corolla
so they are inconspicuous . There is a differentiation male and female flowers . Seeds develop in the female flowers generally in pineapple-shaped . They are usually wind pollinated . Typical species : Spruce , thuja , cypress, redwood , pino.Los beings. Rated 2 ďƒ˜ Angiosperms: Great variety of plants of all shapes and sizes. They have flowers with calyx and corolla are hermaphrodites ( male and female at the same time ) . many species are pollinated by insects. Examples: rose , apple , melon seeds brown . Three . - Nutrition : Plants make their own food ( autotrophic beings ) . its feed comprises three phases: 1. Take substances from soil and air. Two . Transform substances in food ( photosynthesis ) . Three . Distribute food. Also they need to breathe . 3.1 Entry of substances: water and mineral salts entering through the root hairs and form crude sap that rises through tubes called vessels woody . Carbon dioxide enters the leaves by a small openings called stomata . 3.2 Photosynthesis : The raw sap is combined with the carbon dioxide and becomes elaborated sap . Need light. Plants capture light through a
substance called chlorophyll. 3.3 elaborated sap Cast : The sap produced is distributed throughout the plant through Liberian vessels . The two types of sap never mix. Breathing: The plants take oxygen from the air and release dioxide carbon . Plants breathe continuously April . - Plant reproduction : 4.1 Sexual reproduction: Flowers are reproductive organs of plants. They have a male part and female part .the male formed by the stamens . They produce pollen. the part female is the gynoecium or pistil that contains the living óvulos.Los . Rated 3 Pollination is the transport of pollen grains from the stamens the gynoecium . Usually occurs between separate flowers . If the Pollination is by insects are often showy and fragrant and produce nectar. If the pollination by wind , no. After pollination the ovules develop into seeds and the rest of the gynoecium in fruit. The fruit contains a seed in inside. The seed contains an embryo with the temperature and humidity , germinates giving a new plant. 4.2 Asexual reproduction : Many plants can be reproduced without need for seeds or spores process that involves no sex cells : runners : horizontal stems in contact with the ground are
roots and lead to other plants. Example : strawberry plants . ďƒ˜Rhizomes : underground stems originate from other plants. Example : lawn ďƒ˜ Tubers: Stems underground that can form thickened new plants.
Plant Classification: History of Classification Systems The first real effort to develop a classification system began with the ancient Greeks. Around 350 BC , the Greek philosopher Aristotle divided the organisms into two groups : animal kingdom and plant kingdom, introduced the term species meaning " similar forms of life." Today the term species mean " a group of organisms of a particular class , closely related, they can interbreed and produce fertile offspring ." In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the scientists looked back in the standings. In the seventeenth century , the English botanist John Ray developed an improved classification system . He invented a method for classifying plant seed according to the seed structure , which is still used . Ray designed a system whereby each agency was given a Latin name , which consisted of a long scientific description of the organism.
ORIGINS OF BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM Greek Period Greek philosopher Aristotle founded logic. Conducted detailed studies of the nature and diversity organized based on all aspects of organisms and on the basis of differential characters . "Animals can be characterized according to their way of life , actions, habits and the different parts that make up your body " He grouped organisms into large groups and produced a more comprehensive system that folk taxonomies . He proposed that organisms could be classified according to their
degree of perfection , in what he called scalanaturae introducing the idea of lower and higher organisms . The Greeks used the term type (genus ) to designate groups of organisms representing a unit and " kind" ( eidos ) to designate each of the members of a genus . Its concept was very wide , so that gender applied to groups such as birds, trees or shrubs. They did not use hierarchical classification systems , organisms classified only by logical divisions . They introduced the idea of essentialism ( typological thinking ) : Everything we perceive that contains an unchanging essence alone has an objective reality . The variation between individuals of a species represents the various manifestations