360 DEGREES THE LIFE CYCLE OF ALASKAN SALMON
Alaska’s rich watersheds create an ideal home for wild salmon. The land is laced with small springs and streams that feed rivers pouring into
pristine saltwater bays. Alaska is a place where salmon can thrive. The life cycle of the wild salmon is interwoven with all of nature in Alaska. Salmon carcasses are essential to the health of the land as pristine watershed conditions are to salmon. Alaskans cherish and honor the wild salmon and is woven into the lifeblood of Alaskans. Alaska is the last great stronghold for healthy stocks of wild Pacific salmon and we are responsible for sustaining this priceless resource.
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360 DEGREES THE LIFE CYCLE OF ALASKAN SALMON
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THE LIFE CYCLE OF ALASKAN SALMON
Compiled and Designed by Bianca Frank
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63 360 DEGREES
THE LIFE CYCLE OF ALASKAN SALMON
360 DEGREES THE LIFE CYCLE OF ALASKAN SALMON Book design copyright Š 2010 by Bianca Frank Published by Bianca Frank for course number GR330, Typography 3, instructor Carolina de Bartolo Fall 2010 at Academy of Art University, San Francisco, CA. Bound at The Key, Oakland, CA. All rights reserved.
DEDICATION For all the moments through this journey I’ve been on, I’d like to dedicate this book to the people in my life that have supported me fully along the entire way. To all my beautiful nieces and nephews Sierra, Olivia, Isaiah, Nadia, Rosie, David, Tony, Eve, Paul, and Isabella. You give me inspiration to keep on pursuing my dreams. I hope you all know if Aggie can do this, you can too! My son Henry, for his constant understanding and encouragement. Hearing you tell your friends “my mom’s an artist” makes me feel like one. And most importantly, my mom, for giving me the quiet, unassuming help that I need. And knowing how important this challenge has been for me and supporting me all of the way. I love you all.
EVERYONE SHARES THE OBLIGATION TO ENSURE THE MOST MAGNIFICENT OF ALL SPECIES IN ALASKA HAS A FRIEND. SALMON NEE OF ALL OF US.
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THE SALMON LIFE CYCLE
KINDS OF SALMON
THE SALMON HARVEST
HISTORY OF SALMON EVOLUTION
INTRODUCTION
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GLOSSARY OF TERMS
PARTNERS FOR SALMON CONSERVATION
PURE WATER PURE FISH
FARMED VS. WILD
COMMERCIAL FISHING & HATCHERIES
INTRODUCTION Everyone throughout the United States knows salmon; but people living at far inland or even as far along the Atlantic Coast do not know salmon as the people of the Pacific states know it. It’s as if they are magical as they have accomplished and provided great things with their bodies. They are survivors of the Ice Age and have weathered many storms of nature and still continued to thrive. They are a saltwater fish which spawns in fresh water. The Columbia River and the Puget sound country are especially noted for their fine salmon, and of course, Alaska. Alaskan’s cherish and honor the wild salmon. Whether drying on the racks of fish camp on the Yukon River, dancing on the end of an angler’s line, or flash frozen inside a fish processing plant, salmon are everywhere. From bulging salmon recipe collections on the kitchen counter, to T-shirts, jewelry, paintings and sculpture, salmon are part of Alaska’s daily life. Heralded in songs and dances, Native totems and icons, festivals and celebrations, the wild salmon is woven into the lifeblood of Alaskans.
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To cooks, gourmets, and fishermen alike, the salmon is the king of the all
360 DEGREES THE LIFE CYCLE OF ALASKAN SALMON
waters. The distinctive color of the flesh of a salmon is part of its attraction. It can vary from a very delicate pale pink to a much deeper shade, verging on red. In the Northwest, because of the various ethnic and cultural backgrounds, you can find salmon smoked hard in the Indian tradition and salmon smoked light in the Scottish tradition. It can also be as simple as a barbecued salmon dotted with butter and lemon. The Indian tribes of the Northwest look upon salmon with a great reverence and have special rituals and legends for the yearly salmon run. They look upon the salmon as life, as the salmon has nourished them physically and spiritually since the days when people first came to this region. They would migrate to the Columbia River each year during the spring and fall spawning season, when the salmon hurled themselves upstream from the Pacific Ocean to lay their eggs. During that time, the Columbia River was so thick with the countless salmon that the Indians simply speared or clubbed them to death from their canoes or from the river banks. What the Indians did not eat fresh, they would air-dry in the river winds to create a dried jerky. Commercial fishing for salmon began shortly after the arrival of Europeans on the West Coast. The Hudson’s Bay Company shipped salted salmon from Fort Langley to the Hawaiian Islands starting in 1835, and the first salmon cannery opened in 1876. By the turn of the century, up to 70 canneries were operational. The first gillnet fishing on the Columbia took place in the mid 1850’s even before the states of Washington and Oregon were founded, and before the Indian treaties were initially signed.
Alaska’s rich watersheds create an ideal home for wild salmon. The land is
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laced with small springs and streams that feed rivers pouring into pristine
INTRODUCTION
saltwater bays. Alaska is a place where salmon can thrive. The life cycle of wild salmon is interwoven with all of nature within Alaska. The salmons carcasses are as essential to the health of the land as pristine watershed conditions are to salmon. Imagine Alaska without salmon. In the lower 48 states and British Columbia, many salmon runs are in peril. Salmon have disappeared from much of their historical range in Washington, Idaho, Oregon, and California because of human activities. People in the Pacific Northwest are now working to save and restore many of their remaining salmon runs and habitat. Alaska is the last great stronghold for healthy stocks of wild Pacific salmon. We are responsible for sustaining this priceless biological resource.
CHAPTER ONE HISTORY OF SALMON EVOLUTION Salmon have been gradually evolving and adapting to changes in their environment for millions of years. In Alaska, humans have been harvesting and relying on Pacific salmon for less than 20,000 years. It has placed a huge amount of demands upon Pacific salmon and their habitats. Today, the survival of Pacific salmon depends upon our ability to protect, maintain, and restore salmon ecosystems in harmony with human development. The evolutionary story of salmon is still being studied. Clues found in the fossils tell a story of change and diversity. Most scientists agree that ancestors of the first salmonids (the family of fishes that include Pacific salmon) probably evolved in Northern Europe between 50 and 100 million years ago. Over the next 30 million years, first the whitefishes, then the char split from this common ancestor. Many scientists believe that salmon began as freshwater fish that resembled today’s Arctic grayling. Then the early salmonids (other species related to salmon) evolved to spend a portion of their lives in salt water. As the continental landmasses of Europe and America drifted apart, these fishes found their way along the coastline of Arctic Ocean to the Pacific Basin. These early salmonid species were able to adapt to certain changes in the environment. They also developed into distinct populations to fill new or expanding habitat opportunities. This adaptability to various habitats is an important part of the story of salmon.
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The five species of Pacific salmon that exist today probably started to
360 DEGREES THE LIFE CYCLE OF ALASKAN SALMON
appear about ten million years ago. It’s believed today’s Japanese cherry salmon evolved first. Then a nomadic descendant of the cherry salmon, the ancestor of rainbow trout, spread successfully from Asia all the way to North America. In the history of Native Americans, salmon have been fished for for thousands of years. They had a happy life with nature, honoring the salmon. Many legends of the Native Americans include salmon. The Natives used every part of the salmon. They used bones for tools, the meat part, and organs for food. Then the white settlers came. They fished for salmon, yet they did not use every part of the salmon’s body and the salmon population started to decrease. Later salteries and then canneries were developed. Salteries are places where people salt fish to preserve them. Canneries are the places where fish are canned to sell in stores. A few of these would be : Living Silver, Saginaw Bay, Loring and Tonka.They still only used the meat part of the salmon. The canneries poured the excess parts of the salmon into streams causing pollution. This caused the salmon to die faster. Hatcheries were built to save salmon. But salmon born in hatcheries could not find food, jump, or protect themselves as well as wild salmon. Dams were put up and since the salmon couldn’t get over the dams, some species started to die out like the Chinook salmon. Some people believe that this is the reason that some species are endangered. A few dams on the Columbia River are: the Bonneville Dam, The John Day Dam, The Dalles Dam, McNary Dam, Priest Rapids Dam, Rocky Island Dam, The Rocky Reach Dam, The Wells Dam, the Chief Joseph Dam, and The Grand Coulee Dam. There are also a lot of dams on the other major rivers in Washington State.
HABITA
THIS ADAPTABILITY TO VARIOUS ATS IS AN IMPORTANT PART OF TH SALMON STORY Many researchers believe that all five of the present day Pacific salmon
species found in Alaska evolved from the ancestors of rainbow trout. Scientists studying the genetic make-up of Pacific salmon know that rainbow trout, coho salmon, and chinook salmon are very closely related. Sockeye, chum and pink salmon evolved from this line somewhat later. Alaska’s five species of Pacific salmon evolved and established themselves four to six million years ago. About 1.8 million years ago the Pleistocene age began, it was a time of ice ages punctuated by warmer periods. With each glacial period, ice sheets that covered the land captured water from the oceans. This resulted vastly lowered sea levels and changes in salmon habitat. Populations of the salmon adapted slowly. As the climate cycle continued, the salmon populations have adapted to specific variations in their local habitats. Scientists have two major concerns for salmon today. We must preserve enough genetic variety so each species can adapt to climatic conditions. And we must preserve natural habitats so that local populations of wild salmon can thrive. The ability of salmon to gradually adapt to the changes in their environment helped them evolve to spend a portion of their lives in fresh and salt water. This adaptability carries a hidden price. The wild salmon need pristine fresh water and habitat for spawning and rearing, and the access to clean oceans rich with broad variety of food. Throughout their full and complex life cycle, salmon must have sufficient amounts of unpolluted water and undisturbed habitat in order to survive.
CHAPTER TWO THE HARVEST OF SALMON The harvest of salmon is an important part of Alaska’s history and will continue to play a major role well into our future. From the first Natives to make Alaska home, to commercial developments beginning in the late 1800s, to today’s personal use dipnetter and resident or tourist sport angler, catching salmon is vital to the economic and cultural strength of the state of Alaska. Today, state regulations define four categories of users who may harvest salmon: commercial, subsistence, sport, and personal use. To participate in subsistence and personal use fisheries, you must be an Alaskan resident. Commercial and sport fish licenses are available to nonresidents as well as many resident Alaskans. While there is a priority in Alaska for subsistence users, and commercial fishing accounts for the vast majority of salmon harvested. Commercial salmon fishing provides jobs for fishing families, the processing industry, and in the sales of high end quality wild salmon products. Even though sport, subsistence, and personal use account for less than four percent of the total annual salmon catch statewide, these fish are a principal food source for many families and are important to the cultural and spiritual vitality of many Alaskans.
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Most salmon spawn in the small tributaries and streams that flow into
360 DEGREES THE LIFE CYCLE OF ALASKAN SALMON
larger rivers. In Alaska, small streams produce more salmon than many large rivers.
COPPER RIVER Copper River salmon are among the first commercially caught Alaska salmon to reach markets each year. They are very high in fish oils and command a premium retail price worldwide. YUKON RIVER Alaska’s longest river hosts runs of salmon relied upon primarily by Native peoples from its headwaters in Canada to the edge of the river’s mouth. KUSKOKWIM RIVER Once a mainstay of subsistence fishing, some runs of salmon in the Kuskokwim River have had very weak returns in recent years. Many scientists believe changes in ocean conditions are affecting the survival of these stocks. SUSITNA RIVER WATERSHED The Susitna River drainage is home to many important salmon populations. Half of the state’s human population has quick access to portions of this watershed for recreational fishing. KENAI RIVER The area’s rivers and streams are home to all five salmon species found in Alaska, contain millions of fish, and spawn the largest Chinook salmon in the world. Historically the marine waters off the Kenai Peninsula are of great importance to commercial fishermen. For sport anglers, this is the most popular spot in Alaska, drawing tens of thousands of resident and nonresident anglers each season. KODIAK ISLAND Kodiak is often referred to as the heart of commercial fishing in Alaska. SITUK RIVER The Situk River is the premier steelhead river in Alaska and a great producer of salmon. SOUTHEAST ALASKA Thousands of short, productive, coastal rivers make Southeast a fisherman’s paradise. Nearly half of all commercially caught Alaskan salmon are harvested in this popular region of Southeast, Alaska.
Yukon River
Kuskokwim River Susitna River Copper River
Kenai River
Nushayak River
Alaska has 44,000 miles of coastline, 365,000 miles of rivers and streams, and more than a million lakes. Streams, rivers, and lakes serve as salmon migration corridors and their underlying gravel provides spawning and rearing habitat.
Tanana River
ALASKA SALMON PRODUCING AREAS
Colville River
Noatak River
Kobuk River
Yukon River Yukon River
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FROM THE BEGINNING The first Native hunters to enter North America prob-
360 DEGREES THE LIFE CYCLE OF ALASKAN SALMON
ably followed and hunted the great herds of land mammals, such as the mastodon, for food. From recent archaeology, it appears that other people probably traveled along the continental shelf during glacial periods when much of the ocean’s water was frozen in the great ice sheets covering North America. These first coastal Native people probably also caught salmon that filled the rivers of the Pacific Northwest and Alaska each year. All along the North Pacific rim, the wealth of salmon allowed the Native cultures to flourish. Native people from all parts of Alaska relied upon salmon for food. The Yupiit and Inupiat along the coast and lower reaches of the great rivers and Athabaskans of the Interior harvested salmon as part of their diet and as food for their dogs. SUBSISTENCE HARVEST Many Alaskans engage in customary and traditional harvest of salmon and other fish, wildlife, and plant resources. Fish, game, and plants are often used for food, clothing, tools, transportation, and arts particularly within rural and Native Alaskan communities. These uses are known as subsistence. Subsistence harvests of salmon account less than 3% of the annual Alaska salmon harvest, but they are very important o the families, communities and cultures that depend on subsistence. In spite of spirited debate over the allocation and management of subsistence in Alaska, subsistence salmon fishing is widely regarded as essential.
SPORT SALMON FISHING Sport fishing began in Europe over 2,000 years
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ago. The roots of sport fishing for Pacific salmon go as far back as the first
THE HARVEST OF SALMON
European explorers. During the early years of the nineteenth century, Naval officers on voyages of exploration fished for relocation. A rod and reel were often part of the kit of prospectors during the gold rush, and in Juneau, many miners fished on the Fourth of July, their one-day off each summer. Today, anglers come from all over the world to pursue Alaska’s world famous salmon. To many people, a sport fishing trip to Alaska brings images of halibut the size of hang gliders and schools of salmon so this you think you could walk across their backs. Fishing and fish viewing are major parts of the most rapidly growing portion of Alaska’s economy and tourism. According to the Division of Tourism, more tourists come to Alaska to view wildlife and to sport fish that for any other reason. Anglers fish year-round for Chinook in Southeast Alaska. All over the downtown Anchorage area, fishermen in three piece suits and hip boots pursue giant king salmon in Ship Creek while on their lunch hour. Anglers will stand shoulder to shoulder on the Kenai River fishing for sockeye. They sometimes stand in two ranks, one behind the other, to cast for king salmon at Willow Creek in Susitna Valley. And angers in the Thorne River, on Prince of Wales Island, fly fishing for steelhead every month of the year. And sometimes it even seems that everyone in Alaska has gone fishing.
CHAPTER THREE KINDS OF SALMON Every summer, millions of salmon return to Alaska’s streams and rivers to spawn, where they are eagerly greeted by thousands of fishermen. Even sport-fishermen from all around the world travel to the Alaska to catch trophy-size salmon. King, Sockeye, Coho, and Chum salmon are the most popular being bright, firm, and rich in flavor. Alaska is also the home of legendary Copper River salmon and the Yukon River salmon which seem to be among the most sought-after, and tastiest, salmon in the world. Wild Alaska salmon are harvested commercially in all coastal regions of Alaska. Salmon are troll-caught, gill-netted, and purse seined throughout the summer months. Alaska harvests only wild, and not farmed, salmon. Salmon is a kind of teleost fish. There are many different kinds of salmon. Salmon belong to the same family of fish as the trout. Most kinds of salmon live in salt water, or migrate between rivers and the sea. Many people like to eat salmon, so the fish is also grown in fish farms. Usual ways to create food out of salmon are smoking, cold smoking and graving. Salmon are killed by people, other fish and their environment. It turns out that Pacific Salmon, in their own way, are providing for their offspring. When salmon swim upstream, they are returning to the waters where they themselves hatched years before — their bodies plump with eggs as well as the bounty of the seas.
