161 Cultural Evolution

Key Idea: Cultural evolution is a term used to describe the transmission of and changes to knowledge and ideas over successive generations. In addition to the physical evolution of humans, ideas and behaviours also evolved as they were learned and passed on to offspring. This non-genetic means of adaptation, called cultural evolution, further enhanced the success of early humans.

Environmental forces

Over many millions of years, the evolution of human ancestors has been directed by natural selection. Environmental forces such as climate change, food supply, and predators, acted on the gene pool.

Climate change

The climate became drier and the forests which were the homes of the earlier primates gradually disappeared. This reduced shelter and meant that traditional food sources became scarce or disappeared. New food resources had to be investigated.

Fierce predators

Predators made a ground dwelling lifestyle dangerous. Early humans would have to develop solutions to protect themselves from attack.

Adopted niche

Predominantly ground living, opportunist/ scavenger. Able to exploit a number of varied habitats and utilise a range of food resources.

Resulting physical features

In response to these selective pressures humans evolved an upright stance with the head balanced on the spine and a large brain capable of learning, planning and passing on ideas. An upright stance freed the hands to grasp and manipulate objects in a very sensitive and precise way.

Cultural forces

The unique combination of brain and specialised physical features allowed early humans to learn from others and manipulate their environment to begin changing it to suit themselves.

Natural history intelligence

Being able to predict, using current observations, the habits of potential game, the rhythms of the seasons, and the geography of the landscape (e.g. location of water sources and caves).

1. What is cultural evolution?

Social intelligence

Language to communicate ideas, plan survival strategies, and coordinate group activities such as resource gathering and hunting of increasingly larger game. Group bonding behaviour improves survival opportunities for members.

The modern human mind

Creating artefacts and images with symbolic meaning as a means of communication. Using knowledge of animal habits, tools, advanced planning and communication to coordinate the hunting of large game.

Technical intelligence

Producing artefacts from mental templates required an understanding of abstract ideas and physical processes: the fracturing behaviour of stone, angles of striking stone and how hard to strike, and the trajectory of a thrown projectile.

Development of agriculture

People learned to cultivate plants, especially grains, and domesticate animals. In the Middle East, about 8000 BC, they learned to grow wheat. In Mexico, about 500 BC, they began to grow maize.

Rice (Asia)

Maize Rice (Asia) (Central America)Maize (Central America) Rice (Asia) Wheat (Middle East)

Maize (Central America) Wheat (Middle East)Wheat (Middle East)

Maize (Central America) Rice (Asia)

Wheat (Middle East)

Arabian camel

Goat Donkey

Sheep

Development of stable settlements

Communities of grain cultivators became established. People lived in relatively large, permanent settlements. Such people developed qualities such as patience, industry, and a sense of property, preparing the way for further cultural evolution.

Development of cities

As communities became larger, trade and commerce began to develop. Large cities grew up where markets and trading systems developed. These were places where people could develop special skills such as pottery and metal work. It also resulted in rivalry and, in some cases war, between states.

The present and the future

The success of humans as a species has presented modern populations with a number of complex problems (e.g. global pollution and over-population) and many ethical considerations. To live sustainably in a healthy environment, humans will need to change many of the current practices surrounding resource use and distribution.

An increasing knowledge and expertise in genetics has made it possible to direct genetic change in other organisms, including our own species. Such abilities have many biological, ethical, and social implications.

The knowledge explosion

Sharing ideas became easier once people began living in cities and the technology developed to spread knowledge. Rapid developments in science and technology in the last 200 years have influenced almost every aspect of daily life and significantly increased the rate of cultural evolution.

Manipulation of the environment (e.g. damming rivers) allows humans to exploit resources in a way that wasn't previously possible. Medical advances have increased the human lifespan and advancements in technology have allowed humans to produce material goods at a staggering rate.

The move from opportunist scavenger to hunter-gatherer was a major stage in mankind's cultural evolution. It was taken in a series of small steps, over a very long time (perhaps a million years). A few human societies, such as the Australian aborigines last century, were still at this stage until very recently.

2. Describe two probable effects of a drying climate on the selection pressures directing the evolution of early hominins:

3. Explain how each of the cultural developments listed below enhanced the survival ability of early humans:

(a) Manufacture of bone and stone tools:

(b) Shelters and clothing:

(c) Use of fire:

(d) Cooperative hunting:

(e) Development of agriculture:

(f) Commerce and communication: