Rubens and breugel by fpete

Rubens & Brueghel

Rubens

Brueghel

Anne T. Woollett Ariane van Suchtelen with contributions by

Tiarna Doherty, Mark Leonard, and j0rgen Wadum

A Working Friendship

The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles Royal Picture Gallery Mauritshuis, The Hague

in association with Waanders Publishers, Zwolle, The Netherlands

Rubens and Brueghel:

A Working

Friendship

has b e e n o r g a n i z e d b y

the J. P a u l G e t t y M u s e u m a n d the R o y a l P i c t u r e G a l l e r y M a u r i t s h u i s .

On the cover and page 214: P e t e r P a u l R u b e n s a n d Jan B r u e g h e l the E l d e r , d e t a i l o f The Return from War: Mars P e t e r P a u l R u b e n s , The Family

Frontispiece: T h e e x h i b i t i o n i n T h e H a g u e is s p o n s o r e d

Disarmed

by Venus (cat. n o . 2)

of Jan Brueghel

the

Elder,

ca. 1612-13. O i l o n p a n e l , 125.1 x 95.2 c m ( 4 9 V 4 x 371/2 i n . ) . L o n d o n ,

T h e Samuel C o u r t a u l d Trust, Courtauld. Institute o f A r t Gallery,

ING

inv. p . 1 9 7 8 . P G . 3 6 2 . Rages iv-v:

Jan B r u e g h e l the E l d e r a n d Peter P a u l R u b e n s ,

d e t a i l o f The Garden T h i s v o l u m e is p u b l i s h e d t o a c c o m p a n y the e x h i b i t i o n Rubens Brueghel: A Working

and

h e l d at the J. P a u l G e t t y M u s e u m ,

Friendship,

L o s A n g e l e s , a n d the R o y a l P i c t u r e G a l l e r y M a u r i t s h u i s , T h e H a g u e .

of Eden with the Fall of Man

(cat. n o . 4 )

Rage viii: Jan B r u e g h e l the E l d e r a n d Peter P a u l R u b e n s , d e t a i l o f Allegory

of'Taste

(cat. n o . 8)

T h e e x h i b i t i o n is o n v i e w i n L o s A n g e l e s f r o m J u l y 5 t o S e p t e m b e r 2 4 ,

Rage xiv: P e t e r P a u l R u b e n s a n d Jan B r u e g h e l the E l d e r ,

2 0 0 6 , a n d i n T h e H a g u e f r o m O c t o b e r 21, 2 0 0 6 , t o J a n u a r y 28, 2 0 0 7 .

d e t a i l o f The Feast of Achelous

(cat. n o . 3)

Rage 42: P e t e r P a u l R u b e n s a n d Jan B r u e g h e l the E l d e r ,

d e t a i l o f Ran and Syrinx

(cat. n o . 5)

Netherlands

A l l p h o t o g r a p h s are c o p y r i g h t e d b y the i s s u i n g i n s t i t u t i o n , unless otherwise

noted.

R u b e n s a n d B r u e g h e l : a w o r k i n g f r i e n d s h i p / A n n e T. W o o l l e t t , A r i a n e and Jorgen W a d u m .

1200 G e t t y C e n t e r D r i v e , S u i t e 500

L o s Angeles, California 90049-1682

cm.

" P u b l i s h e d t o a c c o m p a n y the e x h i b i t i o n ' R u b e n s a n d B r u e g h e l :

www.getty.edu

a w o r k i n g f r i e n d s h i p , h e l d at the J. P a u l G e t t y M u s e u m , L o s A n g e l e s , 5

M a r k G r e e n b e r g , Editor

A n n L u c k e , Managing

Editor

Cynthia Newman Bohn,

a n d the R o y a l P i c t u r e G a l l e r y M a u r i t s h u i s , T h e H a g u e . T h e e x h i b i t i o n

Chief

w i l l be o n v i e w i n L o s A n g e l e s f r o m J u l y 5 t o S e p t e m b e r 2 4 , 2 0 0 6 , a n d i n T h e H a g u e f r o m O c t o b e r 21, 2 0 0 6 , to J a n u a r y 28, 2 0 0 7 " — T . p . v e r s o . I n c l u d e s b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l references a n d i n d e x .

Editor

I S B N - 1 3 : 978-0-89236-847-1

Designer

S u z a n n e W a t s o n , Production Diane Webb,

W o o l l e t t , A n n e T.

van Suchtelen ; w i t h contributions by Tiarna D o h e r t y , M a r k L e o n a r d ,

Getty Publications

Jeffrey C o h e n ,

Library o f Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ISBN-IO: 0-89236-847-0

Coordinator

ISBN-13: 978-0-89236-848-8

Translator

ISBN-IO: 0-89236-848-9

(hardcover)

(hardcover) (pbk.)

(pbk.)

1. R u b e n s , P e t e r P a u l , S i r , 1 5 7 7 - 1 6 4 0 — E x h i b i t i o n s .

Typesetting by D i a n e Franco

2. B r u e g h e l , J a n ,

C o l o r separations by Professional G r a p h i c s , Inc., R o c k f o r d , Illinois

1568-1625—Exhibitions.

Printed by Waanders Publishers, Z w o l l e , The

E x h i b i t i o n s . I. S u c h t e l e n , A r i a n e v a n . I I . R u b e n s , Peter P a u l , S i r ,

Netherlands

1577-1640.

3. A r t i s t i c c o l l a b o r a t i o n — B e l g i u m — A n t w e r p —

I I I . B r u e g h e l , J a n , 1568-1625.

V. M a u r i t s h u i s ( H a g u e , Netherlands).

I V . J. P a u l G e t t y M u s e u m .

V I . Title. V I I . Title: Rubens

and B r u e g h e l . ND673.R9A4 2006 759-94 9 3 — d c 2 2 2006003124

T h e a u t h o r s o f the c a t a l o g u e entries are i d e n t i f i e d b y t h e i r i n i t i a l s : A r i a n e van Suchtelen (AvS) and A n n e T W o o l l e t t ( A T W ) .

Contents ix

Foreword MICHAEL

BRAND

A N D FREDERIK

Acknowledgments

xiii

Lenders to the Exhibition

DUPARC

Two Celebrated Painters: The Collaborative Ventures of Rubens and Brueghel, ca. 1598-1625 ANNE

WOOLLETT

Catalogue ARIANE ANNE

VAN

SUCHTELEN

WOOLLETT

Jan Brueghel the Elder and Peter Paul Rubens / C A T . N O S . 1-13

128

Jan Brueghel the Elder and Hans Rottenhammer

136

Jan Brueghel the Elder and Hendrick de Clerck / C A T . N O . 16

140

Jan Brueghel the Elder and Hendrick van Balen / C A T . N O S . 1 7 - 2 1

166

Peter Paul Rubens and Frans Snyders / C A T . N O S . 22-24

186

Jan Brueghel the Elder / C A T . N O S . 25-28

208

Peter Paul Rubens / C A T . N O . 29

215

Brueghel and Rubens at Work: Technique and the Practice of Collaboration TIARNA

DOHERTY,

MARK

252

Literature

267

Index

273

Photography Credits

274

About the Authors

LEONARD,

AND J0RGEN

/ CAT. N O S . 1 4 - 1 5

WADUM

Foreword

ETER

PAUL

RUBENS

A N D JAN BRUEGHEL

THE

ELDER

were the two most famous painters in Antwerp at the beginning of the seventeenth century. A prolific land scape and still-life painter, Jan "Velvet" Brueghel was the senior of the two by nine years and renowned for his remark ably meticulous and jewel-like paintings. Rubens was an ambitious painter of altarpieces and erudite mythological and historical subjects in which he recast antique and Renaissance sources. Both painters served the regents of the Southern Netherlands, Archduke Albert and Archduchess Isabella. More personally, they were also close friends. Together, the two artists produced beautiful and richly allusive composi tions, uniting their distinctive brushwork and individual visual modes in highly sought-after paintings. In an era when it was common for artists to specialize and for more than one painter to contribute to the execution of a work, the conceptual partnership of Rubens and Brueghel—which joined artists of equal status, who were united by friendship and respect—was rare and redefined the widespread practice of collaboration. Rubens and Brueghel: A Working friendship is the first international loan exhibition devoted to the collaborative works of Rubens and Brueghel and their working method. Assembled here are the most important works of their part nership, from the early war themes, to mythological land scapes and allegories, to the iconic paintings of the Madonna and Child in a flower garland. Also included are a select group of works that Rubens and Brueghel executed together with other collaborators, notably Hans Rottenhammer, Hendrick de Clerck, Hendrick van Balen, and Frans Snyders. They highlight the development of significant compositions in the distinctive oeuvres of both artists and reveal the dynamic roles each played in other partnerships. Together,

these paintings provide a rare opportunity to examine the process by which artists in the Netherlands worked collaboratively. The genesis of the exhibition lies in the concurrent inter ests of the J. Paul Getty Museum and the Royal Picture Gallery Mauritshuis. The Getty Museum's purchase in 2000 of a previously unknown painting, The Return from War: Mars Disarmed by Venus, in which Rubens revised his col league's work, coincided with the completion of a thorough restoration and technical investigation of the Mauritshuis's renowned Garden of Eden with the Fall ofMan, in which the order of work between the two artists was quite different. Subsequent discussions between our institutions centered on the fundamental questions addressed in this catalogue: In which studio did their joint compositions originate? Was their approach consistent throughout the period of their collaboration? H o w did they work together on these panels and for whom were they painted? What emerges is a complex, reciprocal relationship in which a painting could originate with either artist, one in which Jan Brueghel, contrary to conventional belief, was often the generating force. The exhibition and catalogue likewise represent a fruitful collaboration between our institutions and among their respective curatorial, conservation, and scientific departments. Scott Schaefer, curator of paintings, and Anne Woollett, associate curator, at the J. Paul Getty Museum, devised the concept and selected the exhibition together with Peter van der Ploeg, chief curator, and Ariane van Suchtelen, curator, of the Royal Picture Gallery Mauritshuis. Anne Woollett contributed the essay exploring the artistic partnership of Rubens and Brueghel and its context and a number of the catalogue entries, the majority of which were written by Ariane van Suchtelen. Tiarna Doherty, associate conservator,

and Mark Leonard, head, Department of Paintings Conser vation, at the J. Paul Getty Museum, and Jorgen Wadum, formerly chief conservator at the Mauritshuis and now chief conservator at the Statens Museum for Kunst, Copenhagen, are the authors of an essay about both the individual and joint working methods of Brueghel and Rubens. The pro duction of the English-language and Dutch-language catalogues was overseen, respectively, by Anne Woollett and Ariane van Suchtelen. We are immensely grateful to the generous lenders who were willing to send some of the most popular works in their collections to both institutions. Our debt extends to the many colleagues who enthusiastically embarked on the journey of discovery and granted special access for tech nical study. Without the remarkable generosity of Miguel Zugaza Miranda of the Museo Nacional del Prado, one of the greatest repositories of collaborative works by Rubens and Brueghel, an exhibition of this scale and importance would not have been possible. In addition, we are deeply appreciative of the munificent support of I N G Nederland, the exclusive sponsor of Rubens and Brueghel: A Working Friendship in The Hague. It is with great pleasure that we welcome visitors to this remarkable exhibition, which celebrates the long-lasting friendship and artistic partnership of two great artists. We hope that the breathtakingly beautiful and technically extra ordinary works of Rubens and Brueghel will intrigue and captivate our viewers, bringing the eloquence of art and friendship of seventeenth-century Antwerp into the present.

MICHAEL

BRAND

FREDERIK J. D U P A R C

Director

J. Paul Getty Museum

Picture Gallery Mauritshuis

Acknowledgments

??????

EXPLORATION

OF THE REMARKABLE

ARTISTIC

partnership of Peter Paul Rubens and Jan Brueghel the Elder has been our pleasurable pursuit for the last four years. It is our privilege to thank those who have made the exhibition and the catalogue possible. In Los Angeles, we are indebted to Michael Brand, director of the J. Paul Getty Museum, for his support, and to William Griswold, former acting director, and Deborah Gribbon, former director, who were instrumental in supporting the exhibitio n during the early stages of its organization. From the incep tion of the project, Frederik J. Duparc, director of the Royal Picture Gallery Mauritshuis, has been a keen advocate and made key contributions to its scope. This exhibition would not have come to fruition without the vision and enthusiasm of Scott Schaefer, curator of paintings at the Getty Museum. We also thank Peter van der Pioeg, chief curator of the Royal Picture Gallery Mauritshuis, for his tireless efforts on behalf of Rubens and Brueghel: A Working Friendship. The very nature of this exhibition, which involved an alliance of art historical research and technical examination, has made it a particularly collaborative enterprise between the curatorial and conservation departments at both institu tions. We thank our colleagues for the generosity with which they shared their findings. Conservator Mark Leonard and associate conservator Tiarna Doherty at the Getty, and Jorgen Wadum, formerly chief conservator at the Mauritshui s, now chief conservator, Statens Museum for Kunst, Copen hagen, have made invaluable contributions to the under standing of paintings by Rubens and Brueghel and to col laborative undertakings in general. Tiarna Doherty traveled to study nearly every painting in the exhibition, as well as a number of key works that could not be lent, with infrared reflectography. The initial technical study of paintings was

made possible by a substantial grant from the American Friends of the Mauritshuis, with the assistance of Otto Naumann and Sandra Canning. We also thank Yvonne Szafran, Gene Karraker, and for mer associate conservator Elisabeth Mention, in the Depart ment of Paintings Conservation at the Getty Museum; and Karen Trentelman, senior scientist, and Anna Schoenemann and Narayan Khandekar, both former senior scientists, at the Getty Conservation Institute. In The Hague, we thank conservator Sabrina Meloni for her help with the technical investigations. A number of extremely generous colleagues at other institutions carried out close examinations of these remarkable paintings and shared their results with us. We thank, in particular, Alexander Vergara, curator, and Ana Gonzalez M o z o and Jaime Garcia Maiquez, from the Gabinete de Documentacion Tecnica of the Museo National del Prado; Jan Schmidt, Doerner Institute, Munich; Robert Wenley and Polly Smith, Glasgow Art Museums; and Wolfgang Savelsberg, Kulturstiftung DessauWorlitz. Collaboration in Netherlandish painting was a common practice that took many forms and, due to its complex nature, awaits a comprehensive investigation. The present study, while offering a new approach that incorporates technical information and close firsthand study, is indebted to the observations and insights of colleagues working on both the broader genre of collaboration and the joint oeuvre of Rubens and Brueghel. Both Christine Van Mulders and Elizabeth H o n i g shared their insights and material from prepublication manuscripts. We have acknowledged, where appropriate, the important contributions of Maryan Ainsworth, David Freedberg, Susan Merriam, Peter Sutton, and Dorien Tamis.

The staffs of both our museums have made tremendous contributions to this project, responding to its unique challenges with great resourcefulness and good humor. At the Getty Museum, we thank Quincy Houghton, assistant director, Amber Keller, senior exhibitions coordinator, and Paige-Marie Ketner and Sophia Allison, Exhibitions and Public Programs Department. The coordination of loan logistics was expertly handled by Sally Hibbard, chief registrar, and Amy Linker, assistant registrar. For their forbearance, practical advice, and vital contributions to the preparation of the exhibition and the catalogue, we thank the current and former colleagues in our respective depart ments, notably Preston Bautista, Virginia Brilliant, Lillian Hsu, Jean Linn, Mary Morton, Anita Morris, Tanya Paul, Audrey Sands, Jon Seydl, Carol O'Connor, and Marilyn Brundson. The exhibition was superbly designed in Los Angeles by Merritt Price, Patrick Fredrickson, and Davina Henderson and expertly installed by Bruce Metro and his adroit team of preparators. Its interpretation benefited from the insights of Mari-Tere Alvarez and Ben Garcia, Depart ment of Education. A t the Mauritshuis, we especially thank Frederik van Koetsveld, deputy director, Theo Haarsma, the coordinator of this exhibition, and Andre Jordaan, registrar. We would also like to thank Simone Hollen, Karen de Moor, Pom Verhoeff, Marthe de Vet, and Antia Wiersma of the Department of Communication, Arjan Rijnsburger, and Caroline Walta. Henk Douna and Boy van den Hoorn were responsible for the temporary pavilion on the Hofrijver^ which the Mauritshuis needs for exhibitions of this size. For a project such as this one, which required wideranging resources, from artistic treatises to scientific encyclo pedias revealing the origins of the Cavia porcellus, we have relied on the outstanding resources of the Getty Research Institute, where we acknowledge the assistance of Jay Gam, Ross Garcia, Aimee Lind, Joyce Ludmer, Louis Marchesano, and Tracey Schuster, as well as the staff of the Rijksbureau voor Kunsthistorische Documentatie. We are grateful to Mark Greenberg, editor in chief, Getty Publications, for the realization of this book, and thank Cynthia Newman Bohn for her fortitude and care as the editor of the manuscript. Patrick Pardo was indispensable in managing the earliest stages of the project and the didactic texts for the installation. Karen Schmidt, production manager, and Suzanne Watson, senior production coordinator, skill fully and meticulously oversaw the production of the catalogue. In addition, we thank other colleagues in Publications who

xii

provided significant support and encouragement through out the process: Cecily Gardner, Anne Chamberlain, Kara Kirk, A n n Lucke, and Deenie Yudell. Jeffrey Cohen is responsible for the splendid design of the catalogue, which captures the spirit of the artistic partnership it explores. Diane Webb ably translated the Dutch text into English, and Dorine Duyster skillfully translated the English text into Dutch. Waanders Publishers in Zwolle printed the catalogue, and we thank Marloes Waanders in particular for guiding its production. We received help and advice from many individuals, in addition to those already named. We would like to express particular appreciation to Denise Allen, Claude d'Anthenaise, Gerd Bartoschek, Reinhold Baumstark, David Bomford, Antonia Bostrom, Charissa Bremer-David, Lome Campbell, Mark Carlisle, Marcus Dekiert, Lloyd De Witt, Hartmut Dorgerloh, Burton Fredericksen, Carmen Garrido, Burckhardt Gores, Anne d'Harnoncourt, Lee Hendrix, Nico Van Hout, Dirk Imhoff, David Jaffe, Patricia Jaspers, Arianne Faber Kolb, Anne-Marie Logan, Hans-Martin Kaulbach, Thomas Kren, Walter Liedtke, Andrea De Marchi, Harald Marx, Elizabeth McGrath, Philippe de Montebello, Elizabeth Morrison, Uta Neidhardt, Lynn Orr, Michiel Plomp, MarieChristine Prestat, Wolfgang Prohaska, Konrad Renger, Catherine Reynolds, Joseph Rishel, Martin Roth, Ashok Roy, Gregory Rubinstein, Axel Riiger, Wolfgang Savelsberg, Stephanie Schrader, Karl Schiitz, Wilfried Seipel, the late Hubert von Sonnenburg, Renate Trnek, Mark Tucker, Ernst Veen, Gregor Weber, Thomas Weiss, Barbara Welzel, and Bettina Werche. Finally, our greatest debt is to the lending institutions (listed on the following page) and to the anonymous private collector, who were willing to part for a time with some of the most absorbing and delightful works in their collections.