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After spawning, they leave their nutrient-rich carcasses behind. Many of
360 DEGREES THE LIFE CYCLE OF ALASKAN SALMON
the microscopic creatures that nibble on the carcasses eventually become prey for the next generation of fish. And so the parents nourish the young. But salmon provide more than an indirect food source for baby salmon. At least 137 different species — from grizzly bears to gray wolves — depend on salmon for part of their diet. Even trees and plants benefit from the nutrients brought back by salmon from the seas. It is awe inspiring when you think about it. This mighty fish struggles up stream, jumping waterfalls, and its last act is sacrificing its body to ensure that the community that will raise its children will be thriving, teeming with life.
SALMON ANATOMY
CAUDAL FIN
ANAL FIN
ADIPOSE FIN
PELVIC FIN
LATERAL LINE
DORSAL FIN
PECTORAL FIN
GILL COVER
Color Adult king salmon typically have blue-green backs with bright silvery
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flanks and white bellies. Their backs, dorsal fin, and tail are marked with
KINDS OF SALMON
black spots. Spawning adults lose their silvery bright coloration and take on an olive-brown to purple coloration, with males looking darker than the females, and develop reddish hues around their fins and belly. Shape Adult king salmon are a robust looking fish. When they spawn, their teeth become enlarged and their snout develops into a hook. Spawning males will also develop a hooked snout and slightly humped shoulder which is absent in all adult spawning females. Size Adult king salmon are typically 25 to 50 pounds with 60 to 80 pound king salmon not uncommon among sport fishermen and commercial catches. They typically can range between 2 to 4 feet in length. Because of their size, they’re well recognized for their power.
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SPECIES OF SALMON Five of the seven existing species of Pacific salmon
360 DEGREES THE LIFE CYCLE OF ALASKAN SALMON
spawn in Alaska. The other two species, cherry and satsukimasu, spawn in Asian waters. Many other salmonids also live in Alaska’s fresh waters. Alaska’s rainbow and cutthroat trout are now classified with Pacific salmon as members of the genus Oncorhynchus. Salmon are anadromous, which means they spawn in fresh water and they migrate to salt water to feed and grow. They undergo several changes in color and appearance during this life cycle. The common names of Alaska’s five Pacific salmon species are Chinook, coho, sockeye, chum and the pink salmon. In different parts of Alaska they go by different names. King Salmon (silver) Alaska’s state fish, the coveted king salmon, is by far the most desired salmon Alaska has to offer. They’re the largest and the scarcest of the five species of Alaska salmon, bearing the highest amounts of Omega-3 oils of all Alaskan salmon. Because of this high oil content, they are considered to be the richest salmon in the world. Furthermore, the king salmon one of the most important sport and commercial fish in North America, and the most commercially valuable of all of the Alaska’s salmon species. They are the king of all of the salmon species. King salmon are wildly abundant from the southern panhandle of Alaska to as far up the northwest coast as Kotzebue Sound. Considerably large runs return inland hundreds of miles up and through the Yukon, Kuskokwim, Nushagak, Susitna, Kenai, Copper, Alsek, Taku, and Stikine rivers, as well as many other streams and rivers. In scientific terms, king salmon is called “Oncorhynchus tshawytscha.” The name Oncorhynchus means hooked snout, and tshawytscha is the name given to these fish by the people of the Kamchatka Peninsula, in Russia. The largest King salmon ever caught weighed in at 126 pounds. It was caught in a fish wheel near Petersburg, Alaska in 1949. The largest sportcaught king salmon was 97 pounds and caught on the Kenai River in 1985, by Les Anderson.
Red Salmon (sockeye) Blue-tinged silver in color, sockeye salmon live four
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to five years. They weigh up to 7 pounds, and are the slimmest and most
KINDS OF SALMON
streamlined of the five species of Alaskan salmon. Known to fishermen as reds, the sockeye is a valuable fish because of its high oil content and ability to hold its bright red flesh color. Silver Salmon (coho) Bright silver in color, coho salmon live three years, weigh up to 15 pounds, and are a popular game fish sought by sport fishers. Coho are known as silvers when caught before full maturity. They are the most popular game fish of the salmon family, as well as one of the most valuable commercial species. Chum Salmon (keta) Resembling sockeye, chum salmon have black specks all over their silvery sides. They live three to five years, and weigh up to 10 pounds. Also known as Keta and Silverbrite salmon. Pink Salmon (humpy) Living only two years, pinks are the smallest of the Pacific salmon, weighing up to 5 pounds, and have heavily spotted backs over silver bodies. Pink salmon are the most plentiful of the five species.
Males in breeding dress
KINDS OF SALMON
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SOCKEYE SALMON Oncorhynchus nerka Both sexes are distinguished from other species by the distinctive red-and-green coloration Males develop a moderate hump and elongated jaws. The head is pale green with dark upper jaw contrasting with the white lower one.
COHO SALMON Oncorhynchus kisuch The males develop a distinct hook on the upper jaw; they are brick red to bright red on the flanks, greenish on the back and dark on the belly.
PINK SALMON Oncorhynchus gorbushcha The huge, laterally flattened hump of the male is characteristic. The flanks are reddish to yellowish with dull vertical streaks. The jaws are elongated, the snout moderately hooked.
CHINOOK SALMON Oncorhynchus tshawytscha Spawners lack the pronounced breeding dress of other species. Females become dark brown to black; the males have moderately enlarged jaws and dull yellow or reddish flanks. A distinctive feature is the spotting on body, dorsal fin and both lobes of the tail.
CHUM SALMON Oncorhynchus keta The massively developed fans on spawning males. The flanks have distinct vertical streaks of black or reddish with dull green spaces.
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VALUE OF COMMERCIAL FISHING CANNOT BE MEASURED IN COMMERCIAL FISHING SUPPORTS LIFESTYLE FOR MA
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economic fabric of North America’s Pacific coast. Along with a cultural and
KINDS OF SALMON
DOLLARS A ANY.
THE VALUE OF SALMON Salmon play an important role in the social and historical value intricately woven into the society, the economic value of the salmon has a tremendous impact on the quality of life. Tribal groups and First Nations of the region depend upon the magnificent Pacific Salmon in almost every facet of their existence. The fish hold a central place in the ceremonial, subsistence and commercial aspects of these people’s lives. Each year the commercial and recreational salmon fisheries are worth millions of dollars to the economies of both the United States and Canada. The impact of the Pacific salmon fisheries can be seen around the tens of thousands of jobs and scores of industries they support. A partial list of fishing-dependent businesses would include marina operations, processing industries, transportation, fuel sales, boat building and repair, retail fish sales, tackle manufacturers and distributors, hotels, restaurants and resorts. The Pacific Salmon Treaty provides strong assurance of a more stable and prosperous future for many such enterprises.
CHAPTER FOUR THE LIFE CYCLE Alaska salmon have a most interesting life. One that takes them from the rivers and streams of Alaska’s wild frontier, all the way to the high seas of the Pacific Ocean, and back again. In fact, right back to the very place they were born. How they find their way back from the immensity of the Pacific Ocean is a small feat in itself. Not to mention, that they swim from fresh water to salt water and back again. The salmon life cycle is famous in the fish world and justifiably so. The odds against the survival of a fish from egg to spawning are huge. The epic journey from the spawning grounds to the sea and the return to spawn in the same spot years later is also a remarkable feat. Salmon and other native fish play an important role in maintaining the health and diversity of Alaska’s aquatic ecosystems. Fish occupy many levels in aquatic food chains throughout their entire lives. Salmon eggs, newly hatched alevin, and fry are important food for other fish, birds, and aquatic insects. Adult fish serve as food for bears, eagles, mink, otter, other fish, and humans. Fish carcasses release accumulated nutrients to restart the food chain and nourish plant life in the riparian zone. Pacific salmon start their lives as freshwater fish, then change and develop the ability to live and grow in the ocean where they mature.They return to the freshwater streams as adult fish to reproduce and subsequently die.
