“PEDAGOGICAL FUNDAMENTALS OF THE TEACHING PRACTICE AT THE AMERICAN CHRISTIAN SCHOOL, SAN SALVADOR, 2010 -2012”
PRESENTED BY:
ANDREA ERAZO SOSA MELVIN MAURICIO MONTERROZA AYALA
TO OBTAIN THE DEGREE OF: BACHELOR IN ARTS SPECIALIZATION ENGLISH
APRIL, 2012 SAN SALVADOR, EL SALVADOR, CENTRO AMERICA
UNIVERSIDAD PEDAGOGICA DE EL SALVADOR FACULTAD DE EDUCACION
RECTOR
ING. LUIS MARIO APARICIO
ACADEMIC VICE – RECTOR
LCDA. CATALINA MACHUCA DE MERINO
EDUCATION FACULTY DEAN
LIC. JORGE ALBERTO ESCOBAR
SAN SALVADOR, EL SALVADOR, C.A.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The completion of this thesis is thanks to the effort and perseverance that made possible the good results of this experience, there were difficulties, good moments, bad situations and sacrifice but at the end the results are the ones that count for me, the experience acquired during this investigation that will be useful in the future, the procedures that I have learned for an investigation that I will keep in mind all my life.
I want to devote this thesis to my family and friends, especially to my mother Ana Elsa Ayala who was there advising me all the time during difficult moments; her help was a great support for me. I want to thank also my father Salvador Ceron, his attention and support is the best, he was with me during all the process of the thesis. Thanks to all my friends, my co workers because during difficult moments they were there distracting me and making my time easy during bad situations, they are always there and they are very special for me. Thanks to my other friends because their support was also good during all this time, to my partner Andrea Erazo Sosa who was a big support in this project and finally thanks to our advisor Lcda. Claudia Yesenia Sosa Mestizo because her support was very important during the development of the thesis.
Melvin Mauricio Monterroza Ayala.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The achievement of this thesis is thanks to the effort and sacrifice that all the people involved used during all the process, there were good moments but also there were moments that were difficult for us. We used all our energy in this project and finally it has been completed, we feel proud of the completion of this thesis. The experience acquired is the positive aspect that will help us during all our lives as professionals.
I want to devote my thesis to my children Andres Henrique Erazo y Andrea Henrique Erazo who are my beloved kids that were my motivation during all this time, to my father Mauricio Alfredo Erazo and my mother Audeli Sosa de Erazo which helped me with their support, advice and love during difficult problems we had and they were my motivation all the time in order to finish my thesis. To my partner Melvin Mauricio Monterroza Ayala who was a big support in this project and finally to our advisor Lcda.
Claudia Yesenia Sosa Mestizo because her
support was very important, she was always helping and advising us during the development of the thesis.
Andrea Erazo Sosa.
INDEX CHAPTER I
Introduction………………………………………………………………………..i 1. OBJECTIVES 1.1 GENERAL OBJECTIVE……………………………………………………….…13 1.2SPECIFIC OBJECTIVE …………………………………………………..............13 CHAPTER I CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 2. BACKGROUND…………….……………………………...…………………….14 3. JUSTIFICATION…………………………….……………………………………21 4. PROBLEM STATEMENT………………………………………………...……..23 5. FINDINGS AND LIMITATIONS………………………………………...………25 6. CONCEPTS AND CATEGORIES………………………………………………34
CHAPTER II THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 7. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK.………….………….…………………….…..36 8. EMPIRICAL FRAMEWORK ………………….…………...………………..….65 8.1 MONOGRAPH.………………………………………………………………....65 8.1.2
SCHOOL DESCRIPTION………………………..…………………………67
8.1.3
GEOGRAPHICAL MAP OF THE SCHOOL…………………......………..69
8.1.4
INSTRUMENTS APPLIED IN THE RESEARCH…………………….…..70
9. THEORETICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL FORMULATION OF THE RESEARCH...……………………………………………………………………83 10. DEVELOPMENT AND THEORETICAL DEFINITION……………….………88
CHAPTER III
OPERATIVE FRAMEWORK 11. DESCRIBING THE SUBJECTS OF THE RESEARCH………………………122 12. DATA GATHERING PROCEDURE…………………………………………….124 13. SPECIFICATION OF THE TECHNIQUE TO THE DATA ANALYSIS………125 14. CHRONOGRAM…………………………………………………………………127 15. RESOURCES…………………………………………………………………….131 16. PRELIMINARY TABLE OF CONTENTS OF THE FINAL REPORT ….........132 17. REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………...135
INTRODUCTION
During the last 30 years or so, teaching English as a second or foreign language has been developed into a dynamic global community of language teaching experts that seek to improve the quality of language teaching and learning. These specialists have been providing the latest studies with important information addressed to understand how schools, classrooms, communities and the language teaching professionals can best support the teaching and learning of the English language. Subsequently, this study is focused on the pedagogical fundamentals educators should take into account in the students learning process focused on the English language.
According to some Pedagogues such as Maria Montessori, Jean Piaget, David Ausubel, Vygotsky and Benjamin Bloom; there are several branches that have to be considered when talking about the pedagogical fundamentals. These branches can be the following: teaching and learning methods, techniques, the environment in the classroom, pedagogy as well as psychology. In addition, there are some other authors that Jack C Richards and Willy A. Renandya have included in their book “Methodology in Language Teaching, an Anthology of Current Practiceâ€?. In this book, they offer a comprehensive picture of approaches to the teaching of English and illustrate the complexity underlying many of the practical planning and instructional activities it involves. Therefore, the current investigation is based in the fact that these fundamentals are essential for studentsâ€&#x; development of their learning process.
The above mentioned authors assure that every element is important for the good teaching process in schools. The Educators should know about these
fundamentals since they are the base for the good education, and the students´ learning process can be complete. There are different sciences that are useful in this research such as: psychology which is related to pedagogy since psychology is the science that studies the behavior and the mental processes. Pedagogy, is the set of knowledge which studies the education like a phenomenon typically social and specifically human. After, pedagogy that is related to methods, it can be found didactics because in order to have good pedagogy the teacher must create a method that makes actions and operations to be used by students during the class. Also, didactics is the science that studies the processes and elements. By using didactics, we will be able to analyze and create actions and operations for the good learning process. At the end, we have techniques which are very important because students can learn the knowledge and teacher has to create techniques that help students to practice these techniques. Basically teachers should not avoid any of the fundamentals because everyone is related to each other.
In this research, there are presented the general and specific objectives. The general one is addressed to analyze the most effective Pedagogical fundamentals for teaching at The American Christian School, located in San Salvador. Subsequently. The specific objectives are focused on categorizing and contrasting the effective pedagogical fundamentals. In the background, there is basic information about each fundamental, the way they are related to each other, and how the teacher should apply them. Also some of the contributions from pedagogues that have been researching about this matter. Their contributions are related to methods, techniques, the environment in the classroom, pedagogy, psychology and didactics which are the main fundamentals that teachers should use in the classroom in order to help students and to make a difference by making them learning more. In the part of the justification there are some reasons of why this investigation must be done. After in the part of the statement of the problem there is expressed the concern of the importance of the pedagogical fundamentals in the way of teaching. In findings and limitations there is presented the authors
contributions; however, there is also included some limitations they had in their studies. Finally, there is a variety of concepts and categories the study requires.
In the chapter II the theoretical framework, there can be found deep information of each author like Noam Chomsky, Jean Piaget, Vygotsky, Maria Montesori, David Ausubel, Benjamin Bloom and Paulo Freire, every one of these authors who has given great improvements to the educational field. The contributions they made are helping students and teachers nowadays because some teachers are using the same methods and techniques these pedagogues gave to the world. There is a biography for each author that mentions all the preparation they had before to start making researches and theories. Also, there can be found the most important points of their lives and the most important contributions of their investigations that changed the educational system. In this part can be found in which pedagogical fundamentals they based their theories, some of them focused just in one or two pedagogical fundamentals. However, the purpose was the same for all the authors; to find the best way how to teach. Moreover, in the empirical framework, there is information of San Salvador about the most important streets and avenues, communication services, the most important institutions and the geographical location of El Salvador.
The School Description mentions the location of the American Christian School which is the main institution of the investigation
and which places are near the
institution. Its foundation was on August 1993, and since then, the institution has been forming bilingual students who can master the English language. There is also information of the number of students in the institution and the number of classrooms. Besides, the investigation mentions the resources that the institution has, teachers working there are Salvadorian people who teach in English all the time because classes are full English in all the subjects. There is an explanation of
each instrument applied in the institution during the investigation and also one example of each instrument. In the part of theoretical and methodological formulation of the research there is information of the theories from the authors and there is a comparison among these theories and with what was observed in the institution. In the development and theoretical definition part, there is information of the analysis that was done with the pedagogical fundamentals found in the institution including the positive and negative aspects related to the way how teachers use these pedagogical fundamentals. The analysis describes each pedagogical fundamental, how is applied in the classroom and how students feel with these fundamentals.
In the part of the operative framework in the chapter III, there is information related to the description of the subject of the investigation, here mentions information about what was found in the school of each pedagogical fundamental. After there is information about the procedure for gathering data and this information mentions the steps taken in order to get the information needed for this investigation and also it mentions the positive and negative aspects found during the process of the investigation. The specifications of the techniques of data analysis mentions information about the questionnaires used for the students, teacher and the one for the principal. This part also mentions how was this information used. After it can be found a questionnaire answered by the teachers and also it can be found the presentation of the five graphics, each one represent one pedagogical fundamental. After there is information about the analysis and interpretation of the graphics, moreover in this part can be found the questionnaire answered by students
and the
presentation of the five graphics representing the pedagogical fundamentals.
After there is information about the analysis and interpretation of the information gathered and represented in the graphics. The chronogram is a very important part included in this investigation and also the resources taken during the process. Finally it can be found information about the summary of all the table of contents of the final report.
1. OBJECTIVES
1.1 GENERAL OBJECTVE
To analyze the effectiveness of the pedagogical fundamentals applied at the American Christian School, San Salvador, 2010-2012.
1.2 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES To highlight the fundamentals found in the institution To contrast the pedagogical fundamentals for Teaching Practice at American Christian School.
CHAPTER I CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
2. BACKGROUND The current program of the Ministry of Education is called “VAMOS A LA ESCUELA”. This new program has been done with the purpose of improving student‟s performance in the teaching learning process. However, now it is intended to improve not only the teacher´s methodology but also some other aspects that surround the student´s learning process such as: the school environment, which includes the infrastructure of the classroom. Furthermore, there are many authors, pedagogues, writers, all around the world, sharing their interest in improving pupils´ learning process. They explain in their books how to improve the way of teaching, thinking in the development of a better quality of life in third world countries. All through history, it can be found that there are some pedagogues that have contributed to the creation of pedagogical fundamentals. Some of the most well- known pedagogues and linguistics that have been searching the learning process with the purpose of improving students´ performance are: Noam Chomsky, Jean Piaget, Vygotsky, Maria Montessori, Benjamin Bloom, David Paul Ausubel and others. These people have done great contributions to the education process by creating new ideas for psychology, pedagogy, methods, techniques, processes, elements and resources, as well as for the educational environment. Every pedagogue is related one to another since they have been taking into account previous studies to carry out their researches.
Some of the pedagogical factors considered by these pedagogues are psychology, pedagogy, methods, techniques and didactic basis, learning environment. Every fundamental is related one to each other and teachers should not avoid any, since all of them become one for the teaching process. These factors, according to these authors, develop the skills that students should learn; definitely, teaching is an art, a personal achievement of the teacher. A capable teacher can take the dullest material and give it life, and an incapable teacher can denude the finest material of all interest. A flexible, dynamic and caring educational system can make even poor teachers produce good results1. Each of the pedagogical fundamentals previously mentioned has an important meaning and role in students´ learning process. Every fundamental is related one to another, because according to previous investigations, psychology has an important role with pedagogy, since the teacher takes into account the behavior and the mental processes of the students, in that way teachers apply appropriate methods and techniques. Besides this, the methodology is related to didactic planning because teachers must be a guide in the instructional process by using different kind of didactic material like charts, visual aids, quizzes and others during the learning process, and also if there is a good practice of these fundamentals there will be a good motivation in students which is very important for the learning process. The following pedagogical fundamentals are presented in a very general way, just to make an introduction to their importance into students´ learning process. These fundamentals are: Psychology, Pedagogy, Teaching Methods, the Didactic Planning and Learning Environment.
1
Arthur McTom, A foundation Course for Language Teaching, Cambridge University Press 1990. Pag. 82
2.1 Psychology Psychology is the study of the mind, partly via the study of behavior, grounded in science. Its immediate goal is to understand individuals and groups by both establishing general principles and researching specific cases. “It is a social science that studies how people learn and the best way of teaching them�.2 For many, the ultimate goal of psychology is to benefit society. In this field, a professional practitioner or researcher is called a psychologist, and can be classified as a social scientist, behavioral scientist, or cognitive scientist. Psychologists attempt to understand the role of mental functions in individual and social behavior, while also exploring the physiological and neurobiological processes that underlie certain functions and behaviors. While psychological knowledge is often applied to the assessment and treatment of mental health problems, it is also applied to understanding and solving problems in many different spheres of human activity. The majority of psychologists are involved in some kind of therapeutic role, practicing in clinical, counseling, or school settings. Many do scientific research on a wide range of topics related to mental processes and behavior, and typically work in university psychology departments or teach in other academic settings. Some are employed in industrial and organizational settings, or in other areas such as human development and aging, sports, health, and the media, as well as in criminal justice and other aspects of law. However, the one that is emphasized in this study is the Educational Psychology.
2
Margaret M. Clifford, Practicing Educational Psychology, Library of Congress Catalog. 1981. Pag 5.
2.1.1 Educational psychology Educational Psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations. The work of child psychologists such as Lev Vygotsky and Jean Piaget, has been influential in creating teaching methods and educational practices. School psychology combines principles from educational psychology and clinical psychology to understand and treat students with learning disabilities; to foster the intellectual growth of gifted students; to facilitate prosocial behaviors in adolescents; and otherwise to promote safe, supportive, and effective learning environments. School psychologists are trained in educational and behavioral assessment, intervention, prevention, and consultation, and many have extensive training in research. “Educational Psychologist have a professional responsibility to do still more, There are theories that must be developed and translated
into
practical suggestions for teachers to use in their classrooms�.3 To understand the characteristics of learners in childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and old age, educational psychology develops and applies theories of human development. Often represented as stages through which people pass as they mature, developmental theories describe changes in mental abilities (cognition), social roles, moral reasoning, and beliefs about the nature of knowledge.
3
Margaret M. Clifford, Practicing Educational Psychology, Library of Congress Catalog. 1981. Pag 19
For example, educational psychologists have conducted research on the instructional applicability of Jean Piaget's theory of development, according to which children mature through four stages of cognitive capability. Piaget hypothesized that children are not capable of abstract logical thought until they are older than about 11 years, and therefore younger children need to be taught using concrete objects and examples. Researchers have found that transitions, such as from concrete to abstract logical thought, do not occur at the same time in all domains. A child may be able to think abstractly about mathematics, but remain limited to concrete thought when reasoning about human relationships. Perhaps Piaget's most enduring contribution is his insight that people actively construct their understanding through a self-regulatory process. Piaget proposed a developmental theory of moral reasoning in which children progress from a naĂŻve understanding of morality based on behavior and outcomes to a more advanced understanding based on intentions. Piaget's views of moral development were elaborated by Kohlberg into a stage theory of moral development. There is evidence that the moral reasoning described in stage theories is not sufficient to account for moral behavior. 2.2 Pedagogy Pedagogy is the study of being a teacher or the process of teaching. The term generally refers to strategies of instruction, or a style of instruction. Pedagogy is also occasionally referred to as the correct use of instructive strategies. For example, Paulo Freire referred to his method of teaching adult humans as "critical pedagogy". In correlation with those instructive strategies the instructor's own philosophical beliefs of instruction are harbored and governed by the pupil's background knowledge and experience, situation, and environment, as well as learning goals set by the student and teacher. Freire pedagogy is based in the development of critical consciousness, allowing people to question the nature of their historical and social situation “to read their world with the goal of acting as
subjects in the creation of a democratic society�. 4 Freire states that teacher and students must exchange questions so in that way both are going to learn at the same time and both participate in the learning process. 2.3 Teaching Methods It is the means used in didactics for the orientation in the process teaching – learning, the process of teaching is a complex multifaceted activity that requires instructors to juggle multiple tasks and goals simultaneously and flexibly. The good learning in students depends on the pedagogical fundamentals teacher may apply during the class. The main characteristic of the method is that goes directed to one objective including the actions and operations for the students and teacher.
2.4 The Didactic Planning It is the main tool that the teacher must use in order to develop the instructional process, the teacher must not use the didactic planning for obligation, he must develop it for the benefits it support for the daily work in the school, it is essential for driving successfully the instructional process. The didactic planning is important because it assures the efficiency, the economy with the lower cost of time, work and resources. The order assures the appropriate sequence in order to get the results that are needed. What is the didactic systematization? They are the elements, moments, didactic beginnings and phases of the didactic process. The main tool for teachers that makes useful the learning process is the art of teaching, besides that educators must be aware that didactics is related with elements, moments and didactic beginnings. Some of the elements are the students, the subject and others; we can mention also that the didactic moments are three: the planning, the execution, and the verification. Every moment reflects the reason and
4
Octavia E. Butler and Ruthanne Lum Mc Cunn, Teaching Strategies , retrieved January 23th , 2012 from http://www.learner.org/workshops/hslit/session7/resources/index.html
the need to know the logic order, the didactic beginnings are understood like the standards that order the procedure of the people in the learning process because each of them determines the vocational training; these beginnings can be motivation, presentation, development, fixation, evaluation and rectification, all of them within the logic sequence. Didactic is the discipline scientific –pedagogy because they study processes and elements that exist in the learning process.