imperfect essential type . Sexuality was not the interest of naturalists to the s . XVII. TEOPHRASTO ( c. 370-287 BC) was a student of Plato and later Aristotle , after the death of both was the director of Lyceo ( Athens) with its gardens and libraries. Most of his writings are preserved as fragments or quotations from later authors. He authored the first plant classification system of the Western world plantarum History ... It tried using characters exomorphological 480 species . Distinguished between wild and cultivated plants , among trees , shrubs , herbs, including anuames , biennials and perennials . He recognized several important factors in the plant kingdom : external structural differences (organs ) and internal ( tissue ) . Flowering plants and plants without them. Inflorescences determinate and indeterminate . Ovary relative positions with respect to the set of floral parts ( einferosSuperos ovaries ) . Free Corollas or welded. Vegetative reproduction of sex . He recognized the fruit in its current ( pericarp ) and studied the development of these from the carpels and described different types of fruit. He understood that the calyx and corolla were merely transformed leaves . Many of the names used by him were followed by Linnaeus ( Asparragus , Narcissus or Daucus ) Dioscorides (first century BC) Military Medical Roman army but of Greek origin . Wrote what may be considered the first treatise on Botany : De MateriaMedica . In the described 600 species , mostly from personal observations. Medical uses recorded primarily from plants used as condiments , oils, dyes , etc. . There followed a classification too perfect but despite this was the reference book for a millennium (Middle Ages ) . In fact it was reworked numerous times during the Renaissance , in the s . XX. Font Quer made the last of his rewrites. He expressed a great sense of observation to recognize certain natural groups as some series of the Lamiaceae ,Apiaceae . Roman Period Less important than the previous one, following the Greek tradition without making too many changes . During the life of the Roman Empire included the figure of 6 Pliny ( 23-79 AD). Roman lawyer and historian of nature , was a prolific writer. His major work Natural Histories , was an attempt to describe any element of the world . Despite including many fantastical creatures based on myths and legends
served as a source of serious and respectable for over 1,000 years. ALBERTUS MAGNUS ( 1193-12 ?) . Generally accepted and copied to Theophrastus and Dioscorides . Was the first to recognize monocots and dicots through the vascular structure of the stems. Also separated nonvascular vascular plants . Herbalists (XVI -XVII ) During the Middle Ages many treaties were written and mainly followed the ancient Greeks . With the advent of printing was favored careful distribution of descriptions and illustrations of plants , it helped focus attention on the natural variation rather than serve a preconceived vision of how the change should be observed , which had prevailed since the antiquity and throughout the Middle Ages. The Herbalist began to rethink the grouping of organisms based on natural features. During the Renaissance there was an explosion in the production and distribution of knowledge . The Herbalist dominated the s . XVI. The botanical books or HERBOLARIOS were noted for their artwork and were the basis of the natural classifications although that was not its purpose and therefore many were simply sorted alphabetically. The main Herbalists include: O. Brunfels (1464-1534) : He was the first to establish differences between groups " Perfecti " and " Imperfecti " J. BOCK (1498-1554) : Like all Renaissance herbalists showed interest in the uses of plants. The creation of the first herbaria and the emergence in Europe of new plants brought from the New World and other expeditions increased knowledge of the plants at this time , allowing the establishment of natural groups that previously proposed trees, shrubs and herbs. From his observations came his treatise " Life History of Plants " . An example was his descriptions of the states by passing a Ranunculus over a year. L. Fuchs ( 1542 ) P. MATTIOLO ( 1544 ) W. TURNER ( 1551 ) M. DE L ` OBEL ( 1570 ) J. GERARD ( 1597 ) C. L' ECLUSE ( 1601 ) I Prof. Plant Systematics . Javier Estrada Botanical Garden Center 7 Faculty of Science ( ULA ) They copied a lot of the old myths and superstitions and included in their treaties. For these plants , given by the creator , had properties that should be discovered by men to be used. This mystical conception people have remained alive and still in certain currents of people eager to foods and natural medicines .