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After returning from the ocean, the female’s eggs ripen within her. When
360 DEGREES THE LIFE CYCLE OF ALASKAN SALMON
her eggs are ripe, she locates a suitable spawning area and hollows out a redd in the gravel with her tail. Each species of salmon looks for different qualities in the perfect habitat that they choose for redds.All good salmon nesting habitats have some similar features; clean, fresh and well oxygenated water, gravel of the correct size and depth, constant cold water temperature, water velocity of the correct speed, and appropriate water depth. While the female is busy making her redd, male salmon hover along nearby, fighting for breeding rights. The winning male waits until the female settles into her redd to expel her eggs, and then he moves in next to her to fertilize the freshly laid eggs with his sperm or milt. The female will then covers the fertilized eggs with gravel and beginsbuilding another redd to deposit more eggs. One male may fertilize several different redds. One female may build several redds which may be fertilized by different males each and every time. The eggs, now safely buried in the streambed, develop slowly. In winter or early spring, the developing salmon break though the egg’s think shell. Around this stage the young salmon, called alevins, still have a yolk sac attached to the under belly of their small abdomens. The alevins rely upon the yolk sac for food and depend on the surrounding gravel for protection or cover. When the young fish, now called fry, use up their yolk sac, they struggle out of the gravel bed into the free-flowing stream or river water.
Once the fry emerge, they seek different kinds of rearing habitat. Young
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Chinook salmon like slow moving water along the naturally vegetated
THE LIFE CYCLE
banks. Juvenile Coho salmon like still water, lakes, beaver dams, and the wetlands. Sockeye salmon rear in lakes or calm pools, pink and chum fry swim quickly out to sea. By using different rearing habitats, several salmon species can share the same watershed environment as a place to find food and cover. This is called habitat partitioning. After one to two years for Chinook, on to five years for Coho, and up to four years for sockeye, salmon become smolts. Instead of staying in the slow waters close to the bank or river bottom, they swim up against the surface currents. This helps them migrate downstream to saltwater estuary areas at the mouths of their home rivers. In estuaries, where fresh and salt water meet smolts undergo a series of internal and external changes that will allow them to live in the salty environment of the ocean. Salmon spend different amounts of time living in the ocean, depending on the species and stock. After spending from six months to six years feeding and maturing at sea, adult salmon are drawn back to spawn in the streams where they were hatched. Scientists are still not certain how salmon find their way from the far reaches of the Salmon go to sea in search of food. There are not enough bugs or other fish in fresh waters to feed the great numbers of growing salon. However the cold waters of the North Pacific Ocean can be very productive and salmon grow rapidly, feeding in a variety of prey species.
Eggs are safely buried in the stream bed by the female, and males move in to fertilize the freshly laid eggs.
STAGES OF SALMON DEVELOPMENT
Alaska salmon have developed a very complex life cycle and have adapted to varied environments over the past ten million years.
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Alevins rely upon the yolk sac for food and depend on the surrounding gravel for protection.
Fry emerge as small fish that find various rearing habitats.
Spawning adult salmon returns to fresh water to lay eggs, fertilize eggs, and then die.
Adult salt water salmon grows in size substantially for 1-6 years in the ocean.
Smolts develop and go through a series of internal and external changes in habitat, diet, and location.
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North Pacific to their home waters. Combinations of factors, including
360 DEGREES THE LIFE CYCLE OF ALASKAN SALMON
ocean currents, the position of the sun, even the magnetic north pole,have been considered to explain how salmon navigate back to coastal areas. None of these theories have been proven. We do know that salmon have an ncredible,finely tuned, sensitive sense of smell that helps guide them back to the exact stream where they were originally born. Adult salmon occasionally stray from their own original streams of origin and spawn in other streams.This behavior contributes to the diversity and health of the wild salmon populations, and allows salmon to rapidly colonize new breeding areas. All pacific salmon die after spawning. This appears to be a great waste of fish. Actually, the survival of future generations of salmon and the longterm health of entire watersheds depend upon these carcasses. In streams, caddis fly larvae feed on salmon carcasses. The larvae sometimes provide half the food for young salmon. The remains of salmon that have been dragged onto the banks by wildlife are soon covered with other fly larvae. During heavy rains, these maggots wash back into the stream and feed fish. In this way, the death of adult salmon supports the vast life throughout the watershed, including the young they have spawned.Flesh from carcasses also provides fresh food directly to young salmon and any other fish.
Salmon carcasses are rich in nutrients important to fish, wildlife, and the
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plants. Because of its geologic history, much of Alaska’s topsoil is think
THE LIFE CYCLE
and lacking in nutrients. Nearly every creatures, bears, wolves, eagle and mink to small birds,or shrews and insects, spread uneaten pieces of the salmon and salmon-rich feces throughout the watershed. This fertilized the land and provides necessary minerals and organic material to the land and water. Each dying salmon is a gift of life to the entire ecosystem. Wild Pacific salmon are resilient organisms. However, the cumulative stresses are wiping out wild salmon. Currently, they are experiencing death by a thousand cuts. Sustainability of this valuable resource requires that managers address the underlying problems from population stressors and not merely try to cover up the symptoms. The mysterious secret world of the salmon is has encapsulated many of us. Bristol Bay, is an excellent place to view millions of spawning Sockeye salmon. The Kenai River also has several viewing opportunities for salmon such as Coho, Pinks, Chinook and Chum. Visit the hatchery during spawning season for a glimpse into the fascinating world of the salmon.
CHAPTER FIVE COMMERCIAL FISHING AND HATCHERIES The commercial harvest of salmon in Alaska began during the Russian occupation in the 1860s when fish were salted and sent back to Russia. In 1878, the first cannery was built at Klawock in Southeast Alaska. Just eleven years later, thirty-seven canneries were operating in Alaska. The history of commercial salmon fishing in Alaska during the years before statehood is one of boom and bust. Soldiers in both World Wars were fed with Alaska salmon. During the Great Depression of the 1930s, canned salmon became an inexpensive food for families in need. In 1936, a peak of 129 million fish was harvested. Salmon harvests then fell, averaging 41 million fish a year from 1951 to 1959. In 1953, President Eisenhower declared Alaska a federal disaster area due to the poor fishing, mainly caused by substantial overharvesting.
ASKA’S CONSTITUTION PROTECTS MANAGEMENT AND UTILIZATIO FISH, FOREST, WILDLIFE, GRASSLANDS AND ALL REPLENI SOURCES
ISHABLE
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waters are the basis for one of Alaska’s most important industries and
COMMERCIAL FISHING AND HATCHERIES
ON
The salmon returning to Alaskan stream and rearing in Alaskan fresh underpin a traditional subsistence lifestyle within rural portions of the State. From 2000–2004, on the average, harvest of salmon sold by commercial fishermen in Alaska was almost 157 million fish (about 742 million pounds). The value of the commercial harvest varies both with the size of the runs and with foreign currency exchange rates. Average annual value of the 2000–2004 harvest was in excess of $230 million. Because of the magnitude of commercial fisheries and of salmon, state biologists collect extensive information and statistics for management decisions. Alaska also has very important sport and subsistence fisheries for salmon. The Alaska Commercial Fisheries Entry Commission (CFEC) helps to conserve and maintain the economic health of Alaska’s commercial fisheries by limiting the number of participating fishers. They issue permits and vessel licenses to qualified individuals in both the limited and unlimited fisheries, and we provide due process hearings and appeals. If you wish to contact in-season managers of Alaska commercial fisheries or find rules controlling fishers and their harvest during Alaska’s commercial fishing seasons. These are all regulated by the Commercial Fisheries Division of the Alaska Deptartment of Fish & Game.