2.5 Learning Environment A definition for environment states that it is “the place in which people live and work, including all the physical conditions that affect them� 5, focused in the classroom environment this includes some factors that help to create a better teaching-learning process and all of them are closely related one another. Melville Harris6 in his book Environment Studies mentions that environmental studies help teachers and students to have an approach with the new development of knowledge because it contributes in the teaching-learning process. There are other explanations from the pedagogues about these important fundamentals because according to Piaget, the human being is a processor of information. Active and explorer, humans build their knowledge according to the environment where they are, Humans share the organization and the adaptation. According to Piaget, the human mind works with those functions, their psychological processes are organized in coherent systems and these systems are prepared to adapt the changing stimulus of the environment. Piaget believed that reality is a dynamic system of continuous change; it is defined for two conditions that defined dynamic systems that change. The first condition is that reality involves transformations and states; the second condition is that transformations 5
6
MacMillan Dictionary, Macmillan Publishers Limited 2002
Melville Harris, Environment Studies, British Primary School today,1974, pg 98.
refer to all manners of changes that a thing or person can undergo. According to the investigations from Piaget, he states that if human intelligence is adaptive, it must have functions to represent both the transformational and the statics aspects of reality. Piaget believed that the operative intelligence is responsible for the representation and manipulation of the dynamic and transformational aspects of reality.
3. JUSTIFICATION
The Teaching Learning Process in El Salvador has faced different struggles, there are many factors that can be mentioned affecting pupils´ learning; nevertheless, teachers in general are more worried about teaching methodologies and techniques rather than searching some other pedagogical fundamentals that can be affecting students development. Consequently, these can help teachers and students to improve not only the way of teaching but also the way of learning. In addition, this research will provide an important issue to the educational population, since most of the searches that are done in bilingual institutions are addressed to measure the way teacher teach English. However this study will show the pedagogical fundamentals the teachers apply in their classrooms to improve their studentâ€&#x;s performance in their learning process.
This research will help the educational population, teachers and students, in a great way because in here there will be presented factors that many teachers might underestimate; for instance, they might look at the big picture of the learning process, the pedagogical fundamentals such as: methods, techniques, didactics, psychology, pedagogy and the environment in the class. In this investigation will be found specific information related to each pedagogical fundamental, moreover there can be found the background of these fundamentals, how the pedagogues used them in the past and also there can be found information about why these fundamentals are important for teachers nowadays. This information will be useful for teachers, but also it will be useful for students because if they are aware of these pedagogical fundamentals, they can find out facts that can help them during the learning process.
The teaching learning process will be affected in a positive way due to the whole educational community will face some improvements in its process. Teachers, students and families will perceive that students´ performance can be improve in a great manner, just by taking into account not only the teachers ´methodology, but also the environment in the classroom, the pedagogy and psychology the teachers apply with their students and of course the planning and strategies they make use in order to have good results in their students.
4. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Are teachers at American Christian School taking into account the pedagogical fundamentals in the studentsâ€&#x; learning process? Or are they just focused on teaching methodologies and techniques? Commonly, teachers are worried about applying new methodology and techniques in their classes. Nevertheless there are several authors who consider that there are some other factors that might be taken into account when talking about the improvement of the studentsâ€&#x; performance in the development of their learning process. All these aspects can be considered as the pedagogical fundamentals in teaching and learning. During the last decade, in our country, the Ministry of Education has been training teachers to improve their methodology and techniques when teaching. However, the new program VAMOS A LA ESCUELA has extended the elements that might be considered as important as the methodology and techniques. The pedagogical fundamentals enclose aspects like the methodology, techniques, environment, and others.
According to Pertti Kansanen, good teaching has a supreme importance, and it has serious consequences depending on what teachers think the solutions are. It is clear that every teacher has a certain conception of what is good teaching. In practice, as educators, they must somehow decide what to do and rely on their own understanding. Teachers have certain responsibility in guiding the students to succeed, and this is going to make teachers to seek for more general information.
The way teachers use methods, techniques, didactics, pedagogy, psychology and the environment in the class is going to impact in their student`s learning process making them to succeed in the class or not7. Teachers must know how to change ideas and wrong attitudes in students. They must take educational decisions constantly, teaching also for the future life in the studentsâ€&#x; acquisition; moreover they will remember what the teacher provided them just if they had a meaningful learning.
7
http://www.helsinki.fi/~pkansane/outline.html
5. FINDINGS AND LIMITATIONS The Pedagogical fundamentals are the stuff of teachers daily lives, an overview can be taken about all the requirements about how to perform a good teaching more than just delivering education, more than just explaining a certain topic and beginning a new one, teaching goes beyond teaching is never simply an instrumental activity or a daily routine for teachers. There are some examples for pedagogy like: the art of teaching - the responsive, creative, intuitive part the craft of teaching - skills and practice, the science of teaching - research-informed decision making and the theoretical underpinning, including didactics, methods, techniques, psychology, pedagogy and the environment in the class. Teaching
is a signal to explore all the things included in the pedagogical
fundamentals, understanding, moral purposes and transparent values, how the knowledge is acquired from teachers, this includes the initial training, continuous development, reflection, daily experience, classroom inquiry and regulated practice. Teachers need requirements for a good teaching, but the most important facts are the pedagogical fundamentals. There are several pedagogues that have done a lot of researches in this area; they have contributed with different ideas that have changed the teaching process. Some of them are: Noam Chomsky, Jean Piaget, Ausubel, Vygotsky, Maria Montessori, Benjamin Bloom, Paulo Freire and others. The pedagogical fundamentals were born from the ideas of these pedagogues. According to Chomsky, language defines what it means to be human and the study of language is a way in to the study of the human mind. "Although having a language is not a prerequisite for having a mind, language is overwhelmingly our best evidence for the nature of mind"8. With regard to learning language, Chomsky 8
rd
Chomsky, N. (2006) Language and mind 3 Ed. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.
mentions that some aspects of language are explicitly taught in school such the spelling conventions of the written representation of language and forms of technical vocabulary; however, the most fundamental aspects of language are universal. This notion of universal grammar is the set of linguistic principles that we are endowed with at birth in virtue of being human. Chomsky also asserts that there is a genetically determined "window of opportunity" for language acquisition.
If the child does not learn its first language during this
period, then it will never attain full "native-like mastery" of any language (Smith, 1999). Chomsky has at many times presented many different kinds of evidence in favor of the claim that language is in large part genetically determined including the speed and age-dependence of acquisition.
For example, it can be said that
humans do not need to "learn" that our language contains nouns and verbs; all language contains nouns and verbs (Smith, 1999). People need to learn the noises within the language that are associated with nouns and verbs. Noam Chomsky also states that there is a biological entity, a finite mental organ that develops in children along one of a number of paths, which are determined in advance of any childhood experience. Noam Chomsky and Jean Piaget based his theory in the children education moreover Noam Chomsky takes into account important aspects like presentations and exercises about the language and also the vocabulary that must be used during the learning process. Jean Piaget based his theory in the children education, he developed the theory of cognitive development, it consist in the intellectual activity of the children, the process of thinking and the process of adaptation, like Chomsky, Piaget based their investigations on the children education. Jean Piaget (9 August 1896 – 16 September 1980) was a Swiss developmental psychologist known for his epistemological studies with children. His theory of cognitive development and epistemological view are together called "genetic epistemology". Piaget placed great importance on the education of children. As the Director of the International Bureau of Education, he declared in 1934 that "only education is capable of saving our societies from possible collapse, whether violent,
or gradual."Piaget created the International Centre for Genetic Epistemology in Geneva in 1955 and directed it until 1980. According to Ernst von Glasersfeld, Jean Piaget is "the great pioneer of the constructivist theory of knowing. He has classified the following models: a. The Sociological Model of Development Piaget first developed this stage in the 1920s. He investigated the hidden side of children‟s minds. Piaget proposed that children moved from a position of egocentrism to sociocentrism. For this explanation he combined the use of psychological and clinical methods to create what he called a semi clinical interview. He began the interview by asking children standardized questions and depending on how they answered, he would ask them a series of nonstandard questions. Piaget was looking for what he called “spontaneous conviction” so he often asked questions the children neither expected nor anticipated. In his studies, he noticed there was a gradual progression from intuitive to scientific and socially acceptable responses. Piaget theorized children did this because of the social interaction and the challenge to younger children‟s ideas by the ideas of those children who were more advanced. b. The Sensor motor/Adaptive Model of Intellectual Development In this stage, Piaget described intelligence as having two closely interrelated parts. The first part, which is from the first stage, was the content of children's thinking. The second part was the process of intellectual activity. He believed this process of thinking could be regarded as an extension of the biological process of adaptation. Adaptation has two pieces: assimilation and accommodation. To test his theory, Piaget observed the habits in his own children. He argued infants were engaging in an act of assimilation when they sucked on everything in their reach. He claimed infants transform all objects into an object to be sucked. The children were assimilating the objects to conform to their own mental structures. Piaget then made the assumption whenever one transforms the world to meet individual needs or conceptions; one is, in a way, assimilating it. Piaget also observed his children not
only assimilating objects to fit their needs, but also modifying some of their mental structures to meet the demands of the environment. This is the second division of adaption known as accommodation. To start out, the infants only engaged in primarily reflex actions such as sucking, but not long after, they would pick up actual objects and put them in their mouths. When they do this, they modify their reflex response to accommodate the external objects into reflex actions. c. The Elaboration of the Logical Model of Intellectual Development In the model Piaget developed in stage three, he argued the idea that intelligence develops in a series of stages that are related to age and are progressive because one stage must be accomplished before the next can occur. For each stage of development the child forms a view of reality for that age period. At the next stage, the child must keep up with earlier level of mental abilities to reconstruct concepts. Piaget concluded intellectual development as an upward expanding spiral in which children must constantly reconstruct the ideas formed at earlier levels with new, higher order concepts acquired at the next level. It is primarily the Third Piaget´s work that was incorporated into American psychology when Piaget's ideas were "rediscovered" in the 1960s. d. The Study of Figurative thought Piaget studied areas of intelligence like perception and memory that arenâ€&#x;t entirely logical. Logical concepts are described as being completely reversible because they can always get back to the starting point. The perceptual concepts Piaget studied could not be manipulated. To describe the figurative process, Piaget uses pictures as examples. Pictures canâ€&#x;t be separated because contours cannot be separated from the forms they outline. Memory is the same way. It is never completely reversible. During this last period of work, Piaget and his colleague Inhelder also published books on perception, memory, and other figurative processes such as learning during this last period. Another important pedagogue is David Paul Ausubel, he developed his research based on the teachings of Piaget, Ausubel focused in the relevant prior knowledge
from students, his theory states in his investigation that students must help themselves during the learning process according to the knowledge they already have and begin teaching from that point in order to make from students advanced organizers. Ausubel is one of the greatest pedagogues through the history in the education field and Piaget´s friend. Both developed important theories based on the development of children, Piaget focused on intelligence develops in a series of stages and the mental abilities to reconstruct concepts. Ausubel contributed with ideas about how people acquire the knowledge in order to make students be organized and learn more based on what they already knows, but most important is that both contributed to the educational field with their investigations. His most significant contribution to the fields of educational psychology, cognitive science, and science education learning, was on the development and research on advance organizers (since 1960).Ausubel was influenced by the teachings of Jean Piaget, he always contributed with ideas about how people acquire the knowledge. Also he created some techniques for a better learning for example he said that the teacher must teach based on what the learner already knows and he developed the theory of advanced organizers. Advance organizers provide scaffolding, or support for new information. This is achieved by directing attention to what is important in the coming material, highlighting relationships, and providing a reminder about relevant prior knowledge. Advance organizers are helpful in the way that they help the process of learning when difficult and complex materials are introduced. This is satisfied through two conditions: 1. The student must process and understand the information presented in the organizer-- this increases the effectiveness of the organizer itself. 2. The organizer must indicate the relations among the basic concepts and terms that will be used. Another important author who based his theory in the child development was Lev Semenovich Vygotsky, his theory called The Internalization consist in the
interactions that child has with the environment, he observed how the child was developing the mental functions, how he was acquiring information and how this was changing his life. As Piaget and Ausubel did, Vygotsky based his investigation on the children observations and his investigations are very similar with the ones from Piaget and Ausubel. Lev Semenovich Vygotsky, began his investigation in a deeply manner, his contribution was about the theory of the internalization which is comparable with previous investigations from Piaget and Ausubel. Lev Semenovich Vygotsky was born in Orsha, in the Russian Empire into a nonreligious Jewish family. He was influenced by his cousin David Vygotsky. He graduated from Moscow State University in 1917. Later, he worked at the Institute of Psychology and other educational research and clinical institutions in Moscow, Leningrad, and Kharkov where he worked extensively on ideas about cognitive development. He died in 1934 in Moscow of tuberculosis at the age of 37. Vygotsky was always interested in developmental psychology and child development, Vygotsky investigated child development and how this was guided by the role of culture and interpersonal communication. He observed how higher mental functions developed historically within particular cultural groups, as well as individually through social interactions with significant people in a child's life, particularly parents, but also other adults. Through these interactions, a child came to learn the habits of mind of her/his culture, including speech patterns, written language, and other symbolic knowledge through which the child derives meaning and which affected a child's construction of her/his knowledge. This key premise of Vygotskian psychology is often referred to as cultural mediation. The specific knowledge gained by children through these interactions also represented the shared knowledge of a culture. This process is known as internalization and it is comparable with the method from another important pedagogue which is Maria Montessori, she is best known for her theory called The Montessori´s Method which consist in the experiences students may have upon the environment, also the method is based in the observation, she states in her investigations that students need trainings and meetings during the
learning process, Maria Montessori always worked with the mental and physical abilities from students. She believed in the self-discipline which means that the student can control themselves if they feel free in the good learning environment. This method has been used around the world in many countries, Maria Montessori traveled to many countries around the world and she began her methods based in her experiences about all the teachings she gave to students from different countries and cultures. Her success in her journeys made her to start improving and finding more methods and techniques.
Maria Montessori (August 31, 1870 – May 6, 1952) was an Italian physician, educator, philosopher, humanitarian and devout Catholic; she is best known for her philosophy and the Montessori Method of education of children from birth to adolescence. Her educational method is in use today in a number of public as well as private schools throughout the world. She said “education is not what the teacher gives; education is a natural process spontaneously carried out by the human individual, and is acquired not by listening to words but by experiences upon the environment. The task of the teacher becomes that of preparing a series of motives of cultural activity, spread over a specially prepared environment, and then refraining from obtrusive interference. Human teachers can only help the great work that is being done, as servants help the master. Doing so, they will be witnesses to the unfolding of the human soul and to the rising of a New Man who will not be a victim of events, but will have the clarity of vision to direct and shape the future of human society� The efficacy of Montessori teaching methods has most recently been demonstrated by the results of a study published in the US journal, Science (29 September 2006)
which indicates that Montessori children have improved
behavioral and academic skills compared with a control group from the mainstream system. The authors concluded that "when strictly implemented, Montessori
education fosters social and academic skills that are equal or superior to those fostered by a pool of other types of schools."9 The Montessori´s method of education that she derived from this experience has subsequently been applied successfully to children and is quite popular in many parts of the world. Despite much criticism of her method in the early 1930s-1940s, her method of education has been applied and has undergone a revival. It can now be found on six continents and throughout the United States, but is still subject to some criticism. Maria Montessori found her methods based on the experiences students may have through the environment but another important author based his method on the operationalization of educational objectives, he is best known as Benjamin S. Bloom, and his method consist in the objectives students can organize by themselves and that they can develop, the tasks that can be formulated and that can be performed at the same time during the learning process. His insistence on improving the educational process led him to create the most famous taxonomy for educational objectives in both the cognitive and effective domains. The objective of this taxonomy is to help teachers to classify objectives and goals for the good development of the class. Benjamin S. Bloom (February 21, 1913 – September 13, 1999) was a JewishAmerican educational psychologist who made contributions to the classification of educational objectives and to the theory of mastery-learning. He also directed a research team which conducted a major investigation into the development of exceptional talent whose results are relevant to the question of eminence, exceptional achievement, and greatness. Bloom's most important initial work focused on what might be called „the operationalization of educational objectives‟. Bloom worked with Ralph W. Tyler at Chicago in the examiner‟s office and directed his attention to the development of 9
Montessori Education Provides Better Outcomes Than Traditional Methods, Study Finds, retrieved January 23th, 2012 from http://www.montessori-science.org/montessori_science_journal.htm.
specifications through which educational objectives could be organized according to their cognitive complexity. If such an organization or hierarchy could be developed, university examiners might have a more reliable procedure for assessing students and ithe outcomes of educational practice. One of the consequences of the categories in this taxonomy is that they not only serve as means through which evaluation tasks can be formulated, but also provide a framework for the formulation of the objectives themselves. Bloom was interested in providing a useful practical tool that was congruent with what was understood at that time about the features of the higher mental processes. In 1984 Bloom published "The 2 Sigma Problem: The Search for Methods of Group Instruction as Effective as One-to-One Tutoring"10 in the journal Educational Researcher. This paper reported on what has come to be known as Bloom's 2 Sigma Problem, which shows an astonishing positive effect for the average student in conditions of one-to-one tutoring using Mastery learning techniques. Bloom realized one-to-one tutoring is impossible for most societies, and thus encouraged educators to study combinations of other alterable variables in the learning process that may approach the 2 sigma result.
10
Bloom´s 2 sigma problems, retrieved January 23th, 2012, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloom's_2_Sigma_Problem.