ANNE

T. W O O L L E T T

ARIANE

VAN

SUCHTELEN

Lenders to the Exhibition

A k a d e m i e der B i l d e n d e n K i i n s t e , V i e n n a Bayerische Staatsgemaldesammlungen, A l t e Pinakothek, M u n i c h Bayerische Staatsgemaldesammlungen, Staatsgalerie, N e u b u r g an der D o n a u Galleria D o r i a P a m p h i l j , R o m e J. Paul Getty M u s e u m , L o s Angeles K u l t u r s t i f t u n g D e s s a u W o r l i t z , Dessau Kunsthistorisches M u s e u m , Gemaldegalerie, V i e n n a The Metropolitan M u s e u m o f Art, N e w York M u s e e de la Chasse et de la N a t u r e , Paris M u s e o N a c i o n a l del Prado, M a d r i d Philadelphia M u s e u m o f A r t Private C o l l e c t i o n R o y a l Picture Gallery M a u r i t s h u i s , T h e H a g u e Staatliche K u n s t s a m m l u n g e n , Gemaldegalerie A l t e Meister, Dresden Staatliche M u s e e n , Gemaldegalerie A l t e Meister, Kassel Stiftung Preufiische Schlofier u n d G a r t e n B e r l i n - B r a n d e n b u r g , Schlofi Sanssouci Bildergalerie, Potsdam

xiii

T w o Celebrated

Painters The Collaborative Ventures o f Rubens and Brueghel, ca. 1598-1625

ANNE

WOOLLETT

D U R I N G F I R S T T W O D E C A D E S O F T H E S E V E N T E E N T H C E N T U R Y , J A N B R U E G H E L

the Elder' ; A

painters/' :..Ai

8 - 1 6 2 5 ) a n d Peter P a u l R u b e n s ( 1 5 7 7 - 1 6 4 0 ) w e r e the m o s t e m i n e n t

twerp, a splendid but economically diminished metropolis w h i c h remained

taK^stic

stic center. T h e y represented the t w o major artistic t r a d i t i o n s i n the city:

Q ^ n t V s el's ex< e x c e p t i o n a l l y m e t i c u l o u s a n d g r a p h i c b r u s h w o r k deftly d e s c r i b e d m u l t i t u d e s

o f p e o p l e seen f r o m a h i g h vantage a n d the details o f the n a t u r a l w o r l d , w h i l e R u b e n s c a p t u r e d e m o t i o n a n d c o r p o r e a l energy w i t h v i g o r o u s b r u s h w o r k i n large-scale h i s t o r y p a i n t i n g s . B o t h h a d the h o n o r a n d d i s t i n c t i o n o f s e r v i n g as c o u r t painters t o the g o v e r n o r s o f the S o u t h e r n N e t h e r l a n d s , A r c h d u k e A l b e r t a n d A r c h d u c h e s s Isabella C l a r a E u g e n i a , a n d b o t h artists o v e r s a w p r o d u c t i v e w o r k s h o p s , a l t h o u g h l i t t l e is k n o w n o f B r u e g h e l ' s s t u d i o arrangements, w h i l e R u b e n s ' s enterprise o p e r a t e d o n a g r a n d a n d elab orate scale. T h e i r status a n d r e p u t a t i o n was v i v i d l y d e s c r i b e d b y an observant y o u n g 1

n o b l e m a n , D u k e J o h a n n E r n s t o f S a x o n y , w h o v i s i t e d A n t w e r p i n early 1614. H e n o t e d i n the a c c o u n t o f his travels, u n d e r the h e a d i n g "Peter P a u l R y b e n t [ R u b e n s ] a n d B r u g e l t w o celebrated p a i n t e r s " that he a n d his c o m p a n i o n s " t h e n . . . s a w w i t h t h e t w o a d m i r a b l e painters Peter P a u l R y b e n t a n d B r u g e l m a n y s p l e n d i d p a i n t i n g s a n d w o r k s o f art. R y b e n t m o s t l y paints large pieces a n d e v e r y t h i n g n a t u r a l l y great, very artistic a n d after life. H e c a n m a k e 1 0 0 g u l d e n a week, excellent pieces b y h i m he c a n sell f o r 2 , 3, 4 , a n d 5 0 0 r i j k s g u l d e n . B r u g e l paints s m a l l panels a n d landscapes, b u t a l l very subtle a n d artistic, that o n e regards t h e m w i t h w o n d e r . " A l t h o u g h he doesn't m e n t i o n m e e t i n g 2

the artists, i t is t a n t a l i z i n g t o t h i n k J o h a n n E r n s t m a y have e n c o u n t e r e d B r u e g h e l i n R u b e n s ' s s t u d i o ( o r R u b e n s i n B r u e g h e l ' s s t u d i o ) d u r i n g his v i s i t . A n t w e r p ' s l e a d i n g painters w e r e also frequent c o l l a b o r a t o r s , e x e c u t i n g a p p r o x i m a t e l y t w o d o z e n w o r k s together o v e r the course o f twenty-five years, f r o m a b o u t 1598 t o 1 6 2 5 . T h e i r p a r t n e r s h i p b e g a n w i t h a w a r t h e m e , The Battle of the Amazons 3

(cat. n o . 1 ) ,

b u t o t h e r subjects that r e s u l t e d f r o m t h e i r w o r k i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p are m o r e f a m o u s , i n c l u d i n g d e p i c t i o n s o f the M a d o n n a a n d C h i l d i n a flower g a r l a n d (fig. 1), m y t h o l o g i c a l themes, a n d the a l l e g o r i c a l series d e v o t e d t o the F i v e Senses. A n u m b e r o f t h e i r j o i n t w o r k s , s u c h as The Garden of Eden with the Fall of Man

(cat. n o . 4 ) a n d the F i v e Senses

series (cat. n o . 8 ) , w e r e celebrated b y t h e i r c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , w h i l e the existence o f The

TWO

CELEBRATED

PAINTERS

FIGURE

Peter P a u l R u b e n s ( 1 5 7 7 - 1 6 4 0 ) a n d J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r (1568-1625), Madonna in a Flower Garland, ca. 1616-18. O i l o n p a n e l , 185 x 2 0 9 . 8 c m ( 7 2 % x 82 /s i n . ) . 5

M u n i c h , A l t e P i n a k o t h e k , i n v. 331

Return from War: Mars Disarmed by Venus (cat. no. 2) was unknown to scholars until it was acquired by the J. Paul Getty M u s e u m in 2 0 0 0 . Rubens and Brueghel: A Working Friendship brings together for the first time many o f the most important collabora tions with the goal of considering the artists' unique artistic partnership and working methods. Also included is a small selection of collaborative works that Brueghel and Rubens undertook with significant contemporaries such as Hans Rottenhammer (1564/65-1625), Hendrick de Clerck ( i 5 7 o ? - i 6 3 o ) , Hendrick van Balen (1574/75-1632), and Frans Snyders (1579-1657). Collaboration, the process by which two or more artists work together to produce a single work o f art, is virtually synonymous with painting in the L o w Countries in the years before 1700. The tradition o f painters specializing in particular genres—figures, still life (game, fruit, vegetables), landscape, to name but a few—and contributing a share to a painting, was already quite well established by the time Rubens and Brueghel began their artistic partnership with The Battle of the Amazons (cat. no. 1) in about 1598. Frequently, the principal artist w o u l d plan the composition, executing the most impor tant areas himself, and engage the services of a second painter for the figures or details. Collaboration o f this sort offered a highly practical approach to producing paintings 4

TWO

CELEBRATED

PAINTERS

quickly for the open market. This practice was so common, and had so many different modes, that there was no middle-Dutch w o r d for what today falls under the general umbrella o f "collaboration." Extraordinarily, artists o f equal stature contributed to the genesis o f a composition and shared i n its execution. In such conceptual collabora tions, individual contributions were integrated yet distinct and, as i n the joint works of Rubens and Brueghel, accorded equal visual value. In examining the process o f collaboration between Rubens and Brueghel, we are considering joint authorship o f the rarest sort, not only between artists o f equal status, but between painters with established styles who specialized i n particular areas—figures and erudite history scenes i n the case o f Rubens and atmospheric settings, including landscapes and still life, i n the case o f Brueghel. Their joint works were, it seems, the result o f mutual desire. Brueghel and Rubens's fond friendship stands out among the leading painters of Europe and within the city's close-knit artistic community. The two men were dear friends who assisted each other outside the studio. Rubens famously penned letters i n Italian to his friend's leading patron i n M i l a n , Cardinal Federico Borromeo, and Brueghel affectionately referred to Rubens as "my secretary Rubens" (mio secretario Rubens) in communications with the same patron. Brueghel and Rubens shared a formi dable creative energy, and their artistic alliance was an intellectual exchange i n which the concept for a composition could originate with either painter. It was also a respon sive alliance, in which the artists adjusted existing work by the partner. Sometimes these changes were substantial, as in The Return from War, i n others, more nuanced, as i n the Madonna and Child in a Garland of Fruit and Flowers (cat. no. 12). However, the indivi duality o f their respective styles was maintained i n their joint works, which amounted to an amiably competitive arena i n which they carried out visual jousting. The evident delight and wit that pervade many o f their paintings underscore the extraordinary status of their collaborations, which doubtless were perceived as exclusive commodities, not least by the astute Rubens and Brueghel. The extraordinary artistic products that resulted from their collaboration were sought after by collectors throughout Europe. 5

While it has often been assumed that Rubens played the dominant role i n all his partnerships, it is clear from the works assembled here that Brueghel played the largest part in developing and executing their joint works, particularly during the second half of the 1610s when their working method had become more streamlined and included Rubens's workshop. A highly productive artist, Brueghel devised innovative composi tions and reused them with great effect. H i s detailed and impressive settings are often related to earlier, sixteenth-century types and to the allegorical language o f the preceding century; In this respect, his contribution to the partnership was as rich and as impor tant as that o f Rubens, whose pictorial language derived from antiquity and Renaissance Italy as well as northern predecessors. Rubens and Brueghel's oeuvre reflects the taste and values o f the court o f Archduke Albert and Archduchess Isabella (figs. 2 and 3), joint rulers o f the Southern Netherlands from 1599, who sought to convey the continuity o f their reign with earlier Burgundian and Habsburg rulers. Following the religious strife o f the late sixteenth century, during which the Protestant Northern provinces broke away from Spanish Habsburg rule to form the independent U n i t e d Provinces, and Antwerp surrendered to 6

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FIGURE

F r a n s F r a n c k e n the Y o u n g e r (1581-1642) a n d w o r k s h o p , w i t h J a n B r u e g h e l the Y o u n g e r (1601-1678), The Archduke Albert and the Archduchess Isabella in a Collector's Cabinet,

ca. 1626.

O i l o n p a n e l , 9 4 x 123.3 c m (37 x 4 8 V2 i n . ) . B a l t i m o r e , T h e W a l t e r s A r t M u s e u m , i n v . 37.2010 FIGURE

O t t o v a n V e e n (ca. 1556-1629), Portrait Clara

of Albert Eugenia,

and

Isabella

1615. O i l o n p a n e l ,

160 x 81 c m (63 x 31^8 i n . ) .

the forces o f Philip II in 1585 to become a Catholic bastion o f the Habsburg Southern Netherlands, Albert and Isabella were seen to bring stability to the region, which roughly corresponds to modern-day Belgium. They continued to try to subdue the D u t c h rebels through military force, until the signing o f the Twelve Years' Truce in 1609, which effectively recognized the independence o f the Northern provinces. Deeply pious, they strove to promote the ideals o f the revitalized Catholic Church. The partnership of Rubens and Brueghel thus spanned the first phase o f the archdukes' reign, which ended w i t h Albert's death in 1621, at which time Isabella was appointed governess general. The archdukes' dual leadership, which represented the goals o f piety and regal ity, thus was reflected in joint artistic expression o f their two favorite painters. While mindful o f themes traditionally favored in courtly circles, such as the hunt, the two artists also devised new iconography and genres that captured the devoutness and splen dor o f the archducal court. 7

Gloucestershire, England, The Earl o f Wemyss and March K.T.

THE

LIVES

A N D CAREERS

OF BRUEGHEL

A N D RUBENS

A t the time o f Brueghel and Rubens's earliest collaboration in the late 1590s, Jan Brueghel (fig. 4 ) was the older and more established o f the pair, and a seasoned collabo rator. Born in Brussels in 1568, he was the second son of Pieter Bruegel the Elder (ca. 1525/30-1569). Jan's older brother, Pieter Brueghel the Younger (1564/65-1637/38), 8

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e n j o y e d a successful career p a i n t i n g v e r s i o n s o f the h i g h l y p o p u l a r peasant subjects o f his father. J a n , a c c o r d i n g t o the p a i n t e r a n d b i o g r a p h e r K a r e l v a n M a n d e r ( 1 5 4 8 - 1 6 0 6 ) , 9

first l e a r n e d t o p a i n t i n w a t e r c o l o r f r o m his m a t e r n a l g r a n d m o t h e r , M a y e k e n V e r h u l s t Bessemers, a m i n i a t u r i s t , a n d later t r a i n e d as an o i l p a i n t e r w i t h the landscape specialist Pieter G o e t k i n t (d. 1583).

L i k e his father, J a n t r a v e l e d t o I t a l y i n 1589, a t r i p w h i c h was b y this t i m e a l m o s t o b l i g a t o r y f o r a m b i t i o u s N o r t h e r n artists; he s t o p p e d first i n C o l o g n e a n d p r o b a b l y also i n V e n i c e . T h e f e w d r a w i n g s that d o c u m e n t his stay i n N a p l e s after J u n e 1 5 9 0 reveal 1 1

his interest i n landscape vistas a n d m o n u m e n t a l a r c h i t e c t u r e .

While in Rome (1592-94),

B r u e g h e l b e f r i e n d e d P a u l B r i l (ca. 1 5 5 4 - 1 6 2 6 ) , an A n t w e r p landscape specialist w h o , a l o n g w i t h his b r o t h e r M a t t h i j s ( 1 5 5 0 - 1 5 8 3 ) , p a i n t e d a t m o s p h e r i c landscapes f o r m a n y R o m a n i n t e r i o r s , o f t e n i n fresco, a n d c o n t r i b u t e d t o the taste a m o n g c o l l e c t o r s f o r this especially N o r t h e r n g e n r e .

B r i l ' s o w n style was s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d b y the d r a m a t i c

landscape f o r m s o f J o a c h i m P a t i n i r (ca. 1 4 8 0 - 1 5 2 4 ) (see, f o r e x a m p l e , fig. 21) a n d the forest landscapes o f P i e t e r B r u e g e l the E l d e r . D u r i n g the m i d - i 5 9 0 S , B r i l ' s l i v e l y d r a w i n g s a n d his small-scale, d e l i c a t e l y p a i n t e d landscapes h a d a decisive i m p a c t o n B r u e g h e l . FIGURE

B r u e g h e l c o n t i n u e d t o d e v e l o p his o w n r e p e r t o i r e o f i n v e n t i v e , m i n u t e l y r e n d e r e d sub

A n t h o n y v a n D y c k (1599-1641), Portrait

1 4

of Jan Brueghel

the

Elder,

ca. 1630. E t c h i n g , first state, 2 4 9 x 158 m m (9V4 x 6 V 4 i n . ) . L o n d o n , British Museum,

jects t r a d i t i o n a l l y associated w i t h the N o r t h , s o m e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y

D r a w i n g s , inv. 1 8 4 9 - 2 - 1 0 - 2 2 8 ©Trustees o f the B r i t i s h M u s e u m

nocturnal

effects a n d g r o t e s q u e m o n s t e r s (fig. 5) r e m i n i s c e n t o f H i e r o n y m u s B o s c h (ca. 1 4 5 0 - 1 5 1 6 ) . T o w a r d the e n d o f his R o m a n stay, he d e v e l o p e d an early f o r m o f the paradise landscape (see fig. 7 5 ) , perhaps as a result o f his e n c o u n t e r s w i t h V e n e t i a n landscapes a n d the R o m a n w o r k s o f J a c o p o Z u c c h i (ca. 1 5 4 0 - 1 5 9 6 ) .

Department o f Prints and

flickering

1 5

P a u l B r i P s w o r k s w e r e a v i d l y c o l l e c t e d , a n d his contacts w i t h l e a d i n g c o g n o s c e n t i a n d the A c c a d e m i a d i S a n L u c a h e l p e d t o b r i n g B r u e g h e l t o the a t t e n t i o n o f p a t r o n s . W h i l e i n R o m e , B r u e g h e l e n j o y e d the p r o t e c t i o n o f C a r d i n a l A s c a n i o C o l o n n a , w h o also e m p l o y e d R u b e n s ' s o l d e r b r o t h e r P h i l i p .

1 6

I n a b o u t 1593, he m e t the P o s t - T r i d e n t i n e

r e f o r m e r C a r d i n a l F e d e r i c o B o r r o m e o , a d i s c e r n i n g a n d enthusiastic c o l l e c t o r , w h o became a l i f e l o n g f r i e n d a n d p a t r o n . T h e i r s p i r i t e d c o r r e s p o n d e n c e p r o v i d e s i n s i g h t i n t o B r u e g h e l ' s w o r k i n g m e t h o d s a n d the cardinal's affinity f o r the artist's style. B r u e g h e l r e s i d e d w i t h B o r r o m e o i n the P a l a z z o V e r c e l l i , a n d w h e n B o r r o m e o became a r c h b i s h o p o f M i l a n i n J u n e 1595, B r u e g h e l r e c e i v e d a place i n his h o u s e h o l d .

1 7

D u r i n g his R o m a n

stay, B r u e g h e l also became a c q u a i n t e d w i t h a G e r m a n p a i n t e r o f small-scale refined n u d e s , H a n s R o t t e n h a m m e r . I n a letter t o the c a r d i n a l , B r u e g h e l p r a i s e d R o t t e n h a m m e r , s a y i n g " n o t h i n g i n H o l l a n d a n d F l a n d e r s is as b e a u t i f u l as the w o r k o f a c e r t a i n G e r m a n i n Italy, a n d I b e g y o u t o h o l d his w o r k s i n h i g h , h i g h e s t e e m . "

Borromeo's collection

i n c l u d e d a series o f s m a l l landscapes, i n d i v i d u a l l y executed b y B r u e g h e l a n d B r i l a n d d i s p l a y e d t o g e t h e r , as w e l l as c o l l a b o r a t i v e w o r k s b y B r u e g h e l a n d

Rottenhammer.

1 9

T h e w e l l - m a t c h e d t e c h n i q u e s o f B r u e g h e l a n d R o t t e n h a m m e r (see cat. n o s . 1 4 a n d 15) attest t o a c o n v i v i a l w o r k i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p . I n a d d i t i o n t o the exchange o f ideas a m o n g N o r t h e r n painters i n R o m e f o r the i m a g i n e d scenery o f forest landscapes t o w h i c h he was an i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i b u t o r , B r u e g h e l was a b s o r b e d i n r e n d e r i n g the i m p o s i n g r e m a i n s o f a n t i q u i t y i n a n d a r o u n d the city. I n contrast t o the d o c u m e n t a r y a p p r o a c h t a k e n b y o t h e r N o r t h e r n artists i n t h e i r s k e t c h b o o k s , B r u e g h e l c a p t u r e d the m o n u m e n t a l r e m a i n s o f the classical past i n

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FIGURE

Jan B r u e g h e l the E l d e r ,

Orpheus

Singing before Pluto and Proserpina, 1594. O i l o n c o p p e r , 27 x 36 c m ( i o / 8 x 141/8 i n . ) . F l o r e n c e , 5

Palazzo Pitti, Galleria Palatina, i n v . 1298

delicately hued watercolor drawings. A number of drawings o f rocky hills and cascades attest to Brueghel's visit to T i v o l i . The rugged landscape and soaring vaults o f the Baths o f Diocletian or the Cluvius Scauri (fig. 6), and particularly the interior o f the Colosseum (fig. 7), reveal his response to the dramatic effect of the vaulted interiors. These arched forms were important not only for his later architectural interiors but for his development o f landscape forms that suggest corridors. Brueghel explored the intricacies o f the play o f light and deep shade over the broken forms o f the Colosseum, placing the viewer in the shadow, silhouetting the rough edges of the wall against the bright sunlight through the far arch, the massiveness o f the structure emphasized by the small figure at the right. H e was particularly fascinated by the dynamic visual " p u l l " o f the receding arched corridor, and he reused this theatrical feature in allegorical scenes after his return to Antwerp (see cat. nos. 17 and 18). 20

Brueghel was not: alone in his fascination for these crumbling forms, and he was receptive to the fantastic renderings of landscapes animated by ruins and ruinous interiors

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FIGURE

J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r , The

Baths

of Diocletian or the Cluvius Scauri, 1594. P e n a n d b r o w n w a s h , 26.2 x 2 0 . 4 c m ( i o / 8 x 8 in.). 3

Paris, F o n d a t i o n C u s t o d i a , C o l l e c t i o n R L u g t , Institut N e e r l a n d a i s , i n v . 7879

FIGURE

by c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , s u c h as L o d e w i j k T o e p u t (ca. 1 5 5 0 - c a . 1 6 0 5 ) , w h o s e Interior

J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r , View of the Interior

of the Colosseum,

ca. 1595.

P e n a n d b r o w n w a s h , 2 6 . 2 x 21 c m ( i o / 8 x 8V4 i n . ) . B e r l i n , S t a a t l i c h e 3

Museen, Kupferstichkabinett, S a m m l u n g e n der Z e i c h n u n g e n u n d D r u c k g r a p h i k , i n v . K D Z 26327

of the

Colosseum (fig. 8) is r e m a r k a b l e f o r its d a m p a t m o s p h e r e . B r u e g h e l ' s f r i e n d s h i p w i t h the latter, w h o m he m a y have m e t i n T r e v i s o before a r r i v i n g i n R o m e , is d o c u m e n t e d b y an i n s c r i p t i o n o n the back o f a d r a w i n g b y T o e p u t .

2 2

I n o n e o f the first o f his w o r k s

a c q u i r e d b y F e d e r i c o B o r r o m e o , B r u e g h e l i n f u s e d the landscape o f a r c h e d r u i n s , o n e o f a six-part series o f c o n t e m p l a t i v e m o n k s (fig. 9 ) , w i t h greater i n t r i c a c y a n d m o n u m e n tality t h a n the p r i n t that served as its s o u r c e .