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HISTORY Alaska did not always have healthy stocks of salmon. The salmon
360 DEGREES THE LIFE CYCLE OF ALASKAN SALMON
catch grew very rapidly with the expansion of the cannery capacity through 1920. This led to over fishing, which resulted in such low salmon stocks that President Eisenhower declared Alaska a federal disaster area in 1953. In fact, in 1959, statewide harvests totaled only about 25 million salmon, which is less than 20% of current sustained production. This was a major factor in the declines of the Alaska salmon fishery that occurred between 1920 and 1959. Alaska achieved statehood in the year of 1959. After analysis, it was very clear that the reason for the decline was the lack of implementation of the primary federal policies in place before statehood. Furthermore, the federal government failed to provide the financial resources needed to manage and research salmon stocks and fisheries that fishing could be regulated and a depressed stock could be rehabilitated. The decline was temporarily arrested after Alaska became a state and instituted new dramatic conservation and environmental measures. The inexorable entry of more technological fishing gear coincided with the further decline to record low levels in 1972. This decline helped promote the enclosure of the salmon fishery in 1973 under a limited entry permit system. Since then the catch has rebounded to near-record levels due to Alaska’s salmon management.
POLICIES When Alaska changed from federal management of its fisher-
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ies to state management in 1959. Alaska’s constitution has an article
COMMERCIAL FISHING AND HATCHERIES
regarding the management and utilization of the state’s natural resources. Article VIII, Section 4 states: “Fish, forests, wildlife, grasslands, and all replenishable resources belonging to the State shall be utilized, developed, and maintained on the sustained yield principle, subject to preferences among beneficial uses.”The Alaska Department of Fish and Game was formed when Alaska became a state. While the Alaska Department of Fish and Game was formed with a strong conservation mandate to manage the salmon fisheries for sustained yield, the Alaska Board of Fisheries, on the other hand, was given the responsibility for allocating that yield of salmon to users.The clear separation of primary conservation authority from allocation authority is one of the strengths of the Alaskan fishery management system opeartions. The dominant goal is the primary harvest policy known as “fixed escapement,” or ensuring that sufficient numbers of adult spawning salmon escape capture in the fishery and are allowed to spawn in the rivers, and thus maintaining the long-term health of the stocks. Salmon managers open and close fisheries on a daily basis to ensure that there is adequate spawning escapements are achieved. When run failures occur, managers close fisheries to provide for predetermined escapement needs and therefore ensuring long-term sustainable yields. When run strength is strong, managers liberalize harvest regulations to utilize the abundant surpluses.
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Bering Sea
KING SALMON FISHING AREAS spawning salmon catch areas Alaska salmon concentrations
Yukon River
Bristol Bay
Chignik
Cook Inlet
Copper River
Southeast
Gulf of Alaska
The salmon returning to Alaskan stream and rearing in Alaskan waters are the basis for one of Alaska’s most important industries and underpin a traditional subsistence lifestyle in rural portions of the State. Fishery management plans give top priority to the subsistence use of fish resources.
Alaska
ALASKA SALMON COMMERCIAL FISHING AREAS
57
Arctic Ocean
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LIMITED ENTRY ACT The Alaskan legislature adopted the Limited Entry Act,
360 DEGREES THE LIFE CYCLE OF ALASKAN SALMON
establishing the current limited entry system for the salmon fisheries. The Commercial Fisheries Entry Commission (CFEC) administers the commercial fishery entry permit system. The objective of the CFEC is to “limit entry into commercial fisheries and provide annual licensing and permitting of fisheries to facilitate the management and development fishery resources for maximum benefit of those dependent upon them and the economy of the state of Alaska.” The limited entry permit system has been the most beneficial to Alaska’s fisheries in several ways. Implementation of the Limited Entry Act protected Alaska’s fisheries from an influx of new fishermen from West Coast fisheries where fishing opportunities have been severely reduced by court decisions and stock conditions. Net economic benefits have accrued that could not have existed under open access. In reference to salmon populations, the permit system has been vastly successful in increasing the existing salmon populations. A NEW LOOK AT ALASKA’S SALMON FISHING INDUSTRY In a very bold effort to improve Alaska’s commercial salmon industry, the Board of Fisheries recently formed a group to provide suggestions and options for updating the state’s commercial salmon fishing regulations. The Salmon Industry Restructuring Panel is charged with the examining options, identifying research and information of its needs, and reviewing models on the range of alternatives for Alaska’s commercial salmon fisheries. The panel is composed of harvesters, processors, and hatchery operators, along with other interests; members were chosen by the board as a cross section of interests within the industry. The board intends to work with this panel to receive input for developing a model for fisheries policy considerations, and to identify research and analysis needs on the range of considerations. In addition, the board will be gathering public comment throughout the state on any options that are currently developed.
THE VA C CO
ALUE OF COMMERCIAL FISHING CANNOT BE MEASURED IN DOLLARS OMMERCIAL FISHING SUPPORTS A LIFESTYLE FOR MANY
MILLIONS OF SALMON
management of its salmon fisheries since the enclosure of the salmon fishery in 1973 under a limited entry.
ALASKA COMMERCIAL SALMON CATCHES Alaska has succeeded in sustainable yield
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200
150
TOTAL RETURNS IN ALASKA SALMON HATCHERIES salmon catches prior to state management
salmon catches after state management
100
50
10
1888
YEARS
1898
1918
1928
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STATE MANAGEMENT BEGINS 1959
1948
1958
1968
1978
1988
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GEAR USED IN COMMERCIAL FISHING There are three main types of fishing
360 DEGREES THE LIFE CYCLE OF ALASKAN SALMON
gear catch Alaskan salmon; troll, gillnet, and purse seine. Trollers use long trolling poles to pull two to four, deep, weighted lines through the water, each with twelve leaders attached. At the end of each leader, there is a lure or baited hook. Trollers catch relatively small numbers of primarily chinook and coho salmon. The fish they catch are bright and vigorous from fresh ocean waters. They are often sold dressed, or filleted, in the fresh or fresh frozen market. Gillnetters set curtain-like nets in the water. The net’s mesh openings are just large enough to allow an adult fish’s head to get through and become entangled at the gills. There are two types of gillnets;driftnets that are free floating from boats and setnets that often have one end attached to the shoreline. The majority of sockeye salmon harvested in Alaska are caught by use of gillnets. Purse Seiners use large floating net that is pulled and set in a circle by a large power skiff to surround schooling salmon. The weighted “purse line” at bottom of the net is draw closed to contain the fish. Then, a high-powered hydraulic block gathers the net full of fish to the boat. Seiners target pink and chum salmon that are often processed for canning. Chum salmon roe is also a popular delicacy.
COMMERCIAL FISHING IS RISKY BUSINESS Thanks in part to heightened
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safety measures the fatality rate of Alaskan Fishermen has dropped dra-
COMMERCIAL FISHING AND HATCHERIES
matically since 1990. This is in turn due to the U.S. Congress passing the Commercial Fishing Industry Vessel Safety Act in 1988. The bill requires commercial fishing boats to carry survival equipment on board, putting the power of enforcement into the hands of the U.S. Coast Guard. Common causes of fishermen deaths include drowning, hypothermia, capsizing and falling overboard. Falling overboard immediately puts someone at risk of death, especially in the cold Alaskan waters. Over a 10 year period, the occurrence of this type of accident remained consistent because of the factors associated with it, inclement weather, slippery decks and becoming entangled in fishing equipment. The Coast Guard also stresses the importance of preventative measures for ship safety. In the 2004 sinking of the crab fishing boat Big Valley, for instance, investigators found that the boat had been overloaded with supplies, making it unsafe to sail. Likewise, between 20 and 40 Alaskan fishing boats capsize each year, which is what happened to the Arctic Rose in 2001 when it took 15 men to their deaths in the Alaskan waters. However, no mandatory safety review exists for commercial fishing boats. Of the 20,000 boats in the United States that the Coast Guard oversees, only about 6% undergo voluntary inspections. Additional prevention measures, like inspections, have not been widely embraced and accepted within the private sector fishing industry. For all of the hazards that fishermen endure in their aquatic quests, the safety issues bring a new appreciation to the smoked salmon, crab legs and other seafood delectables the rest of us enjoy after a long day at the office. If anything, you can be grateful that you didn’t have to catch it all of the fish yourself.