6. Concepts and Categories
The pedagogical fundamentals are acquired from the psychology, the teachers have to apply it for a better learning but they must not forget the methodology of teaching and learning applied in the learning process. So when the teachers are looking for a way to promote the students interest according to different kinds of learning, which is the process of gaining knowledge and experience. When the teacher applies the right methodology, methods and techniques, during the class, the student will be able to learn in a proper way what the teacher said and they will not even forget the topic they saw the previous day. In order to succeed there must be present the good pedagogy which is the set of knowledge which study the education like a phenomenon typically and social and specifically human, the teacher should use also different processes and elements between didactics. This has the main goal of analyzing actions and operations these are used for teachers and those help to the students but the psychology it must be applied because the teacher must be aware about the behavior and the mental processes coming from the students so in that way teacher must be aware of feelings, perceptions and thoughts from the students. It is the social science that studies how people learn and by using psychology is the best way of teaching them. The psychology is different from a natural science because it focuses on the interaction and social exchange and among persons rather than relationships between inanimate things or nonsocial behaviors. It must be applied because the teacher must be aware about the behavior and the mental processes coming from the students so in that way teacher must be aware of feelings, perceptions and thoughts from the students. Thus the teacher must give motivation which is the driving force that causes to achieve goals and also motivation make us put all our effort
in
something we need. Teacher must be aware about the motivation he is giving to the students because if students are not motivated they will never learn, the teacher must use different kind of methods and techniques in order to motivate students. The motivation is related also to the instructional process which is the
way how teachers put in practice methods, techniques, psychology, pedagogy and didactic planning during the students learning process, during this time all pedagogical fundamentals are important for the students and the teacher must be aware of the important role of these fundamentals. This is going to affect the interaction process between the subject and the medium for the development of the language for example. Languages are the main tool for the good education around the world and the pedagogue from the past like Maria Montessori, Vygotsky, David Ausubel, Jean Piaget, Noam Chomsky, Benjamin Bloom and others had been making investigations about these pedagogical fundamentals that are so important for the education process.
CHAPTER II THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
7. THEORETICAL METHODOLOGICAL BASE During the history in the educational field researchers from different countries and cultures dedicated their lives to the investigation in the educational field, these researchers have been making theories about the best way how to teach students and how to improve previous theories from previous authors, These researchers called pedagogues found in their investigations many theories about the learning process. Pedagogues like Jean Piaget, Maria Montessori, David Ausubel, Vygotsky, Noam Chomsky, Benjamin Bloom and Paulo Freire made a big contribution that has evolved the teaching process in the classrooms. Thanks to them nowadays teachers can apply a variety of methods and techniques in order to help students during the learning process. Todayâ€&#x;s classrooms serve as a testimony to their work seven persons who made important but different contributions to this field. Here are presented the contributions done by them in the pedagogical fundamentals such as: Psychology, Pedagogy, Teaching Methods, the Didactic Planning and Learning Environment. In the next pages there will be presented one pedagogical fundamental and after it will be presented information related to each pedagogue, it will be presented the contributions they made about each pedagogical fundamental. This will be with all pedagogical fundamentals. 7.1 LEARNING ENVIRONMENT Jean Piaget: Motivated by the desire to understand and explain the nature of children´s thinking and reasoning, devoted more than fifty five years of his life to the study of children behaviors.
Piaget developed the theory of cognitive
development and intellectual development and he mentions that the learning environment is very important for children because he states that in the
environment is where the children will show behaviors and characteristics that will help the children´s learning. Piaget believed that cognitive development results from the interaction of the factors that are inside and outside of a person; for him, cognitive development was the product of the child‟s interacting with the environment in ways that change substantially as the child develops. Piaget‟s ideas about the nature of the intellectual development as well as his ideas about when and how his development takes place were first formed as a result of his meticulous observations of his own three children. Students become active participants instead of passive sponges and the teacher truly takes on the role of facilitator and gives guidance in the student´s creations. Also, Piaget mentions that learning environment encourages children to initiate and complete their own activities. “Researchers have also discovered that the school environment is very complex so it is almost impossible to describe ideal environments”. 11 Piaget´s work with children made him realize that all sensitive living things engage in what it can be call a feedback loop when interacting with their environment .The individual performs an action and observes a response. Piaget mentions in his theory the adaptation and organization and he states that the environment is very important for children. Adaption is a twofold process that consists of taking in information and changing previously established cognitive structures to conform to the newly perceived information. Adaption is the means by which a person adjusts to her or his environment. The process of taking in information is called assimilation; the process of changing established cognitive structures in light of new information is called accommodation. Piaget states that his theory takes place in adolescents and adults no just in children, everyone learns through the processes of adaptation and organization but each person develops a unique cognitive structure, there are also more differences
11
Margaret M. Clifford, Practicing Educational Psychology, Library of Congress Catalog. 1981. Pag 212
in cognitive structures among people of different ages. “Other factors that help shape the school environment are curriculum and instruction processes”12
Maria Montessori: In her theory she mentions that to educate the senses before educating the intellect. Montessori believed that if the child was interested enough in the task and in a good environment they would engage in the activity totally. Reformed the role of the teacher from the center of the educational activity to the periphery, where they could observe and interact if necessary. Through her observations of children, she believed that they would show her how to educate them. She believed that the learning environment is as important as the learning process. She mentions that the prepared environment is important to Montessori. It is the invitation for the child to learn from the adult. Rooms are child sized and activities are set up for success. It also allows freedom of movement and of choice. The environment has to be safe for the child to explore freely. The environment has to be ready and beautiful for the child that it invites them to work. Montessori refers to work as the activity the child does or what people might call play. She calls this work since it is through this that they create themselves and it is simply not play. Their play is their work and they are still enjoying it. The school should also give children a chance to interact cooperatively. “Cooperative environments can be created through class rule making, through taking part as a group in community activities”.13 The Montessori Method of education is a model that serves the needs of children in the learning process, her teachings were based in the mental and physical abilities and today Montessori teaching training centers
12
13
Margaret M. Clifford, Practicing Educational Psychology, Library of Congress Catalog. 1981. Pag 212
Margaret M. Clifford, Practicing Educational Psychology, Library of Congress Catalog. 1981. Pag 214
and schools exist all over the world. Montessori also mentions that the child shows a surprising activity and a truly wonderful ability that they can refine their actions but the things that the environment that surrounds them is so stronger that right away it becomes an impediment for their activity. The practical problem of the education consist in presenting to the soul of the child an environment free of obstacles, the game describes an specific behavior that does not has an specific ending but improves the efficiency in similar situations in the future. 14
Lev Semenovich Vygotsky: His theory suggests that social interaction leads to continuous step by step changes in children‟s though and behavior that can vary greatly from culture to culture. Basically, Vygotsky´s theory suggests that development depends on interaction with people and the tools that the culture provides to help form their own view of the world. There are three ways a cultural tool can be passed from one individual to another. The first one is imitative learning, where one person tries to imitate or copy another. The second way is by instructed learning which involves remembering the instructions of the teacher and then using these instructions to self-regulate. The final way that cultural tools are passed to others is through collaborative learning, which involves a group of peers who strive to understand each other and work together to learn a specific skill. His theory combines the social environment and cognition. The learning environment was very important for him because children will acquire the ways of thinking and behaving that make up a culture by interacting with the environment. He mentions that the teacher´s role is to organize the social environment of the students and to control that the interaction between students and this environment is functioning, teachers are powerless to produce immediate effects on the students, he is all powerful when it comes to producing direct effects on them by through the social environment, the social environment is the true lever of the educational process and teachers overall role is to adjust this lever.
14
Buenas Tareas, “David Ausubel and constructivism” retrieved January 23th, 2012 from http://www.buenastareas.com/ensayos/David-Ausubel-And-Constructivism/1596552.html
Benjamin Bloom: His educational system was based on describing objectives and the process of achieving them, his work indicates the approach to teaching mastery learning in searching of methods as individual tutoring. Bloom also wanted students were thinking about when teachers were teaching because he realized that it was in that moment when students were experiencing about the learning process. Bloom suggested that the environment is very important in the learning process for students; he brings his attention in individuals needs. Bloom mentions that a person´s environment would have only a very slight and indirect impact on whether someone retains what they have learned in the school, he also mentions that traditional school is based upon exploration of many aspects of the world in an environment of individual decision and choice. He states that indoctrination on the other hand, is viewed as reducing the possibilities of free choice and decision.
7.2 Psychology Noam Chomsky: He was a Rationalist Philosopher and a Political Theorist. Chomsky demolished any connection between linguistics and behaviorist psychology.“Every teacher inevitably brings a personal view
of life into the
classroom a view that interpermeates with the work. The teacher may not always be fully aware of the effects of this fact, and it can be useful to
examine its
implications”15 Rationalism engendered a resurgence of work in faculty psychology; the theory that human mind consists of discrete modules which are specialized for particular cognitive processes: vision and language, for example: one of his statements in rationalist philosophy was modular Approaches to the Study of Mind (1984). He states in his investigation related to cognitive psychology that it is the branch of psychology that studies mental processes including how people think. 15
Tom McArthur , A foundation Course for Language Teachers, Cambridge University Press 1990. Pag. 88
Psychology is the science that has formulated the principles of his investigation because it is based in observation and experimentation so linguistics has to be explained in scientific principles. Chomsky try to propose a linguistic theory because he try to explain its nature, use and acquisition of the language, in his opinion the important object of linguistics is to investigate the nature of the mind. So is the concern of the cognitive revolution in contrast with the behaviorist approach. Jean Piaget: Piaget mentions that intellectual development was not a simple physiological or maturational process that automatically takes place as the child breathes in oxygen and gains in height and weight. Nor did Piaget view intellectual development as something to be ensured simply by bombarding the child with experiences and an enriched environment. Strictly speaking, Piaget was neither a maturationist (one who believes that time and age determine intellectual development) nor an environmentalist (one who believes that the development of a person is primarily determined by his or her social and physical environment). Rather, he was an interactionist. (one who based his theory in social communication). Piaget was an influential experimenter in the field of developmental psychology and in the study of human intelligence. He enjoyed using psychology with his own children for his investigation. Today his theory of cognitive development is used in schools for children, this theory is based in the child psychology and this theory is encouraged to learn through discovery. Accommodation and assimilation are the two sides of adaptation, Piaget´s term for what he called later “learning�. His big contribution in psychology mentions that children construct an understanding of the world around them, the experience discrepancies between what they already know and what they discover in their environment.
David Ausubel : He was influenced by the teachings of Jean Piaget. Similar to Piaget‟s ideas of conceptual schemes, Ausubel related this to his explanation of how people acquire knowledge. “David Ausubel theorized that people acquire knowledge primarily by being exposed directly to it rather than through discovery” 16 In other words, Ausubel believed that understanding concepts, principles, and ideas are achieved through deductive reasoning. Similarly, he believed in the idea of meaningful learning as opposed to remote memorization. In the preface to his book Educational psychology to just one principle, he would say this: the most important single factor influencing learning is what the learner already knows. Ausubel, whose theories are particularly relevant for educators, considered neobehaviorist views inadequate. Although, he recognized other forms of learning, his work focused on verbal learning. He dealt with the nature of meaning, and believes the external world acquires meaning only as it is converted into the content of consciousness by the learner.
He mentions in his investigation that If he had to reduce all the educational psychology in one principle he would state this: The most important factor that influences in the learning process is what the student already knows……search this and teach it consequently.” One of the major contributions that David Ausubel gave to the psychology is the theory of the development of the advanced organizers which is based in the knowledge that the student already knows and he mentions that the teacher must start teaching from there. Also developed the theory of the assimilation/subsumption where he mentions the meaningful learning and here he states that knowledge is hierarchically organized with subordinate concepts that are less general and more specific.
16
Buenas Tareas, “David Ausubel and constructivism” retrieved January 23th, 2012 from http://www.buenastareas.com/ensayos/David-Ausubel-And-Constructivism/1596552.html
Lev Semenovich Vygotsky: Vygotsky is known for being an educational psychologist with a social cultural theory. This theory suggests that social interaction leads to continuous step by step changes in children‟s though and behavior that can vary greatly from culture to culture. Basically, Vygotsky´s theory suggests that the development depends on the interaction with people and the tools that the culture provides to help form their own view of the world. Vygotsky‟s ideas and theories are often compared to Jean Piaget´s, especially his cognitive development of the theory.17 They had a conflict explaining that development concepts should not be taught until children are in the appropriate developmental stage. Opposing Vygotsky‟s Zone of Proximal Development, Piaget believed that the most important source of cognition is the children themselves. But, Vygotsky argued that the social environment could help the child‟s cognitive development.
Vygotsky considered the use of the tools as a necessary condition but not enough for the use of the psychological functions, specifically human that would allow to recognize the close proximity phylogenetic between monkeys and humans at the same time in the qualitative abyss that separates them.
Vygotsky also states in his theory that social interaction plays an essential role in the development of the cognitive functioning. His view is that every human function in cultural development happens twice: first on the social level, which is between people (inter psychological) and after on the individual level (intra psychological) this function applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory and to the formation of daily concepts.
17
Instructional Design, Learning Theories, retrieved January 23th, 2012 from http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/.
Maria Montessori: She was very interested in psychology because according to history she was the first one who provided child sized tables and chairs. Montessori´s methods is based on the nature of the child, she mentions children go through a series of “Sensitive Periods” with “Creative Moments”
18
when they
show spur of the moment interest in learning, it is then when the children have the greatest ability to learn. Montessori´s method is based also in observation, dynamic trainings and the meeting of needs in students that is why psychology was very important for her. Something important to mention about Maria Montessori is that she was an student of psychology and philosophy at the university, she took classes predominately in educational philosophy, physical anthropology and experimental psychology. The chief components of the Montessori method based in psychology are self motivation and auto education; she believed that child will learn naturally if the child is motivated and if the teacher is using the right tools for the learning process in the student. Benjamin Bloom: His educational system was based on describing objectives and the process of achieving them, his work indicates the approach to teaching mastery learning in search of methods as individual tutoring. Bloom also wanted students were thinking about when teachers were teaching because he realized that it was in that moment when students were experience about the learning process. Bloom headed a group of psychologist at the University of Chicago and as a result of their job was the creation of a “Taxonomy hierarchy of cognitivedriven behavior”. “The bloom Taxonomy is classified in the three educational objectives, cognitive domain, affective domain, psychomotor domain”.
18 19
Carmen Maria Galo de Lara, Tecnología Didáctica, editorial piedra santa,2006. pag 12-13 Carmen Maria Galo de Lara, Tecnología Didáctica, editorial piedra santa,2006. pag 12-13
19
The
objective of this taxonomy is to help teachers and instructional designers to classify instructional objectives and goals, Benjamin Bloom states that not all learning objectives and outcomes have equal merit. also Bloom‟s taxonomy in theory helps teachers better to prepare objectives; so that, his theory has been largely adopted by teachers from traditional movements and that is why psychology was very important for him.
7.3 PEDAGOGY Noam Chomsky: Since pedagogy is a set of knowledge which studies the education like a phenomenon typically social and specifically human, it can be mentioned that Noam Chomsky used the pedagogy all the time in his investigation, pedagogy is applied in psychosocial, the main objective of this science is the education and it is influenced by the sociology, anthropology, philosophy, the history and the medicine. “Teaching is an art. As an art, much of it is idiosyncratic, a personal achievement of the teacher, A capable teacher can take the dullest material and give it life”. 20 Chomsky created a variety of methods and techniques that helped him to finish his investigations.
The study of the human language is made from the
psycholinguistics, within this contexts they should have the very well know pedagogical knowledge of Noam Chomsky about the dimensions of the language , also he focused in the degree of specificity of language, speaking and language. For the very well performance of the language the part of the brain that helps us is located in the left cerebral hemisphere.
20
Tom McArthur , A foundation Course for Language Teachers, Cambridge University Press 1990. Pag. 82
Jean Piaget: Motivated by the desire to understand and explain the nature of children‟s thinking and reasoning , devoted more than fifty-five years of his life to the study of children‟s behaviors. Piaget attached an age range to each of these four stages of development, there are marked individual differences in the pace with children move through these stages. At any given age, stages may overlap as the child exhibits some behaviors characteristic of one stage and other behaviors characteristic of another stage. Piaget based his pedagogy in the children thoughts and behaviors but also he based his investigation in adults and young people, his pedagogy mentions a variety of methods and techniques. In Piaget‟s theory, the functions of adaptation and organization are common to all individuals. For this reason they are described as invariants; they account for all cognitive learning whether it takes place in children, adolescent or adults and whether spelling or cooking or snow shoveling is the subject being learned. Everyone learns through the processes of adaptation and organization, but each person develops a unique cognitive structure. His ideas played crucial roles in the pedagogical framework of children and education. Thoroughly, he examined the sociocultural theory which emphasizes the role in development of cooperative dialogues between children and more knowledgeable members of society.
David Ausubel : Ausubel was influenced by the teachings of Jean Piaget. Similar to Piaget‟s ideas of conceptual schemes, Ausubel related this to his explanation of how people acquire knowledge. Ausubel believed that understanding concepts, principles, and ideas are achieved through deductive reasoning. Similarly, he believed in the idea of meaningful learning as opposed to remote memorization. In the preface to his book Educational psychology to just one principle, he would say this: the most important single factor influencing learning is what the learner already knows. Ascertain this and teach him accordingly. Through his belief of meaningful
learning,
Ausubel
developed
his
theory
of
advance
organizers. Ausubel developed theories for the good learning process in students , he created theories like “Meaning Verbal Learning", "The Subsumption Theory" and "Meaningful Learning Theory".21 "Meaning Verbal Learning" Meaning is
created
through
some form
of
representational equivalence between language (symbols) and mental context. Two processes are involved: verbal learning, and 2.
1.
Reception, which is employed in meaningful
Discovery, which is involved in concept formation and
problem solving. Ausubel work has frequently been compared with Bruner‟s, both held similar views about the hierarchical nature of knowledge, but Bruner was strongly oriented toward discovery processes, where Ausubel gave more emphasis to the verbal learning methods of speech, reading and writing. The Subsumption Theory is to incorporate new material into one‟s cognitive structures. From Ausubel´s perspective, this is the meaning of learning; when the information is subsumed into the learner‟s cognitive structure it is organized hierarchically. Ausubel believed that it was important for teachers to provide a preview of information to be learned. Teachers could do this by brief introduction about the way that information that is going to be presented is structured. This would enable students to start with a “Big Picture” of the upcoming content, and link new ideas, concepts, vocabulary to existing mental maps of the content area. Ausubel was the creator of the Meaningful Learning Theory, which had important implications for educational work. Ausubel and Vygotsky, created theories and a discussion about the similarities and discrepancies of his thought. Just today, start feeling in the world scientific community the impact of their works. Their theories provide answers to issues that seemed problematic and indicate the course to follow, especially in the area of education.
21
Instructional Design, Subsumption Theory, retrieved January 23th, 2012 from http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/subsumption-theory.html
Ausubel makes a strong criticism of discovery learning and teaching traditional repetitive mechanical, indicating that very little effective are learning science. Believes that learning means understanding and it is indispensable to take into account what students already know about what he wants to teach. Lev Semenovich Vygotsky: His theory is about “Psychological tools” by analogy with the physical tools to the sign systems, particularly the language but the central point of analysis of Vygotsky is the psychological process that can be understood through the consideration and in the moment of the intervention in the course of the development of each human being. Vygotsky Social cultural Theory: Vygotsky is known for being an educational psychologist with a social cultural theory. “Social development includes the ability to form and continue friendships, to get and keep a job, to lead and direct others, and to function in cooperative and competitive environments”.22 This theory suggests that social interaction leads to continuous step by step changes in children‟s though and behavior that can vary greatly from culture to culture. Basically ,Vygotsky´s theory
suggests that development depends on
interaction with people and the tools that the culture provides to help form their own view of the world. There are three ways a cultural tool can be passed from one individual to another. The first one is imitative learning, where one person tries to imitate or copy another. The second way is by instructed learning which involves remembering the instructions of the teacher and then using these instructions to self-regulate. The final way that cultural tools are passed to others is through collaborative learning, which involves a group of peers who strive to understand each other and work together to learn a specific skill. His theory combines the social environment and cognition. Children will acquire the ways of thinking and behaving that make up a culture by interacting with a more
22
Margaret M. Clifford, Practicing Educational Psychology, Library of Congress Catalog. 1981. Pag 167
knowledgeable person. Vygotsky believed that social interaction will lead to ongoing changes in a child‟s though and behavior. Vygotsky states Knowledge is the result of social interaction, interaction with others become aware of us, we learn the use of symbols, in turn, allow us to think in increasingly complex ways. For Vygotsky, the greater the social interaction is, the more likely to have more robust mental functions. The human being is a cultural being and is what makes the difference between humans and animals. In conclusion, Piaget emphasized universal cognitive change and Vygotsky„s theory leads us to expect highly variable development, depending on the child‟s cultural experiences to the environment. Piaget„s theory emphasized the natural line, while Vygotsky favored the cultural line of development. Finally, Vygotsky considered the use of the tools as a necessary condition but not enough for the use of the psychological functions, specifically human what would allow to recognize the close proximity phylogenetic between monkeys and humans at the same time in the qualitative abyss that separates them. Maria Montessori:
She opened a new path, especially for children, making
observations about the individual experimentation respecting the speed of work of each one, affirming the life and the personal effort, not to be a student subject to the teacher but being a child that develops himself freely. The pedagogy that Montessori proposed is to induce the observation and the experimentation of the environment and the motivation offered freely in the environment. Her most successfully theory was the Montessori legacy, she adopted the following principles for the development of her theory: to educate the senses before educating the intellect.
Maria Montessori gave the world a scientific method, practical and tested for bringing forth to young human beings. Also she taught adults how to respect the differences and how to interact socially with other persons. The Montessori Method is based in observation, dynamic trainings and the meeting of needs in students.
When physical, mental, spiritual, and emotional needs are met children glow with excitement and a drive to play and work with enthusiasm to learn and to create. She always played and worked with enthusiasm to learn and to create with them.23 The Montessori Method of education is a model that serves the needs of children in the learning process, her teachings were based in the mental and physical abilities and today Montessori teaching training centers and schools exist all over the world. Montessori also mentions that the child shows a surprising activity and a truly wonderful ability that they can refine their actions but the things that the environment that surround them is so stronger that right away it becomes an impediment for their activity. The practical problem of the education consist in presenting to the soul of the child an environment free of obstacles, the game describes an specific behavior that does not has an specific ending but improves the efficiency in similar situations in the future. After she was 40 years old, Montessori devoted her life to the popularisation of the teaching materials which she developed as well as to her pedagogical thinking. She founded The Association Montessori Internationale (the AMI). She took patents for the teaching materials. Classrooms were setup featuring Montessori Method of Education, in which teachers who learned in certified AMI-schools and got the qualification are teaching with the aid of certified materials in the facility which meets the installation standard. The administration of the Association has been succeeded to her son and then to her granddaughter. Montessori's teaching materials embody the thinking of a woman who grew up in a quiet environment as an only daughter of an affluent home and later completed her education in engineering,
medical
science
and
anthropology.
The
administration
and
management of the association reflects the perseverance of a woman who took a
23
Montessori Education Provides Better Outcomes Than Traditional Methods, Study Finds, retrieved January 23th, 2012 from http://www.montessori-science.org/montessori_science_journal.htm
prominent and pioneering role in a society, Montessori's achievements were possible thanks to her mother who always supported her behind the scenes as well as her women friends who walked with her in her late years.
Benjamin Bloom: The main objective in Bloom´s taxonomy is that the learning process is permanent in the transformation of the information, the same as the experience in the knowledge, skills, behaviors and attitudes of every student. Benjamin Bloom was a doctor in education in the University of Chicago and he made taxonomy in the domains of education. His educational system was based on describing objectives and the process of achieving them, his work indicates the approach to teaching mastery learning in search of methods as individual tutoring. Bloom also wanted students were thinking about when teachers were teaching because he realized that it was in that moment when students were experience about the learning process. Bloom headed a group of psychologist at the University of Chicago and as a result of their job was the creation of a “Taxonomy hierarchy of cognitive-driven behavior”. The objective of this taxonomy is to help teachers and instructional designers to classify instructional objectives and goals, Benjamin Bloom states that not all learning objectives and outcomes have equal merit, also Bloom‟s taxonomy in theory helps teachers better to prepare objectives; so that, his theory has been largely adopted by teachers from traditional movements. Bloom suggested that the environment is very important in the learning process for students; he put attention carefully in individuals needs.24 The very well known” Taxonomy of Bloom” can be understood as “The objectives of the process of learning” , the meaning for him was that after achieving a learning process the student must have acquired new skills and knowledge.
24
Carmen Maria Galo de Lara, Tecnologia Didactica, editorial piedra santa,2006. Pag. 14
Paulo Freire : He stated that the most important factor in the education was teaching taking into account what the student already knows. Freire pedagogy is based in the development of critical consciousness, allowing people to question the nature of their historical and social situation “to read their world with the goal of acting as subjects in the creation of a democratic society”. Freire states that teacher and students must exchange questions so in that way both are going to learn at the same time and both participate in the learning process. Basically Paulo Freire was considering the fundamental in the methodology of participation into the learning process for the social change of ideas of Paulo Freire that were exceeding the pedagogy of the communication because he was considered as a philosopher of the communicative action and with other pedagogues considered that they were people of dialogue, human being in conclusion, “that is why we are people of action”, they said. He mentions in his investigation that the reason of his pedagogy is that students learn to cultivate their own growth through situations from the daily life that provide useful learning experiences, he said this would be helpful because these are experiences of their lives. Freire´s theory mentions that students must do more than simply reproduce the words that already exist, he states that students must create their own words in order to fight the problems of their reality, also he said that the person who thinks and reflects goes about creating himself from the inside out and will learn in a better way.
7.4 MOTIVATION Jean Piaget: Piaget believed that the motivation to learn was caused by cognitive disequilibrium that occurs when there is a discrepancy between the current reality and the reality formed through cognitive processes. He also mentions that the motivation for learning comes from an internal need for harmony, balance and order. His theory about the cognitive development is a big contribution to the
educational field, this theory focus in neuroscience and psychology focusing on child´s development, language learning and other aspects of brain development. Piaget´s developmental theory states that the formal reasoning and the skills in students are part of the intrinsic motivation, and also Piaget said that it is unreasonable to expect that intrinsic motivation will suffice for most students for most higher level academic tasks. Piaget assumes that all learning unfolds as part of the developmental process endorse students to approach in the education at all levels and the intrinsic motivation is always possible and down play the importance of acquiring a knowledge base.25
David Ausubel : Ausubel mentions that in order to improve the motivation in the students they
should start from their preconcepts
to begin to build new
knowledge, making it a piece of their cognoscitive structure and this is going to improve the creativity and the learning style because they will have experiences based in this theory. Ausubel said “the desire to perform well and reach high standards” in other words Ausubel means that everyone wants to do well and strives to achieve and also he mentions that there are substantial differences between individuals in the strength of their achievement motivation. Children who try to succeed often become adults who are equally motivated to do well; it does not mean that children inherit a given level of motivation it can be acquired as a consequence of the early experience in the students. Ausubel mentions three components of achievement motivation, the first one is cognitive drive that “refers to the motivational effects of a learner finding a task interesting, or relating to the individual‟s need for competence”. The second component is an ego-enhancing one, Here Ausubel talk about learner‟s feelings to such concepts like “status, self-esteem, being adequate and having success” . 25
Wikiversity, “Motivation and emotion” , retrieved January 23th, 2012 from http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Textbook/Motivation/Education
The third component is directed towards bringing a person the approval of others” , It can be seen in actions, which are designed to win the admiration of other individuals.
Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky: He believes in the emotional factors such as struggles, frustrations caused by failure and the joys of success are all important factors in the level of motivation experienced by the child. Vygotsky was one of the first scholars who discussed the importance of socio cultural motivation approaches in the student´s learning process. In his theory he explains how history and society have a significant impact on human development and learning. Vygotsky´s theories provided very useful information about motivational facts that interfere in the motivation of the students, Vygotsky presented the argument the socio historic context, this theory argue the differences in motivation that should begin in the classroom and home. Vygotsky was more interested in the general process in which collective signs deployed in social activities become the means for complexity. Basically, his theory is related to how people construct the identities that mediate their behavior. “All normal human beings, under normal conditions, are born with the capacity to acquire at least one language, and probably more than one”. 26 Maria Montessori: She mentions that the teacher must know when the student will be ready to do something. She states that learning is an exciting process of discovery, leading to concentration, motivation, self-discipline and a love for learning. Montessori states that when the child is interested in something, the child becomes self-motivated because child learn in partnership and in that way teachers can know when the student is learning. Maria Montessori developed her method based in the observation in how children interact with the environment. She understood that children come to the world as 26
Tom McArthur , A foundation Course for Language Teachers, Cambridge University Press 1990. Pag. 10
eager learners who find joy and satisfaction in mastering a task and devised a system in which the motivation for independence is a touchstone for progress in academic and social development. Maria Montessori believed that the motivation can help to the curiosity in students and also motivation could give free opportunities to be self developed.27 Benjamin Bloom: Bloom states that what matters is to spend the time in a pleasant manner then students should focus in learning, and they can be relaxed and that can help to increase the motivation. He said students must learn in a positive way because they will get specific skills. Bloom said that teachers must include motivational orientations all the time. Bloom, in his taxonomy mentions the factors affecting students‟ motivation and these factors include elements that are specific to each student as well as the elements of classroom climate. Then, it is when the teacher has the control because teacher can not change student´s family situation, personal goals, intelligence, diet or sleep habits, but teacher can change the atmosphere for learning. Bloom mentions that the social extrinsic motivation comes in two forms: first of all, social extrinsic rewards from parents, teachers, peers or role models; and the second kind of social extrinsic motivation is being exposed to role models. This is especially striking in sports. Paulo Freire: He states that the dominant curriculum treats motivation as outside the action of study. Tests, discipline, punishment, rewards, the promise of future job are considerable motivating devices as alienated from the act of learning. Freire mentions that teachers should be in training programs for motivational teaching strategies in order to create an active, positive and communicative learning environment.
27
Daily Montessori, “help me to do it my self”, retrieved January 23th,2012 from http://www.dailymontessori.com/montessori-theory/
Freire also mentions that motivation depends on the intellectual apparatus then teachers built the teaching of thinking in the students. Freire agreed with many pedagogues about motivation, psychology and sociology but what he added to the educational field was his political theory. He said that pedagogical action should be a political action, an action to make humans free and education should be in a situation without democracy. Freire saw in motivation the key for successful learning and dialogue.
7.5 DIDACTIC PLANNING
Jean Piaget: He mentions that the organization of the classes is one of the main objectives for the teacher,
28
“Learning is essentially individual, the teacher seek to
create situations that address the unique characteristics� in that way the teacher must make a diagnostic of the group and also individually to each student. He mentions that during the learning process the teacher must use didactic planning with the child because the child must interact with real objects, people, cloth and soon. Teachers must be aware about what the student needs and he must use some components like life experiences, conceptualizations and reflections, extensive documentation and application.
Life experiences refer to the attempts to design and develop the process of formation in order to face real life situations in relation to the subject or object of knowledge.
Conceptualizations and reflections refer to the previous life
experiences students experimented, documentation refer to the objective to confront students with the explanation of theories and models previously elaborated for the science, art or technology. Finally 28
application according to
Carmen Maria Galo de Lara, Tecnologia Didactica, editorial piedra santa,2006. Pag. 82
Piaget is when the teacher deepens in the documentation given to the students, teacher goes deeply in the content of documentation. Piaget also mentions that teachers must make an important change in the traditional didactic, Piaget said that the student becomes an active protagonist in their own learning process and the teacher becomes the guide or director of this process.
David Ausubel : Ausubel is a proponent of didactic, expository teaching methods. From this perspective, expository (verbal) learning approaches encourage rapid learning and retention, whereas discovery learning (Bruner) facilities transfer to other context Advanced Organizers Ausubel contributed much to the theoretical body of cognitive learning theory, but not as much to the practical classroom aspects as Bruner and others. Ausubel most notable contribution for classroom application was the advance organizer. The advance organizer is a tool or a mental learning aid to help students integrate new information with their existing knowledge, leading to “meaningful learning” as opposed to rote memorization. It is a means of preparing the learners cognitive structure for the learning experience about to take place. It is a device to active the relevant schema or conceptual patterns so that new information can be more readily subsumed into the learner is existing cognitive structures. From the didactic point of view the main objective is to identify the basic concepts of any topic and then organize these concepts in order to develop the objective of advanced organizers. Ausubel said learning can be repeated or significant based on lessons learned that relates substantially to the cognitive structure. “ Most authorities on teaching methodology have grown cautious about recommending the ultimate panacea; they have had their fingers burnes too often”.
29
29
Tom McArthur , A foundation Course for Language Teachers, Cambridge University Press 1990. Pag. 96
Ausubel finally mentions that the lesson plan is a theoretical and methodological instrument important for all teachers. To learn and understand this tool will allow teachers to visualize the viable way of the good learning which is necessary for strategic plans.
Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky: Vigotsky recommends to teachers to implement the teaching – learning processes because he states that the didactic planning plays an important role in the educational field. He mentions that teachers must put in practice activities with social meaning in the consciousness, considering that the social environment would be the key for a better learning in the students. He said that the integration of social and personal factors is what the teacher must take into account at the moment to make group activities.
The cognitive change is the result of using the cultural instruments in the students and according to Vygotsky during the class teacher must take into account previous experiences from the students, he agree with many authors this principle. Finally, Vygotsky considered the use of the tools as a necessary condition but not enough for the use of the psychological functions, specifically human what would allow to recognize the close proximity phylogenetic between monkeys and humans at the same time in the qualitative abyss that separates them.
Maria Montessori: The most important method from Maria Montessori was based in observation , dynamic trainings and the meeting of needs in students. The Montessori method of education is a model that serves the needs of children in the learning process. She developed didactic material for the purpose of
sensory
education, the objective of this didactic material was to develop and sharpen the students skills, she also mentions that the main purpose of her didactic material is to develop the personality in children. The didactic material Montessori used was a long rectangular wooden divided into two rectangles, in one rectangle there is
smooth cardboard and in the other rectangle there is glass paper. She used another rectangular wooden with smooth cardboard and strips of glass and the last wooden she used contained papers with glass in a manner that the texture was finer and finer.
With this didactic material Montessori taught children to make movements with the hand in order to learn to write, this is helpful to prepare the hand to touch quickly and to feel the differences in a systematic way. The principle of Maria Montessori was that activities should be methodically coordinated so in that way children could feel and judge the degree of success in the class. Maria Montessori mentioned many times that the didactic material would allow the children to take the initiative themselves and progress toward self-realization. The experience let Montessori to believe that the children can be given the freedom to work in what they want if the teacher teach them how to use the didactic material.30 Paulo Freire: His didactic procedures were considered factors of revolution. He mentions in his investigation that the reading should be a regular event because the mastery of the word is essential in the teaching learning process. Reading must be an important factor in the didactic planning in every school around the world. Freire developed important projects in literacy in adults in brazil getting significant results. Freire also mentions that to learn to read and write is important in order to get the knowledge of reality.