T h e a r c h e d i n t e r i o r s u s e d t o s u c h effect

i n later w o r k s (see cat. n o s . 2 , 17, a n d 1 8 ) , h o w e v e r , have a c o m m o n source i n the elabo rate Forge of Vulcan b y P a o l o F i a m m i n g o ( 1 5 4 0 - 1 5 9 6 ) , a F l e m i s h artist active i n V e n i c e (see fig. 7 8 ) . M a n y o f these m o t i f s , p a r t i c u l a r l y the v a u l t e d c o r r i d o r , fueled the i m a g i n a tive settings o f later a l l e g o r i c a l subjects.

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FIGURE

B r u e g h e l spent o n l y a year i n M i l a n before r e t u r n i n g t o the N e t h e r l a n d s , w h e r e

L o d e w i j k T o e p u t (ca. 1550-

he settled i n A n t w e r p b y O c t o b e r 1 5 9 6 .

ca. 1605), The Interior

j o i n e d the G u i l d o f S a i n t L u k e as a "master's s o n " (his father h a d entered the g u i l d i n

Colosseum,

of the

15 81. P e n a n d b r o w n i n k ,

b r o w n a n d o l i v e w a s h , 34.7 x

T h e f o l l o w i n g year, at age t w e n t y - n i n e , he

1551) a n d later served as c o - d e a n a n d dean i n 1 6 0 1 a n d 1 6 0 2 .

2 5

I n 1599 he was accepted

25.5 c m (13 /8 x 10 i n . ) . V i e n n a ,

i n t o the elite confraternity o f R o m a n i s t s ( C o n f r a t r u m C o l l e g i j R o m a n o r u m a p u d

Graphische Sammlung Albertina,

A n t u e r p i e n s e s ) , w h o s e m e m b e r s h a d v i s i t e d R o m e a n d p a i d h o m a g e at the t o m b s o f the

inv. 2 4 6 5 0

apostles Peter a n d P a u l .

FIGURE

2 6

I n the late s i x t e e n t h century, few artists w e r e m e m b e r s o f the

R o m a n i s t s , b u t B r u e g h e l j o i n e d t w o o t h e r l e a d i n g artists w i t h ties t o the r u l i n g arch-

J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r ,

Landscape

with Ruins and a Hermit,

1596.

d u c a l c o u r t , Wenceslas C o b e r g h e r (ca. 1 5 6 0 - 1 6 3 2 ) a n d R u b e n s ' s teacher, O t t o van V e e n (ca. 1 5 5 6 - 1 6 2 9 ) . T h e last years o f the c e n t u r y w e r e b u s y ones for V a n V e e n , w h o h a d

O i l o n c o p p e r , 26 x 36.5 c m

been c o u r t p a i n t e r t o the f o r m e r g o v e r n o r o f the N e t h e r l a n d s A l e s s a n d r o Farnese, as

(10 V4 x 14V8 i n . ) . M i l a n ,

w e l l as t o A r c h d u k e E r n s t , a n d was r e s p o n s i b l e for d e s i g n i n g the t r i u m p h a l arches for

P i n a c o t e c a A m b r o s i a n a , i n v . 75

the entry o f the archdukes A l b e r t a n d Isabella i n t o A n t w e r p i n 1599 f o l l o w i n g t h e i r acces s i o n as s o v e r e i g n rulers o f the N e t h e r l a n d s . B r u e g h e l p r o b a b l y first became a c q u a i n t e d w i t h R u b e n s t h r o u g h the G u i l d o f S a i n t L u k e o r p o s s i b l y d u r i n g p r e p a r a t i o n for the t r i umphal entries.2 7 Their earliest k n o w n j o i n t work, The Battle of the Amazons (cat. no. 1) was executed s h o r t l y after R u b e n s became a master h i m s e l f i n 1598 a n d before his depar ture for Italy i n M a y 1 6 0 0 . A l t h o u g h B r u e g h e l a n d R u b e n s a d h e r e d t o a c o n v e n t i o n a l d i v i s i o n o f l a b o r b e t w e e n landscape a n d figures, the u n u s u a l subject o f The Battle of the Amazons

h i n t s at the a m b i t i o n a n d scale o f t h e i r future c o l l a b o r a t i o n s . P r i o r t o that

project, B r u e g h e l h a d b e g u n t o f a s h i o n the m e t i c u l o u s m u l t i f i g u r e scenes (for e x a m p l e , cat. n o . 25) for w h i c h he was celebrated. V a n M a n d e r refers t o the " s m a l l landscapes a n d t i n y figures i n w h i c h he has an excellently fine m a n n e r o f w o r k i n g . "

2 8

H o w e v e r , the

c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h R u b e n s o n a m o n u m e n t a l h i s t o r y subject m a y have s p u r r e d B r u e g h e l

T W O C E L E B R A T E D P A I N T E R S 9

FIGURE

1 0

J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r , The Continence

ofScipio,

1600.

O i l o n c o p p e r , 72.2 x 106.5 c m (28V8 x 4 1 % i n . ) . M u n i c h , A l t e P i n a k o t h e k , i n v . 827

to paint similar themes, such as The Continence ofScipio (fig. 10) with its episodic action, and to invest his birdVeye-view landscapes w i t h new grandeur. Intriguingly, a later inventory refers to a painting of M o u n t Parnassus, specified as a collaboration between Van Veen, Brueghel, and Rubens, now lost. Over the course of the first decade of the seventeenth century, Brueghel estab lished himself as one o f the leading painters i n the Southern Netherlands. O n January 23, 1599, he married Isabella de Jode, the daughter of the engraver Gerard de Jode, and i n 1601 their first child, Jan, was born. Following Isabella's death i n 1603, possibly during the birth o f their daughter Paschasia, Brueghel married Catharina van Marienberghe, with w h o m he had eight children. In 1604 Brueghel purchased a large house w i t h a garden, the "Meerminne" (The Mermaid), no. 107 Lange Nieuwstraat (fig. n ) , which must reflect not only his status but also his high level of productivity i n these years. K n o w n as "Velvet Brueghel" for his delicate touch, Jan specialized i n still-life and land scape subjects of remarkably refined execution. H i s most frequent collaborator in these years was Hendrick van Balen. Like Brueghel, Van Balen had made the journey to Rome (1595-1600) and joined the Antwerp G u i l d o f Romanists i n 1605. While Van Balen 29

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PAINTERS

FIGURE

JAN

Joris H o e f n a g e l (1542i 6 o x ) , Antverpia

(bird's-eye

F r o m G . Braun and F. H o g e n b e r g , Urbium Terrarum,

1604 2

vol. v (Antwerp,

PETER

A n t w e r p , m a n y artists'

and Brueghel, were located i n close p r o x i m i t y to one another.

78 L a n g e N i e u w s t r a a t , " D e W i l d e m a n " ( T h e W i l d M a n ) , large h o u s e w i t h a g a l l e r y , p u r c h a s e d J u l y 1622 FRANS

o w n e d b y the artist

Stedelijk Prentenkabinet

ticularly those o f Rubens

17 A r e n b e r g s t r a a t , " D e n B o c k " ( T h e B i l l y G o a t ) ,

p u r c h a s e d M a r c h 1619; o n e o f several p r o p e r t i e s

ca. 1598). A n t w e r p ,

r e s i d e n c e s a n d s t u d i o s , par

purchased D e c e m b e r 1604

a g a r d e n n e a r the l u x u r y art m a r k e t ( t a p i s s i e r s p a n d ) ,

Or bis

I n early seventeenth-century

V A N BALEN

96 L a n g e N i e u w s t r a a t , a h o u s e w i t h a g a r d e n ;

a substantial property (formerly t w o houses) w i t h

Theatrum

et Civitatum

107 L a n g e N i e u w s t r a a t , " D e M e e r m i n n e " ( T h e M e r

m a i d ) , a large house w i t h a garden, f r o m D e c e m b e r

perspective o f A n t w e r p , seen f r o m the east), d e t a i l .

HENDRICK

BRUEGHEL THE ELDER

PAUL

RUBENS

37 K l o o s t e r s t r a a t . R u b e n s a n d his w i f e r e s i d e w i t h his f a t h e r - i n - l a w , Jan B r a n t , ca. 1609-1611

SNYDERS

17 K o r t e G a s t h u i s s t r a a t ( r e n t e d h o u s e ) , O c t o b e r 1611-1620

8 Keizerstraat, " D e F o r t u y n e " ( F o r t u n e ) , a large house w i t h a c o u r t y a r d o n o n e o f the city's m o s t e x c l u s i v e streets, p u r c h a s e d D e c e m b e r 1620

I n 1610, R u b e n s p u r c h a s e d a n d r e b u i l t a large h o u s e w i t h a g a r d e n o n the W a p p e r ( o f f the M e i r , A n t w e r p ' s most important thoroughfare), and added a twostory studio w i t h a sumptuously decorated exterior; o c c u p i e d ca. 1617

TWO CELEBRATED PAINTERS

FIGURE

H e n d r i c k v a n B a l e n (1574/75-1632) a n d A b e l G r i m m e r (ca. 1 5 7 0 1618/19), View of Antwerp,

1600.

O i l o n p a n e l , 37 x 4 4 c m (14V2 x 17 Vs i n . ) . A n t w e r p , Koninklijk M u s e u m voor Schone K u n s t e n , i n v . 817

executed monumental altarpieces at the outset o f his career and collaborated with other artists, such as Abel Grimmer (1570-1618/19) (fig. 12), his joint compositions with Brueghel were small-scale works, usually painted on panel or copper supports that enhanced their jewel-like qualities. Brueghel's precise brushwork complements Van Balen's similarly refined technique, while Brueghel's descriptive landscape settings and sumptuous still-life objects serve to offset Van Balen's smooth figures (see cat. nos. 17-21).

Brueghel painted some o f his most innovative and, indeed, most labor-intensive works for his patron in M i l a n , Cardinal Borromeo. Over his lifetime, Borromeo assembled a large collection o f Flemish landscapes and Italian paintings (in 1621, he owned twenty-one works by Jan Brueghel). The Allegory of Fire (see fig. 76), for example, was the first o f a series o f the four elements Brueghel painted for the cardinal between 1606 and 1621. Brueghel's extensive correspondence with Borromeo and his agent, Ercole Bianchi, reveal much about his working process and particularly about the relationship between cleric and painter. It was for this devoted and rigorous patron that Brueghel developed some o f his most extraordinary and influential images. The Madonna and Child in a Flower Garland (see fig. 82) is the most remarkable example o f his invention and the truly collaborative relationship that existed between Brueghel and Borromeo. Brueghel reformulated a traditional devotional element, the garland o f flowers with which holy images were honored, according to the instructions o f his patron and rendered it as a trompe l'oeil masterpiece that appears to be suspended from a nail on the wall. The V i r g i n and C h i l d were painted by Van Balen on a separate silver insert; both the Madonna and C h i l d and the honorific garland were concealed by a gold cover that served to enhance the image's devotional nature. The garland painting was sent i n 1607 to Borromeo, who returned it the following year, asking Brueghel 33

TWO

CELEBRATED

PAINTERS

to add a landscape around the V i r g i n and C h i l d . Brueghel added the verdant woody background as well as deer to Van Balen's image and sent it to M i l a n , where it was received with rapture. It was Brueghel's practice to send a painting to the cardinal for his approval, and on more than one occasion the cardinal asked Brueghel to make specific changes. The longevity of Brueghel's relationship with Borromeo not only illustrates his considerable skill as a collaborator but also his effortless ability to fruitfully confer with such a powerful personality, making his relationship with Rubens all the easier to comprehend. 35

For Borromeo, the natural world was evidence o f God's presence, and he prized Brueghel's skillful portrayal o f that world, particularly his technical ability to render all aspects of nature with tremendous specificity. As Borromeo noted in his 1625 treatise on the Ambrosian collection, Musaeum Bibliothecae Ambrosianae: " H e [Brueghel] was wonderful i n his field and knew how to give to those tiny figures so much nobility and so much life that they leave the onlooker uncertain as to the dimensions o f the things which are painted. It also appears that he even wished with his brush to travel over all o f nature, because he painted, as we shall later demonstrate, seas, mountains, grottos, subterranean caves, and all these things, which are separated by immense distances, he confined to a small space, imitating nature itself not only i n color, but also in talent, which is the highest quality o f nature and o f art. A n d i f to someone this praise seems exaggerated, let h i m know that one day the fame o f this man w i l l be so great that this praise which I gave h i m w i l l seem meager." 36

Brueghel's interest i n the representation o f the natural world had been stimulated by the collection o f the H o l y Roman Emperor R u d o l f II, whose court Brueghel had visited in 1604. Whether inspired by the floral still lifes of Roelandt Savery (1576-1639) he saw there, or as a result o f his own study o f flowers in the gardens o f the Brussels court, Brueghel undertook an ambitious and evidently technically challenging series o f paintings for the cardinal that featured flowers from different seasons, all at their peak of perfection. Brueghel wrote to Borromeo on more than one occasion about the magnificent Vase of Flowers with Jewel, Coins and Shells (fig. 13), which was finally sent to h i m in August 1 6 0 6 . Earlier that year, on A p r i l 14, Brueghel told his patron, T have begun and destined for Your Illustrious Lordship a bunch o f flowers that is found to be very beautiful, as much as for their naturalness as also for the beauty and rarity of the various flowers, [of which] a few are unknown and little seen in this area; for that [reason] I have been to Brussels in order to depict from nature some flowers that are not found in Antwerp." In August 1606, he informed Borromeo that the "bunch" w o u l d include over one hundred different varieties, all o f which w o u l d be life-size, adding proudly, "I believe that so rare and varied flowers never have been finished with similar diligence; in winter this painting w i l l make a beautiful sight. A few o f the colors are very close to nature." 37

As Brueghel's reference to the study o f flowers in the gardens of the Brussels court suggests, he was already connected with the archducal court as early as 1606, and other documents from that year show the archdukes exercising their authority on Jan's behalf with the Antwerp magistrates. While Brueghel and Rubens can both be described as court painters, they occupied different positions within the apparatus of artists who served 39

TWO

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FIGURE

J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r , Vase of Flowers with Jewel, Coins and

Shells,

1 6 0 6 . O i l o n c o p p e r , 65 x 45 c m (25V8 x i 7 A i n . ) . M i l a n , 3

P i n a c o t e c a A m b r o s i a n a , i n v . 66 ©Biblioteca A m b r o s i a n a A u t h . F 179-05

FIGURE

J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r , Banquet Archdukes,

Presided

Wedding

over by the

ca. 1612-13. O i l o n

canvas, 84 x 126 c m (33 V& x 49 /8 in.). M a d r i d , M u s e o 5

N a c i o n a l d e l P r a d o , i n v . 1442

A l b e r t a n d Isabella. W i t h o u t r e c e i v i n g an official a p p o i n t m e n t , J a n h e l d the p o s i t i o n o f " p a i n t e r to t h e i r R o y a l H i g h n e s s e s " (constschilder Harer Hoogheden)

b y 1 6 0 8 , a desig

n a t i o n he shared w i t h o t h e r artists, n o t a b l y J o o s de M o m p e r the Y o u n g e r ( 1 5 6 4 - 1 6 3 5 ) a n d H e n d r i c k de C l e r c k .

4 0

H e was thus r e t a i n e d i n the service o f the s o v e r e i g n s , for

w h i c h he r e c e i v e d privileges, s u c h as e x e m p t i o n f r o m excise a n d taxes and f r e e d o m f r o m serving i n A n t w e r p ' s c i v i c g u a r d , a n d c o u l d reside i n A n t w e r p , rather t h a n at the c o u r t i n Brussels. H e r e m a i n e d , h o w e v e r , a m e m b e r o f the G u i l d o f S a i n t L u k e . U n l i k e R u b e n s , w h o r e t u r n e d t o A n t w e r p i n late 1 6 0 8 , B r u e g h e l d i d n o t receive a s t i p e n d , o r c o s t l y d e m o n s t r a t i o n s o f esteem f r o m the archdukes. I n 161 o he e x p l i c i t l y requested the d e s i g n a t i o n " p e i n t r e d o m e s t i q u e " f r o m the a r c h d u k e s , b u t received a l u k e w a r m response w h e n t h e y n o t e d that he was " s o m e t i m e s o c c u p i e d w i t h w o r k i n t h e i r service" (quelques C e r t a i n w o r k s , s u c h as B r u e g h e l ' s large canvas

fois occupe en ouvrages de [leur] service).

d e p i c t i n g the archdukes at a peasant w e d d i n g (fig. 1 4 ) a p p a r e n t l y served p o l i t i c a l ends, p r o m o t i n g A l b e r t a n d Isabella's efforts t o be p e r c e i v e d as s y m p a t h e t i c rulers w i t h attach ments t o the c o u n t r y s i d e .

B r u e g h e l ' s t r e m e n d o u s p r o d u c t i v i t y c o n t i n u e d t h r o u g h the s e c o n d decade o f the century. W i t h the c r e a t i o n o f the m a t u r e paradise landscape subject, B r u e g h e l established his p r e e m i n e n c e as a p a i n t e r a n d interpreter o f the n a t u r a l w o r l d w i t h i n the parameters o f b i b l i c a l subjects (see cat. nos. 4 a n d 2 6 ) . S o m e o f his m o s t c o m p l e x figure w o r k s also date f r o m this p e r i o d , s u c h as the Village Landscape with Self-Portrait

(fig. 15). H e m a y

have been assisted i n the s t u d i o b y his s o n , J a n B r u e g h e l the Y o u n g e r ( 1 6 0 1 - 1 6 7 8 ) , before his departure for Italy i n 1 6 2 2 .

T w o o t h e r students were registered w i t h B r u e g h e l :

D a n i e l Seghers ( 1 5 9 0 - 1 6 6 1 ) a n d an artist k n o w n o n l y as " M i c h i e l . "

TWO

4 4

CELEBRATED

PAINTERS

FIGURE

Jan B r u e g h e l the E l d e r ,

Village

Landscape with Self-Portrait, 1614. O i l o n p a n e l , 52 x 90.5 c m (20 V2 x 35 /8 i n . ) . V i e n n a , 5

Kunsthistorisches

Ipuseum,

i n v . 9102 (the a r t i s t a n d h i s f a m i l y a p p e a r i n the left

FIGURE

foreground)

J o o s de M o m p e r t h e Y o u n g e r (1564-1635) a n d J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r , A Market

and

Bleaching

Fields, c a . 1 6 2 0 - 2 2 . O i l o n canvas, 166 x 194 c m (65V8 x 7 6 V 8 i n . ) . M a d r i d , M u s e o N a c i o n a l del P r a d o , i n v . 1443

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B r u e g h e l ' s q u i c k sureness w i t h the b r u s h a n d adept m a n a g e m e n t o f s i m u l t a n e o u s projects e n s u r e d his status as a l e a d c o l l a b o r a t o r , a n d a substantial p r o p o r t i o n o f his activity i n v o l v e d c o l l a b o r a t i v e w o r k s w i t h m a n y o f A n t w e r p ' s m o s t e m i n e n t specialists. H e c o n t i n u e d t o w o r k w i t h H e n d r i c k v a n B a l e n a n d w i t h artists o f s i m i l a r l y fine tech n i q u e , i n c l u d i n g Frans F r a n c k e n the Y o u n g e r (1581-1642). I n his artistic r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h the landscape p a i n t e r J o o s de M o m p e r the Y o u n g e r , it was B r u e g h e l w h o , i n an u n u s u a l r o l e reversal, s u p p l i e d the figures for D e M o m p e r ' s l a n d s c a p e s . these w o r k s w e r e large-scale p a n o r a m a s , w h i l e others s u c h as A Market

and

Sometimes Bleaching

Fields (fig. 16) r e q u i r e d a closer i n t e g r a t i o n b e t w e e n the s e t t i n g , b y D e M o m p e r , a n d the figures,

w h i c h are e x c e p t i o n a l l y large for B r u e g h e l . D e M o m p e r a n d B r u e g h e l ' s close

acquaintance is c o n f i r m e d b y B r u e g h e l ' s reference t o h i m as " m y f r i e n d M o m p e r " (mio amico Momper)

i n a letter t o E r c o l e B i a n c h i i n M i l a n .

4 6

B r u e g h e l ' s s e n i o r i t y a n d established a b i l i t y to c o o r d i n a t e projects w i t h o t h e r painters surely a c c o u n t for his o v e r s i g h t o f the p r e s t i g i o u s c o m m i s s i o n f r o m the city o f A n t w e r p for the u n p r e c e d e n t e d c o l l e c t i v e e x e c u t i o n b y t w e l v e o f A n t w e r p ' s l e a d i n g painters o f t w o p a i n t i n g s r e p r e s e n t i n g the F i v e Senses, t o d a y k n o w n f r o m t w o large can vases (see figs. 58 a n d 59), as gifts for A r c h d u k e s A l b e r t a n d I s a b e l l a .