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50,000
(2003)
65,000
53,000
51,000
(2005)
(2001)
(2007)
80,000
(2009)
TOTAL RETURNS IN ALASKA SALMON HATCHERIES total egg takes (gathered) salmon released into wild
It is relatively clear that the reason for increased populations of salmon fisheries was the conversion to state manage足ment in 1959 and then the limited entry permit system in 1973. However, viable alternative explanations always exist. Initially conceived as state-run systems, most Alaskan hatcheries are now run by private sector corporations.
ALASKA HATCHERIES
65
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FUTURE OF COMMERCIAL FISHING Some have suggested that the greatest
360 DEGREES THE LIFE CYCLE OF ALASKAN SALMON
potential for expanding the economic base is education. A well-educated populace may generate new perspectives and ideas that might reduce the state’s economic resource dependency. Alaska’s salmon fishery has been a primary element of Alaska’s great history. Alaska’s first cannery opened in 1878, in Klawock. By the 1890s the industry produced millions of cases of salmon annually, and was Alaska’s leading industry. By the turn of the century Alaska Packers’ Association dominated the business. By the 1920s, a small tax on every case of salmon packed in the territory contributed 70% of general fund revenue. Today, the Alaska salmon fishery is world renowned. Significant competition from farmed salmon grown in Chile, Norway and British Columbia, however, this has decreased the market for Alaska wild salmon. Commercial fishing contributes about 5% of Alaska’s economic base. In the 1980s a significant new fishery opened in Alaska, the Bering Sea bottom fishery for pollack and other species, most of which is processed into surimi, imitation crab meat. In 2003 over 22 million pounds of pollack and related fish were taken in the Bering Sea. It is relatively clear that the reason for increased populations of the salmon fisheries was the conversion to state management in 1959 and then the limited entry permit system in 1973. However, the viable alternative explanations always exist.
One such explanation is the enhancement of salmon due to the start of
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the state hatchery program in 1971. Modern salmon hatcheries in Alaska
COMMERCIAL FISHING AND HATCHERIES
were developed in response to record low wild-stock runs in the 1970s. Initially conceived as state run systems, most of Alaskan hatcheries are now run exclusively by private sector corporations. Alaska now has 33 production hatcheries in balanced programs designed to enhance fisheries while maintaining healthy wild stocks. Some hatcheries release upwards of 100 million juvenile salmon annually. Statewide totals are 1.2 to 1.4 billion annually over the last decade. During the past decade, hatcheries have produced 27–63 million adults annually, accounting for 14%–37% of statewide commercial salmon harvest. These high percentages help show that the massive increase within salmon populations was not only due to the policies implemented during statehood and the entry of the limited permit system, but it may have occurred due to the introduction of hatcheries. If the hatchery enhanced salmon populations.
CHAPTER SIX FARMED VS. WILD SALMON All Alaska salmon are wild. These fish grow naturally in Alaska’s cold, clear waters. Farm raised salmon are fed pellets that contain antibiotics, pesticides, growth hormones and artificial coloring agents. Free-ranging wild Alaska salmon are recognized as the purest fish found anywhere. In fact, the Alaska Division of Public Health continues to encourage “pregnant women, women who are breast feeding, women of childbearing age, and young children continue unrestricted consumption of fish from Alaskan fishing waters.” A recently published article in, The Audubon’s Living Oceans Campaign, says that “Farm-raised salmon consume more antibiotics per pound of ‘livestock’ than are any other farm-raised animal.” A total of over 23 million pounds of antibiotics are consumed by livestock in US animal production each year. Trying to regulate the use and overuse of antibiotics is a serious problem in the fish farming industry in North America as well as British Columbia. It has been almost impossible to regulate antibiotic use in other countries where salmon are raised in the extremely remote locations, including countries like Chile.
FARMED SALMON SHOW HIGH LEVELS OF CANCER CAUSING PCB’S Sources of chemical pollution from salmon farms include antibiotics and other drugs, pesticides, feed additives, paints used on netcages and boats that prevent marine growth (antifouling paints), and disinfectants. Many of the chemicals used in aquaculture have been adopted from other industrial sectors and have never been evaluated with respect to their effects on the marine ecosystems.There is little or no data on the environmental or human health effects of feed additives. U.S. adults eat enough PCBs from
have nearly 10 times PCBs than wild salmon.
more contaminated with dioxins than any other livestock. Research found that farmed salmon
farmed salmon to exceed allowable lifetime cancer risk 100 times over.
PCB LEVELS FOUND IN SALMON The fishmeal fed to farmed salmon are
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WILD SALMON 5,302 PG/GRAM
71
FARMED SALMON 51,216 PG/GRAM
ALL THE SALMON FOUND IN ALASKAN WATERS ARE WILD! IT IS ILLEGAL TO FARM SAL WILD SALMON MEANS IN ALASKA. THE FISH ARE FREE RANGE.
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salmon may be dangerous for consumers: “Salmon farmers attempting
FARMED VS. WILD
LMON
The latest information from the David Suzuki Foundation, is that the farmed to limit disease and kill parasites that threaten fish in their pens, use an extremely powerful anti-biotics combined with other drugs. This toxic combination is dumped in open net-pens. Mostly un-regulated, this misuse of super-antibiotics-these very same drugs are used to treat human infections is being associated with the development of drug-resistant “super-bugs.” A grave risk is being created to the wild marine eco-system, as well as to the workers at these fish farms. Plus, untold damage and unnecessary risks are being directed at consumers of farm raised salmon who could very well be affected by antibiotic-resistant micro bacteria. WILD SALMON ARE HEALTHY Alaska’s wild salmon runs are the healthiest on earth. Each year, millions of wild Alaska salmon return to spawn in their native rivers. Pristine habitat and well-managed commercial fisheries contribute to the preservation of Alaska’s most precious, and richest sustainable, natural resource that Alaska has. Wild Alaskan Salmon is the first U.S. fishery to be awarded this certification for meeting the MSC’s strict environmental standards. The MSC is supported by the World Wildlife Fund, the Audubon Society, Monterey Bay Aquarium/Seafood Watch Program and many others. The fisheries are managed by the Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADFG) and the Alaska state constitution requires that all salmon habitats are conserved and environmentally protected.
CHAPTER SEVEN PURE WATER PURE FISH In Alaska, we often take clean, plentiful water for granted. Most of our fresh water comes from the storms that grow out of the Pacific Ocean and the Bering Sea. These storms produce snow and rain that eventually will drain into the sea through our watersheds. In some parts of Alaska, the water remains frozen as ice or captured in glaciers. Some water seeps into porous rock and may come to the surface as springs or lie trapped for centuries underground. Eventually, all water finds its way back to the sea. Alaska is thousands of miles away from large sources of pollution that can contaminate the human food supply in other parts of the world. These distances, combined with the earth’s patterns of circulation of water and air, help to ensure that Alaska’s own waters are among the cleanest in the entire world.
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Alaska’s human population density is the lowest of any in the entire United
360 DEGREES THE LIFE CYCLE OF ALASKAN SALMON
States, and lower than most places in the world. Alaska has little heavy industry, and has strict regulations governing development activities, such as road building, mining, logging, and sewage treatment. The State of Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation (ADEC) has a regulatory section dealing specifically with water quality. When the water discharges, such as sewage and other potential pollutants, are closely regulated to ensure high water quality. In addition, ADFG requires prior approval for any of the in-stream construction activities in Alaska’s salmon streams through the authority of the Alaska statutes known as the “Anadromous Fish Act.” Alaska also has a Forest Practices Act requiring buffer zones from logging along salmon streams to prevent erosion and protect spawning and rearing habitat. Clean marine habitats produce pure seafood products. An effective way to judge the cleanliness of any body of water is to examine the sessile (non–moving) organisms that live there, such as mussels and oysters. Since 1986, the U.S. National Mussel Watch Project of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) National Status and Trends (NS&T) Program has been doing exactly that. The program is growing, and there are well over 250 sampling sites distributed throughout the coastal United States. Every two years, either mussels or oysters are widely tested for the presence of 44 different kinds of petroleum hydrocarbons, and other pollutants, such as metals, pesticides, and PCBs. NS&T sampling is near Alaska’s fishing grounds have shown no human caused contamination. The Alaska sites, including two in Prince William Sound, all ranked among the 25 sites with the least petroleum contamination in the United States. Alaska sites are not considered to have high concentrations of petroleum hydrocarbons, PCBs, or pesticides.