Freire basically includes in his didactic the fact that reading and writing are important tools during the learning process. He said teacher must adopt a compromise with the most vulnerable sectors of the society.
30
Slideshare, “Maria Montessori� retrieved january 23th, 2012 from http://www.slideshare.net/adalbertomartinez/maestra-diversidad-didctica-maria-montessori
7.6 METHODOLOGY Noam Chomsky: Chomsky‟s method has been subject to much debate, the political writings of Noam Chomsky suffer two weaknesses: the lack of a clear theoretical framework and the lack of concreteness in strategies. Chomsky said everything is a step to take: you organize people, you get them to go on demonstrations, you get them to form political clubs, to form unions and to do the right things.
The point of view of Chomsky and the practice of the methods were always in social and political analysis. He employs what is essentially a fairly simple formula. In his investigation he explains the methodology for studying the learning of language. He explains the relationship between the data available and the knowledge of the language which is the result from the mental activities of the child which constitutes the data of how transition takes place from the input data to the resulting knowledge.
According to his investigation, many authors are asking why should we accept Chomsky´s interpretation of data because in Chomsky´s point of view he mentions a rigorous empirical method. He looks at the data available on a particular issue and compares it with data used and highlighted by the media but what is significant is the amount of attention given to some issues over others. Chomsky is careful to give the source of this knowledge because he states this is part of his strategy.
Jean
Piaget:
Teaching
methods
from
Piaget
were
teacher
lectures,
demonstrations, audio-visual presentations, teaching machines, programmed instruction. Also, Piaget used previous experiences from students in order to put in practice his theory about assimilation and accommodation. In his theory Piaget mentions the needs of the children to explore, to manipulate , to experiment and to question and to search answers from themselves. “He states activities are essential during the class, teachers should be able to asses the child cognitive
level, they are there to guide and stimulate students and finally teachers must allow children to make mistakes and learn from them”. 31
Piaget also mentions teachers should present students materials and situations that allow them to discover new learning because in that way students will acquire new experiences that will help them later. In his book “Understand is to invent” Piaget said: “To understand is to discover or reconstruct by rediscovery and that condition must be complied for the future individuals and students are capable for production and creativity and not simply repetition”. The methods from Jean Piaget were based on case studies, Piaget believed that biological development moves from one cognitive stage to the next.
David ausubel : Ausubel used verbal learning methods of speech, reading and writing, one example of his method is the subsumption theory which is the method that incorporate new material into the cognitive structure of the students. Ausubel also mentions the meaningful learning, he mentions that it takes place unless a new cognitive structure exists and if it exist the cognitive structure will provide a framework
where
new
learning
is
related.
Ausubel is a proponent of didactics and also he was an expository of teaching methods. He also mentions his method advance organizers which is a tool that help students to integrate new information with their existing knowledge and then this become meaningful learning for students. Ausubel mentions in his investigations that it is important for teachers to provide a preview of information to be learned, teachers can do this by providing an introduction of the information from next topic and this would enable students to start with a big picture in their minds of what is coming. Ausubel believed that learning means understanding and
31
Tom McArthur , A foundation Course for Language Teachers, Cambridge University Press 1990. Pag. 97
it is important that the teacher takes into account what the students already knows.
Lev Semenovich Vygotsky: In his investigation Vygotsky mention the method scaffolding which involves questions and materials that guide the children as they solve problems, teachers must prepare the way for students to identify what they need to do instead of explaining the steps. Students have to learn how they can solve the problems and more important is that students must learn to feel safe with the empirical system. One of the most important methods from Vygotsky was the social interaction; he mentions that the student must feel comfortable with other students because they can learn from previous experiences from other students. He said that by using the social interaction teacher must talk to students and use language to express what they learn which encourages children to express themselves orally and in writing.
Vygotsky also mentions that social environment is the true lever of the educational process and teachers from all levels must work to adjust this lever. Learning can also be seen as a social phenomenon in which learning is mediated through the social interactions among the individuals participating in the learning activity. Vygotsky also mentions the assessment method which takes into account the zone of proximal development, what children can do for them. Assessment method must target all levels of the development.
Maria Montessori: Maria Montessori gave the world a scientific method, practical and tested for bringing forth to young human beings. Also she taught adults how to respect the differences and how to interact socially with other persons. The Montessori Method is based in observation, dynamic trainings and the meeting of needs in students. When physical, mental, spiritual, and emotional needs are met children glow with excitement and a drive to play and work with enthusiasm to learn and to create. She always played and worked with enthusiasm to learn and to
create with them. The Montessori Method of education is a model that serves the needs of children in the learning process, her teachings were based in the mental and physical abilities and today Montessori teaching training centers and schools exist all over the world.32 Montessori also mentions that the child shows a surprising activity and a truly wonderful ability that they can refine their actions but the things that the environment that surrounds them is so stronger that right away it becomes an impediment for their activity. The practical problem of the education consist in presenting to the soul of the child an environment free of obstacles, the game describes an specific behavior that does not has an specific ending but improves the efficiency in similar situations in the future.
Benjamin Bloom: Bloom wanted students were thinking about when teachers were teaching because he realized that it was in that moment when students were experience about the learning process. Bloom headed a group of psychologist at the University of Chicago and as a result of their job was the creation of a “Taxonomy hierarchy of cognitive-driven behaviorâ€?. The objective of this taxonomy is to help teachers and instructional designers to classify instructional objectives and goals, Benjamin Bloom states that not all learning objectives and outcomes have equal merit, also Bloomâ€&#x;s taxonomy in theory helps teachers better to prepare objectives; so that,
his theory has been largely adopted by teachers from
traditional movements. Bloom mentions that ideas and skills that are basic to a culture should be taught by time tested methods and Bloom mentions these methods are good enough. He said that ninety percent of learning population can master a subject when mastery learning methods are implemented and teachers can develop mastery learning methods when they determine how the learning and teaching process relate to the individual differences in learners. He said also that using his methods the average 32
Instructional Design, Learning Theories, retrieved January 23th, 2012 from http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/
of students of Bloom passed at the 95th percentile in traditionally taught classes. After learners understand they can begin to acquire the ability to apply new understood material.
Paulo Freire: Paulo Freire was considering the fundamental in the methodology of participation into the learning process for the social change of ideas of Paulo Freire that were exceeding the pedagogy of the communication because he was considered as a philosopher of the communicative action and with other pedagogues considered that they were people of dialogue, human beings in conclusion. That is why we are people of action they said. His methods have been criticized by radical philosophers of adult education for domesticating the learners since he emphasized the transfer of existing knowledge to passive learners who must memorize and repeat acquired knowledge. Paulo Freire, one of the greatest radical philosophers of adult education, proposed a libertarian, dialogic and problem posing education. The methods from Paulo freire were also considered as an instrument capable of rapidly preparing illiterates to support its liberal reform programs by the people and also as a mean to initiate the political organization of the popular classes who would be motivated by the contents of his program and methodology.
8. EMPIRICAL FRAMEWORK 8.1 MONOGRAPH 8.1.1 HISTORICAL ASPECTS ABOUT SAN SALVADOR
San Salvador is the capital of El Salvador; Situated on the Pacific coast of Central America, El Salvador has Guatemala to the west and Honduras to the north and east. It is the smallest of the Central American countries and its independence from Spain on Sept. 15, 1821, and it was part of a federation of Central American states until that union dissolved in 1838. San Salvador is the capital city of El Salvador, now it is ruled by. Dr. Norman Quijano, the mayor of the municipality, he belongs to ARENA party. San Salvador was founded it in 1546. It was the second more crowded city in the country it takes up 72.25 kilometers, it is located in the central part of El Salvador, in the north is border to Chalatenango, at the east with Soyapango, at the south with San Marcos and at the west border to Antiguo Cuscatlán, El Salvador is divided in 14 departments, the estimated population is of 5,744,113 inhabitants. Also the most important streets and avenues in San Salvador are: Avenida España, Avenida Cuscatlán, calle Arce, Delgado, Rubén Darío, Paseo General Escalón, Alameda Manuel Enrique Araujo, Alameda Franklin Roosevelt, Alameda Juan Pablo II, Boulevard de los héroes, Boulevard Venezuela, etc., Another aspect that contributes to the economic area of San Salvador is the variety of mass media; such as
public and Mobile phones. The companies that are in
charge of these services are: Claro, Telefonica, Tigo, Saltel, Amnet, Red, etc. Also there is a service for television by cable, satelital claro sky e internet. Also there is written mass media, as for example: La Prensa Gráfica, El Diario de Hoy, El Más, El Gráfico, Diario Co latino, y Diario el Mundo. In television there are companies that help to the development of San Salvador, those companies are: Tele Corporacion Salvadoreña, Grupo mega vision, TV Azteca El Salvador, Tecnovision
etc. Furthermore, there are radio stations that have special programs to communicate as news as music in general. There is a diversity of radio stations for people of all ages. In San Salvador there are also other institutions like hospitals, universities, public schools, private schools, churches, banks etc. Also there are good places for family fun like parks, discotheques, theaters, museums, food courts, cinemas, restaurants, video games stores, music stores etc. The companies that support and provide electricity are CAESS, CLESA, EEO, and DEUSEUM, the company that support and provide water service is ANDA. In the surroundings of the institution it can be found a restaurant called ”La Barra Española”
where people go and get fun, in the right side of the institution is
located a famous hotel called “Windsor plaza”, there is another school located very closed called “Le bouquet” there people go and learn how to become professional chefs. In front of the institution there is a company dedicated to maritime transport, the company name is AIMAR, three blocks away from the institution is located “Club Arabe de El Salvador “, seven blocks away from the school is located the famous hotel “Crown Plaza” , two blocks away from the school is located another school called “Colegio Livingston”. At the back side of the school there are houses, and in there live upper middle class people, these houses are very big, every house has a garage and a big yard. In the surroundings of the institution almost all the houses are big and almost all the people have their own car, the public transportation has good access to the institution. In the institution it could be noticed that almost all the students belong to a family of upper middle class due to the fact that the payments that families give to the school are very expensive. At the north of the institution like ten blocks away it is located the world trade center which is one of the highest buildings in El Salvador with nineteen levels and the main use for this building is to provide offices for companies like Microsoft, Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo, Embajada de Japon, Banco Pro-America,
Continental Airlines and many other companies, almost all the companies has a call center located there.
8.1.2 SCHOOL DESCRIPTION The American Christian School is located on Colonia Escalon 79 avenida norte Nº 719, San Salvador. Tel. 22633544 . The school is open from Monday to Friday from 6:30 am to 3:30 pm. The school is located in the middle of Colonia Escalon which is a very nice area where you can find many nice places in order to get fun and to make business. This is a place where people of upper middle class is looking to find a house where to live, however; houses are very expensive. The life style of the people who live there is very different due to the fact that they have enough money to live there. It was noticed that teachers are not from upper middle class because almost all of them make use of the public transportation and almost all of them live away from Colonia Escalon. The teachers and the principal are nice people, very kind, and professional. The school was founded in the month of August of 1993 by B.A Eduardo Artun Cabrera. The school was founded with the objective of forming and educating students in the academic area and also in the spiritual area, the school started in 1993 with amount of 70 students starting from kinder garden to high school. The institution has been working since the beginning with the national and international curriculums. The principal´s name is B.A Angel Escobar Visal. The numbers of teachers working in the school is 17, but not all the teachers have the teachers´ license, since 80% of the teachers completed their career and 20% of the teachers are studying to finish it. The number of students in the institution nowadays is 125 which are divided in 72 girls and 53 boys; the social status of the students is mid class and a little percentage of the students is high class. All students are coming from the metropolitan area of San Salvador and Santa Tecla. The institution accepts students from all social status; they are divided in the follow way:
Pre- School: 25 students Elementary School: 30 students Junior High School: 40 students High school: 30 students The institution is not supported by other institutions or the government. It is supported by the school itself and has 15 classrooms, the principal´s office, the secretary´s office, cafeteria, one computer center, five bathrooms, a big room, where teachers have meetings with parents of students, and there is not a teacher‟s room. The facilities the school has are a swimming pool, a parking lot, a football field, a game play ground area for children, dressing rooms and the computer center. In addition, the teachers can use different resources such as: whiteboards, telephones, a fax machine, desks, chairs, a TV, a DVD player, a projector, photocopiers, scanners, and a computing printer. The classes in the institution are full English in all levels. Teachers are not allowed to teach in Spanish. The subjects that students receive from the national curriculum are: social studies, math, language and literature, computer science, orthography and natural science; and from the international curriculum subjects are: arithmetic, spelling, language and science, history, Christian education, writing, reading and health. The building is not so good because it looks like a normal house; from outside it does not look like a school. The floor is from concrete, some walls are from concrete others are from wood, the classrooms are very small because the groups of students are small, it was observed that there is not enough space in each classroom. On the walls there is not enough didactic material pasted, there were just some charts with poor information about different topics. Classes are full English, and all students speak, write, read and understand English. Some of them do not understand Spanish, but almost all of them understand both languages English and Spanish. The principal of the institution provided information about the
students. He mentioned that the students that do not understand Spanish are students that have been living in the United States all their lives, and for some reason, their families come to live to El Salvador. The teachers who work in the institution are Salvadorian people and almost all of them teach through English. All of them come from Salvadorian universities. The students who attend this institution speak English that is why they do not learn English; they study all the subjects using English as a mean of communication. It means that neither the principal nor the students are worried about learning English.
8.1.3. GEOGRAPHICAL MAP OF THE SCHOOL
8.1.4 INSTRUMENTS APPLIED IN THE RESEARCH
During the investigation at the institution, it was necessary to design three questionnaires; the first one was addressed to the students and the other one to the teacher. Additionally, it was necessary to make the interview to the principal. In this way, it was going to be possible to get more important information for the research. The purpose of the questionnaire applied to the students is to analyze the way they feel in their classes and
what they think about the pedagogical
fundamentals. The teachers´ questionnaire was designed with the objective of finding out the importance the pedagogical fundamentals have for the teachers, and if they apply these fundamentals. The oral interview with the principal is necessary because he can say which are the weaknesses and problems of the institution with teachers or students. All instruments are presented as follows: the questionnaire of the teacher, the students and the one for the principal were designed in the same way, the questionnaires are divided in five parts : methodology, didactic planning, rapport, motivation and learning environment, which are the pedagogical fundamentals of the investigation and each question is related to one of the fundamentals. The reason why pedagogy is not included is because since pedagogy is the science that studies education, pedagogy is included in all pedagogical fundamentals and the reason why methodology is not included is because it is included in the part of rapport. In the next pages also there will be found the objectives of the questionnaires.
8.1.4.1 FIRST INSTRUMENT : TEACHER´S INTERVIEW This research is based on the pedagogical fundamentals in education, in fact, many pedagogues in the past from different countries and cultures has been making their own investigations, they realized that pedagogy, psychology, didactics, methods , techniques and learning environment are some of the most important pedagogical fundamentals for education. The research is based on what these people have been working and improving in education; moreover, how can their work help teachers nowadays. This questionnaire has been designed with the objective to see and analyze how teachers apply the pedagogy, psychology, didactic planning, methods, techniques and the learning environment at American Christian School. It is very important to know and analyze the pedagogy teachers are using, how they handle methods and techniques during the class, it is important to know how the organization of the teachers is, what kind of didactic materials they are using with students in their classes; moreover, it is important to know how they handle wrong behaviors and other problems among students by using psychology in order to control this kind of situations. Another important point is to see how the structure of the school is, how classrooms are and how students feel in the classrooms. The learning environment must be taken into account because the environment is something more than just having the classroom decorated, classrooms must have not only comfortable chairs and tables but also they have to be in good condition for the good learning process in the students. According to Piaget, Ausubel, Maria Montessori, Benjamin Bloom, Noam Chomsky and others, it is essential that the teachers put in practice these fundamentals because in that way students will have a better learning process.
Another objective is to see how the teacher feels with these fundamentals and how the teacher prepare the class, the didactic material, visual aids, the environment in the classroom, methods, techniques and so on, also it is very important to know which is students´ point of view about the class.
Universidad Pedagógica de El Salvador Facultad de Educación Escuela de Ciencias Sociales y Humanas Teacher´s questionnaire This questionnaire is part of a research from students that are in the last process of graduation. Therefore, we need your help to fulfill this information. Objective: to find out the main Pedagogical fundamentals applied in the English classes to help out the students. We really appreciate your collaboration Instructions: read the following statements and mark with a check appropriate. Criteria
Didactic Planning
Methodology
1
2
3
Agree
The teaching methods you apply in classes are the most appropriate for your students „learning process.
You are very innovative with the methods that are applied in classes. You use a variety of teaching techniques to develop her classes.
learning
4
The students are assigned with group and individual activities.
5
You manage widely the knowledge about the contents taught in classes.
6
You use technological resources development of your classes.
7
You apply a variety of audiovisual aids.
for
the
the answer you consider Neither agree nor disagree
Disagree
Rapport Motivation Learning environment
8
All the activities are included in your lesson plans and these ones are in accordance with the set time for the class.
9
You show management.
10
The topics are developed in a logical sequential manner.
11
Equity is promoted in the class
12
You show empathy with students
13
You are flexible with homework assignments
14
The students are corrected in a suitable and opportune form.
15
You need to be motivated, so that your students can be motivated too.
16
The classes are pleasant and participative
17
You are creative when implementing activities during the class
18
Your attitude helps to motivate and promote the learning of the students.
19
You stimulate your students for their own professional performance.
20
Is the classroom well lighten and painted
21
Is the furniture in good conditions
22
Is the furniture well organized inside the classroom
23
There are no troubles in the classroom when it is raining.