P a i n t e d a b o u t the

same t i m e as B r u e g h e l a n d R u b e n s ' s five-part series o n the same t h e m e (see cat. n o . 8), the r i c h l y a p p o i n t e d i n t e r i o r s encapsulate A n t w e r p ' s artistic heritage a n d the m u n i f i c e n t a n d refined sensibilities o f the archdukes a n d t h e i r e n l i g h t e n e d c o u r t . T h e archdukes also c o n f i r m e d t h e i r c o l l e c t i n g interests a n d ties o f taste w i t h t h e i r realm's elite c i t i z e n s i n archetypal representations o f art c o l l e c t i o n s (fig. 17). T h e s e i d e a l assemblages o f famous p a i n t i n g s h o n o r the p r o u d t r a d i t i o n o f p a i n t i n g i n A n t w e r p , and i n the allegories o f the senses often p l a y f u l l y refer t o R u b e n s a n d B r u e g h e l ' s o w n achievements a n d those o f talented c o n t e m p o r a r i e s s u c h as Frans S n y d e r s . I n 1619 B r u e g h e l p u r c h a s e d " D e n B o c k " ( T h e B i l l y G o a t ) , a sizable h o u s e w i t h a g a r d e n o n the west c o r n e r o f A r e n b e r g s t r a a t a n d S i n t M a r t i n s s t r a a t , near the tapissiers pand, a center for the sale o f p a i n t i n g s , tapestries, a n d o t h e r l u x u r y items i n A n t w e r p .

4 8

B r u e g h e l c o n t i n u e d t o d e v e l o p s o m e o f his earliest, m o s t i n n o v a t i v e landscapes, n o t a b l y the s o - c a l l e d paradise landscape (see cat. n o s . 4 , 14, and 26), first d e v e l o p e d i n the late 1590s, a n d u n d e r the influence o f R u b e n s ' s recent i n n o v a t i o n s , t o p u r s u e o t h e r landscape subjects i n a cabinet f o r m a t , n o t a b l y the h u n t subjects f e a t u r i n g D i a n a a n d her n y m p h s (see cat. nos. 10 a n d n ) . C a r d i n a l B o r r o m e o r e m a i n e d a key p a t r o n , a n d B r u e g h e l c o n t i n u e d t o d e v e l o p the g a r l a n d genre. I n a series o f letters between S e p t e m b e r 1621 a n d J u l y 1622, he refers t o a g a r l a n d i n w h i c h the central i m a g e w o u l d be p a i n t e d by R u b e n s .

4 9

Tragically, B r u e g h e l ' s career, a n d his fruitful p a r t n e r s h i p w i t h R u b e n s and

others, was cut short o n January 13, 1625, w h e n he d i e d , a l o n g w i t h three o f his c h i l d r e n , Pieter, E l i s a b e t h , a n d M a r i a , i n an o u t b r e a k o f c h o l e r a that swept t h r o u g h A n t w e r p . H i s s o n Jan, t r a v e l i n g i n Italy, r e t u r n e d t o take o v e r the w o r k s h o p a n d c o n t i n u e d t o w o r k w i t h R u b e n s b u t was never his e q u a l partner. U n l i k e Jan B r u e g h e l the E l d e r , w h o h a d been b o r n i n t o a f a m i l y o f painters, Peter P a u l R u b e n s was to take u p the b r u s h o n l y after i n i t i a l p r e p a r a t i o n for a c i v i c career.

H i s father, J a n R u b e n s , a P r o t e s t a n t l a w y e r a n d a l d e r m a n , fled A n t w e r p w i t h his f a m i l y i n 1568 for C o l o g n e . W h i l e s e r v i n g as secretary t o A n n a o f S a x o n y , princess o f O r a n g e ,

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FIGURE

W i l l e m van Haecht

(1593-1637),

Apelles Painting Campaspe, ca. 1630. O i l o n p a n e l , 1 0 4 . 9 x 148.7 c m (41 A x 58 V2 i n . ) . L

The Hague, R o y a l Picture Gallery M a u r i t s h u i s , i n v . 266

he was f o u n d g u i l t y o f an adulterous affair w i t h his p a t r o n a n d e x p e l l e d t o W e s t p h a l i a . Peter P a u l R u b e n s was b o r n i n S i e g e n i n 1577. T h e f a m i l y r e t u r n e d t o C o l o g n e the f o l l o w i n g year a n d later reverted t o C a t h o l i c i s m . F o l l o w i n g his father's death, R u b e n s ' s m o t h e r , M a r i a P i j p e l i n c k x , r e t u r n e d w i t h her f a m i l y to A n t w e r p i n 1589. A f t e r r e c e i v i n g a r i g o r o u s e d u c a t i o n at the L a t i n s c h o o l o f R o m b o u t V e r d o n c k , a f o u n d a t i o n that w o u l d i n f o r m a n d shape his future artistic endeavors, R u b e n s e n t e r e d the h o u s e h o l d o f M a r g u e r i t e de L a l a i n g d ' A r e n b u r g , comtesse de L i g n e , i n A u d e n a r d e as a page. A f t e r o n l y a short t i m e , R u b e n s left the cloistered courtier's w o r l d t o b e g i n his artistic t r a i n i n g , e n t e r i n g the w o r k s h o p o f a distant r e l a t i o n , the landscape a n d h i s t o r y p a i n t e r T o b i a s V e r h a e c h t ( 1 5 6 1 - 1 6 3 1 ) i n a b o u t 1591 at the age o f f o u r t e e n . R u b e n s s o o n s o u g h t a m o r e s y m p a t h e t i c a n d perhaps i n f l u e n t i a l teacher a n d became a p p r e n t i c e d to the h i s t o r y p a i n t e r A d a m v a n N o o r t ( 1 5 6 2 - 1 6 4 1 ) before finally s e t t l i n g w i t h the i l l u s t r i o u s O t t o v a n V e e n i n a b o u t 1 5 9 4 .

I n V a n V e e n he f o u n d a

teacher o f great e r u d i t i o n w h o h a d h i m s e l f traveled to I t a l y a n d p u r p o r t e d l y w o r k e d i n the s t u d i o o f F e d e r i c o Z u c c a r o ( 1 5 4 0 / 4 2 - 1 6 0 9 ) .

5 2

I n the late 1590s, V a n V e e n was n o t

o n l y p a i n t i n g i m p o r t a n t altarpiece c o m m i s s i o n s , s u c h as The Martyrdom

of Saint

Andrew

(fig. 1 8 ) , w h i c h m e t the r i g o r o u s c r i t e r i a o f o r t h o d o x C a t h o l i c i s m , b u t was i n charge o f d e v i s i n g the celebratory allegories for the t r i u m p h a l entry o f the A r c h d u k e A l b e r t a n d A r c h d u c h e s s Isabella i n t o A n t w e r p . A t this t i m e he was a p p o i n t e d engineer o f the c i t a d e l o f A n t w e r p , an official c o u r t p o s i t i o n a c c o m p a n i e d b y p r i v i l e g e s a n d few r e s t r i c t i o n s .

R u b e n s was already seeking o u t p i c t o r i a l m o d e l s o u t s i d e the example o f his teacher. H e later c o n f i d e d t o a f e l l o w artist that he h a d a s s i d u o u s l y m a d e d r a w i n g s after

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prints by early German masters as a young artist. W i t h his command o f Latin, Greek, and several other languages, and his exposure to Van Veen's own extensive knowledge of antique and Italian Renaissance works, Rubens acquired the foundations of a learned painter, zpictor doctus. H e became a master in the G u i l d o f Saint Luke i n 1598 and remained in Van Veen's studio, perhaps as an assistant, until 1600. Only a few works from this period can be identified, including the refined miniature Portrait of a Man (fig. 19). H e never returned to this format. Although his famous declaration that he was "by natural instinct, better fitted to execute very large works than small curiosities" was made twenty years later, Rubens's earliest paintings, including The Battle of the Amazons (cat. no. 1), suggest that his inclinations were already established. In his col laboration with Brueghel on The Battle of the Amazons, Rubens adopted an intermediate scale for the tangle o f figures, which he infused with the graphic emotion o f a much larger work. Although the experiences of Brueghel's Italian sojourn may have helped prepare Rubens for his own journey, he eschewed a specialty in landscape to establish himself as an outstanding painter o f historical subjects. 54

The following eight years, during which Rubens (fig. 20) traveled and worked in Italy and Spain, were decisive. A r m e d perhaps with a letter o f introduction from Otto van Veen, he left Antwerp in November 1600 for Mantua with an assistant, Deodaat del M o n t e . While his projects for the duke o f Mantua, Vincenzo I Gonzaga, were routine—he mostly painted and copied portraits—Rubens took advantage o f the duke's extraordinary collection and the opportunity to study the work o f leading Renaissance painters such as Andrea Mantegna (1430/31-1506), Titian (1485/90-1576), and G i u l i o Romano (ca. 1499-1546), among others. H e visited Rome, where the rivalry between Caravaggio (1571-1610) and Giovanni Baglione (ca. 1566-1643) had polarized art lovers for six months between July 1601 and January 1602. H e was immediately drawn to the famous works o f antique sculpture that could be seen in the papal collection o f the Belvedere Palace, which contained the Torso Belvedere and the Laocoon, as well as works in the private collections o f the Borghese and Farnese families. H i s drawings after sculpture i n this period are full o f contained energy and eventually formed a repertoire to which he would return when composing paintings in A n t w e r p . 58

FIGURE

O t t o v a n V e e n , The of Saint Andrew,

Martyrdom

1594-99.

O i l o n panel, 4 0 0 x 300 c m (1571/2 x 118 i n . ) . A n t w e r p , Sint-Andrieskerk © IRPA/KIK-Brussels

FIGURE

Peter P a u l R u b e n s , Portrait Man,

of a

ca. 1597. O i l o n c o p p e r ,

21.6 x 14.6 c m (8 /2 x 5 /4 i n . ) . ]

N e w York, Metropolitan M u s e u m o f A r t , T h e Jack a n d B e l l e L i n s k y C o l l e c t i o n , 1982, inv. 1 9 8 2 . 6 0 . 2 4

In addition to Paul Bril and Hans Rottenhammer, other Northern artists had moved to the city. The fluid brushwork and nocturnal effects of the German painter A d a m Elsheimer (1578-1610) were as important to Rubens as the graphic, aggressive compositions o f Caravaggio. Rubens's presence i n the city and success were also moni tored by Archduke Albert, whose agent, Johannes Richardot, kept h i m abreast of the activities o f Flemish artists. In 1602 Albert favored Rubens with the important com mission o f an altarpiece for Santa Croce i n Gerusalemme, which had been his titular church i n Rome (the archduke, who had been elevated to the cardinalate at age eighteen and later became archbishop o f Toledo, renounced his ecclesiastical rank in 1598). Rubens's diplomatic skills were tested as the emissary o f the duke of Mantua to the court o f Philip III i n M a d r i d . Accompanying the train o f gifts, which included almost forty paintings as well as horses from the Gonzaga stud, Rubens arrived in the Spanish capital Valladolid in M a y 1603 and remained there for eight months. After repairing works damaged during the journey, he visited the royal collections, including 61

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F I G U R E 20

Peter Paul Rubens, Self-Portmit with Friends,

ca, 1602. O i l o n

canvas, 77.5 x 101 c m {^o h

39 A in.). C o l o g n e , Wallraf3

R i c h a r t z - M u s e u m , i n v . 248 © Rheinisches Bildarchiv K o l n

the E s c o r i a l , w h e r e P h i l i p I I h a d amassed a c o n s i d e r a b l e g r o u p o f w o r k s b y the m o s t f a m o u s F l e m i s h painters o f the fifteenth a n d sixteenth centuries, i n c l u d i n g The Temptation of Saint Anthony

(fig. 21), a c o l l a b o r a t i o n b e t w e e n A n t w e r p ' s l e a d i n g painters

o f the early sixteenth century, Q u i n t e n M e t s y s (1466-1530) a n d J o a c h i m P a t i n i r .

R u b e n s also executed the i m p o s i n g a n d i n f l u e n t i a l equestrian p o r t r a i t o f the d u k e o f L e r m a (fig. 22), the k i n g ' s m o s t p o w e r f u l m i n i s t e r , the o n l y d o c u m e n t e d c o m m i s s i o n he received w h i l e i n S p a i n .

6 3

I n this p a i n t i n g R u b e n s t r a n s f o r m e d the influences o f T i t i a n

a n d T i n t o r e t t o t o create a h i g h l y d r a m a t i c a n d u n i f i e d e v o c a t i o n o f status a n d p o w e r . T h e t a u t l y a n i m a t e d steed, w h i c h seems t o pause just i n f r o n t o f the v i e w e r , was later u s e d t o great effect o n a m u c h smaller scale b y J a n B r u e g h e l , b o t h i n j o i n t w o r k s w i t h R u b e n s (see cat. nos. 2, 4 , a n d 7) a n d i n the paradise landscapes (see cat. n o . 2 6 ) .

O n c e R u b e n s was back i n M a n t u a , V e n e t i a n a n d R o m a n influences c o n t i n u e d t o shape his w o r k , for e x a m p l e , i n the three canvases h o n o r i n g the H o l y T r i n i t y ( 1 6 0 4 - 0 5 ) commissioned by D u k e V i n c e n z o .

6 5

I n 1 6 0 5 - 0 6 R u b e n s tr a v e le d t o G e n o a , w h e r e he

p a i n t e d m o n u m e n t a l p o r t r a i t s as w e l l as an altarpiece o n the subject o f the C i r c u m c i s i o n ( G e n o a , Jesuit C h u r c h ) . U l t i m a t e l y , R u b e n s g r e w t i r e d o f the constraints o f the G o n z a g a c o u r t a n d asked for l i b e r t y t o r e m a i n i n R o m e . T h e r e , r e s i d i n g w i t h his b r o t h e r P h i l i p i n the V i a de l a C r o c e , he secured o n e o f the f o r e m o s t c o m m i s s i o n s i n the city, the altarpiece f o r the O r a t o r i a n C h u r c h o f S a n t a M a r i a i n V a l l i c e l l a (see cat. n o . 2 9 ) . R u b e n s i n c o r p o r a t e d the r e p u t e d l y m i r a c u l o u s i m a g e o f the V a l l i c e l l a M a d o n n a , a n

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FIGURE

J o a c h i m P a t i n i r (ca. 1 4 8 0 - 1 5 2 4 ) and Q u i n t e n M e t s y s (1466-1530), The Temptation

of Saint

Anthony,

ca. 1522. O i l o n p a n e l , 155 x 173 c m (61 x 68Vs i n . ) . M a d r i d , M u s e o N a c i o n a l d e l P r a d o , i n v . 1615

Andachtsbild,

i n the n e w h i g h altarpiece a n d e n c i r c l i n g it w i t h v e n e r a t i n g angels, a s o l u

t i o n that m e t his p a t r o n s ' k e y d e m a n d a n d h a d r a m i f i c a t i o n s f o r the t r e a t m e n t o f d e c o r a t e d images o f the V i r g i n a n d C h i l d that he, a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y J a n B r u e g h e l , w o u l d pursue i n A n t w e r p .

6 7

T h e news that his m o t h e r was gravely i l l b r o u g h t R u b e n s h o m e t o A n t w e r p i n O c t o b e r 1 6 0 8 , just days after his m o t h e r ' s death. D e s p i t e this p e r s o n a l loss, he r e c o g n i z e d the a u s p i c i o u s i n d i c a t i o n s o f change. W i t h the s i g n i n g o f the T w e l v e Years' T r u c e i m m i n e n t , b r i n g i n g h o s t i l i t i e s w i t h the N o r t h e r n p r o v i n c e s t o a halt w i t h the r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e i r i n d e p e n d e n c e , the future o f the S o u t h e r n N e t h e r l a n d s , a n d beleaguered A n t w e r p i n p a r t i c u l a r , appeared m o r e p r o m i s i n g . A l t h o u g h R u b e n s c o n s i d e r e d r e t u r n i n g t o Italy, as he w r o t e t o his f r i e n d J o h a n n F a b e r i n R o m e : T have n o t yet m a d e u p m y C

m i n d w h e t h e r t o r e m a i n i n m y o w n c o u n t r y o r t o r e t u r n forever t o R o m e , w h e r e I a m i n v i t e d o n the m o s t favorable terms. H e r e also they d o n o t fail t o m a k e every effort t o keep m e , b y every sort o f c o m p l i m e n t . T h e A r c h d u k e a n d the M o s t Serene Infanta have h a d letters w r i t t e n u r g i n g m e t o r e m a i n i n t h e i r service. T h e i r offers are very g e n e r o u s , b u t I have l i t t l e desire t o b e c o m e a c o u r t i e r a g a i n . A n t w e r p a n d its c i t i z e n s w o u l d satisfy

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FIGURE

Peter P a u l R u b e n s , Portrait

Equestrian 1603.

of the Duke ofLerma,

O i l o n canvas, 283 x 2 0 0 c m (111V2 i n . x 78 /4 i n . ) . M a d r i d , 3

M u s e o N a c i o n a l del Prado, inv. 3137 FIGURE

and

ca. 1610. O i l o n p a n e l ,

185 x 205 c m ( 7 2 % x 8o /4 i n . ) . 3

L o n d o n , National Gallery, i n v . 6461 FIGURE

Peter P a u l R u b e n s , Samson Delilah,

me, i f I could say farewell to Rome. The peace, or rather, the truce from many years will without doubt be ratified, and during this period it is believed that our country w i l l flourish again." Rubens decided to stay in Antwerp and set about to attain the status he desired. W i t h i n the first twelve months after his return, he established himself as one o f the city's leading painters. Early in 1609, he was commissioned to paint The Adoration of the Magi (1609; M a d r i d , Museo Nacional del Prado) for the Statenkamer (State Room) o f the Antwerp town hall where the new peace was signed. By the end o f 1609, he had also completed a major altarpiece and gallery paintings for preeminent collectors. The erudite elite o f Antwerp were well acquainted with the figurative language employed by Rubens, who in essence was updating a long-standing Italianate visual style preferred by socially and politically ambitious patrons. Samson and Delilah (fig. 23) w o u l d have appealed to the learned viewer familiar not only with the major monuments o f antiquity but also with the weighty, sculptural forms o f Michelangelo. Rubens was soon able to com mand higher prices than his colleagues, and many students were drawn to his studio. Following his marriage in 1609 to Isabella Brant, Rubens bought a substantial house on the Wapper (see fig. n ) , renovating it according to Italian architectural ideals and adding a large studio extension (completed in 1618) (fig. 24). 70

J a c o b H a r r e w y n ( d i e d after 1701) after J. v a n C r o e s (active late 17th c e n t u r y ) , The Facade and of Rubens's House,

Arch

1684. E n g r a v i n g ,

287 x 434 m m (ulA x iyVs in.). A n t w e r p , Stedelijk Prentenkabinet, inv. 17.877

The archdukes sought to attach Rubens to their service on generous terms. In the patent letter o f September 23, 1609, they recognized his "great experience in the art of painting and other arts" and entreated h i m to become their officier and paintre de nostre

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FIGURE

P e t e r P a u l R u b e n s , The Raising

the Cross, ca. 1 6 1 0 - 1 1 . O i l o n panel, central panel: 4 6 0 x 340 c m (181 x 133 /s i n . ) . A n t w e r p 5

Cathedral ©IRPA/KIK-Brussels

hostel, from which office Rubens w o u l d benefit from the "rights, honors, liberties, exemptions and the customary liberties and from appurtenances, and from other uses of our attendants and servants" (droitz, honneurs, libertez, exemptions et franchises accoustumez et y appertenans, et dont joyssent aultres noz domesticques et serviteurs). In addition to freedom from onerous responsibilities such as participation i n the civic guard, he was also freed from membership i n the painters' guild and could teach his art to whomever he wished (enseigner a ses serviteurs et aultres qu'il voudra sondict art, sans estre assubjecti a ceulx du mestier). Rubens was allowed to work away from the court and reside i n Antwerp and received an annual pension o f 500 livres, a substantial amount comparable to the cost o f a large painting. In addition, he was to be paid for all work executed for the archdukes over and above the pension. Rubens's stature and the great admiration the archdukes held for h i m were further reinforced by the sword and gold chain presented to h i m upon the conclusion o f this agreement, along with a double-sided portrait medal bearing his patrons' likenesses (see cat. nos. 9A and 73

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FIGURE

Peter P a u l R u b e n s a n d Frans S n y d e r s (1579-1657), The Recognition ofPhilopoemen, ca. 1609. O i l o n canvas, 201 x 311 c m (79Vs x 122 A i n . ) . M a d r i d , M u s e o l