Its main importance is the development of knowledge of pharmacognosy more than the development of the taxonomy. The First Taxonomists : In the s XVII plants began to be interested in themselves and not as a source of food or medicinal or magical properties . A. Caesalpino (1519-1603) Italian , has been named the first taxonomist . Plantis In his book ( 1583 ) written trying to create a remote system utility plants and based on the assumption of the existence of characters more important than others 1,500 plants based mainly described the habit , fruit and seed shape and vegetative characters (type of fruit and seed produced , the presence of bulbs, milky juice ) and flowers ( ovary superior or inferior and number of locules of the ovary ) . Their classification TEOPHRASTO resembles more that of those used by the Herbalist . Use deductive reasoning giving importance to characters with functional significance , especially those involved in reproduction. Thus, your system recognizes many of the groups currently used ( Fagales , Leguminosae , Apiaceae , Brassicaceae , Boraginaceae and Asteraceae ) . Although not imposed , much of his thoughts influenced major later botanists . It was thought teleologist and leaves were made to protect the buds , the buds and fruits and plants had a " almanutricia " . He denied sexuality. The Swiss brothers J. Bauhin (1541-1631) and G. Bauhin (15601624) worked separately but with similar lines . The most important book of its production was BotaniciTheatriPinax( 1623 ) , 6000 it addresses the most important species and their synonyms and are the first to recognize the category of gender and binomial nomenclature used P. Magnolia (1638-1715) introduced the term family in the sense that is currently used . Each family has its own character set so that those who are important to a family may not be for others. J. P. OF TOURNEFORT (1656-1708) , French botanist wrote herbariaerei Institutions ( 1700 ) accepted the idea Bauhin genre , but though his system was very useful was very artificial , 9,000 recognized species grouped in 698 genera of 22 different classes. Linnaeus and His Apostles CARL VON LINNE ( CAROLUS LINNAUS ) (1707-1788 ) Swedish Botanical ( Uppsala ) . Founder of modern taxonomy (plants and animals) NOMENCLATURE ESTABLISHED BINOMIAL we use today gave order to the chaos on the knowledge of plants generates Pantarum( 1737 ) : Brief list of genres. Follow the path and TOURNEFORT Bahuin to give importance to the genre (many names come from their works , other older authors ) . There were 10 editions , the 5th is taxonomically the most important and is considered to couple with the 1st edition of Species plantarum ( 1753 ) Overall recognizes five taxonomic categories ( Class, Order , Genus , Species and Variety ) in which includes 7,700 species of 1,105 genera distributed in 24 classes and 65 orders are in accordance with the number
of pistils ( Monogynia , Digynia , etc. . ) . Artificial system , originally published in the SystemaNaturae ( 1753 ) The species are still called by a phrase or polinomen diagnostic but outside Linnaeus adds names ( and trivial ) ; quickly these trivial names plus the name of the genus to which they belonged were transformed by its usefulness in a very extended ( binomial nomenclature already applied in the Pinax G. TheatriBahuinBotanici of 1623) , but Linnaeus was the first who used it to apply to a complete system which included all known species . It is the starting point for the nomenclature of all plant groups except Bryophytes and some groups of algae. The sixth edition of Genera Plantarum is associated with the second edition of Species Plantarum in which are collected minor fixes and some new species The 3rd edition of the Species Plantarum is very similar to the second . The new species were published in Mantissa Plantarum ( 1767 ) and Mantissa Plantarum Altera ( 1771 ) The classification system organizes nature in an ordered hierarchical system of lower categories to higher faithfully following the Aristotelian conception . Highly artificial Although the system was simple and easily usable by anyone with minimal knowledge . ENGLER RATING SYSTEM : First published by Adolf Engler at the end of the last century and continued by his collaborators , and adapted several times by other researchers ( so you have many variants ) . It was one of the first who tried to be phylogenetic , and had many successes (which oddly today has become ) . Cronquist RATING SYSTEM : First published by Arthur Cronquist in 1981 and continued in 1988 , focusing on angiosperms , was probably the most used in recent years , until the arrival of the APG system . Was based primarily on morphology , had successes and failures . ANGIOSPERMAE CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM AND APG APG II : First published by the botanical group calling itself " Angiosperm Phylogeny Group" ( APG ) in 1998 and a second time ( for which called themselves " Angiosperm Phylogeny Group II " , or APG II ) in 2003 , is a system of classification of angiosperms . It was created by the need to see the advances in phylogeny derived from molecular DNA analysis reflected in a system of classification of flowering plants. The curiosity to publish under a group and not as list of authors , which is as normal , was to avoid the problem of the authorship of the work order . ANGIOSPERMAE CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM OF APW : The Angiosperm Phylogeny Website ( APW ) , created and updated by a member of the APG II ( PF Stevens ) , left the APG II classification in 2003 and was updating the table with each publication appeared since then. In 2003 was a reflection of the APG II system , but over the years has undergone modifications , and while it is the most
unstable ( as it is modified with each publication ) is also the one that comes closest to what is known today angiosperm phylogeny . Angiosperm classification system of APW CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM SMITH FERNS 2006 : First published in August 2006 , as the APG II system is a rating system created by the need to see reflected advances in phylogeny of ferns in a classification system of plants. Classify what today is called " ferns " ( clade Monilophyta ) , in classes, orders and families. The authors clarify that system are not yet sufficiently investigated genera and species molecular and genetic level , so it is not yet time to create a classification system of genera and species , and indeed some families are still poorly defined FIVE KINGDOMS WHY YOU NEED A CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM ? The land is inhabited by many life forms . I have discovered more than a million species of animals and 325,000 species of plants. Biologists suggest that there may be several million different species living on this planet . To bring order to this vast set of life forms have developed systems biologists to group or classify organisms . Taxonomy is the science of classification comprising more than identifying and naming organisms. A taxonomist ( the scientist who specializes in the taxonomy ) tries to understand the relationships between organisms and to identify and name organisms. A good classification system enables biologists to know many things about a body if you know the characteristics of the group to which they belong . HOW ORGANIZATIONS CLASSIFIED ? The classification of a species is based on the evolutionary history of the species. Many of the ideas that support the theory of evolution provide a useful basis for classifying an organism as a particular species . Today taxonomists classify the studied organisms in different ways. 1. We study the general structure of the body to try to find homologous structures . Two . We study the life cycle of the species to find a resemblance with foalsemrbiol贸gico groups of organisms. Three . We study the fossil record, if available , to show the relationships between organisms over time . April . Determines the degree of similarity between species biochemist . May .Studying the genetic similarity between chromosomes of different species.
LINNEO SYSTEM CLASSIFICATION
IMPROVEMENT
AND
OTHER
ATTEMPTS
TO
The Linnaean system was improved by the French Michel Adanson who introduced , in 1763 , the use of the concept of "family" plant and Bernard de Jussieu , and especially his nephew Antoine Laurent de Jussieu with the publication , in 1789 , his Genera plantarumsecundum natural ordinesdisposits . Augustus Pyramus de Candolle in 1813 made use of anatomical characters to set the primary divisions of vascular and cellular . Floristic studies and scans acquired in the s . XVIII drafted new boom and major local and regional floras on the upper floors. In contrast, the study of the cryptogams , which were only one of the 24 groups of Linnaeus , it became relevant to the nineteenth century , especially following the work of the German Alexander Braun , who in 1864 established the foundations of modern taxonomy especially in as regards the so-called lower plants . Several other classifications of attempted modifying Rivino , Ray , Tournefort and Hermann by Plummer, Boerliave , Knaut , Ruppio and Pontedera. They were followed by Magnolia , Ludwig and Siegesbeck people based on the calyx and fruit. Broterocavanilles and tried to further simplify the system of Linnaeus , but it continued to prevail for many years , until they came up with analytical keys . Since then, many other authors besides those already named , had more or less prominence , and made different classifications or modified existing ones, among them are the following: Bartling , in 1830 , Lindley , Bromhead and Endlicher until 1840. Meisner , between 1836 and 1843 , Adolph Brongniart in 1843 ; Sachs in 1868 , Van Tieghem and Eichler in 1883 or Adolf Engler in 1866. In short , any method of classification had unparalleled success Linnaean sexual system , thanks mainly to its binary nomenclature , precision and clarity of the descriptions and distinction of species and varieties , and the gathering of all known genres.
WHAT IS binomial nomenclature ? The binomial nomenclature (also called binary nomenclature ) is a standard convention used for naming the different species of organisms (living or extinct ) . Sometimes referred to as binomial nomenclature Binomial Classification System . As suggested by the word " binomial ", the scientific name assigned to a species is formed by the combination of two words ( "names" in Latin or Greco-Roman root ) : the genus name and the epithet or specific name. The combination of both is the scientific name that identifies each species as having " full name " . The standard binomial nomenclature is the point that applies to the designation of specific taxa , but it represents only one of the standards of biological nomenclature , which also
deals with the formal name (scientific) of taxa in other categories. The value of the binomial nomenclature system derives primarily : 1. of its economy : with only two words are enough to uniquely identify a species ; Two .its spread and widespread use : promoted and regulated by the scientific community for universal use. Three .and the relative stability of the names used , as they seek to preserve despite taxonomic and systematic changes .