24
Is the classroom well decorated
an
appropriate
classroom
the
8.1.4.2
SECOND INSTRUMENT : STUDENT´S QUESTIONNAIRE
The main objective of this instrument is to know and analyze the students´ perspective related with their learning process at American Christian School. It is necessary to know students „point of view about pedagogy, psychology, the didactic planning, the learning environment, the motivation and the methods and techniques that the teachers are applying in their classes. Also, it is important to know if they feel these pedagogical fundamentals help them in the classroom. The expectations they have from the class and from the teacher. It is very important to know if they feel that they are learning or not, if they like or dislike something in the class. Basically, the objective of gathering this information is based on the students concerns and to find out how motivated students are to learn in the classroom, and how the relationship between the teacher and his students is, what they think about the teacher´s class, if they feel the methods and techniques that teachers are using are effective, if they feel comfortable with the environment in the classroom for example with the didactic material or with the tables and chairs they are using or even with the structure of the classroom. Also, it is important to know if they like the behavior of the teacher, if the teacher advise them or not, if he helps to solve internal problems among students. Another important fundamental is the didactic planning, if students like or dislike the organization teacher is using in the class. The results of the survey will determine if the teacher is putting in practice the pedagogical fundamentals properly, and the survey intends to determine also if the students concerns are good or not. Each question provides important information from students; they allow the researchers to know if the expectations from the teacher are being achieved. Moreover each question provides information based on students concerns, that is to know how much students understand the topics in the class and how much they are learning.
Universidad Pedagógica de El Salvador Facultad de Educación Escuela de Ciencias Sociales y Humanas Students´ Questionnaire This instrument is part of a research from students that are in the last process of graduation. Therefore, we need your help to fulfill this information. Objective: to find out about the main pedagogical fundamentals the English teacher applies in her classes to help out her students. We really appreaciate your collaboration Instructions: read the following statements and mark with a check appropriate.
Didactic Planning
Methodology
Criterion
Agree
1
The teaching methods applied in classes are the most appropriate for your learning process.
2
The teacher is very innovative with the methods that are applied in classes.
3
The teacher uses a variety of teaching learning techniques to develop her classes.
4
The teacher activities.
5
The teacher shows wide knowledge about the contents taught in classes.
6
The teacher uses technological resources for the development of her classes.
7
The teacher applies variety of audiovisual aids.
8
The teacher plans the activities and these ones are in accordance with the set time for the class.
9
The teacher shows an appropriate classroom management.
10
The topics are developed in a logical sequential manner.
assigns
the answer you consider
group
and
individual
Neither agree nor disagree
Disagree
Rapport Motivation Learning environment
11
The teacher promotes equity in the class.
12
The teacher shows empathy with students
13
The teacher is flexible with homework
14
The teacher corrects the students of suitable and opportune form.
15
The teacher needs to be motivated, so that the students can be motivated too.
16
The classes are pleasant and participative
17
The teacher is creative when implementing the activities during the class
18
The attitude the teacher shows to develop her class motivates and promotes the learning of the students.
19
The teacher elicits her students for their own professional performance.
20
Is the classroom well lighten and painted
21
Is the furniture in good conditions
22
Is the furniture classroom
23
There are no troubles in the classroom when it is raining.
24
Is the classroom well decorated
well
organized
inside
the
8.1.4.3
THIRD INSTRUMENT: THE PRINCIPAL´S INTERVIEW
The main objective of this interview is to analyze the expectations the principal has from the teacher skills, and what expectations he has from the pedagogy, psychology, didactic planning, and motivation, learning environment and methods and techniques. It is relevant to know the major´s opinion related to these pedagogical fundamentals, if he expects that good methods and techniques are applied in the class. Also, if the educational system they work with includes the good learning environment in the classroom for example good furniture in the classrooms and good didactic materials like charts visual aids and so on. Besides if the structure in the classrooms is appropriate for students. Another important point is the psychology, if the principal expects that teachers help students by advising them. Moreover, what expectations he has related to the motivation that teachers use in the classroom, what kind of motivation teachers are eliciting on students for the good learning process, what kind of activities students are doing or how the relationship between teacher and students is. Another important fundamental is the didactic planning, how the principal handles the didactic planning from teachers and what kind of organization is the institution using with students for the good learning process. The results of this survey will show how the pedagogical fundamentals are in the school, and as a consequence how the education system is. Also, the results will provide the kind of teachers the school is hiring by looking at the general questions, in other words the survey will show general information about the way the major drives the school.
Universidad Pedagógica de El Salvador Facultad de Educación Escuela de Ciencias Sociales y Humanas Principal´s interview
This interview is part of a research from students that are in the last process of graduation. Therefore, we need your help to fulfill this information. Objective: to find out about the expectations the major has from teachers in order to apply the pedagogical fundamentals in education.
No.
METHODOLOGY
1
Are pedagogy, psychology, didactic planning and the learning environment some of the pedagogical fundamentals that teachers put in practice in the institution?
2
What kind of methods and techniques do teachers apply in the class?
3
What are the most important pedagogical fundamentals for you?
4
Are teachers using English all the time for the good learning process in the class or are they mixing both languages?
DIDACTIC PLANNING 5
What kind of didactic material does the institution provide to students for a good learning process?
6
Are you satisfied with the didactic planning from teachers or do you make some suggestions to teachers?
7
Do you think that is good for students to receive feedback from previous classes before to start a new one? Why?
8
Does the institution takes into account international methods and techniques from other bilingual schools ?
9
Do students understand all the topics or do you feel that is hard for them to acquire the knowledge?
10
Do teachers assign homework to students after every class?
RAPPORT 11
How is the relationship between you and the teachers?
12
Have you noticed how the relationship between teacher and students is?
13
Do you think that teachers are motivating students?
MOTIVATION 15
Are students satisfied with the teacher they have?
16
What kind of motivation you get with the job you have in this institution?
17
Do you advice teachers to elicit their students to participate in their learning process?
18
Do you advice teachers to make activities during the class in order to make students feel comfortable?
19
When the teacher get good results from students it is because they are motivated? LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
20
Is the institution giving good resources to students for the good learning in the classes?
21
Do you think the classrooms have enough space for students?
22
What is the learning environment in the classrooms?
23
What kind of didactic material are you allowing to teachers to paste on the walls in the classrooms?
24
Do you think the didactic material is related to the topics teachers are presenting to students?
8.1.4.4 FOURTH INSTRUMENT : OBSERVATION CHECK LIST The main objective of this instrument is to see what kind of facilities the school has, the aspects that are helping the students learning process or the aspects that are affecting the students. Every aspect is important, it must be taken into account how is the infrastructure in the school, the factors that are not helping the school to give a better service to the students and also another objective is to evaluate if in this school teachers take into account the pedagogical fundamentals.
The observation check list will evaluate aspects related with methodology, learning environment, rapport, didactic planning and motivation. These pedagogical fundamentals that are very important for the students learning process and also important for teachers because authors from different cultures and countries created different theories that improved the education system around the world. The observation check list intents to evaluate students feelings during the class and intents to evaluate how is the class development. The objective of the observation check list is to see if teachers are taking into account the pedagogical fundamentals during the classes or if they are just taking into account methods and techniques.
Universidad Pedagรณgica de El Salvador Facultad de Educaciรณn Escuela de Ciencias Sociales y Humanas OBSERVATION CHECK LIST
Objective : The objective of the observation check list is to find out if teachers in the institution are taking into account the pedagogical fundamentals or if they are just taking into account only methods and techniques, moreover; the observation check list intents to evaluate students feelings.
OBSERVATION CHECK LIST
yes
Didactic Planning
Methodology
Criterion
1
The teaching methods applied in classes are the most appropriate for your learning process.
2
The teacher is very innovative with the methods that are applied in classes.
3
The teacher uses a variety of teaching learning techniques to develop her classes.
4
The teacher activities.
5
The teacher shows wide knowledge about the contents taught in classes.
6
The teacher uses technological resources for the development of her classes.
7
The teacher applies variety of audiovisual aids.
8
The teacher plans the activities and these ones are in accordance with the set time for the class.
9
The teacher shows an appropriate classroom management.
assigns
group
and
individual
no
Rapport Motivation Learning environment
10
The topics are developed in a logical sequential manner.
11
The teacher promotes equity in the class.
12
The teacher shows empathy with students
13
The teacher is flexible with homework
14
The teacher corrects the students of suitable and opportune form.
15
The teacher needs to be motivated, so that the students can be motivated too.
16
The classes are pleasant and participative
17
The teacher is creative when implementing the activities during the class
18
The attitude the teacher shows to develop her class motivates and promotes the learning of the students.
19
The teacher elicits her students for their own professional performance.
20
Is the classroom well lighten and painted
21
Is the furniture in good conditions
22
Is the furniture classroom
23
There are no troubles in the classroom when it is raining.
24
Is the classroom well decorated
well
organized
inside
the
9. THEORETICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL FORMULATION OF THE RESEARCH. Noam Chomsky´s theory about the “transformational generative grammar” was a very important investigation he developed. He dedicated his research to the study of the pedagogical knowledge of the language focused in the degree of specificity of language, speaking and writing for the very well performance of the language. He also focused his investigation in the study of psychology and in the theory of the human mind; basically Chomsky has made his reputation in linguistics. The very well performance of the language was another fact that Chomsky mention in his research, Chomsky was a specialist in the teaching of the language. During the investigation it was observed that teachers apply very good grammar in seventh, eighth and ninth grade because the classes are full English and since the school is bilingual the methods teachers apply are effective; the students are writing and speaking English all the time. The performance of the English language in the school is very good since students are writing and speaking English all the time and also they learn some other important topics from other areas in which they are always using the English language. The teachers´ grammar books are helpful because there is a variety of topics, grammar exercises and educative games that teachers can use during the class. The grammar teachers use during the learning process in the school is appropriate for a bilingual school, it was notice teachers are capable to support students with good grammar. Another important pedagogue is Jean Piaget, he focused his investigations in the nature of children´s thinking and reasoning, he was a psychologist who developed a variety of theories about the different stages of learning in the children. The investigation of Piaget began just by observing the children´s interaction with the environment, in ways that it changes substantially as the child develops and live new experiences.
As Piaget mentions in his investigations he focused in the daily life of the children and he states that the environment is very important for the learning process. In the school it was observed that in the classrooms of seventh, eighth and ninth grades teachers do not give full attention to the learning environment because there is not a variety of didactic material pasted on the walls, the groups of students in every classroom are small but even the space in the classroom is not enough for students and also the halls of the school are small including the cafeteria. This does not improve the experience students have in each class because students do not learn from their own observations. Piaget states in his investigation the intellectual processes which are adaptation and organization, he states that adaptation is when students adjust to her or his environment and organization is when students organize ideas and attitudes during the learning process. In the school it was observed that students are adapted to their environment because all of them feel comfortable during the classes and also almost all of them participate during the class, moreover in the school it was observed that some students are organized since some of them provide ideas and participate, it was observed that a few students did not participate. Piaget said that everyone learns through the processes of organization and adaptation, moreover he mentions that each person develops a unique cognitive structure, each student learn in his own way and speed, in the school was observed that teachers can handle situations when students do not learn quickly any topic, teachers use a variety of methods and techniques. David Ausubel was another important pedagogue through the history, he said that the learning process depends in the previous cognitive structure, it must be understood an asset of concepts that a person has from previous experiences, David Ausubel states that the teacher must be aware about the cognitive structures students have, not just by giving an amount of information, teacher must know if students have previous knowledge about the topic and then start teaching from there. Ausubel based his investigation on how people acquire the knowledge, he believed in the idea of meaningful learning and according to him the most
important single factor in the learning process is what the learner already knows. Ausubel believed that it was important for teachers to provide a preview of information to be learned like an introduction before to start a new topic During the investigation it was observed that teachers apply a variety of methods and techniques based on students´ needs. They mentioned that at the beginning of the year all teacher diagnose their students, so that they can apply the appropriate method or technique students need to improve their development. Also teachers use technological resources and assign group activities and the topics are developed in a sequential manner. All the activities that are developed in the classrooms are chosen with the main purpose of achieving not only the class objectives but also studentsâ€&#x; well development in their learning process. Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky states that the social interaction students may have with other people is very important in the learning process, he states that students can imitate other students, students can remember more easily the instructions of the teacher and then they can self regulate, also Vygotsky states students understand each others, they can work in groups together and learn a specific skill. During the investigation in the school it was observed that students work in groups, also seventh, eighth and ninth grades are small groups, it was observed that students feel comfortable and they are friendly with all the people, there is cooperative learning, they were very kind and it was observed that if one student does not know something others students offer help. The theory of Vygotsky combines the learning environment and cognition; he said that social interaction will lead ongoing changes in thoughts and behaviors, according to Vygotsky the imitative learning, the collaborative learning and the instructed learning are very important. As a final point it can be mentioned that in the school teachers take into account these ideas, they show empathy with students, they motivate students and they promote equity in the class.
Maria Montessori based her theory in the individual experimentation respecting the speed of work; she mentions that the learning environment is very important, the same happens with the motivation teachers give to students. She states that if the students are very interested in a special task they would engage in the activity totally, she believed that students would show how to educate them if the environment is appropriate. In the investigation in the school all students were very friendly, all of them were very active during the class and it was observed that they were motivated. Montessori mentions that there are sensitive periods and creative moments when the students learn faster but it will depend on the environment, she states that teachers must be aware when that moment happens; she also states that self discipline emerges out of the freedom of the learning environment. During the investigation it was observed that learning environment is very comfortable, in each grade there are few students and this is an advantage for them, they have more opportunities to participate in the class and it was observed that almost all of them are very friendly to each other, they were participating all the time with the teacher and also the teacher was very friendly with students. In this environment teacher could have more opportunities to use a variety of methods and techniques moreover teacher could use all the pedagogical fundamentals all the time. It was observed some didactic material with little information in the classroom but these full English classes and motivated students are the most important factors observed. As previously mentioned, groups of students are very small and because of that teachers can know more their students, they know how students can learn more and probably teachers may know in which moments students can acquire more information. Benjamin Bloom was an important pedagogue that made his taxonomy in the domains of education. It was based on describing objectives and the process on achieving them, moreover Bloom mentions that students must be elicited to analyze while teachers were teaching because in that moment students would be experiencing the learning process.
During the classes in the school it was observed that students were not commenting the topics or making any kind of discussion, during the development of the topic students were just listening the teacher, sometimes they were talking to each other but no about the topic. Teachers did not make any kind of activity with the objective of making students analyze the topics during the development of the class. So teachers from the school are not taking into account this fundamental that Bloom considers it as one of the main ones to make students grow in their learning.
Paulo Freire was considered a philosopher of communicative action; his investigation states that teachers must take into account what students already know. He mentions in his investigation that teacher and students must exchange questions so in that way both are going to learn at the same time and both are going to participate in the learning process. He states that during the class teacher should teach by having conversations and discussions of the topics with the students. During the investigation in the school it was observed that teachers do not keep conversations with students about the topic, they participate but there is no a conversation, students just listen while teacher is developing the class, there are some periods of time when the students make groups for special activities but they discuss the topics just between themselves not with the teacher directly and there is no exchange of questions between teacher and students during the class.
10. DEVELOPMENT AND THEORETICAL DEFINITION
During the research it was observed that in the American Christian School teachers are using some of the pedagogical fundamentals in the classroom, since this is a bilingual institution classes are full English because all the teachers are using English in all different subjects, it means that students are using all the time the four Basic English skills which are speaking, listening, writing and comprehension. Eventhough this study is focused just in the pedagogical fundamentals. It was observed that at American Christian School the learning environment is helping students because classes are full English and it was noticed that they are comfortable and motivated in the class because all the students participate in the class. There were found positive and negative aspects, the good aspects were the good relationship between the teacher and the students, the fact that they speak English all the time and the kind of methods and techniques teachers use during the classes, however the negative aspects were the lack of didactic material in each classroom, the space was not enough for students in the classrooms, the tables and chairs were in a bad shape and also the structure of each classroom needs improvements because the school looks basically like a normal house. Since Pedagogy refers to strategies of instruction, or a style of instruction, it is also occasionally referred to as the correct use of instructive strategies. It was observed that teachers use very good and techniques, strategies to teach their classes, they are very dynamic. The teachers tries to apply the appropriate strategies to make their students feel comfortable in their learning process It was noticed that teachers are organized during the classes and it was noticed that students were participating all the time by asking questions and also by making groups during the development of the topic.
During the investigation it was noticed that teachers use psychology which is one of the important pedagogical fundamentals of this investigation. Each group of students is small, there are few students in each classroom and due to this teachers can control the students in a proper way, it was noticed that when they do not understand the topic teachers go directly to the student and they start coaching the student personally. The relationship is good among students and allow to teachers to use the psychology with them and teachers are ready for any situation, they have the control in the classroom.
The didactic planning teachers use is good because it was noticed that they know their students and they are organized with the topics they teach, they use visual aids and technological resources, however; teachers do not use these resources all the time. The grammar books teachers use are very good, this books contain information of all what the students needs. This information was provided for the teachers and also the books are very understandable. It was noticed that teachers give homework to students after each class.
With the motivation It was observed also that students are motivated, they are very friendly, they participate all the time in the classroom and the relationship is very good. The fact that groups of students are small is an advantage because teachers can spend more time to them. There was found a negative aspect because during the interview with the major , he provided information about the students, he mentions that the students who do not understand Spanish are students that have been living in the United States all their lives and for some reason the family of these students come to live to El Salvador. According to the principal some students who only speak english sometimes make complains about the teachers and they states that they speak better english than teachers, students address this complains to the principal but the he convinces them by telling them
that teachers are not native English speakers and that is why they do not speak a native english. Probably the institution is meeting the objectives of forming bilingual students by applying these pedagogical fundamentals. It was observed also that the methods and techniques that the teacher applies are methods and techniques that are helping students in the learning process. It was observed that the methodology is appropriate for a bilingual school.
RESULT OF THE TEACHER´S QUESTIONNAIRE APPLIED TO THE TEACHERS FROM SEVENTH, EIGHT AND NINTH GRADE.
Universidad Pedagógica de El Salvador Facultad de Educación Escuela de Ciencias Sociales y Humanas Teacher´s questionnaire This questionnaire is part of a research from students that are in the last process of graduation. Therefore, we need your help to fulfill this information. Objective: to find out the main Pedagogical fundamentals applied in the English classes to help out the students. We really appreciate your collaboration Instructions: read the following statements and mark with a check appropriate.
Neither agree nor disagree
Disagree
8
1
0
9
0
0
learning
7
2
0
4
The students are assigned with group and individual activities.
8
1
0
5
You manage widely the knowledge about the contents taught in classes.
6
3
0
6
You use technological resources development of your classes.
5
4
0
7
You apply a variety of audiovisual aids.
3
5
1
8
All the activities are included in your lesson plans and these ones are in accordance with the set time for the class.
7
2
0
9
You show management.
7
2
0
1
Methodology
the one you consider
Agree
Criterion
Didactic Planning
2
3
The teaching methods you apply in classes are the most appropriate for your students „learning process.
You are very innovative with the methods that are applied in classes. You use a variety of teaching techniques to develop her classes.
an
appropriate
for
the
classroom
Rapport Motivation Learning environment
10
The topics are developed in a logical sequential manner.
7
2
0
11
The equity is promoted in the class
9
0
0
12
You show empathy with students
8
1
0
13
You are flexible with homework assignments
7
2
0
14
The students are corrected in a suitable and opportune form.
7
2
0
15
You need to be motivated, so that your students can be motivated too.
9
0
0
16
The classes are pleasant and participative
6
3
0
17
You are creative when implementing activities during the class
the
4
5
0
18
Your attitude helps to motivate and promote the learning of the students.
6
3
0
19
You stimulate your students for their own professional performance.
6
3
0
20
Is the classroom well lighten and painted
7
2
0
21
Is the furniture in good conditions
8
1
0
22
Is the furniture well organized inside the classroom
7
2
0
23
There are no troubles in the classroom when it is raining.
7
2
0
24
Is the classroom well decorated
8
1
0
ANALYZIS OF THE TEACHER´S QUESTIONNAIRE FROM THE TEACHERS FROM SEVENTH, EIGHTH AND NINTH GRADE.
METHODOLOGY
Neither agree Agree Disagree nor disagree
1 Methodology
2 3 4
8 9 7 8
1 0 2 1
0 0 0 0
DIDACTIC PLANNING
Neither agree Agree Disagree nor disagree
Didactic Planning
5 6 7 8 9 10
6 5 3 7 7 7
3 4 5 2 2 2
0 0 1 0 0 0
RAPPORT
Neither agree Agree Disagree nor disagree
11 12 Rapport
13 14
9 8 7 7
0 1 2 2
0 0 0 0
MOTIVATION
Neither agree Agree Disagree nor disagree
15 16 Motivation 17 18 19
9 6 4 6 6
0 3 5 3 3
0 0 0 0 0
LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
Learning environment
Neither agree Agree Disagree nor disagree
20 21 22 23 24
7 8 7 7 8
2 1 2 2 1
0 0 0 0 0
Analysis and interpretation of the teacher´s questionnaire.
During the investigation it was applied a questionnaire to the teachers related to the pedagogical fundamentals and in this questionnaire they answered different questions related to the investigation. The questionnaire was designed in five parts starting with methodology, didactic planning, rapport, motivation and learning environment. These are the parts included in the questionnaire and the answers from the teachers were applied in 5 different graphics, each one represents one of the parts of the questionnaire.
In the graphics it can be observed that in the part of methodology almost all the teachers agree the positive aspects about methodology, the 88% answered agree and this tells us that they are using a variety of methods and techniques during the classes, this can help students because teachers are using good methods and techniques also during the visit to the school it was observed that teachers were making different activities with the students and it was observed that students were learning, however; the 11% answered either agree or disagree with the questions but almost all of them selected agree in the questionnaire. In the part of didactic planning it can be observed that the 64% of teachers selected the option agree, almost all of the teachers agree with the fact that they apply technological resources, audio visual aids and a variety of activities for the students, however; the 33% selected the option neither agree nor disagree probably because they use other methods and techniques not mentioned in the questionnaire or maybe for other unknown reasons but what was observed in the school is that students were participating all the time during the class and also they were understanding the teacher. Just the 3% selected the option disagree in the questionnaire, the
reason could be that this teacher is not applying the necessary resources in the class or probably he feels that is not supporting the students in a hundred percent.
In the next part of rapport it can be observed that the 86% of teachers agree with all the questions in the questionnaire and it means that the relationship between teacher and students is good, and also shows empathy with the students and promotes the equity. It was observed that students were very friendly all the time with the teacher; this will help them during the learning process because they feel good and this is a positive fact that will help students to have a better learning environment in the class. Also In the part of rapport the 13% of teachers selected the option neither agree nor disagree probably because they do not feel comfortable with students or probably for a personal problem. In the motivation part the 68% of the teachers selected the option agree, this is good for the students because classes are participative, teachers show a good attitude to the students and also show creativity in the activities during the class. Now the 32% of teachers selected the option neither agree nor disagree, this could be for many factors or personal reasons but probably they do not comfortable with students. If the teacher shows a positive attitude to the students they will feel encouraged to learn more and according to the graphic results, teachers in the school are motivating students because according to what was observed, the way of teaching includes different activities during the class like group works and role plays that will make students learn more different kind of topics. With learning environment it was observed that the 82% of the teachers selected the option agree, this is also good for the students because they take care of the classroom, however, during the investigation there were found positive and negative aspects, negative because classrooms were not appropriate for teaching, classrooms are very small, tables and chairs are no in good shape, organization of furniture is not appropriate, not enough ventilation, no didactic material decorating the classroom, however, teachers have a good English level and the books they were using were excellent but there were negative aspects. After just the 17% of
teachers selected the option neither agree nor disagree, probably because they realize that they must improve the learning environment in the classroom.
The information presented here shows that our objectives are met, almost all the teachers agree with the questions in the questionnaire, they agree with almost all the pedagogical fundamentals, however; it was observed during the investigation that there are more negative aspects especially with the learning environment related with the pedagogical fundamentals at the American Christian School. Researchers analyzed the pedagogical fundamentals with what was observed and it was found that teachers must improve some areas, the information gathered was compared with the theory from the different authors around the world, researchers found that authors have done great contributions to the educational field. Finally pedagogical fundamentals are highlighted with the information found in the institution; there is a summary in the research about what was found.
RESULT
OF
THE
STUDENT´S
QUESTIONNAIRE APPLIED TO THE STUDENTS FROM SEVENTH, EIGHT AND NINTH GRADE.
Universidad Pedagógica de El Salvador Facultad de Educación Escuela de Ciencias Sociales y Humanas Students´ Questionnaire This instrument is part of a research from students that are in the last process of graduation. Therefore, we need your help to fulfill this information. Objective: to find out about the main pedagogical fundamentals the English teacher applies in her classes to help out her students. We really appreaciate your collaboration Instructions: read the following statements and mark with a check appropriate.
Neither agree nor disagree
Disagree
The teaching methods applied in classes are the most appropriate for your learning process.
34
3
3
The teacher is very innovative with the methods that are applied in classes.
33
6
1
The teacher uses a variety of teaching learning techniques to develop her classes.
35
5
0
4
The teacher activities.
individual
27
10
3
5
The teacher shows wide knowledge about the contents taught in classes.
28
10
2
6
The teacher uses technological resources for the development of her classes.
24
6
10
7
The teacher applies variety of audiovisual aids.
26
4
10
8
The teacher plans the activities and these ones are in accordance with the set time for the class.
28
7
5
The teacher shows an appropriate classroom management.
31
6
3
1
Methodology
the one you consider
Agree
Criterion
Didactic Planning
2
3
9
assigns
group
and
Rapport Motivation Learning environment
25
5
10
The teacher promotes equity in the class.
25
6
9
12
The teacher shows empathy with students
30
4
6
13
The teacher is flexible with homework
25
2
13
14
The teacher corrects the students of suitable and opportune form.
23
6
11
15
The teacher needs to be motivated, so that the students can be motivated too.
24
6
10
16
The classes are pleasant and participative
23
10
7
17
The teacher is creative when implementing the activities during the class
29
7
4
18
The attitude the teacher shows to develop her class motivates and promotes the learning of the students.
26
8
6
19
The teacher stimulates her students for their own professional performance.
24
9
7
20
Is the classroom well lighten and painted
28
6
6
21
Is the furniture in good conditions
26
7
7
22
Is the furniture classroom
the
29
4
7
23
There are no troubles in the classroom when it is raining.
32
3
5
24
Is the classroom well decorated
29
2
9
10
The topics are developed in a logical sequential manner.
11
well
organized
inside
ANALYZIS OF THE STUDENT´S QUESTIONNAIRE APPLIED IN SEVENTH, EIGHT AND NINTH GRADE.
Methodology
METHODOLOGY
1 2 3 4
Agree
Neither agree nor disagree
Disagree
34 33 35 27
3 6 5 10
3 1 0 3
DIDACTIC PLANNING
Agree
9
28 24 26 28 31
10 6 4 7 6
2 10 10 5 3
10
25
5
10
5 6 Didactic planing
Neither agree nor Disagree disagree
7 8
RAPPORT
Neither agree Agree Disagree nor disagree 11 12
Rapport 13 14
25 30 25 23
6 4 2 6
9 6 13 11
MOTIVATION
Neither agree Agree Disagree nor disagree
15 16 Motivation 17 18 19
24 23 29 26 24
6 10 7 8 9
10 7 4 6 7
LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
Neither agree Agree Disagree nor disagree 20 21
Learning 22 enviroment 23 24
28 26 29 32 29
6 7 4 3 2
6 7 7 5 9
Analysis and interpretation of information from student´s questionnaire.
With the students also it was used a questionnaire designed in the same way than the questionnaire used with the teachers. It was done in that way to make a contrast with teachers and students point of view. This questionnaire contains different questions, it is divided with the same parts, methodology, didactic planning, rapport, motivation and learning environment. With the part of methodology it can be observed that the 80% of students selected the option agree, almost all of the students agree that teachers apply appropriate methods and techniques and also that the teacher applies group activities all the time, however in the graphic can be observed that the 15% of students selected the option neither agree or disagree, probably some students are waiting for better methods and techniques or also probably the teacher is not taking into account the students needs in order to have the students satisfaction. There could be more factors that are affecting the students learning process and that is why they do not agree with the methodology applied for the teacher. Just the 4.3% of students selected the option disagree. As previously mentioned before probably students does not feel comfortable in the class. With the didactic planning part it can be observed that almost all of them agree with the way how teachers are planning the classes 67% selected the option agree, they like the way how teachers manage the students and the classroom, probably this is the result of the good relation ship they have according to what was observed during the investigation. Now it can be noticed in the graphic that the 15% of students selected the option neither agree nor disagree with the way how teachers manage the class. Even if they have a good relation ship probably these students feel that teacher should improve something in the didactic planning. Another small group of students disagree completely according to the graphic,
The 16% of students disagree, This is probably because some students do not feel comfortable at all with the didactic planning that the teacher is using in the class. During the investigation it was noticed that students felt comfortable with the teacher and the way teacher manage the class, however, probably students need something else from the teacher. The fact that they disagree with the management in the class could be also related no just with methods and techniques, probably students disagree with something else in the institution and the teacher should be aware of this.
In the part of rapport during the investigation in the school it was observed that students and teachers have a good relationship because students are very friendly all the time and with all the people and also teachers were very kind. The 64% selected the option agree, It was observed that students were participating all the time in the class and since the group of students were small it was easy for teachers to control the students and to build a good relationship. In the graphic it is observed that almost all the students agree that teacher promotes equity and empathy with the students and also that the teacher is flexible with the corrections but the 11% of the students selected the option neither agree or disagree with the rapport, probably they do not care about the rapport and they focused just in learning even if they like this. Some other students disagree completely, the 24% of students selected the option disagree. This is probably because these students are not feeling comfortable with the kind of rapport that the teacher is building or maybe they feel empathy from the teacher during the class but outside the classroom teachers are totally different. In the part of motivation during the investigation it was observed that students were motivated because they were participating all the time in the class and also it was noticed that they were learning. The 63% of students selected the option agree, it was noticed also that teachers were motivating students because the attitude that teacher were showing students was the right one that will help students to learn more. In the graphic it can be observed that the 20% of students
selected the option neither agree or disagree, not all the students agree with the kind of activities that the teacher is developing in the class and also the attitude teachers show. Probably this students do not feel motivated. There are other students that disagree completely. The 17% of students selected the option disagree. This could be for other personal reasons of the students, during the investigation it was observed that teachers use the motivation by showing empathy and a good attitude to the students. There could be other factors that are not allowing these students to feel motivated with the teachers classes and teachers should be aware about the facts that are affecting the students. Finally with the part of learning environment it was found positive and negative aspects in the school during the investigation but in the graphic the results show that some of the students agree with the management in the classroom. The 72% of the students selected the option agree, even if the 72% of students like the way classrooms are during the investigation it was found more negative aspects than positive. The 11% of students selected
the option neither agree or disagree,
probably these students notice the aspects that should be improved in the institution. During the investigation it was found that classrooms were not appropriate for teaching, classrooms are very small, tables and chairs are no in good shape, organization of furniture is not appropriate, not enough ventilation, no didactic material decorating the classroom, however the relation ship and the methods and techniques teachers use are good aspects. Moreover; the 17% of students disagree totally with the learning environment in the institution. Teachers and principal should be aware about this aspects related with the learning environment. The information presented in every graphic show what the students think about the pedagogical fundamentals that teachers put in practice in the school. There could be other aspects that are affecting the students learning process and the teacher should be aware about the students needs. Even if teachers are doing a good work in some areas they must improve other areas in order to get the students satisfaction and the best learning process for them.
Researchers analyzed the pedagogical fundamentals with what was observed and it was found that teachers must improve some areas, the information gathered was compared with the theory from the different authors around the world, researchers found that authors have done great contributions to the educational field. Finally pedagogical fundamentals are highlighted with the information found in the institution; there is a summary in the research about what was found.
Universidad Pedagógica de El Salvador Facultad de Educación Escuela de Ciencias Sociales y Humanas Principal´s interview
This interview is part of a research from students that are in the last process of graduation. Therefore, we need your help to fulfill this information. Objective: to find out about the expectations the principal has from teachers in order to apply the pedagogical fundamentals in education.
No. 1
METHODOLOGY Are pedagogy, psychology, didactic planning and the learning environment some of the pedagogical fundamentals that teachers put in practice in the institution? R/ Yes they are because without these aspects teachers cannot carry out their goals.
2
What kind of methods and techniques do teachers apply in the class? R/ We usually use interaction, repetition, reading and discussions, and debates everything depends on the topic.
3
What are the most important pedagogical fundamentals for you? R/ Didactic planning, learning environment, and also other instructional methods.
4
Are teachers using English all the time for the good learning process in the class or are they mixing both languages? R/ Teachers as well students speak English in every class, because we work under an American system from Pensacola Christian College. DIDACTIC PLANNING
5
What kind of didactic material does the institution provide to students for a good learning process? R/ Our students use the Beca book system which are the same books that Pensacola Christian College use.
6
Are you satisfied with the didactic planning from teachers or do you make some suggestions to teachers? R/ Sometimes I do, sometimes I don´t, when I am no satisfied I give them some suggestions to be done
7
Do you think that is good for students to receive feedback from previous classes before to start a new one? Why? R/ Yes it is and has to be done for at least five minutes before every class and this is important because teachers must take into account the previous knowledge from students.
8
Does the institution takes into account international methods and techniques from other bilingual schools? R/ Yes it does, we follow methods and techniques from Pensacola Christian College system.
9
Do students understand all the topics or do you feel that is hard for them to acquire the knowledge? R/ Since the international method of teaching we use is very didactic, students understand everything.
10
Do teachers assign homework to students after every class? R/ Yes they are, students take homework every day.
RAPPORT 11
How is the relationship between you and the teachers? R/ We usually treat all very well each other and we always share material and experiences together.
12
Have you noticed how the relationship between teacher and students is? R/ Teachers and students always show respect to each other.
13
Do you think that teachers are motivating students? R/ Yes I do, our teachers always motivate students with different types of activities. MOTIVATION
14
Are students satisfied with the teacher they have? R/ Yes they are, students see in the teachers, responsibility, comprehension, good education and dedication.
15
What kind of motivation you get with the job you have in this institution? R/ That the teachers are following directions as well students to get the final goals.
16
Do you advice teachers to elicit their students to participate in their learning process? R/ Yes I do, every teacher tries to stimulate the students in order to get the best of them.
17
Do you advice teachers to make activities during the class in order to make students feel comfortable? R/ Yes I do, sometimes I give ideas to teachers about how to motivate students and keep a good learning environment.
18
When the teachers get good results from students, is it because they are motivated? R/ Yes they are, absolutely motivated and also the didactic planning has given good results. LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
19
Is the institution providing good resources to students for the good learning in the classes? R/ Yes it is, students have all the necessary resources so in that way students can have a good learning process.
20
Do you think the classrooms have enough space for students? R/ Yes they do because our groups are very small.