N a c i o n a l d e l P r a d o , inv. 1851

9 B ) . These splendid gifts bound the artist to the court still further and constituted the "golden fetters" Rubens's nephew famously referred to in the biography o f his uncle. While it is often emphasized that Rubens reinfused the Antwerp artistic scene with the vitality and expressiveness he had acquired during his Italian sojourn, he seems also to have consciously adopted a Northern sensibility. For example, he used panel supports for many o f the commissions after 1609, a support long favored by Flemish artists. H e continued to devise altarpieces in the triptych format preferred by his patrons, finding creative solutions to the challenges posed by separate fields, uniting, for example, the scene across all three sections in The Raising of the Cross (fig. 2s). U p o n returning home, Rubens also embraced the local artistic practice o f collabo ration. A m o n g the earliest works he produced with a second artist is The Recognition of Philopoemen (fig. 26), with Frans Snyders. This large-scale painting, in which the magnificent still life by Snyders dominates the composition, was the beginning o f a long-term working relationship between the two men that was very different from Rubens's partnership with Brueghel. The enterprise was overseen by Rubens, who painted a preliminary sketch for the composition (fig. 27), including the still life. Snyders was called upon to paint on a substantial scale and with a greater vividness than 74

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FIGURE

P e t e r P a u l R u b e n s , The

Recognition

ca. 1 6 0 9 .

of Philopoemen,

O i l o n p a n e l , 50.5 x 66.5 c m ( 1 9 % x 26 Vs i n . ) . P a r i s , M u s e e d u L o u v r e , inv. M . I . 967 FIGURE

A n t h o n y v a n D y c k , Portrait

Frans Snyders, 1621. O i l o n canvas, 124.5 x 105 c m ( 4 9 x 41V8 i n . ) . N e w York, Frick Collection, i n v . 1909.1.39

in his previous works. Only two years younger than Rubens, he was carefully cultivated as a specialist contributor during the formation o f Rubens's studio in anticipation o f future large-scale commissions. Snyders was an independent master, who brilliantly expressed the complexities o f subjects devised by Rubens, such as magnificent vegetables or game, that the latter was disinterested in ideating. While in some cases, such as the Philopoemen and Prometheus Bound (cat. no. 22), Snyders adhered to a design provided by Rubens, i n other instances Snyders was either brought i n after the composition had been planned or allowed to devise the still-life and animal aspects o f a composition, as in Diana Returning from the Hunt (cat. no. 23). So compatible was Snyder's brushwork with Rubens's, that in their most successful collaboration, The Head of Medusa (cat. no. 2 4 ) , in which snakes emerge from both the gorgon's hair and drops o f blood, it is difficult to determine where the contribution o f one begins and the other ends. Snyders's success as a specialist and the regard with which he was held by his colleagues are evident from the splendid portraits o f Snyders (fig. 28) and his wife by Anthony van Dyck. Rubens and Snyders worked together until Rubens's death in 1640, and Snyders served as one o f the assessors who drew up the inventory o f Rubens's collection. 77

Rubens's creative relationship to the work o f other artists could, on occasion, take a direct and even revisory form. A n avid collector o f sixteenth-century Italian and German drawings, he sometimes changed works by adjusting contours, reworking areas, or affixing new sheets of paper with figures added by his own hand. Although this interference may seem surprising, Rubens's hands-on interaction with non-compliant partners reflects the confidence o f his creative response and approach to problem solving. In an unusual example o f painted intervention, Rubens reworked an existing landscape 78

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FIGURE

P a u l B r i l (ca. 1554-1626), r e t o u c h e d b y Peter Paul R u b e n s , Landscape

with Psyche and

Jupiter,

1610. O i l o n canvas, 93 x ^ c m (36 /s x 50 /8 i n . ) . M a d r i d , 5

M u s e o Nacional del Prado, i n v . 1849

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FIGURE

P e t e r P a u l R u b e n s , \The Saint IIdefonso Altarpiece, 1630-32. O i l o n panel, central panel: 352 x 236 c m (138 Vi x 9 2 % i n . ) . Vienna, Kunsthistorisches M u s e u m , i n v . 678

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by Paul B r i l , Landscape with Psyche and Jupiter (fig. 29). Rubens covered the end o f the cliff at the center with, gray paint, then replaced it with landscape, and added the figures of Psyche and Jupiter. H e also introduced the rainbows and the shimmering effects o f spray from the waterfall on the right. Rubens retained the painting for himself, and it appears i n the inventory o f his collection at his death. While this case doesn't represent a joint effort by Rubens with B r i l , who was still living in Rome, it highlights Rubens's readiness to adjust and perhaps "improve" the work o f another artist, an approach that notably recurs in The Return from War (cat. no. 2). That Rubens made a similarly dramatic revision of the composition established by Brueghel is indicative o f the spirit o f reciprocity in which they worked and the forthrightness that can exist between friends and equals. 79

Collaborative works executed with Jan Brueghel, Frans Snyders, and Osias Beert ( ? i 5 8 o - i 6 2 4 ) were but one aspect of Rubens's tremendous activity in the 1610s and 1620s. In addition to the sacred images that defined devotional imagery in this period, Rubens devised complex iconographic programs in the form o f book illustrations, as well as a program of ceiling paintings for the Jesuit church in Antwerp (1618-21), deco rative cycles, such as the history o f the Roman consul Decius M u s , and the politically charged series o f paintings (1622-25) portraying the life of Marie de' Medici. Jan Wildens (1585/6-1653), recognized as an independent landscape painter o f merit in Rubens's correspondence with Sir Dudley Carleton, contributed calm, broadly executed landscapes to the Decius M u s tapestry series and other history paintings, elements which were compatible with Rubens's own brushwork but always subordinate to his figures. 80

After the death o f Archduke Albert in 1621, Rubens served Isabella as a diplomat and political agent, until her death in 1633. In 1630-32 Rubens painted The Saint Ildefonso Altarpiece (fig. 30) for Isabella in memory o f her husband. The monumental triptych recalls traditional Flemish devotional images in its format and rich, jewel-like palette, while also epitomizing the marvelous painterly brushwork o f Rubens's late career. Rubens's own aversion to war and his frustration with the elusiveness of peace are a recur ring theme in his later career, in works such as The Horrors of War (1637-38; Florence, Palazzo Pitti). In the late 1630s, Rubens oversaw the production o f decorations for the triumphal entry o f Archduke Ferdinand into Antwerp (1635), and the suite o f over one hundred scenes from Ovid's Metamorphoses that were painted by his contemporaries and assistants for Torre de la Parada, the hunting lodge o f Philip I V . Rubens's last years were spent in part at his castle, the Steen, at Elewijt, outside Antwerp. H e died in 1640 after an illness and was eulogized on his epitaph as "the Apelles, not only o f his own age but o f all time." 82

THE

WORKING

FRIENDSHIP

OF RUBENS

AND

BRUEGHEL

Rubens and Brueghel's professional and personal lives were closely intertwined, revealing the extent o f their remarkable friendship. Shortly after Rubens decided to remain in Antwerp, Brueghel introduced h i m into the elite confraternity o f Romanists, o f which he had been a member for the preceding ten years. One o f the most often cited examples of their friendship, however, was Rubens's role as amanuensis for his friend. H e acted 84

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as BrueghePs secretary to Cardinal Borromeo and his agent Bianchi. Starting i n October 1610, over two dozen letters i n Italian from Rubens's hand are known, continuing up to Brueghel's death i n 1625. Although Rubens and Brueghel together painted at least one garland for Borromeo, Rubens facilitated his friend's exchanges w i t h his M i l a n patrons regardless o f the content. H i s briefer, more elegant style is evident when compared with the lively but irregular grammar o f those written by Brueghel himself. The intimacy and warmth o f their personal relationship were conveyed in Rubens's splendid portrait o f Jan Brueghel and his family, painted at about the time they resumed their painterly collaborations i n 1610-12 (frontispiece). The affectionate interactions between Jan, his second wife, Catharina van Marienberghe, and their children Elisabeth, on the left, and Pieter are emphasized by the tight format o f the Netherlandish portrait tradition. The strong lighting, simple background, and sculptural quality o f the figures lend the group a polished immediacy that mitigates the simplicity o f this older portrait type, and underscores the familiarity o f the painter with his subjects. Jan Brueghel's angled posture conveys the relaxed naturalism that seems to have been a revised objec tive o f the painting. Rubens's first wife, Isabella Brant, was present at the baptism o f the Brueghel children, and Rubens himself was godfather to Brueghel's older children, Jan and Paschasia. A t Brueghel's death, he served as one o f the executors o f his friend's w i l l and guardian o f his children. As a mark o f esteem for Brueghel and his family, Rubens painted The Delivery of the Keys to Saint Peter to decorate the tomb o f Jan's father, the celebrated Pieter Bruegel the Elder, i n Notre Dame de la Chapelle, Brussels. 85

Despite their disparate styles, Brueghel and Rubens exercised an artistic relation ship that was based on mutually held principles. F r o m their earliest known collaboration (cat. no. 1), conceptually innovative and technically challenging projects were the norm. Unlike their work with other colleagues, i n which the painting styles are similar, Rubens and Brueghel's joint works are distinguished by the evident separateness o f their hands in a composition. While only one collaboration bears the names o f both artists (see cat. no. 4), and a handful o f others Brueghel's name (see cat. no. 8), their established specialties and styles o f painting serve as the visual equivalent o f a signature. M o s t unusually for Rubens, in certain works, notably The Battle of the Amazons (cat. no. 1) and The Return from War: Mars Disarmed by Venus (cat. no. 2), there exists a visual equality between his work and that o f Brueghel. H i s willingness to allow certain features o f Brueghel's approach, such as a high viewpoint or tilted foreground, as well as the strong and even lighting Jan preferred, to be employed suggests that he perceived these as more truly collaborative ventures than his works with other artists such as Snyders, which were carried out under his direction. In instances where the composition is dominated by Brueghel's contribution, such as i n the allegories o f the senses (see cat. no. 8) and the garlands (fig. 1 and cat. no. 12), it is the type o f painting that determined which o f the two partners took the primary role. There are also instances o f friendly reciprocity; i n The Garden of Eden with the Poll ofMan (cat. no. 4) Rubens shared the role o f animal painter and may even have contributed grapes to the foreground still life in The Return from War. The artists certainly had access to each other's studios, and Brueghel's repeated borrowing o f animal motifs from Rubens i n the years around 1612-13 attests to the close association they enjoyed and which they acknowledged i n paint.

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FIGURE

H e n d r i c k van B a l e n , Jan B r u e g h e l the E l d e r , F r a n s F r a n c k e n the Y o u n g e r (1581-1642), a n d S e b a s t i a n V r a n c x (1573-1647), Blazon for the Rhetorician's Guild 1618. O i l o n p a n e l ,

"De Violieren"

73 x 73 c m (28 /4 x 28 /4 i n . ) . 3

Antwerp, Koninklijk M u s e u m voor S c h o n e K u n s t e n , i n v . 366 ©IRPA/KIK-Brussels

While Rubens and Brueghel's artistic camaraderie was unusual, in the closeknit Antwerp artistic community there were bonds o f affinity and family between many leading painters. It was not uncommon for the principal families to be connected by marriage. M a n y o f these connections were facilitated by the common membership in the G u i l d o f Saint Luke, the body that regulated and protected the work not only o f painters but also o f sculptors and goldsmiths. A related corporate body, the rhetoricians (rederijkers), brought together painters and so-called liefhebbers, amateur art-lovers, in a learned dramatic society. Membership in the guild and other civic corporations provided ample opportunity for feasting and merrymaking. The blazon (blazoen) o f 1618 (fig. 31) presents the ideals o f the group as a delightful rebus, in which the art o f painting receives tfee protection o f its patron, Saint Luke, and the goddess Fortuna. 90

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COLLABORATION

AND THE FLEMISH

WORKSHOP

TRADITION:

BACKGROUND

In their joint works Rubens and Brueghel largely adhered to their respective specialties, although each could, and did, paint other elements on occasion. Their working relation ship on a practical level reflected the Flemish tradition o f specialized contributions to a single painting by artists and their workshops. While, as we shall see, only Patinir and Metsys's partnership offers a possible precedent for the close artistic relationship o f Rubens and Brueghel, the examples o f fifteenth- and sixteenth-century practices outlined below testify to the truly elaborate and complex methods o f coproduction i n which paintings resulted from the participation o f different contributors. U n t i l a comprehen sive study o f collaboration i n the Netherlands is completed, it is only possible here to touch on the main elements o f the rich tradition that informed the collaborative mode employed by Rubens and Brueghel. Collaboration was an essential component o f structured workshop practice and was quite common i n the L o w Countries by the fifteenth century. Important prece dents for the rapid development o f genres and the associated practice o f specialization i n the early sixteenth century are found i n manuscript illumination. As J. G . Alexander has observed, collaboration between different illuminators was "very common, especially in the later M i d d l e A g e s . . . facilitated by the fact that the manuscript was still unbound and could be distributed for different artists to work on at one time." A scribe i n the late fourteenth century recounted how he traversed the streets o f Paris i n the rain carrying a colophon between two studios. A hierarchy o f status and expertise was implicit i n this process. Broadly speaking, under the direction o f a lead illuminator, who might execute the most important miniatures, other artists, perhaps studio assistants, w o u l d paint the remaining miniatures and the borders, which themselves might be separated into decorative and figural components. It became increasingly common for one artist to execute the figurative elements and another the landscape or elements from nature. M o d e l books, transfer, pouncing, and other methods helped artists keep pace with demand. 92

Panel painters' workshops i n the fifteenth century were structured i n a similar fashion. Documentary evidence, such as accounts, contracts, and guild records, suggests that the master painter executed the important aspects o f a commission and assistants in the studio w o u l d carry out the rest. Essential preparatory materials for painting, including drawings o f motifs, enabled successful painters to produce multiple versions of successful or popular compositions. Designs, drawings, and other precious resources o f a workshop might also be passed to the son o f a painter or other family member, who w o u l d continue i n his father's manner. The most famous example o f a jointly produced painting i n the fifteenth century was The Adoration of the Mystic Lamb, also known as the Ghent Altarpece (fig. 32), by Hubert van Eyck (d. 1426) and his brother Jan (ca. 1390/1400-1441). A fragmentary inscription on the outside o f the altarpiece is today largely accepted as evidence that Hubert began the polyptych and that his younger brother Jan finished i t . Workshop resources were protected and passed o n to descen dants i n the seventeenth century as well. Rubens closely guarded his drawings and retained preparatory o i l sketches for future reference. While it is assumed that Jan Brueghel the Elder worked with his son Jan the Younger, before the latter's departure for 96

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FIGURE

H u b e r t v a n E y c k ( d . 1426) a n d J a n v a n E y c k (ca. 1 3 9 0 / 1 4 0 0 1441), The Ghent Altarpiece Adoration of the Mystic Lamb) ( o p e n ) , c o m p l e t e d 1432. O i l o n p a n e l , 350 x 461 c m (i37 /4 x 3

181V2 i n . ) . G h e n t , C a t h e d r a l o f Saint Bavo ©IRPA/KIK-Brussels

Italy in the spring o f 1622, it was at the unexpected death of his father in 1625 that Jan II inherited the contents o f the workshop and its "resources." The younger Brueghel capitalized on the successful compositions and relationships established by his father and produced, for example, numerous versions of the Five Senses and garlands. Documents attest to his continued contact with Rubens, though the latter was pursuing diplomatic ventures and must have largely operated through his studio. Jan the Younger's journal (Dagfboek) for the period 1625-51 provides insight into the market-driven collaborative relationships the younger Brueghel maintained with Abraham Janssens (ca. 1575-1632), Lucas van U d e n (1595-1672), and his brother-in-law, David Teniers the Younger (1610-1690), as well as his careful perpetuation o f his father's inventions. Early in the sixteenth century, according to Karel van Mander, particularly in the burgeoning port city o f Antwerp, the growing phenomenon o f varieties or specialties (verscheydenheden) in which artists worked began to gather momentum. The favorable economic climate i n the city, whose population would double over the next fifty years, is often considered one o f the contributing factors to the change in artistic practice. Opportunities for selling works o f art increased with the establishment o f yearly markets (pandts) and later with the building o f the new bourse with its upper gallery o f shops where artists and painters could sell on the open market. In this dynamic and competitive marketplace, it has been argued, a specialized product was often advantageous. M a n y painters moved to Antwerp from towns i n the southern Flemish regions, setting 100

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up workshops and establishing themselves as specialists. O f the leading sixteenth-century Antwerp painters, Joachim Patinir, the innovative landscape painter, and Quinten Metsys the leading figure painter i n Antwerp, best anticipate the working relationship o f equals enjoyed by Brueghel and Rubens. The Temptation of Saint Anthony (see fig. 21) is the only painting that can be securely attributed to both artists, whereas Brueghel and Rubens, remarkably, produced many paintings together. Like Brueghel and Rubens, Patinir and Metsys worked with other artists, but their elements often dominated those o f the other painter.

UNDERSTANDING

AND

PERCEIVING

COLLABORATION

While Walter Friedlander pessimistically described the increasing tendency toward specialization as the seventeenth century approached as "a kind o f collaboration, which often took excessive forms i n the seventeenth century, especially i n Antwerp" that "implied a dubious division o f labor, a pernicious specialization," there is little evi dence to indicate that specialties were perceived negatively i n the sixteenth and seven teenth centuries. Even the painter Karel van Mander, whose biography o f the eminent artists o f the time relied heavily on information supplied by descendants and others for fifteenth- and early-sixteenth-century artists, and for w h o m the ideals o f the master history painter were at odds with the Northern expertise i n landscape, adopted a matter-of-fact approach. While it is clear that an artist with talent in all areas was con sidered most admirable, Van Mander often simply states that a painter such as Patinir was famous for a particular subject. There is very little documentary material to tell us how collaborative paintings were perceived by early viewers or patrons. It seems likely, particularly in the fifteenth century when verisimilitude was especially valued, that a successfully unified surface was the artistic and aesthetic goal. The intriguing inscription on the Ghent Altarpiece is all the more suggestive, as the question o f which parts o f the polyptych were painted by which artist has remained contentious even as the work was famously celebrated as the work o f the brothers Van Eyck. In an interesting case from Bruges about 1520, an artist's decision to subcontract out a portion o f the work on a large altarpiece gave rise to a law suit when the disgruntled patrons sought to require him to paint the entire composition. Statements by artists themselves concerning their authorship versus others' par ticipation i n a work are very rare and should be understood as exceptional occurrences. Brueghel's attestations that he painted certain pieces while others were the work o f a knecht (assistant) have usually gone unnoticed but allow a rare glimpse into his working arrangements. Rubens's famous declaration to Sir Dudley Carleton that certain works were "by my hand" while others were "retouched by my own hand" amounts to an acknowledgment o f the negative perception o f his workshop process and the desire for wholly autograph works among potential patrons, and reveals his methods for reassuring his important clients. Brueghel, too, often promoted his colleagues— including Rubens—to Cardinal Borromeo. In a letter o f September 1621, Brueghel offered a garland to Borromeo and promoted its magnificence and the contribution o f 105

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his colleague in glowing terms, noting that Rubens had demonstrated his skill with a beautiful painting o f the Madonna in the middle, perhaps aware that the cardinal was among the few patrons in Europe who remained cool to Rubens's talents. Perhaps the best evidence of the status o f the collaborative process generally, as well as the regard for the products o f Rubens and Brueghel's partnership, is the fre quency with which paintings o f joint authorship are identified in contemporary docu ments. Patinir and Metsys's Temptation of Saint Anthony (fig. 21) was attributed in the 1574 inventory of the Escorial to "Master Quinten and Master Joachim," followed by a description o f their respective contributions. Brueghel regularly identified his collaborators in his correspondence with B o r r o m e o . Prometheus Bound (cat. no. 22), clearly described by Rubens i n correspondence with Carleton, is the best-known example in Rubens's oeuvre for which the second artist is named. However, The Head ofMedusa (cat. no. 24) was identified in 1635 as "by Rubens and Subter [Snyders]," and several works that entered prominent aristocratic and royal collections (for example, cat. nos. 6 and 12) were also recognized as collaborative works. The inventories of paint ings at the archducal hunting castle of Tervuren identify works o f joint authorship, as do numerous household inventories, including those o f painters' estates. Three paintings were clearly identified as by two artists in the Specif catie drawn up at Rubens's death, and Frans Snyders owned three such paintings, including, extraordinarily, a "Psyche by Titian and Rubens" (untraced). 110

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WORKS

EXTRAORDINARY

beauty and refinement represents a late phase in the development o f the collaborative artistic process in the L o w Countries, and much about their technical method, such as their general adherence to figure and landscape specialties, reflects the practical and long-held approaches to working pursued by their sixteenth-century predecessors. Brueghel, however, challenged the traditional secondary role o f landscape by trans forming settings, both interior and exterior, with encyclopedic detail, from the lush menagerie o f the paradise landscape to the crumbling shadowy forge. Because every painting Rubens and Brueghel produced was initially unique, their mode o f working varied. It is often difficult today to discern w i t h certainty how a particular work was painted. Both men shared forceful and energetic personalities, evident in the quickness and surety o f their brushwork. The joyful camaraderie o f their collaborative ventures is evident from the multiple levels o f meaning in their allegories, where even politics and eroticism could coexist (see cat. no. 10). Equally evident is the delight both artists took in illusionism and new ways o f viewing. The juxtaposition o f armor painted by their two hands in The Return from War: Mars Disarmed by Venus (cat. no. 2) amounts to friendly competition, whereas Brueghel's transfixingly descriptive fruit and flower garlands, whether supported by Rubens's weighty putti (see fig. 1) or inhabited by Brueghel's lively birds and animals (see cat. no. 12), compete with the ostensible 115

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primacy o f Rubens's central painted icon, creating a highly intense viewing experience and aid to devotion. It is only with a clearer understanding o f Brueghel's achievement as an equal and even as a lead collaborator that the significance o f their mutual exchange becomes apparent. Ultimately, Rubens and Brueghel's joint efforts were distinguished by the cachet that their high status brought to each piece, as well as their close association with their royal patrons, the impact o f their shared political and spiritual beliefs on the invention o f new subjects, and, not least, their o w n profound friendship.