Years ago, worldwide concern forced a ban on certain organic chemicals,
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such as DDT (a pesticide) and PCBs (a class of industrial chemicals).
PURE WATER PURE FISH
Before and since those bans took effect, DDT and PCB were found at levels of concern in many marine organisms around the world, but not in Alaska seafood. Many studies conducted by both the government and university level scientists over the course of decades have repeatedly demonstrated that Alaska seafood is pure and clean, with little to no traces of contaminants. Contaminant levels that constitute a public health concern, as determined by the U.S. Food & Drug Administration (FDA), have never been approached and Alaska seafood is routinely purer than products from other parts of the whole world. The Cook Inlet region of Southcentral Alaska near Anchorage is the most populated in the state. Studies performed for the U.S. Minerals Management Service report that Cook Inlet’s waters and sediments are remarkably free of hydrocarbons and metals. One of the research teams, University of Alaska’s Environmental and Natural Resources Institute, said “The physical, chemical, and bioassay results of this study show that the Cook Inlet area has very low environmental concentrations of hydrocarbons, and that sediments and water are generally free from toxicity. Results also show no immediate evidence of heavy metal pollution in Cook Inlet.”
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POLLUTION AND CONTAMINANTS Most of Alaska’s vast water
360 DEGREES THE LIFE CYCLE OF ALASKAN SALMON
resources remain clean and usable for all fish and wildlife. However, human activities can damage or destroy the quality of salmon streams. Personal, recreational, and industrial activities all impact the quality of the watershed. Pollution and contaminants in our watersheds may come directly from an industry or development project, or from an industrial accident. They may also accumulate from a variety of places and activities such as in non-point source pollution. NON-POINT SOURCE POLLUTION Through our small, daily, and timely actions, people often cause the greatest lasting impacts on watersheds and salmon streams. When we build our houses or roads, fertilize our lawns, wash our vehicles, or change the oil in our cars, we sometimes pollute the environment. If not done properly, many other activities can also affect local waterway. Activities such as riding four wheelers through streams or trampling a stream bank while fishing can lead to bank erosion and sediments entering our waterways. Surface runoff flows into the ground water, wetlands, streams, rivers, and lakes and eventually into our estuaries and oceans. Our pollution adds to all other pollution sources and has lasting impacts on salmon habitat. This is non-point source pollution, and is a major problem for salmon in densely populated areas.
2% SEAFOOD PLANTS
5% COMMUNITY LANDFILLS
9% OTHER INDUSTRIES
11% INDUSTRIAL MINING
16% LOG TRANSFER FACILITIES
Most of Alaska’s vast water resources remain clean and usable for fish and wildlife. However, human activities can damage or destroy quality of salmon streams. Personal, recreational, and industrial activities all impact the quality of the watershed. The largest single source of water pollution in Alaska is storm water runoff and erosion from pavement, parking lots and ditches, commercial and residential construction, and septic systems.
POLLUTANT SOURCES IN ALASKA WATERS
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COMMUNITY RUNOFF
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WATERSHEDS One of the key areas of managements concerns are for the
360 DEGREES THE LIFE CYCLE OF ALASKAN SALMON
vast watersheds in Alaska that provide rearing opportunities for native salmon. A watershed is an area of land in which all of the water that falls as snow or rain collects and eventually flows into a larger body of water. Small watersheds are a part of larger watersheds. A watershed can be as small as the area between two hills, or as vast as the entire drainage into the Yukon River. Human activities can change the environment and alter the quality and quantity of habitat, sometimes to the point where salmon can no longer survive. We have the power to destroy salmon by simply not understanding their needs. We also have the power to sustain Alaska’s wild salmon by conserving salmon populations and protecting their habitats. GLACIERS Glaciers and snow pack contribute a constant supply of fresh water to salmon streams during summer months. Advancing and retreating glaciers sculpt the earth, creating new habitat for salmon. Glaciers have shaped Alaska’s salmon habitat for hundreds of thousands of years. UPLAND AREAS Upland areas are the collection point for all water that eventually flows into a watershed’s aquatic system. Natural cover and the vegetation helps reduce erosion and serves to moderate flow and water temperature, thus stabilizing whole watersheds. HEADWATERS, STREAMS AND SMALL FLOWS It is easy to understand how important larger streams are for salmon, but some of the most important salmon streams are small enough to step across. The creek behind your house may hold hundreds of young salmon. Biologists have found young salmon in tiny creeks above tree line in some watersheds. They have documented that the most productive streams may be only a foot or two across. Sometimes small streams that appear to go dry in the winter come alive with young fish during spring rains. Water still flows through the gravel under these streambeds and salmon are hatching there.
RIVERS,LAKES, AND STREAMS Alaska’s great rivers, lakes and large
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streams have always been at the center of Alaskan life. The world’s great-
PURE WATER PURE FISH
est single salmon fishery, Bristol Bay, exists because of the productivity of the region’s lakes. In Southeast Alaska, it is the short, steep coastal streams and rivers that contribute the majority of salmon to their fisheries. Large and small rivers, lakes, and streams have defined life in many parts of Alaska for centuries. WETLANDS Wetlands are areas that remain wet for all or part of the year. They are vital part of every watershed. Wetlands act as sponges and absorb rainfall and runoff that is later released to the watershed. They filter some pollution, provide critical habitat for wildlife, and provide important rearing areas for fish. Wetlands can be compared to the value of coral reefs or old growth forests for their importance in the environment. ESTUARIES Estuaries are the mixing areas where fresh and salt waters will meet at the mouths of streams and rivers. Alaska’s tidal range may be greater that 25 feet between high and low tide. This produces many huge estuaries. Estuaries are essential nursery and feeding areas for salmon and wide range of the waterfowl and aquatic wildlife. Fingerlings, or also salmon smolts, rear in both freshwater and estuarine areas for up to five years, depending on the species. The mix of fresh and salt water helps the salmon emerging from freshwater streams adapt to their new marine environment. Kelp, eelgrass, and other plants found in estuaries that provide young salmon protection from predators and harbor a richer food supply of small organisms.
GLACIERS UPLAND AREAS
RIVERS, WETLANDS ESTUARIE LAKES, & STREAMS
Large watersheds provide a variety of habitats to support the needs of salmon. We continue to enjoy salmon because the vast majority of Alaska’s salmon habitats are healthy.
ALASKA SALMON WATERSHEDS
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COMMUNITY STREAM RESTORATION PROJECTS You personal efforts to
360 DEGREES THE LIFE CYCLE OF ALASKAN SALMON
lessen pollution often matter the most. A significant part of the restoration of Alaska’s waters is performed by volunteers of all ages who care about the water they live near. Stream restoration projects happen year round by way of local school systems, corporate volunteers and funding, as well as retired environmental employees. PROTECTING OUR CLEAN WATER We know salmon need plenty of cold, clear water with adequate volume and flow for safe passage, spawning, incubation, and rearing. People also need water to live. Alaskans use nearly 90 million gallons of fresh water each day. In Alaska, the greatest competition for water is in areas with high populations. Industrial activities such as oil and mining development, manufacturing operations, fish processing, fish hatcheries, snow making, and hydropower generation use large amounts of water. Agricultural uses can also remove a lot of water from a river, stream, or lake. Recently, some companies have begun to export water from Alaska to other locations experiencing water shortages or water of poor quality.
ARE EXT IS R
ALASKA’S MARINE HABITATS REMELY CLEAN, AND OUR SEAFOO REMARKABLY FREE OF CHEMICALS BY PESTICIDES, PETROLEUMS PCB’S, METALS & BACTERIA
CHAPTER EIGHT PARTNERS FOR SALMON CONSERVATION Partnerships are an important aspect of salmon conservation. Individuals, communities, tribes, businesses, harvesters, state, federal and also nongovernment organizations work together to sustain Alaska’s wild salmon. By protecting and restoring healthy salmon habitats, we support jobs in the commercial and sport fishing businesses, and subsistence and personal use of wild salmon for food and celebrations. Each salmon that Alaskans harvest to sell or put on the table represents the healthy functioning natural ecosystem that salmon need. Just as ecosystems sustain businesses and families, we in turn sustain those ecosystems by helping to protect and restore salmons natural habitat.