21
What is the learning environment in the classrooms? R/ Very dynamic and motivating care from all the teachers.
22
What kind of didactic material are you allowing to teachers to paste on the walls in the classrooms? R/ Most of the material is taken from the Pensacola Christian College system in every subject .
23
Do you think the didactic material is related to the topics teachers are presenting to students? R/ Yes I do, all the didactic material is strictly related to every topic which is taught in the class.
ANALYSIS OF THE PRINCIPAL´S INTERVIEW During the research there was the opportunity to make an oral interview to the principal of the institution, he let us know his point of view about the conditions of the institution and the different aspects related with the school. The interview allowed us to know information about the teachers, education system they use, grammar books, resources and the history of the institution. During the interview the principal mentions his expectations about each pedagogical fundamental.
For the principal it is very important that teachers take into account these pedagogical fundamentals, he mentions that he is not teaching now but he always make recommendations to the teachers because he remember his own experiences and he knows the importance of these fundamentals. The principal said that the education system they use is taken from another institution called Pensacola Christian School and the books teachers use are the same books that the other institution use. The principal mentions that he is satisfied with the work he is doing and also with the work teachers do because he states the institution is achieving their objectives by graduating bilingual students. He also mentions that is satisfied with the teachers working in the institution, he states they are very professional and the English level they have is good. After the interview the principal mentioned the internal problems the institution has with students that are not linked with the fundamentals the researchers were working with. For instance: there are some students that do not like some teachers´ accent because a lot of them have American accent and they do not speak Spanish. At the end the principal agreed that the school is taking into account all the pedagogical fundamentals but what was found by the researchers it is something different because there were found some negative aspects the institution needs to improve.
Universidad Pedagógica de El Salvador Facultad de Educación Escuela de Ciencias Sociales y Humanas OBSERVATION CHECK LIST
Objective : The objective of the observation check list is to find out if teachers in the institution are taking into account the pedagogical fundamentals or if they are just taking into account only methods and techniques, moreover; the observation check list intents to evaluate students feelings. OBSERVATION CHECK LIST
Yes
Didactic Planning
Methodology
Criterion
1
The teaching methods applied in classes are the most appropriate for your learning process.
2
The teacher is very innovative with the methods that are applied in classes. The teacher uses a variety of teaching learning techniques to develop the classes.
3
4
The teacher activities.
individual
5
The teacher shows wide knowledge about the contents taught in classes.
6
The teacher uses technological resources for the development of her classes.
7
The teacher applies variety of audiovisual aids. The teacher plans the activities and these ones are in accordance with the set time for the class.
8
9
The teacher shows an appropriate classroom management.
10
The topics are developed in a logical sequential manner.
assigns
group
and
no
Rapport Motivation Learning environment
11
The teacher promotes equity in the class.
12
The teacher shows empathy with students
13
The teacher is flexible with homework
14
The teacher corrects the students of suitable and opportune form.
15
The teacher needs to be motivated, so that the students can be motivated too.
16
The classes are pleasant and participative
17
The teacher is creative when implementing the activities during the class
18
The attitude the teacher shows to develop her class motivates and promotes the learning of the students.
19
The teacher elicits her students for their own professional performance.
20
Is the classroom well lighten and painted
21
Is the furniture in good conditions
22
Is the furniture classroom
the
23
There are no troubles in the classroom when it is raining.
24
Is the classroom well decorated
well
organized
inside
ANALYSIS OF THE OBSERVATION CHECKLIST In the observation check list researchers found positive and negative aspects related to the pedagogical fundamentals, in the part of methodology researchers found that teachers use appropriate methods and techniques during the class, teacher assign group activities, students make role-plays, teachers sometimes use visual aids but not all the time, it was observed that teachers do not have didactic planning on the walls, this is a negative aspects for the methodology. With the didactic planning researchers had the opportunity to check the lesson plan of the teacher, it was observed that teachers know about the subject, they speak English all the time, they have a good English level, however; teachers almost never use visual aids, also was observed that they do not use technological resources even if the school has this resources. They develop the topics in a sequential manner according to what was observed in the lesson plan of every teacher.
With the rapport researchers found that the relationship between teacher and students is good, teachers show empathy to students all the time and also students show empathy to the teachers, students and teachers are very friendly. Teachers correct students in a nice way, promotes equity in the class, however; teacher is not flexible with homework. Students participate all the time in the class and it was noticed they understand the teacher. With motivation part researchers found that students are motivated, probably students could have personal problems like every person in daily life but during the development of the class they showed motivation, students participated all the time during the class. Teachers were not creative with activities, there was a lack of creativity but it was noticed that during the class they showed up motivation, they are very friendly with students and probably that is why students show the same motivation, maybe this positive energy teachers use is the result of the good relationship.
Now with the learning environment were found negative aspects in the school like: small classrooms, chairs and tables in a bad shape, furniture not well organized, classrooms not lighten and painted, no didactic material pasted on the walls, the institution from outside basically looks like a normal house, the walls of each classroom are from wood not from concrete, there was found that the cafeteria is very small and there is not a good place where students can go and eat the food, probably there are problems when it rains. The positive aspects that can be mention are the good relationship between students and teacher and the positive energy that teachers provide to the students.
CHAPTER III
OPERATIVE FRAMEWORK
11. DESCRIPTION OF THE SUBJECTS OF INVESTIGATION.
As it was previously mentioned, authors from different countries and cultures found and developed important pedagogical fundamentals for the teaching learning process. Authors around the world began this investigation and they developed a variety of methods and techniques, thanks to them the education has improved many aspects for the good learning process.
During the investigation at American Christian School it was noticed that almost all the pedagogical fundamentals of this investigation were found, however, there are some aspects that should be improved taking into account the investigations of the authors. This investigation was developed in seventh, eighth and ninth grade, some important fundamentals that were found are the following: The relationship between teachers and students is good because classes are full English, and students are comfortable with teachers. They respect each other. This aspect is related with the rapport. The learning environment in the institution seems to be right. The classrooms are well painted, lighten and ventilated; also, the furniture is in good condition. However, this is something more than just decorating the room. For instance: the space in the classroom is not enough, there are missing charts and visual aids pasted on the walls. Another aspect related with the fundamentals is pedagogy. It was found that teachers use a variety of methods and techniques and teachers from each grade
are very well organized during the class. They make group activities and also roleplays. Classes are dynamic. In relation with psychology, it was found that in each grade there is a great advantage for teachers because groups of students in each grade are small and it was noticed that teachers know their students, the relationship between teacher and students is good and it was noticed that sometimes when students are not understanding something the teacher goes directly to the student to check what is happening, teachers can control many situations with students because groups of students are small. With the didactic planning as previously mentioned before it was observed that teachers in each grade are very well organized, they use a variety of methods and techniques that help students, also teachers make group activities and role plays, there was not found something bad about the didactic planning, moreover teachers were very friendly with us as well the students. In relation with the motivation it was found that students are very motivated because it was noticed that they are participating all the time during the class and also the rapport that teacher build with students is good, it was noticed that there are some periods of time teachers and students are making jokes. It was found that there is motivation in each grade in the institution. It was observed that teachers from this institution were using the community language learning because by making group activities teacher takes into account the relationship among students, feelings, physical reactions and the desire to learn. The teacher understands that the student will feel better if they are giving ideas by staying in teams. Other important method that was observed teachers are using is the total physical response because in some moments teachers make role-plays and dynamic activities.
12. PROCEDURE FOR GATHERING DATA
During the period of the investigation we visited the institution during one month, from September 14th until October 14th of 2011. This institution was selected because this is a bilingual school, teachers and students use English all the time and the English language is not taught, the learning process is done through the language; it is exactly what our investigation needs. To gather all the information for this investigation it was necessary to know the location of the institution and also we had to contact the principal of the school in order to have the permission to make the investigation there. The institution is very well located because there is a good transportation. The principal gave us the permission to make the investigation there and at the beginning showed empathy with us, he explained everything about the institution and in that way we got the general information of the institution. After, he went with us to each classroom to introduce to us the teachers of each grade. They showed empathy with us also, they filled the questionnaire that contains question about all the different aspects related with the pedagogical fundamentals, aspects like rapport, learning environment, methodology, didactic planning and motivation.
There was given the opportunity to make an oral interview to the principal of the institution, he gave very good information for the research, moreover he showed us the books teachers use in the classes, it was found that grammar books they have are very interesting and contain very good information. He mentioned important information about the teachers and students. It was observed each grade during one month in the mornings,
notes were taken from the observations but the
periods of observation during the classes in each grade was short because of the free time of the researchers, moving from one grade to another. Teachers always allowed us to stay in the classrooms and take pictures in the classrooms and also in other areas in the institution. Also there were taken pictures from students and
teachers, it was very important for us. During one month researchers had the opportunity to check the methods teachers use in the classrooms; moreover it was known how the students are in the classroom and how they manage the English language.
Students also filled a survey containing questions about the important aspects like rapport, methodology, learning environment, methodology, didactic planning and motivation. After using the information we started creating the chapter II of the investigation, we took in to account all the important things observed.
13. SPECIFICATION OF THE TECHNIQUES OF DATA ANALISYS
To develop this research it was necessary to make questionnaires for teachers and students and also to make an oral interview to the major of the school and in that way to get all the general information of the institution and the information related with the investigation. Moreover, it was necessary to get information from books about the bibliography from different authors that gave important contributions to the educational field. All the information gathered from teachers, students and the major of the school allowed us to know if in the institution teachers are using the pedagogical fundamentals such as: pedagogy, psychology, learning environment, didactic planning, methodology and motivation. It is important also to mention that the good willingness from teachers, students and the major to develop this research was the key for success in the process of gathering data. With the information gathered there will be a graphic related to the questionnaire that teachers and students answered. The information obtained will be represented in graphics and there will be one graphic related to one of the parts of the questionnaire. The questionnaire of teachers, students and the one for the principal
were divided in five parts, like methodology, didactic planning, rapport, motivation and learning environment. The results of the study have been presented in graphics above and each graphic is related to one pedagogical fundamental. Each part in the instruments represents one pedagogical fundamental.
14.CHRONOGRAM
Activities: Documental research/ Field research
Augu st 2010
Sept. 2010
Oct. 2010
Nov. 2010
Dec. 2010
Jan. 2011
Feb. 2011
March 2011
April 2011
May 2011
June 2011
July 2011
August 2011
Sept. 2011
12 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 DOCUMENTAL RESEARCH Selection of bibliography Reading bibliographic citations
1
Development and reading of bibliographic and summary index cards Index cards of concepts and categories Conceptual Framework
1.1
Introduction
1.2
Background
1.3
Justification
1.4
Meeting with the advisor
1.5
Statement of the problem
1.6
Meeting with the advisor
1.7
Findings and Limitations
1.8
Concepts and Categories
1.9
Meeting with the advisor
1.10
First advance edition
1.11
First advance presentation
1.12
Meeting with the advisor
1.13
First advance correction
Activities: Documental research/ Field research
August 2010
Sept. 2010
Oct. 2010
Nov. 2010
Dec. 2010
Jan. 2011
Feb. 2011
March 2011
April 2011
May 2011
June 2011
July 2011
August 2011
Sept. 2011
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
2
Theoretical Framework
2.1 2.2
Theoretical and methodological basis Empirical framework
2.3
Meeting with the advisor
2.4
Design of instruments
2.5
Meeting with the advisor
2.6
Field attendance: Observation
2.7 2.8
Field attendance: Application of instruments Organization of the information
2.9
Meeting with the advisor
2.10
Theoretical and methodological formulation of the research 2.11 Development and theoretical definition 2.12 Meeting with the advisor 2.13 Second advance edition 2.14 Second advance presentation 2.15 Meeting with the advisor 2.16 Second advance correction
Activities: Documental research/ Field research 2
Theoretical Framework
2.1 2.2
Theoretical and methodological basis Empirical framework
2.3
Meeting with the advisor
2.4
Design of instruments
2.5
Meeting with the advisor
2.6
Field attendance: Observation
2.7 2.8
Field attendance: Application of instruments Organization of the information
2.9
Meeting with the advisor
2.10
Theoretical and methodological formulation of the research 2.11 Development and theoretical definition 2.12 Meeting with the advisor 2.13 Second advance edition 2.14 Second advance presentation 2.15 Meeting with the advisor 2.16 Second advance correction
Oct. 2011
Nov. 2011
Dec. 2011
Jan. 2012
Feb. 2012
Mar. 2012
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Activities: Documental research/ Field research
Feb. 2012
Mar. 2012
Apr. 2012
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
3
Operative Framework
3.1 3.2
Describing the subjects of the research Data gathering procedure
3.3
Meeting with the advisor
3.4 3.5
Specification of the technique to the data analysis Chronogram
3.6
Resources
3.7
Meeting with the advisor
3.8 3.9
Preliminary table of contents of the final report Meeting with the advisor
3.10
Third advance edition
3.11 Third advance presentation 3.12 Meeting with the advisor 3.13 Third advance correction 3.14 Delivery of the work to DICTT
15. Resources
To accomplish with this investigation, besides with the information found from the pedagogues and their contributions it was necessary the help from the advisor who was the guide of this investigation in order to take the necessary information and replace the unnecessary information for the good shape of the investigation. The jury with their councils were a very good help because they were a guide by making observations about the aspects necessary to take into account during the investigation, the teachers from seventh, eighth and ninth grade because they helped by answering the questionnaire that was the key for the development of this project and gave us the information related about the pedagogical fundamentals and moreover the students from seventh, eighth and ninth grade from American Christian School who also answered the questionnaire that also gave us the information related with the pedagogical fundamentals.
Another important person who helped us was the principal who allowed us to make the investigation by visiting the institution several times and observing the classes. It was necessary also to consult the bibliography from Centro Cultural SalvadoreĂąo and
information
found
there
was
very
helpful.
16. PRELIMINARY TABLE OF CONTENTS OF THE FINAL REPORT
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK The conceptual framework begins with the general objective and specific objectives as the base for the development of the investigation, the objectives mentions the goals the researchers must achieve. In the background can be found information about the program of the Ministry of Education “Vamos a la escuela “which is the beginning of this investigation. This part mentions information related with each pedagogical fundamental and the background from the authors who made the contributions for these fundamentals.
In the part of justification it can be found information related with the importance of the pedagogical fundamentals in the educational system and also this part explains how the information gathered will be used. The part of the statement of the problem explains the methods and techniques that teachers use nowadays and how they are changing. It can be found the ideas from Pertti Kansannen which was an important author; his ideas are related to the way of teaching. In findings and limitations there can be found information related with the contributions from the authors through the history and also the bibliography of the authors. In concepts and categories explain the concepts that are related with the investigation.
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK The theoretical framework explains all the contributions from the authors in a deeply manner, moreover, it can be found information related to the theories from each author and how the pedagogical fundamentals have been changing with the time. In the empirical framework can be found historical aspect about San Salvador, in the school description can be found information of the structure of the
school, the resources, information of the students and teachers from this school and information of what was observed in the school. After it can be found information of the instruments applied to teachers, students and the principal in the school, this part explains the objectives of these instruments. Moreover in this part can be found examples of the instruments applied and the explanation of how the instruments were designed. The next part is the theoretical and methodological formulation of the research and here contains information of the theories from each author and also it can be found information of what was found in the school during the investigation, there is a comparison between the theory and of what was observed in the school. The final part is the development and theoretical definition which contains information related of what was observed in the school, the positive aspects and the negative aspects of the institution.
OPERATIVE FRAMEWORK In the operative framework it can be found the part description of the subjects of investigation and this part contains information of what was found in the school, information related with the pedagogical fundamentals that were found in the school, also contains information of every aspect related with the pedagogical fundamentals. In the part of procedure for gathering data contains information of all the steps taken during the investigation, this part contains details of everything that the researchers lived like problems, positive aspects and negative aspects. In the part of specification of the techniques of data analysis can be found information related with the plan followed during the investigation, the methods and techniques that the researchers applied in order to get all the information needed for the investigation.
After it can be found one example of questionnaire answered for the teachers and also the data gathered from the teachers is presented in five different graphics,
each one represent one aspect of the pedagogical fundamentals, also it can be found the analysis and interpretation of information of the teacher´s questionnaire. In this part there is a deep analysis of the results of the investigation, all the information represented in graphics is included in the analysis. After there is an example of the questionnaire that answered the students and the data gathered from students is represented in five different graphics that represent every aspect of the pedagogical fundamentals and after there is a deep analysis of the results of the investigation. After it can be found the chronogram of the activities during the investigation and the resources used during the investigation including the people involved for the achieving of this investigation. The final part included in the research is preliminary table of contents of the final report which contains the summary of all the parts of the research.
REFERENCES
Chomsky, N. (2006) Language and mind 3rd Ed. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. Galo de Lara Carmen María , Tecnologia Didáctica, editorial Piedra Santa, 2006. González Velásquez, José Raúl; García de González Mirna, Marquina de Reyes Milena, Políticas de Inversión del Sector Público. 2007. Harris Melville, Environment Studies, British Primary School today, 1974. MacMillan Dictionary, Macmillan Publishers Limited 2002. McTom Arthur, a foundation Course for Language Teaching, Cambridge University Press 1990. M. Clifford Margaret, Practicing Educational Psychology, University of Iowa .
http://www.helsinki.fi/~pkansane/outline.html
http://www.learner.org/workshops/hslit/session7/resources/index.ht ml http://www.cognitivecircle.org/ct&lit/CogCircleResearch/CogLit_Pedag.ht ml http://www.montessori.edu/maria.html http://www.marxist.com/science-old/vygotsky_501.html http://www.ucol.mx/docencia/facultades/derecho/coordinacion/planeacion %20didactica.pdf