1968; H a i r s 1957; H a i r s 1977, p p . 1 3 - 3 3 ; a n d t h e

NOTES

a d d i t i o n a l references c i t e d b e l o w i n c o n j u n c t i o n 1. W h i l e s o m e i n s i g h t i n t o J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r ' s w o r k s h o p c a n be g l e a n e d f r o m t h e d o c u m e n t s p u b l i s h e d i n D e n u c e 1934, a s t u d y o f h i s s t u d i o a r r a n g e m e n t s is n e e d e d ; see t h e

observations

remains the m o s t t h o r o u g h

o f Rubens's (pp. 93-130) and Brueghel's

consideration

Flanders: A R e v i e w o f the Evidence," i n B o s t o n -

( p p . 1 4 4 - 5 9 ) w o r k f o r t h e a r c h d u k e s , b u t see also

Toledo 1993-94, pp. 159-70; and A . Balis,

C h r i s t o p h e r B r o w n , " R u b e n s a n d the A r c h d u k e s "

'"Fatto da u n m i o discepolo': Rubens's Studio

(pp. 121-28), a n d Barbara W e l z e l , " A r m o r y

P r a c t i c e s R e v i e w e d , " i n T o k y o 1994, p p . 1 3 3 - 4 1 .

a n d A r c h d u c a l Image: T h e Sense o f T o u c h f r o m

d e n beyden vortrefHichen M a h l e r n Peter P a u l

t h e F i v e Senses o f J a n B r u e g h e l a n d P e t e r P a u l R u b e n s " (pp. 9 9 - 1 0 6 ) , i n Brussels 1 9 9 8 - 9 9 . 7. F o r t h e g o v e r n m e n t a n d r e l i g i o u s p o l i c i e s o f t h e

Rybent u n d Briigeln viel herrlich Gemahlde

a r c h d u k e s , see P a s t u r e 1925 a n d E l i a s 1931. F o r

u n d Kunststiick. R y b e n t mahlet meistlich grosse

A n t w e r p ' s c i r c u m s t a n c e s after 1585, see T h i j s 1 9 9 0 .

S t u c k u n d alles i n r e c h t e r n a t i i r l i c h e r g r o s s e , aber iiberaufi k i i n s t l i c h s c h o n , u n d nach d e m L e b e n . S o l i alle W o c h e n a u f f 100 G u l d e n a r b e i t e n k o n n e n , m a g l e i c h t e i n S t u c k s e y n er verkauffet s o l c h e s u m b 2, 3, 4 , a u c h 5 0 0 R e i c h s g u l d e n . B r u g e l aber mahlet kleine T a f n e i n m i t L a n d schafften, a b e r alles so s u b t i l u n d k i i n s t l i c h , daft mans m i t B e r w u n d e r u n g ansehen m u f i " : N e u m a y r 1620, p . 261. 3. T h e j o i n t o e u v r e o f R u b e n s a n d B r u e g h e l has b e e n i n v e s t i g a t e d i n M e r r i a m 1994 a n d

8. T h e m o s t t h o r o u g h t r e a t m e n t o f J a n B r u e g h e l ' s career is E r t z 1979; aspects o f t h i s s t u d y h a v e been revised a n d u p d a t e d b y the same a u t h o r i n B r u s s e l s 1980, E s s e n - V i e n n a 1 9 9 7 - 9 8 , a n d A n t w e r p 1998. See also C r i v e l l i 1868, W i n n e r 1961, W i n n e r 1972, a n d B e d o n i 1983. 9. O n t h e o u t p u t o f P i e t e r B r u e g h e l t h e Y o u n g e r ' s i n d u s t r i o u s w o r k s h o p , see M a a s t r i c h t - B r u s s e l s 2001-02. 10. " J a n v a n z y n G r o o t e - m o e d e r d e W e d u w e v a n

Van M u l d e r s 2000, Tamis 2001-02, V a n M u l d e r s

Pieter van Aelst hier van water-verwe hebbende

2 0 0 4 , V a n M u l d e r s 2005, and H o n i g 2005,

g h e l e e r t , q u a m e n leer d e v a n O l y - v e r w e b y e e n e n

a n d the e x h i b i t i o n K a s s e l - F r a n k f u r t 2 0 0 4 ; it

P i e t e r g o e - k i n d t , d a e r v e e l fraey d i n g h e n w a r e n

w i l l be t h e s u b j e c t o f a f o r t h c o m i n g v o l u m e

i n h u y s " (Jan learned to w o r k i n w a t e r c o l o r f r o m

i n the C o r p u s R u b e n i a n u m L u d w i g B u r c h a r d t

his g r a n d m o t h e r , the w i d o w o f Pieter [ C o e c k e ]

series b y C h r i s t i n e V a n M u l d e r s .

van Aelst, and became a student o f o i l painting

4. F o r collaboration generally i n seventeenthc e n t u r y F l e m i s h p a i n t i n g , see V a n d e r S t i g h e l e n 1990; Peter C . S u t t o n , " P a i n t i n g i n the A g e o f Rubens: Collaboration," in Boston-Toledo 1 9 9 3 - 9 4 , p p . 3 5 - 3 7 ; H o n i g 1995; a n d V l i e g h e 1998, p p . 7 - 8 . S o m e o f t h e c h i e f s p e c i a l i s t s t u d i e s include V a n Puyvelde 1949; M i i l l e r H o f s t e d e

PAINTERS

6. See cat. n o s . 7, 8, 9 A a n d 9 B . D e M a e y e r 1955

"Rubens's Atelier and H i s t o r y Painting i n

b e r i i h m b t e M a h l e r . H i e r a u f f s a h e n sie a u c h b e n

TWO CELEBRATED

5. C r i v e l l i 1868, p . 241 (letter o f D e c e m b e r 9, 1616).

i n H o n i g 2 0 0 5 . F o r R u b e n s , see H a n s V l i e g h e ,

2. " P e t e r P a u l R y b e n t u n d B r u g e l z w e e n e

w i t h specific p a r t n e r s h i p s .

w i t h one Pieter G o e - k i n d t , i n w h o s e house there were m a n y h a n d s o m e w o r k s ) : V a n M a n d e r 1604, f o l . 2 3 4 r ; V a n M a n d e r / M i e d e m a 1 9 9 4 - 9 9 , v o l . 1, p. 195 ( t r a n s l a t i o n :

author).

11. " H i j r e y s d e v o o r t nae C o l e n , e n s o o i n I t a l i e n . . . " (he t h e n t r a v e l e d t o C o l o g n e a n d so o n t o I t a l y ) :

V a n M a n d e r 1 6 0 4 , f o l . 234r; V a n M a n d e r /

F o r B r u e g h e l ' s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f the subject t o

M i e d e m a 1 9 9 4 - 9 9 , v o l . 1, p . r95-

s u i t B o r r o m e o , see J o n e s 1993, P P - 7 8 - 7 9 .

12. W i n n e r 1961, p . 1 9 0 ; a n d W i n n e r 1972, figs. 3 a n d

2 4 . B r u e g h e l was i n M i l a n b y M a y 30, 1596

4 . B r u e g h e l ' s s h o r t stay i n N a p l e s is d i s c u s s e d b y

( V a n d e n B r a n d e n 1883, p . 445)- H i s letter t o

B e d o n i 1983, p p . 1 9 - 2 1 .

B o r r o m e o o f O c t o b e r 10, 1596, c o n f i r m s he

13. B r u e g h e l ' s p r e s e n c e i n R o m e b y 1592 is s u p p o r t e d b y the i n s c r i p t i o n o n the v e r s o o f a d r a w i n g o f V e n u s a n d p u t t i b y the A n t w e r p artist L o d e w i j k T o e p u t ( S t o c k h o l m , N a t i o n a l M u s e u m , inv. 1347/1863): " H a n s b r u e g h e l i n R o o m a 1592," i n d i c a t i n g t h a t B r u e g h e l a c q u i r e d the d r a w i n g from Toeput, w h o then resided i n Treviso;

had arrived i n A n t w e r p by that time (Crivelli 1868, p. 7). 25. R o m b o u t s a n d V a n L e r i u s 1 8 6 4 - 7 6 , p p . 397, 4 1 6 , 418. 26. F o r the h i s t o r y a n d m e m b e r s h i p o f the A n t w e r p c o n f r a t e r n i t y o f R o m a n i s t s , see D i l i s 1923.

see W i n n e r 1961, p p . 1 9 0 - 9 1 , i l l u s t r a t i n g the

27. H e l d (1983, p . 2 4 ) p r o p o s e d t h a t B r u e g h e l c o u l d

i n s c r i p t i o n , a n d R u b y 1999, p p . 4 4 , 145 - 3 4 o .

have m e t R u b e n s w h e n he t r a v e l e d t h r o u g h

C o l o g n e , w h e r e Jan's sister M a r i a l i v e d , o n h i s

14. R u b y 1999, p p . 4 4 - 45.

w a y t o Italy. H o w e v e r , t h i s s c e n a r i o seems

15. F o r the i n f l u e n c e o f J a c o p o B a s s a n o o n B r u e g h e l ' s

r e m o t e , as R u b e n s , w h o w o u l d have b e e n a b o u t

e m e r g i n g p a r a d i s e l a n d s c a p e g e n r e , see K o l b

t w e l v e i n 1589, w a s n o t yet p a r t o f an a r t i s t i c

2 0 0 5 . F o r B r u e g h e l ' s awareness o f Z u c c h i ' s i n n o

community.

v a t i o n s , see H o n i g 2 0 0 5 .

28. " . . . e n is i n seer g r o o t a c h t e n g h e c o m e n m e t te

16. K l a u s E r t z , " J e a n B r u e g h e l P A i n e , " i n B r u s s e l s

17. B r u e g h e l ' s c o r r e s p o n d e n c e w i t h B o r r o m e o is p u b l i s h e d i n C r i v e l l i 1868 a n d V a e s 1 9 2 6 - 2 7 . F o r Brueghel's contact w i t h B o r r o m e o i n R o m e a n d i n M i l a n , see, r e s p e c t i v e l y , G a b r i e l i 1 9 3 3 - 3 4 , p p . 5 9 - 6 0 ; a n d B e d o n i 1983, p p . 8 9 - 1 0 7 . 18. ' T o s o n o p e r t u t t i i n H o l l a n d i a e F i a n d r o , p e r veder la pittura d i nostra: m a veramente n o n t r o v e c o s a n i s u n o a p p r e s o q u e l l o d T t a l i a et d ' q u e l D o d e s c o : p e r q u e s t o p r e g o v s . 111.mo de t e n i r le c o s a sua i n g r a n d g r a n d ' e' s t i m o . " (letter o f O c t o b e r 10, 1596): C r i v e l l i 1868, p . 7. 19. F o r the Six Small Landscapes, Angels

m a k e n L a n d s c h a p k e n s en seer c l c e n b e e l d e k c n s daer h y een u y t n e m e n d e fraey h a n d e l i n g h v a n

1980, p . 166.

as w e l l as A Glory of

b y R o t t e n h a m m e r a n d B r u e g h e l , see J o n e s

1993, p p . 2 3 4 - 3 5 , n o . 30, a n d p p . 2 6 0 - 6 1 , n o . 1 0 0 , respectively. F o r B o r r o m e o ' s e a r l y c o n t a c t w i t h B r u e g h e l a n d R o t t e n h a m m e r , see B e d o n i 1983, pp. 38-49. 2 0 . See, f o r e x a m p l e , Cascades ofTivoli

heeft" ( . . . a n d is h e l d i n very g r e a t esteem b y m a k i n g s m a l l landscapes a n d t i n y figures i n w h i c h he s h o w s an e x c e l l e n t l y fine m a n n e r o f w o r k i n g ) : V a n M a n d e r / M i e d e m a 1 9 9 4 - 9 9 , v o l . 1, p . 195. 29. "een s t u c k v a n O c t a v i e n d e B r c u g e l e n d c v a n R u b e n s eerst g e s c h i l d e r t , m e t b u i t e n l y s t , w e s e n d e d e n b e r c h P a r n a s s u s , get. N o . 362" (a p i e c e b y O c t a v i [ O t t o van Veen] and B r c u g e l and by R u b e n s i n his e a r l y style, f r a m e d , d e p i c t i n g M o u n t Parnassus) i n the i n v e n t o r y o f H e r m a n de N e y t ( O c t o b e r 15-21, 1 6 4 2 ) ; see D e n u c e 1932, p. 1 0 0 . See also cat. n o . 1. 30. B r u e g h e l m a r r i e d C a t h a r i n a i n A p r i l 1605 ( V a n d e n B r a n d e n 1883, p p . 4 4 5 - 4 6 ) . 31. V a n d e n B r a n d e n 1883, p . 4 4 6 . F o r the d o c u m e n t , see D e n u c e 1934, p p . 2 0 - 2 1 , d o c . n . 32. F o r V a n B a l e n ' s career, see V a n M a n d e r 1 6 0 4 ,

(pen and

w a t e r c o l o r o n paper, 23.7 x 2 8 . 4 c m [ 9 V 4 x 11V8 i n . ] ; L e i d e n , R i j k s u n i v e r s i t e i t , i n v . 1 2 4 0 ) ; B r u s s e l s - R o m e 1995, p p . 1 2 7 - 2 8 , cat. n o . 47. 21. T h e d r a w i n g p r o b a b l y dates f r o m the e n d o f B r u e g h e l ' s R o m a n stay; see W i n n e r 1972, p . 122; a n d B r u s s e l s - R o m e 1995, p . 128, cat. n o . 4 8 . 22. See n o t e 13 a b o v e . 23. F o r the p r i n t " S o l i t u d o , sive v i t a e p a t r u m e r e m i c o l a r u m " b y J a n a n d R a p h a e l S a d e l e r after d r a w i n g s b y M a r t e n de V o s , see J o n e s 1993, p p . 2 1 6 - 1 7 , 234; a n d E r t z 1979, P- 562, n o . 30.

f o l . 295V; V a n M a n d e r / M i e d e m a 1 9 9 4 - 9 9 , v o l . 1, p. 4 4 1 ; J o s t 1963; a n d W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 . 33. B r u e g h e l ' s c o r r e s p o n d e n c e was p u b l i s h e d b y C r i v e l l i 1868. 34. See the i m p o r t a n t a r t i c l e b y F r e c d b e r g (1981), as w e l l as J o n e s 1993, p p . 8 4 - 8 7 , a n d U . K l c i n m a n n , "Blumen, Krantze und Girlanden: Z u r Enstehung u n d G e s t a l t u n g eines A n t w e r p e n e r B i l d t y p u s , " i n E s s e n - V i e n n a 1 9 9 7 - 9 8 , p p . 5 4 - 6 6 . See also cat. n o s . 12 a n d 19. 35. A scene o f Hell,

sent i n 1608, was a l t e r e d p e r

B o r r o m e o ' s s p e c i f i c a t i o n s ; see J o n e s 1993, p . 235.

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36. " F u i t i n s u o g e n e r e m i r i s i c u s , p o t u i t q u e c o r p u s -

4 3 . F o r the career o f J a n B r u e g h e l the Y o u n g e r ,

c u l i s i l l i s i n s e r e r e tarn g e n e r o s o s , v i u i d o s q u e

see M . - L . H a i r s , " J a n B r u e g h e l de J o n g e r e , "

s p i r i t u s , v t i n c e r t u m r e l i n q u e r e v i d e a t u r i n spec-

i n B r u s s e l s 1980, p p . 2 2 6 - 3 0 , 2 3 8 - 4 3 ; a n d E r t z

t a n t i u m a n i m i s , altane, a n h u m i l i d i m e n s i o n e

1984.

incluserit t e n u u i u m earum

figurarum

modum.

V i d e t u r p e n i c i l l o suo per cuncta nature voluisse peruagari. P i n x i t e n i m , sicuti postea

demostra-

b i m u s , M a r i a , M o n t e s , A n t r a , specusque subteran e o s , et o m n i a ista spacys d i s i e c t a i m m a n i b u s

4 4 . S e g h e r s was r e g i s t e r e d i n t h e g u i l d o f S a i n t L u k e as a leerjongen

( a p p r e n t i c e ) i n 1611; see R o m b o u t s

a n d V a n L e r i u s 1 8 6 4 - 7 6 , v o l . 1, p p . 477, 4 8 0 , 4 8 3 . 45. T h e i r a r t i s t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p is d o c u m e n t e d i n

i n augustum coegit, naturam ipsam imitatus

1612-13, w h e n B r u e g h e l s a i d he h a d p a i n t e d the

n o n c o l o r i b u s t a n t u m , sed etiam facilitate, q u a

figures

s i c u t i n a t u r e , i t a e t i a m artis s u m m u m d e c u s

f l o r i n s each (fatto l i figuri i n 6 q u a d r i d e l

est. Q u a s i fortafie c u i p i a m n i m i s effusa l a u d a t i o

M o m p e r a 25 fiorina p e r u n ) as w e l l as t h e

v i d e t u r , sciat, t a n t a m o l i m fore f a m a m ,

f o r a F o u r Seasons series at 4 0 florins a p a r t

nomenque

i n six o f D e M o m p e r ' s p a i n t i n g s at 25 figures

v i r i , v t p a r c e , ac restricte l a u d a t u s v i d e r i p o s s i t . "

( L i q u a t r o s t a g i o n i f d e l M o m p e r , et l ' a l t r o fatto

T h e E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n is f r o m Q u i n t (1986,

i n C a s a , l i figuri fatto d i m i o m a n e a 4 0

p . 236), a n d the L a t i n is f r o m the f a c s i m i l e r e p r o

p e r p e z z o ) ; see C r i v e l l i 1868, p . 2 0 8 ; a n d E r t z

d u c e d b y the s a m e a u t h o r (p. 198).

1979, p . 4 7 0 .

fiorina

4 6 . C r i v e l l i 1868, p . 295 (letter o f M a y 7, 1622,

37. J o n e s 1993, p p . 2 3 2 - 3 3 , n o . 26. 38. " . . . h o p r i n c i p i a t a et d e s t i n a t o a V S 111.mo u n a M a s s a de v a r i o f i o r i g l i q u a l i r e u c e r a n i m o l t o bello: tanta per la naturalleza c o m e anco delle b e l l e z z a et r a r i t a de v a r i o fiori i n q u e s t a p a r t o a l c u n i i n c o n i t a et n o n p e i u u i s t o : p e r q u e l l a i o s o n stata a B r u s s e l l a p e r r i t r a r e a l c u n i fiori d e l

w r i t t e n by R u b e n s o n Brueghel's behalf). 47. D i a z P a d r o n 1995, v o l . 1, p p . 2 3 6 - 4 5 , nos. 1 4 0 3 - 0 4 . 4 8 . V a n d e n B r a n d e n 1883, p . 451. 4 9 . A l t h o u g h i t has l o n g b e e n b e l i e v e d t h a t the gar

n a t u r a l , che n o n t r o u e i n A n v e r s a " (letter o f

l a n d B r u e g h e l refers t o is t o d a y i n the M u s e o

A p r i l 14, 1 6 0 6 ) : C r i v e l l i 1868, p . 63; a n d " C r e d o

N a c i o n a l del Prado, according to A r i a n e van

q u e n o n sia m a i f a t t o t a n t i r a r o et v a r i o finita

fiori,

c o n s i m l a d i l i g e n s a , d ' i n u e r n a farra u n b e l

u e d e r e , a l c u n i c o l o r i a r r i u e n o apressa p o c a i l n a t u r a l " (letter o f A u g u s t 25, 1 6 0 6 ) : C r i v e l l i 1868, p p . 7 4 - 7 5 . T h e E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n is f r o m J o n e s 1993, p . 82, w h o n o t e s the letter was w r i t t e n

S u c h t e l e n i t is m o r e l i k e l y t o be the Madonna Child

in a Garland

and

of Flowers i n the M u s e e d u

L o u v r e ; see cat. n o . 12. 50. F o r R u b e n s ' s l i f e , see the m o n o g r a p h s b y W h i t e (1987) a n d V o n S i m s o n (1996), a n d the r e c e n t treatments by U . H e i n e n ( " H e r r Pietro Paulo c

in June. 39. F o r e x a m p l e , see D u v i v i e r i 8 6 0 , p . 331, d o c . i v ( A p r i l 5, 1 6 0 6 ) , a n d p . 332, d o c . v i ( A p r i l 10, 1 6 0 6 ) . 4 0 . D e M a e y e r ' s (1955) t h o r o u g h c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f the different c a t e g o r i e s o f artists w o r k i n g at the a r c h d u c a l c o u r t has r e c e n t l y b e e n g i v e n t h o u g h t ful reconsideration by Sabine van Sprang, " L e s p e i n t r e s a l a c o u r d A l b e r t et I s a b e l l e : u n e t e n t a t i v e de c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , " i n V l i e g h e a n d V a n der Stighelen 2005, pp. 3 7 - 4 6 . 41. F o r t h e d o c u m e n t , see D u v i v i e r i 8 6 0 , d o c . I I , p . 4 4 0 ; B r u e g h e l ' s r e q u e s t is d i s c u s s e d i n D e M a e y e r (1955, p . 148) a n d b y V a n S p r a n g ( n o t e 4 0 a b o v e , p . 41). 4 2 . F o r a reassessment o f B r u e g h e l ' s Peasant W e d d i n g s a n d the p o l i t i c a l a g e n d a o f the a r c h d u k e s , see C o r d u l a S c h u m a n n , " C o u r t , C i t y a n d C o u n t r y s i d e : J a n B r u e g h e l ' s Peasant W e d d i n g s as I m a g e s o f S o c i a l U n i t y u n d e r A r c h d u c a l Sovereignty," i n Brussels 1 9 9 8 - 9 9 , pp. 151-60.