Taxonomic Structure.The Classes. The branch of biological science that studies the methods and theory and practice of ranking ( ordering) . The term is first introduced by the botanist Swiss A. P. de Candolle Taxonomy is the science that deals with the principles of classification of living things . The current criteria accepted as the basis of the taxonomy is to reflect the phylogeny of the living and that takes into account the comparison of morphological, anatomical ,cytogenetics , etc. . TAXONOMIC CHARACTER CLASSES 1. MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS : Those who base form of organisms. Morphological characters have been the most used by taxonomists , because you can tell at a glance . Examples: the number of body segments and the number of legs or antennae, are morphological characters that distinguish the classes of arthropods : insects , crustaceans , arachnids , Diplopoda and Chilopoda .
Two . PHYSIOLOGICAL CHARACTERS : those that take into account the functions performed by living organisms . For example, the respiration rate is a physiological basis for differentiating the anaerobic and aerobic bacteria .
Three . CYTOLOGICAL CHARACTERS : Those that are obtained by studying the structure of cells forming organisms. Thus, the presence of chloroplasts and vacuoles are cytological characters that distinguish plants from animals.
April . BIOCHEMICAL CHARACTERS : are those derived from the study of the chemical composition of living things . For example, the chemical difference of hemoglobin, is a character that can distinguish the hominids (man) of pongids( chimp ) .
Reproduction in Higher Plants
Under normal circumstances , all living things reproduce , ie, give rise to other individuals with similar characteristics . This makes possible the perpetuation of existing species . In higher plants are two different forms of reproduction : sexual and asexual or vegetative , which occurs in some species by dividing clumps , cuttings , etc. . Sexual reproduction The flower is equipped with a female organ , the ovary and one male , the stamens . Both involved in sexual reproduction gives rise to seeds . In the stamens are one or more stamens . Each consisting of a filament yarn , at whose end there is a lump called anther. cross-section an anther
In the anther is performed the production of pollen grains. It houses the pollen sacs , which produce pollen grains . These grains are very small particles , which in the most common flowers can be seen as a kind of yellow or colored powder . For fertilization to occur, pollen grains must reach the gynoecium . The latter structure is formed by modified leaves called carpels and consists of three parts : ovary, style and stigma. Ova in the ovary grow ( at the origin of the seed) . The style is a tubelike structure that connects the ovary with the stigma , where it settles the pollen grain at fertilization .
The stigma secretes substances that hold the pollen grain and feed it so it can germinate. Grain follows then an extension , the pollen tube , which passes through the style and enters the ovary. For that migrates through generative nucleus which divides into two male gametes or sex cells. When one of these joins oosfera - the female gamete , directly into the egg - fertilization occurs and begin to differentiate the seed embryo . The other part of the generative nucleus fuses with the secondary nucleus has the egg to form a nutritive tissue that nourish the embryo . STAMENS DIFFERENT
Blueberry Strawberry Tree Acacia Creek cyclamen MedinilloPirola
The flowers are not all equal in terms of their morphology : some are full or hermaphrodite gineceo may lack other ( they are called male flowers ), or of androceo ( female flowers ) . They may also miss both : in this case the flowers are called neutral . This is one reason why some flowers are not self-fertilizing but perform outcrossing ( between two flowers of the same species ) . This type of fertilization also responds to evolutionary mechanisms that favor the combination of genetic material. That is why pollen can penetrate the stigma of the same flower or another flower of the same plant ( selfing ) . However, it is very common crossfertilization , in which the pollen grains penetrate the stigma of a flower located on another floor of the same species .
pollination For outcrossing occur , pollen must reach another plant . It focuses, wind , water , insects and birds. Based on these features three types of pollination :anemophilous , hydrophilic and zoophilic . In wind pollination , pollen grains are transported by wind and are scattered in the air. As you descend, alight on various surfaces , including flowers, some of which will be adequate . The wind-pollinated plants have flowers very simple and small , but
the stigmas are usually large, feathery and abundant viscous juices , to which pollen grains adhere easily. They reproduce by wind-pollinated grasses (wheat , rye , corn ) , conifers ( pine, fir ) and nettles , among others.
Hydrophilic pollination is taking place through the water . Only occurs in a few aquatic plants . In this case looks like filamentous pollen . Zoophilic pollination produced by higher animals . It involved ornithophilous if birds and insects entomophilous when engaged . To attract the animals , the flowers used various resources : bright colors , perfumes and producing delicious sweet juice called nectar. Insects and birds , seduced by these resources , land on flowers or penetrate them , and impregnated with pollen in different parts of the body. Later, fly to other plants , unintentionally deposited in them were transported grains . The perfumes emanating flowers attract insects from several feet away, the fumes are not always pleasant to humans . It is remarkable adaptive effort of many families of flowering plants in relation to insect pollinators . Thus, some flowers emanate her perfume during the day to attract diurnal insects , and others do it at night. TYPES OF STIGMA
Rhubarb Snuff colchicum Saffron SileneLino Yarrow Aconitum
Certain plants support only be pollinated by a particular species and other insects retain come to sip their nectar , so that they stay in bloom until well impregnated with pollen. Ovary can be placed in three positions . Each type will give rise to a different group . POSITIONS OF OVARIAN Ovary : When the ovary is located on the other floral whorls as eucalyptus.
Ovary inferior : When is enclosed in the receptacle , and lower than the other parts of the flower , as in the pumpkin .
Ovary medium : When the junction below the floral whorls , as in the peach .
Species Concept For other uses of this term , see species ( disambiguation ) . In taxonomy, called species (Latin species) , or more precisely biological species , each of the groups that divide the genders. A species is the basic unit of biological classification . For its name binomial nomenclature is used ,ie , each species is unambiguously defined with two words, for example , Homo sapiens , the human species . A species is often defined as a group of organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring. It is a group of natural populations whose members can interbreed , but they can not , or at least do not usually - with members of populations belonging to other species , therefore reproductive isolation with respect to other populations is crucial. In many cases , individuals who are separated from the original population and are isolated from the rest may reach a sufficient differentiation to become a new species (see speciation) . In short , a species is a group of organisms reproductively homogeneous , but very changeable over time and space . While in many cases this definition is adequate , it is often difficult to prove whether two populations can interbreed and bear fertile offspring ( for example, many
organizations can not be maintained in the laboratory long enough ) . Furthermore, it is impossible to apply to organisms that do not reproduce sexually , like bacteria, or fossil organisms . So now often applied molecular techniques such as those based on similarity delADN . Common names of plants and animals sometimes correspond with the biological species : for example, "lion" , " walrus " and " Camphor tree ". But very often this is not so , for example , the word "duck" refers to a score of species of various genres, including domestic duck .
Conclusion The need to establish relationships among the plants from their characters (eg morphology, anatomy , physiology, DNA structure, etc. . ) Lead to improved classification systems increasingly . Discipline Taxonomy covers ( which directs the plants in a classification system of plant organisms ) , phylogeny and evolution of plant organisms . The current systematic trends fitopaleontologĂa integrate in order to group plants according to their true affinities . Today systematic botanists are divided into two main trends on the one hand are those who still use traditional methods of biological classification , while on the other hand are class-based methods .
Actually, many systems have been created , and for determination of plants have been developed as analytical keys . Of these systems or classifications, artificial (called strictly systems ) characters used arbitrarily chosen for the distinction of divisions and subdivisions. Natural ( also called methods ) assume that living plants at present are derived from changes in different directions in common origin and thus have to be in family relationships . This relationship should be methodical expression clustering classification natural call .
References Internet: http://www.enciclopediadetareas.net/2011/03/nomenclatura-o-sistemabinomial.html http://www.slideshare.net/miribiologia/sistemas-de-clasificacin http://www.natureduca.com/botan_hist_clasifica1.php http://www.natureduca.com/botan_hist_clasifica2.php http://www.duiops.net/seresvivos/clasificacion_lsc.html
http://www.cienciaybiologia.com/botanica/generalidades/nomenclatura% 20botanica.htm Books: Miranda Cardenas, Arturo (2007) Planet plant life primary agencies. ISBN Sitte, P., Weiler, EW, Kadereit, JW, Bresinsky, A., Kรถrner, C. (2004). Strasburger Treaty of Botany. 35th Edition. Editions BOTANY. SerafinMazparrote, Francisco DELASCIO. Editorial Biosphere C. A. 1998. Caracas-Venezuela.