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PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT Your voice is essential in the partnership to sustain
360 DEGREES THE LIFE CYCLE OF ALASKAN SALMON
salmon. Alaska has a well established open public process with strong public involvement for making fisheries decisions. As well as the Alaska Board of Fisheries is at the center of this public process. The public and individuals are vital in protecting and restoring the salmon habitat. Ensuring development does not destroy habitat, participating in local educational activities, or helping with watershed restoration projects within your community are examples of things each of us can do as a partner in sustaining Alaska’s wild salmon. Another powerful salmon stewardship tool available to many of us is our purchasing dollar. Choosing to buy and asking for wild Alaska salmon over imported, farmed salmon for you and your family makes a difference. You send a signal to the marketplace that you prefer seafood this is wild and natural. You also support Alaskan fishing families, seafood businesses, as well as the communities that depend on intact salmon ecosystems for their livelihood. As a consumer you participate in salmon stewardship by casting your economic vote in the marketplace for free flowing rivers, healthy estuaries and oceans, and for the local fishing economies.
INTERNATIONAL PARTNERS Some partnerships span international borders.
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The Sitka Salmon Summit, called by Alaska Governor Tony Knowles in
PARTNERS FOR SALMON CONSERVATION
1996, was an important step for future international salmon partnerships and conservation. Participants included the governors of Washington and Oregon, tribal leaders, and chief negotiators of the Pacific Salmon Treaty. They worked to reach agreement for securing federal funds to protect and restore stocks that cross state and national boundaries and to improve communication among state, the U.S and Canada, tribal governments, and communities affected by salmon resources. In addition, they also agreed to protect and restore salmon habitat, and to rehabilitate stocks in the Columbia River Basin where many salmon runs are in peril due to dams and other developments that affect salmon habitat. Following the Sitka Salmon Summit, ten year fishery agreements were all signed in 1999 by Alaska, Washington, Oregon, Treaty Tribes, and Canada under the Pacific Salmon Treaty. The treaty includes agreements for adopting Alaska’s successful abundance-based management plan for salmon fisheries; agreements for creating funds to restore and protect the salmon habitat; provisions for improving communication and cooperation between the U.S. and Canada; and provisions for sharing of scientific information. The U.S. and Canada formed another international partnership agreement in March of 2001 with signing of the Yukon Salmon Treaty. This treaty establishes protection for Yukon River salmon by setting harvest quotas, and establishes restoration, conservation, and management program for Yukon River Chinook and chum salmon stocks.
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ALASKA’S SAFE FISH PASSAGE AND CLEAN WATER LAWS Alaska’s constitu-
360 DEGREES THE LIFE CYCLE OF ALASKAN SALMON
tion is unique among the fifty states in its commitment to the sustainable management of natural resources including salmon. Since statehood in 1959, Alaska’s laws have given ADF&G the responsibility to protect salmon habitat and ensure safe passage for all of Alaska’s fish species. Strict laws and regulations govern industrial and developmental activities, such as road building, logging and mining. Four state laws in particular work together to protect salmon spawning and their rearing habitats: The Anadromous Fish Act, the Fishways Act, the Alaska Forest and Resources Practices Act, and the Water use Protection Act. The Anadromous Fish Act has been the cornerstone of the state’s salmon habitat protection programs for nearly half a century. It requires ADF&G to identify rivers, streams, and parts of streams that are important for salmon rearing, spawning, or migration. These are included in an Anadromous Waters Catalog. Of all the anadromous waters estimated to exist, approximately 50% have been cataloged. For waters in the catalog, the Act requires that an individual or governmental agency get approval from ADF&G for projects that may be harmful to fish. Examples of some instream activities that must be approved by ADF&G include building of road crossings, filling or removing gravel, placer mining, withdrawing water, stabilizing the bank, or driving a vehicle into the waterway. In addition to state protection, the federal Clean Water Act seeks to prevent pollution and restore polluted waters. The federal Coastal Zone Management Act and the Alaska Coastal Zone Management Program work within the concert to ensure coastal development that maintains the quality of coastal habitats important to salmon and other living resources.
THERE ARE A NUMBER OF BOARDS, PROGRAMS, AND PROJECTS WORKING TO CONSERVE THE ALASKA SALMON. The Kenai Center is an excellent example of partnerships for salmon. The Kenai River Center is a multi-agency permitting, information, and education center. Marine Stewardship Council Sustainable fishery certification for Alaska’s commercial salmon industry. The Southeast Sustainable Fund Congressional funds allocated to recover and assist salmon stocks in the Pacific Salmon Treaty region. Pacific Salmon Commission Is the group of people brought together by Canada and the U.S. to implement and manage the Pacific Salmon Treaty. Pacific Salmon Treaty North Established as part of the agreement reached under the Pacific Salmon Treaty in 1999. Northern Pacific Anadromous Fund Was established under the Convention for the Conservation of Anadromous Stocks in the North Pacific Ocean. Alaska Coastal Management Includes a state coastal plan, coastal district plans, standards for evaluating and managing areas. Exxon Valdez Spill Monitoring Serves as a sentinel system by detecting, identifying, and predicting changes in the marine ecosystme to aid managers and consumers. Interagency Hydrology Committee Is an organization of technical specialists working at the federal,state, and local levels. Their purpose is to coordinate the collection and implementation of water resources.
PARTNERS FOR SALMON CONSERVATION
SALMON PROGRAMS
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GLOSSARY OF TERMS ADAPTABILITY The ability of
CARCASS Remains of a salmon
salmon species to gradually
after it has died.
change and take advantage of new habitat opportunities. ALEVIN A young fish; especially a newly hatched salmon when still attached to the yolk sac. ANADROMOUS A fish that spawns in freshwater and spends a portion of its life living in salt water. BENTHIC MACROINVERTEBRATES Bottom dwelling auatic organisms.
CONSERVATION The preservation of natural resources for future use. DIVERSITY Variety in species. ECOSYSTEM The combination of physical environment and the animals and plants which make up a complete unit. ESCAPEMENT Number of salmon that must be allowed to spawn. ESTUARY Area at the mouths of rivers or streams where fresh and salt waters mix, creating a very rich environment.
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EVOLUTION Changes that occur
INTERTIDAL The area of land
360 DEGREES THE LIFE CYCLE OF ALASKAN SALMON
through successive generations
exposed between tides.
as a species adapts and develops over geologic time. FINGERLING A salmonid fry soon to begin changing into a smolt. FRY A young salmonid just emerged from the gravel nest.
MIGRATORY Undertaking a migration; to rove nomadic from place to place. NATAL The place of birth. PARR MARKS The protective coloration (vertical bars) on young
GENETICS The study of heredity
salmon prior to their becoming
among all living things.
full smolts.
HABITAT the area in the environ-
PREDATOR An animal that lives
ment where an organism lives.
by using another for food.
HABITAT PARTITIONING The
PREY An animal hunted for food.
dividing of a stream’s habitats among different species of various salmon and areas.
REDD A hole or depression a female salmon creates in river gravel nest.
RIPARIAN The area near or along a
TRIBUTARY A stream or river flow-
95
river or waterbody.
ing into a larger stream or river.
SALMONID Any fish of the family
UPLAND The area above and away
GLOSSARY
Salmonidae, including salmon,
from a waterbody.
trout, and whitefish. SMOLT A young salmon residing in an estuary area preparing to outmigrate to the ocean.
VEGETATION Plants. WATERSHED The area of land in which all of the water that falls as snow or rain eventually flows into
SPAWN The act of fish mating to
the same streams or rivers and
reproduce a species young.
back to the sea.
SPECIES A class of individuals or
WETLANDS Area of land that
species that resemble one another
remains wet for at least a part of
and are capable of reproducing
the year.
with one another. STOCK A breeding population of salmon from a single watershed.