T W O

C E L E B R A T E D

PAINTERS

Rubens, Ritter' A n m e r k u n g zur Biographie," i n B r a u n s c h w e i g 2 0 0 4 , pp. 13-27) and B a u d o u i n (2005). 51. F o r R u b e n s ' s e a r l y teachers, see N o r r i s 1 9 4 0 , p p . 1 8 9 - 9 0 ; a n d H e l d 1983. 52. F o r the life a n d career o f O t t o v a n V e e n , see M i i l l e r H o f s t e d e 1957 a n d V l i e g h e 1998, pp. 18-19. 53. F o r V a n V e e n ' s service t o the a r c h d u c a l c o u r t , see D e M a e y e r 1955, p p . 6 2 - 8 2 . V a n S p r a n g ( n o t e 4 0 a b o v e , p . 37) discusses the d u t i e s a n d p r i v i leges a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the p o s i t i o n o f

"ingenieur?

54. E a r l y G e r m a n p r i n t s w e r e c o l l e c t e d a n d d i s c u s s e d a m o n g a l e a r n e d c i r c l e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the mapmaker A b r a h a m Ortelius. Rubens's recollec t i o n o f the i m p o r t a n c e o f d r a w i n g after G e r m a n artists i n h i s y o u t h was r e c o u n t e d b y J o a c h i m v o n S a n d r a r t ( 1 6 0 6 - 1 6 8 8 ) ; see P e l t z e r 1925, p. 156.

p p . 2 0 9 - 2 5 1 ; I n c i s a d c l l a R o c c h c t t a 1963,

55. "Peeter R u b b e n s , v r y m e e s t e r , s c i l d e r " (Peeter

pp. 161-83;

R u b b e n s , free master, p a i n t e r ) : R o m b o u t s a n d V a n L e r i u s 1 8 6 4 - 7 6 , p. 4 0 1 .

d H e l d 1980, p p . 5 3 7 - 4 5 .

67. See R u b e n s ' s letter t o A n n i b a l c C h i e p p i o ( F e b r u a r y 2, 1608), w h e r e he says " m y p a i n t i n g

56. F o r the p o r t r a i t , w h i c h is e n g r a v e d o n the v e r s o , P E T R V S P A V L V S R V B E N S / P I , see L i e d t k e 1984,

for the h i g h altar o f the C h i c s a N u o v a t u r n e d

v o l . 1, p p . 1 8 7 - 9 1 .

o u t v e r y w e l l , t o the e x t r e m e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f the fathers a n d also ( w h i c h rarely h a p p e n s ) t o a l l

57. " . . . je confesse d'estre p a r u n i n s t i n c t n a t u r e l

the o t h e r s w h o first s a w it ( . . . m i o q u a d r o per

p l u s p r o p r e a faire des o u v r a g e s b i e n g r a n d e s q u e

PAltar maggiore della chicsa nova, cssendo

des petites c u r i o s i t e z , " (letter o f S e p t e m b e r 13, 1621,

riuscito buonissimo, i con summa

to W i l l i a m T r u m b u l l ) : Rooses and Ruelens

1 8 8 7 - 1 9 0 9 , v o l . 2, p . 286 (letter n o . 225); trans

di tutti gli altri ch'el videro p r i m a ) : Rooses and R u e l e n s 1 8 8 7 - 1 9 0 9 , v o l . 1, p. 4 0 3 (letter n o . 108); t r a n s l a t e d i n M a g u r n 1955, p p . 4 2 - 4 3 . R u b e n s

58. F o r R u b e n s ' s career i n Italy, see Jaffe 1977 a n d

goes o n t o n o t e the u n f o r t u n a t e l i g h t t h a t

L o n d o n 2005.

r e q u i r e d h i m t o r e p a i n t the w o r k o n a n o n -

59. V l i e g h e ( n o t e 1 a b o v e ) , p p . 1 5 9 - 6 0 .

reflective s u p p o r t . S e c cat. n o s . 12 a n d 19.

F o r R u b e n s ' s d r a w i n g s after a n t i q u e s c u l p t u r e , see V a n d e r M e u l e n 1994, a n d the i n s i g h t f u l

68. " M a p e r v e n i r e alle cose m i e s a p i a V S . c h i o n o n saprei i n adesso che r e s o l u t i o n e p i g l i a r m i che fer-

observations i n L o n d o n 2005, pp. 8 9 - 9 5 . 61. Saint Helena

soddisfattione

di q u e l l i P a d r i i [ c i o che rare v o l t e accade]

l a t e d i n M a g u r n 1955, p . 4 6 .

60.

Discovering

C a t h e d r a l ) , The Mocking

m a r m i n e l l a P a t r i a o d i r i t o r n a r e per s e m p r e i n R o m a donde vengo sollecitato con buonissimc

the True Cross ( G r a s s e , of Christ

C a t h e d r a l ) , a n d The Raising

c o n d i t i o n i ; q u i a n c o r a n o n m a n c a n o d i far o g n i

(Grasse,

sforzo a r i t e n e r m i c o n o g n i sorta d i carezze.

of the Cross k n o w n

today from a c o p y (Grasse, Cathedral). A l b e r t

L ' A r c i d u c a , e L T n f a n t a serenissima m i h a n n o fatto

r e s i g n e d h i s c a r d i n a l ' s hat w h e n he m a r r i e d

s c r i v e r e f a c e n d o i n s t a n z a d i r i m a n e r e al l o r o servizio c o n grandissime offcrte, benche h o poca

Isabella C l a r a E u g e n i a .

v o l o n t a d i r i f a r m i c o r t e g g i a n o . A n v e r s a m i bastara

62. I t e n t e r e d the r o y a l c o l l e c t i o n s b y 1574; see B a l i s

c o l l i s u o i c i t t a d i n i , q u a n d o potessi d i r a D i o a

et a l . 1989a, p p . 7 8 - 8 1 .

R o m a . L a pace o p e r d i r m e g l i o t r e g u a p e r m o l t i a n n i si fa d i s i c u r o m e d i a n t e la q u a l e si c r e d c che

63. W h e t h e r the sitter c o m m i s s i o n e d an e q u e s t r i a n p o r t r a i t f r o m R u b e n s o r w h e t h e r the artist

q u e s t i paesi r i f i o r i r a n n o et si crede che per la

i n v e n t e d it i n r e s p o n s e t o a g e n e r a l r e q u e s t is

s e t t i m a n a p r o s s i m a si p u b l i c a r a per t u t t e q u c s t e

u n c l e a r ; see V e r g a r a 1999, p p . n - 1 6 ; a n d M a d r i d

p r o v i n c e . " : R o o s e s a n d R u e l e n s 1 8 8 7 - 1 9 0 9 , v o l . 6,

2001-02.

p p . 3 2 3 - 2 4 ; t r a n s l a t e d i n M a g u r n 1955, p p . 5 2 - 5 3 .

6 4 . W h i l e the earliest h i s t o r i e s o f t w o d r a w i n g s b y R u b e n s c o n n e c t e d w i t h the e q u e s t r i a n o f L e r m a (Equestrian

Portrait

portrait

of a Knight

pen and b r o w n ink w i t h b r o w n wash over

Armor,

b l a c k c h a l k h e i g h t e n e d w i t h w h i t e , 67.3 x 41 c m [26V2

x i 6 / s i n . ] ; M u n i c h , Staatliche G r a p h i s c h e 1

S a m m l u n g , 1983.84, a n d Equestrian a Knight

in Armor,

Portrait

p e n a n d i n k w i t h w a s h , 29 x

21.5 c m [ i i / s x 8 V 2 i n . ] ; P a r i s , M u s e e d u L o u v r e , 3

inv. 20.185) are n o t k n o w n , i f R u b e n s r e t a i n e d t h e m , the sheets m i g h t have b e e n accessible t o B r u e g h e l i n the studio.. T h e d r a w i n g s a n d t h e i r h i s t o r i e s are d i s c u s s e d b y T h e a V i g n a u - W i l b e r g , " R u b e n s ' S t u d i e s f o r the E q u e s t r i a n P o r t r a i t o f the D u k e o f L e r m a , " i n M a d r i d 2 0 0 1 - 0 2 , pp. 21-29, 54-5965. F o r R u b e n s i n M a n t u a , see M a n t u a - M i l a n 1977. 66. F o r the b r o t h e r s ' R o m a n r e s i d e n c e , see R o o s e s a n d R u e l e n s 1 8 8 7 - 1 9 0 9 , v o l . 1, p. 3 0 9 . F o r the a l t a r p i e c e c o m m i s s i o n , see Jaffe 1963,

69.

F o r The Adoration

of the Magi,

see M a d r i d 2 0 0 4 ,

p p . 55-123. 70. See V l i e g h e 1993. F o r R u b e n s ' s awareness o f f i f t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p r e c e d e n t s , see E i s l e r 1967. 71. F o r Samson and Delilah,

see L o n d o n 2 0 0 5 , p. 166,

cat. n o . 77. 72. F o r R u b e n s ' s p r i c e s , sec H . V l i e g h e , " M a a t w e r k en c o n f e c t i e . O v e r de f u n c t i e v a n h i s t o r i c s c h i l d e r k u n s t i n de V l a a m s e stad v a n de i 7

d c

c e u w , " i n B r u s s c l s - S c h a l l a b u r g 1991, p. 2 6 0 . I n 1611 R u b e n s s t a t e d he was u n a b l e t o accept the p o t e n t i a l s t u d e n t p r o p o s e d b y his f r i e n d J a c o b de B i e , s a y i n g " . . . ic v a n alle c a n t c n g h e pre ve il ieert b e n s o o dat n o c h s o m m i g h e v o o r e t l y c k e j a r e n b y a n d e r meesters haer o n d e r h o u d e n myn

c o m m o d i t e y t te v c r w a c h t e n . . . v o o r t s m a c h

ic s e g g h e n m e t d e r w a e r h e y t s o n d e r e c n i c h h y p e r b o l e dat ic o v e r d i e h o n d e r t h e b b e m o c t c n refuseren 0 0 c s o m m i g h e v a n m y n e n d e m y n s h u y s v r o u w e n maegen niet sonder

grooten

TWO

PAINTERS

CELEBRATED

o n d a n c k v a n v e l e v a n m y n beste v r i e n d e n " ( F r o m

T h i s y o u n g m a n is u s u a l l y i d e n t i f i e d as W i l d e n s .

a l l sides a p p l i c a t i o n s r e a c h m e . S o m e y o u n g m e n

W h e n W i l d e n s m a r r i e d M a r i a S t a p p a e r t i n 1619,

r e m a i n h e r e f o r several years w i t h o t h e r m a s t e r s ,

"his g o o d friend" (zijnen goede vriendt) R u b e n s

awaiting a vacancy i n m y s t u d i o . . . I can tell

s e r v e d as a w i t n e s s ( V a n d e n B r a n d e n 1883,

y o u t r u l y w i t h o u t exaggeration, that I have h a d

p. 6 8 4 ) .

t o refuse o v e r o n e h u n d r e d , e v e n s o m e o f m y relatives o r m y w i f e ' s , a n d n o t w i t h o u t c a u s i n g g r e a t d i s p l e a s u r e a m o n g m a n y o f m y best f r i e n d s ) : R o o s e s a n d R u e l e n s 1 8 8 7 - 1 9 0 9 , v o l . 2, p. 35 (letter o f M a y 11, 1611); t r a n s l a t e d i n

73. T h e l e t t e r p a t e n t w a s p u b l i s h e d b y D e M a e y e r (1955, p p . 2 9 3 - 9 5 ) a n d d i s c u s s e d b y C h r i s t o p h e r B r o w n ("Rubens a n d the A r c h d u k e s , " i n Brussels 1 9 9 8 - 9 9 , p . 121) a n d V a n S p r a n g ( n o t e 4 0 a b o v e ,

of the Cross, see M a r t i n 1969.

76. R o o s e s 1 8 8 6 - 9 2 , v o l . 4 , p . 14, n o . 8 0 0 . F o r r e c e n t t e c h n i c a l f i n d i n g s , see G a y o G a r c i a a n d V e r g a r a 2004. 77. S e v e r a l i n d e p e n d e n t w o r k s b y S n y d e r s a p p e a r i n ( S p e c i f i c a t i o n ) m a d e at R u b e n s ' s

d e a t h : " n o . 239 A b a s k e t t w i t h f r u i t e , a n d b i r d s , by F r a n c h y s Snyders," " n o . 260 the h u n t i n g e o f a g r e a t w i l d b o r e ; b y F r a n c y s S n y d e r s , " " n o . 261 A f l o w e r p o t t b y t h e same," " A B o r d , w h e r e f r u i t e Lyes v p p o n the E a r t h by F r a n . Sndyers," a n d "no. 264 A bord, w i t h Cabbages & Turnipps by t h e s a m e " ; see M u l l e r 1989, p p . 1 3 7 - 3 8 ; a n d A n t w e r p 2004, pp. 174-76.

87. H a i r s 1977, p . 13. 88. T h e o t h e r g u a r d i a n s w e r e the p a i n t e r s H e n d r i c k v a n B a l e n a n d C o r n e l l s S c h u t ; see D e n u c e 1934, p p . 51-52, d o c . 2 0 , a n d p p . 55-57, d o c . 23. 89. Jaffe 1989, n o . 219. 9 0 . F o r t h e A n t w e r p G u i l d o f S a i n t L u k e , see R o m b o u t s a n d v'an L e r i u s 1 8 6 4 - 7 6 . 91. T h e i m a g e is i n t h e f o r m o f a r e b u s o f a p o e m by the painter Sebastian V r a n c x : "Apeiles scholieren, die Sint Lucas vieren, / W i l t helpen versieren den Olyftak snel, / M e t ons V i o l i e r e n en A p o l l o ' s laurieren, / V l u c h t droevige manieren, w i l l i c h houdt Vrede w e l " (Students o f Apeiles D e c o r a t e the O l i v e B r a n c h / w i t h o u r g i l l y f l o w e r s a n d the laurels o f A p o l l o , / M e l a n c h o l y ways

i n N e w Y o r k 2 0 0 5 , p p . 15-18.

r e a d i l y flee. K e e p t h e Peace w e l l ) ; see

/ 2 6 . A L a n d s c h a p [sic] o f P a u l B r i l l ' s w i t h a P s y c h e " ; see M u l l e r 1980, p . 1 0 0 , n o . 2 6 , w h o n o t e s " i t is n o t clear w h e t h e r R u b e n s o r d e r e d a figureless l a n d s c a p e f r o m B r i l f o r t h e p u r p o s e of collaboration or independently retouched Bril's w o r k . " See also K o n r a d R e n g e r ' s e n t r y o n t h e p a i n t i n g i n A n t w e r p 2 0 0 4 a , p . 174.

1957, a n d f o r t h e i r Rausias and Glycera

K e e r s m a e k e r s 1957, p p . 3 4 3 - 5 0 a n d P e t e r S u t t o n i n B o s t o n - T o l e d o 1 9 9 3 - 9 4 , p . 57. 92. C a m p b e l l 1981, p . 50. 93. A l e x a n d e r 1992, p . 4 9 . 9 4 . A l e x a n d e r 1992, p . 50. 95. F o r a t h o r o u g h c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e v a r i e d p r a c tices i n v o l v e d i n m a n u s c r i p t p r o d u c t i o n , see

80. F o r B e e r t ' s w o r k w i t h R u b e n s , see B e r g s t r o m (1612-15;

A l e x a n d e r 1992. R e c e n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o l i t e r a t u r e o n the p r o d u c t i o n o f F l e m i s h miniatures include

Sarasota, F l o r i d a , T h e J o h n and M a b e l R i n g l i n g

C a t h e r i n e R e y n o l d s , " I l l u m i n a t o r s and the

M u s e u m o f A r t , i n v . S N 2 1 9 ( 0 ] ) , see V i e n n a -

Painters' Guilds," i n L o s A n g e l e s - L o n d o n

E s s e n 2 0 0 2 , p p . 116-17, cat. n o . 33.

2 0 0 3 - 0 4 , p p . 15-33; a n d T h o m a s K r e n

81. I n a letter o f M a r c h 14, 1617 (to S i r D u d l e y C a r l e t o n ) , G e o r g e G a g e refers t o " a y o n g m a n w h o h a t h l i v e d l o n g i n I t a l y , w h o I t h i n k is t h e rarest m a n l i v i n g i n L a n t s c a p e " : R o o s e s a n d R u e l e n s 1 8 8 7 - 1 9 0 9 , v o l . 2, p . 1 0 4 (letter n o . 151).

P A I N T E R S

86. See V l i e g h e 1987, p p . 6 0 - 6 2 , n o . 7 9 ; R u b e n s ' s

E d i n b u r g h - N o t t i n g h a m 2 0 0 2 a n d is d i s c u s s e d

79. " 2 6 . V n paysage d e B r i l avec l ' h i s t o i r e de P s y c h e .

C E L E B R A T E D

85. P u b l i s h e d b y C r i v e l l i 1868.

w h o celebrate S a i n t L u k e / H e l p us q u i c k l y !

78. T h i s f a s c i n a t i n g p r a c t i c e w a s t h e f o c u s o f

T W O

8 4 . D i l i s 1923, p p . 4 5 6 - 5 7 -

the e n d o f the seventeenth century.

74. L i n d 1 9 4 6 , p . 38.

83. T h e e p i t a p h w a s c o m p o s e d b y R u b e n s ' s f r i e n d

portrait remained i n Brueghel's family through

p. 4 0 ) .

t h e Specificatie

M a r t i n 1972. F o r the T o r r e d e l a P a r a d a , see A l p e r s 1971.

J a n G a s p a r G e v a e r t s ; see R o o s e s 1903, p . 6 2 9 .

M a g u r n 1955, P- 55-

75. F o r The Raising

82. F o r t h e d e c o r a t i o n s f o r t h e t r i u m p h a l entry, see

and M a r y a n W. A i n s w o r t h , "Illuminators and Painters: Artistic Exchanges and Inter relationships," i n L o s A n g e l e s - L o n d o n 2 0 0 3 - 0 4 , PP- 35-57-

a n d f o r the p h e n o m e n o n o f a " n e w " p r o d u c t , see

96. See C a m p b e l l 1981; C a m p b e l l 1998, p p . 2 3 - 2 8 ;

D e M a r c h i a n d V a n M i e g r o e t 1998.

and M a r y a n A i n s w o r t h , " W o r k s h o p Practice i n Early Netherlandish Painting: A n Inside View," in N e w Y o r k 1998-99a, pp. 205-11.

105.

97. C a m p b e l l 1998, p . 53-

106.

between H u b e r t and Jan van E y c k o n

(had a certain i n d i v i d u a l way o f landscape paint

Adoration

ing, most subtle and precise): V a n M a n d e r /

are s t i l l d i s p u t e d (see T i l l -

H o l g e r Borchert, "Introduction: Jan van Eyck's

M i e d e m a 1 9 9 4 - 9 9 , v o l . 1, p . 135. L a t e r he

W o r k s h o p , " i n Bruges 2002, pp. 14-15), K a r e l

d e s c r i b e d G i l l i s v a n C o n i n x l o o as " d e n u y t n c -

van M a n d e r i n h i s b i o g r a p h y o f t h e b r o t h e r s

m e n d e n L a n d s c a p m a k e r " (the e x c e l l e n t l a n d s c a p e

p u b l i s h e d i n 1 6 0 4 asserted h i s o p i n i o n : " S o m e

p a i n t e r ) : p. 331.

believe that H u b e r t u s began this picture o n his own

and that Joannes subsequently finished

it b u t I a m o f t h e o p i n i o n t h a t t h e y b e g a n it

107. 108.

" H e t eene v a n m y n h a n t h e e f t . . . g e g h e l d e n 54 g u l d e n s ; het a n d e r v a n m y n k n c c h t g e d a e n is

w h i l e the w o r k was i n p r o g r e s s " ( E e n i g e m e e n e n

v e r c o c h t 18 g u l d e n s . . . " (the o n e b y m y h a n d was

dat H u b e r t u s des tafel e e r s t m a e l a l l e e n h a d d e

w o r t h 54 g u l d e n ; t h e o t h e r d o n e b y m y assistant

b e g o n n e n e n datse I o a n n e s daer nae v o l d a e n

c o s t 18 g u l d e n s ) : D u v i v i e r i 8 6 0 , v o l . 2, p . 331,

heeft, d a n i c k h o u d e dat yse t ' s a m e n a e n g h e -

doc.

vanghen hebben, maer datter H u b e r t u s over

tures s i e n n e s , l ' u n e faicte de sa m a i n a 54 f l . , et

gestorven is): V a n M a n d e r / M i e d e m a 1 9 9 4 - 9 9 ,

l ' a u l t r e p a r u n s i e n valet a 18 fl." ( t w o o f h i s p a i n t

v o l . 1, p p . 5 8 - 5 9 .

i n g s , o n e f r o m his h a n d at 54 florins, a n d the

Y o r k 2 0 0 5 , p . 3.

i v ( A p r i l 5, 1 6 0 6 ) ; " . . . d e u x pieces de p c i n -

o t h e r b y h i s assistant at 18

florins.):

Duvivier

i 8 6 0 , v o l . 2, p . 332, d o c . v i ( A p r i l 10, 1 6 0 6 ) .

L o g a n , " P e t e r P a u l R u b e n s as D r a f t s m a n , " i n New

109.

L e t t e r o f A p r i l 28, 1618; sec the d i s c u s s i o n i n cat. n o s . 22 a n d 2 4 .

D e n u c e 1934, p p . 113-15, d o c . L X V I I I ( S e p t e m b e r 3, 1638).

n o . C r i v e l l i 1868, p. 272.

101. F o r B r u e g h e l the Y o u n g e r ' s c o p i e s o f the F i v e

i n . " M a e s t r e C o y n t i n y M . J o a c h i n . O t r a t a b l a en q u e

Senses m a d e f o r a p a t r o n i n H o l l a n d , see D e n u c e

esta p i n t a d a l a t e n t a c i o n de S a n t A n t o n c o n t r e s

1934, p p . 8 0 - 8 2 , d o c . 39 ( J u n e 8, 1632); B r u e g h e l

m u g e r e s e n u n paysage las figuras de m a n de

subsequently c l a i m e d that "thousands o f people"

M a e s t r e C o y n t i n y e l paysage de M . J o a c h i n q u e

( n o c h t a n s d u y s e n t m e n s c h e n ) c a m e t o see the

t i e n e de a l t o 6 p . y de a n c h o 7 " ( M a s t e r Q u i n t c n

Senses (letter o f A u g u s t 25, 1632): D e n u c e 1934,

[Metsys] and Master Joachim [Patinir]. A n o t h e r

p. 83, d o c . 4 1 ; a n d B e d o n i 1983, p . 142. See t h e

p a n e l u p o n w h i c h is p a i n t e d a t e m p t a t i o n o f S a i n t

n u m e r o u s references t o g a r l a n d p a i n t i n g s i n the

A n t h o n y against w o m e n [ h a r l o t s ] a n d a l a n d s c a p e

c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n J a n the Y o u n g e r a n d the

o f figures the h a n d o f M a s t e r Q u i n t c n a n d t h e

Seville merchant C h r . V a n Immerzeel i n D e n u c e

l a n d s c a p e o f M r . J o a c h i m w h i c h has the h e i g h t

1934, p p . 6 8 - 7 1 , 9 2 - 9 3 - See a l s o , f o r e x a m p l e ,

6 p . a n d t h e w i d t h 7). T h e c i t a t i o n was first p u b

D e n u c e 1931, p p . 31, 4 8 , 9 8 ; a n d D e n u c e 1932,

l i s h e d b y J u s t i 1886, p . 95.

p p . 2 4 6 , 2 5 2 - 5 7 ; instances o f s u c h references a m o n g A n t w e r p i n v e n t o r i e s are t o o n u m e r o u s

102.

C a m p b e l l 1988, p. 51; a n d T a m i s 2 0 0 0 .

t o g e t h e r a n d t h a t H u b e r t u s d i e d i n t h e year 1426

99- F o r R u b e n s a n d h i s d r a w i n g s , see A n n e - M a r i e

100.

P a t i n i r " . . . h a d d e een sekcr c y g c n m a n i c r v a n te m a k e n l a n d s c a p p e n , seer a e r d i c h en s u y v c r "

98. W h i l e the n a t u r e a n d e x t e n t o f c o l l a b o r a t i o n of the Mystic Lamb

Friedlander 1967-76, vol. 7 (Qucntin Massys), p. 25.

112. F o r e x a m p l e s , see C r i v e l l i 1868, p p . 2 4 8 , 2 4 9 , 272.

to cite.

113. See cat. n o . 22.

E r t z 1984, p p . 8 0 - 8 1 .

114. F o r the i n v e n t o r i e s o f p a i n t i n g s at T e r v u r e n i n 1617 a n d 1667, see D e M a e y e r 1955, p p . 3 3 6 - 3 7 ,

103. V a e s 1 9 2 6 - 2 7 a n d D e n u c e 1934.

doc.

104. F o r the rise o f the A n t w e r p art m a r k e t i n the e a r l y s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y , see E w i n g 1990 a n d V e r m e y l e n 2 0 0 3 . F o r its r e l a t i o n t o t h e rise o f n e w g e n r e s , see A r n o u t B a l i s , " D e n i e u w e g e n r e s e n het b u r g e r l i j k m e c e n a a t , " i n B r u s s e l s - S c h a l l a b u r g 1991, p p . 2 3 7 - 5 4 ; f o r the art m a r k e t i n the

seventeenth

c e n t u r y , see D e M a r c h i a n d V a n M i e g r o e t 1 9 9 4 ;

134, a n d p p . 4 4 8 - 5 3 , d o c . 272. F o r t h e

Specificatie,

see A n t w e r p 2 0 0 4 , p p . 3 2 8 - 3 3 ; a n d

D e n u c e 1949, pp. 1 8 8 - 9 0 . 115. F o r R u b e n s a n d B r u e g h e l ' s j o i n t w o r k i n g m e t h o d s i n p a i n t i n g s i n the e x h i b i t i o n , a n d the a p p r o a c h e s u s e d t o s t u d y t h e m , see the essay b y Tiarna Doherty, M a r k L e o n a r d , and J o r g c n W a d u m i n this v o l u m e .

TWO

CELEBRATED

PAINTERS

Catalogue

ARIANE ANNE

VAN

SUCHTELEN

T. W O O L L E T T

(AvS)

(ATW)

Reader's Note: In entries on the collaborative works of Rubens and Brueghel, a distinction has been made between the levels of responsibility assumed by each artist, with the primary contributor listed first. Literature and Exhibition sections are comprehensive but not exhaustive.

1 Peter Paul Rubens and Jan Brueghel the Elder

The Battle of the Amazons ca. 1598-1600 O i l o n panel, 97 x 124 c m (38 A x 4 8 % in.) l

Potsdam, Stiftung Preufiische Schlofier u n d G a r t e n B e r l i n - B r a n d e n b u r g , Schlofi Sanssouci Bildergalerie, g k i 10021

1978, p . 11, n o . 1, p i . i ;

PROVENANCE

I n the collection o f O r a n i e n b u r g Castle, b y 1 6 9 9 transferred to Berliner Schlofi, 1

1710; r e m o v e d to a n d exhibited i n Paris, 2

Musee Napoleon (Musee d u Louvre),

E c k a r d t 1980,

p . 8 0 , n o . 7 4 ; H e l d 1983, p p . 2 1 - 2 5 ; H e l d 1987, p p . 9 - 2 2 ; V o n S i m s o n 1 9 9 6 , p p . 3 4 - 3 5 ; P a d u a - R o m e - M i l a n 1 9 9 0 , p . 36; E s s e n V i e n n a 1997-98, pp. 2 4 0 , 242, 243, 246; P o e s c h e l 2 0 0 1 , p p . 97, 1 0 7 ; R e n g e r a n d D e n k 7

1806-15;

Berliner Schlofi, 1830-1906, and

p r e s u m e d 1906-1940/43 ( d o c u m e n t e d i n the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft, ca. 1 9 3 0 - 4 0 ) ; thence i n the N e u e K a m m e r n o f Sanssouci; [1945-1958 R u s s i a ] ; e x h i b i t e d i n t h e Bildergalerie since 1 9 6 4

2 0 0 5 , p . 88; V i e n n a 2 0 0 4 a , p p . 1 5 8 - 6 0 , cat. n o . n ; H o n i g 2005 EXHIBITIONS

P a r i s 1807, cat. n o . 6 0 2 ; C o l o g n e - A n t w e r p V i e n n a 1 9 9 2 - 9 3 , p p . 3 4 3 - 4 4 , cat. n o . 4 4 . 1 ;

LITERATURE

N i c o l a i 1779, p . 6 6 6 ; W a a g e n 1830, v o l . 2 , p . 2 2 7 ; C o l o g n e 1977, p p . 1 8 1 - 8 2 ;

•

2 0 0 2 , p . 350; L i l l e 2 0 0 4 , p . 32; N e w Y o r k

L o n d o n 2 0 0 5 , p p . n , 4 2 - 4 4 , 4 7 , cat. n o . 1

Bartoschek

HE BATTLE OF THE AMAZONS IS T H E E A R L I E S T

were legendary. T h e exploits o f the A m a z o n s a n d their

k n o w n c o l l a b o r a t i o n undertaken b y Rubens a n d

queens, H i p p o l y t a , her sister A n t i o p e , and Penthesilea, w h o

B r u e g h e l . R e a l i z e d t h r o u g h a straightforward d i v i s i o n

were considered w o r t h y opponents o f the great heroes, are

]

o f labor between flgural a n d landscape components, this

recounted i n the myths o f H e r c u l e s a n d Theseus. P l u t a r c h

s p l e n d i d panel captures the s w i r l i n g action a n d violence o f a

{Lives 1.27) describes the A m a z o n s ' attack o n A t h e n s a n d

heroic clash o f combatants f r o m the classical past. Painted

their defeat by the Greek army l e d b y Theseus, for w h o m the

after Brueghel's return f r o m his Italian sojourn i n 1596 and

war was " n o trivial o r w o m a n i s h enterprise." A l t h o u g h large-

before R u b e n s departed for M a n t u a i n 1600, The Battle

scale Amazonomaches are f o u n d i n ancient G r e e k art and the

of the Amazons p r o v e d to be a decisive undertaking that h a d

exploits o f the formidable A m a z o n s were a p o p u l a r sub

repercussions for the independent oeuvres o f b o t h artists,

ject for antique sarcophagi, the subject was rarely depicted

as w e l l as for their future projects together. It was at this

i n Renaissance art. F o r this cabinet-sized Amazonomache,

crucial t i m e , w i t h the execution o f a w a r theme, that Rube ns

Rubens a n d B r u e g h e l c o m b i n e d the portrayal o f the fervor

and B r u e g h e l harnessed their complementary artistic a m b i

o f battle w i t h references to the feats o f H e r c u l e s , d r a w i n g

tions a n d apprehended the p o w e r o f their j o i n t inventions.

o n a b r o a d literary t r a d i t i o n rather than a single source.

T h e A m a z o n s were a race o f fierce female warriors f r o m A s i a M i n o r , whose horsemanship a n d skill w i t h the b o w

RUBENS

A N D BRUEGHEL

O n a w i d e p l a i n , w i t h a w o o d e d h i l l to the left a n d a swampy river o n the right leading t o a bridge, the A m a z o n s engage

their opponents. The Greek army charges in from the left, pushing the Amazons at a gallop across the field toward the water and forward in the direction of the viewer. In the foreground, Hercules subdues two Amazons, one of whom incongruously wears a plumed cap reminiscent of sixteenthcentury costume. The Amazon in red in the center right of the composition, highlighted by the gold banner behind her, may be Hippolyta, who has not yet succumbed to Hercules. To the left of the Hercules group, a muscular warrior clasps the limp figure of an Amazon; the two perhaps representing Theseus and the slain Antiope. Around these foreground groupings, warriors surge forward on foot and on horseback, fall from their steeds, are trampled, and resist their adversaries. The Battle of the Amazons has long been recognized as a collaborative work, although the attribution of the figures to Rubens was only restored relatively recently. The Potsdam panel, or a second version of the composition in a private collection (see below), is almost certainly the painting described in the inventory of Diego Duarte's collection in Antwerp in 1682, in which collaborative works are clearly identified: "By Peter Paul Rubens. A piece on panel, the battle of the Amazons, full of action in his early manner; the landscape or background is entirely by the Velvet [Jan] Brueghel. ' In 1779 the painting was identified as a work by Breughel and his frequent collaborator during the mid15908, Hans Rottenhammer (compare cat. nos. 14 and 15). During the confusion over the location of The Battle of the Amazons after 1816, it was attributed simultaneously by French authorities to Otto van Veen (ca. 1556-1629) and again to Rottenhammer by keepers in Berlin. With its arrival in Potsdam, Muller Hofstede confirmed the attribution to Van Veen, and the Sanssouci Bildergalerie continued to recognize this designation, as well as the attribution of the landscape to Jan Brueghel, until Held returned The Battle of the Amazons to the small group of early, pre-Italian-sojourn works by Rubens. Although there can be no doubt that Rubens was respon sible for the figures in The Battle of the Amazons, the attri butions to Rottenhammer and particularly to Van Veen reflect the long-held uncertainty about Rubens's style before his departure for Italy. After short apprenticeships with the landscape painter Tobias Verhaecht (1561-1631) and the history painter Adam van Noort (1562-1641), Rubens entered the studio of Otto van Veen in about 1596. Originally from Leiden, Van Veen had spent nearly five years in Italy, 10

5 12

RUBENS AND

BRUEGHEL

mostly in Rome. One of the most erudite painters in Antwerp, he had been court painter to Alessandro Farnese, duke of Parma and governor of the Southern Netherlands, in Brussels, from 1584 to 1592 as well as to Archduke Ernst in 1594 and to Archduke Albert in 1596. From 1599, he served Archdukes Albert and Isabella. Rubens's nephew Philip famously described the resemblance of his uncle's early style to Otto van Veen's manner. Rubens's large Adam and Eve of about 1598-1600, occasionally attributed to Van Veen, reveals the influence of his teacher's smooth, heavy Roman manner. The figures in The Battle of the Amazons, despite their smaller scale, still retain vestiges of Van Veen's blocky figural style and utilize the cool undertones for the flesh and bright pink accents characteristic of his work in the 1590s. Rubens became a master in the Antwerp Guild of Saint Luke in 1598, and although he maintained ties with Van Veen, the Potsdam panel dates from this period of indepen dence. It demonstrates Rubens's youthful ambition and interests as well as the decisive ways in which he was expand ing beyond the model of his teacher. The young Rubens eschewed Van Veen's monumentality and solidity and pur sued motion, action, emotion, and complex arrangements of men and animals. O n a sheet vividly drawn in pen and ink, Battle of Nude Men (ca. 1598-1600; Washington, D . C . , National Gallery of Art), he excerpted key individual figures and groups, choosing figures in violent and extreme motion, from two engraved battle scenes by Barthel Beham (15021540), Battle of Titus Gracchus (ca. 1528) and Battle of Eighteen Nude Men (ca. 1528). Beham's running frieze was itself indebted to the battle scenes in relief on the Column of Trajan (finished by A . D . 113; Rome, Forum of Trajan), a major source for combat figures in the Renaissance. The exaggerated expressions of the Greeks and Amazons and the bloody portrayal of violence in The Battle of the Amazons reveal a young artist striving to capture the extremity of his subject. For a subject where the clash between women and men was the central, charged theme, Rubens adopted the conventional ruddy and creamy skin tones to differentiate the sexes. Rubens was already a keen observer of horses, as demonstrated by studies known through a later copy (fig. 33). H e understood how equine figures could generate energy and drama in a composition, and the dynamic variety of horses in The Battle of the Amazons underscores his creative and dramatic use of equine elements. The pink manes of some of the horses are part of a chromatic palette that, along with the illogical lighting, enhances the excitement of the 16

F I G U R E 33 W i l l e m P a n c c l s (ca. 1 6 0 0 - 1 6 3 2 ) after Peter P a u l R u b e n s , Studies of Horses after Jost Amman,

ca. 1 6 2 8 - 3 0 . P e n a n d i n k ,

w i t h traces o f g r a p h i t e o n f o r m e r l y w h i t e paper, 2 0 . 6 x 31.7 c m (8V8 x 12V2 i n . ) . H a m b u r g , Kunsthalle, Graphischc Sammlungcn, inv. 1957-145

scene. Rubens demonstrated his conversance with major antique models in The Battle of the Amazons even before he had studied them firsthand. The intricately entwined figures of Hercules and the struggling Amazons, for example, are derived from the Laocoon group. The biting horses at the extreme right were drawn from Leonardo da Vinci's famous Battle ofAnghiari, a composition that fascinated Rubens. From the earliest moments of his career, Rubens was engaged with the compositional challenges associated with battle subjects, a passion to which he would return oversucceeding decades. The Battle of the Amazons served as a forum for the shared interests of Rubens and Brueghel and a natural meeting of their ambitions. Brueghel had returned from his travels through Naples, Rome, and Milan in the fall of 1596. A t this time he was undertaking ambitious, large-format multifigure landscapes, such as the Harbor Scene with Christ Preaching (see fig. 98), in which the majestic setting contextualizes the human dramas taking place in the foreground. Rubens pos sessed a thorough classical education, and it must be assumed he was familiar with literary accounts of the great battles of antiquity. In addition, as discussed above, he had begun to gather a figural vocabulary in anticipation of a depiction of warfare. The cultural milieu of Antwerp at the end of the decade may also have served as a powerful impe tus upon the two artists. Battle subjects, both historical and 21

contemporary, were well represented in Burgundian and Habsburg collections, and in 1597 Otto van Veen designed a series of twenty-seven tapestries celebrating the military victories of Archduke Albert (Madrid, Royal Collection). Rubens and Brueghel approached the process of collabo ration straightforwardly by dividing the panel horizontally into two zones. In order to achieve the desired density of figures, and to show off his command of many difficult poses, Rubens carefully planned the lower half of the paint ing. Infrared reflectography reveals his controlled drawing (see fig. 115), perhaps after a sketch or group of separate preparatory drawings. H e was also responsible for the tran sitional section of tightly packed warriors. Brueghel painted an extensive and atmospheric view across the curiously lush plain to the mountains, throughout which Greek and Amazon forces continue to skirmish. The wild far reaches of this view conjure up an earlier, more archaic time. Char acteristically, the different zones of landscape are separated, so the most distant portions are largely blue in tonality. Brueghel also added fine grass around the foreground fig ures. One of the most striking aspects of The Battle of the Amazons is the lively use of gold detailing, a practice found earlier in the Netherlands and in the work of Van Veen. Both artists adjusted their current modes while executing the Potsdam panel: the viewpoint is lower than in many of Brueghel's works from this period, while Rubens adopted an 24

RUBENS AND

BRUEGHEL

Francis I, itself influenced by Raphael's example, may have suggested to Rubens the effective portrayal of horses seen from the rear as well as other motifs of charging and fallen horses. The impressive Battle of the Amazons must have been admired soon after its completion, as a second version was painted a short time later. The extensive use of gold detail ing in the Potsdam panel is absent from the later version, which is also free of the draperies added (presumably later) to some of the figures in the Potsdam Battle to cover their nudity. As the specificity of the Duarte inventory suggests, almost one hundred years later Rubens and Brueghel were known to have collaborated on a painting of this subject. A tradition also existed that there had been a more extensive collaborative enterprise that included Rubens's teacher. Two works have been attributed to the joint authorship of Van Veen, Brueghel, and Rubens: in 1642 a Parnassus (pre sumed lost) was listed in the collection of the Antwerp dealer and painter Herman de Neyt, and at the end of the nineteenth century, a large Battle of the Amazons (location unknown) was sold in Cologne. The extraordinary importance of The Battle of the Amazons for Rubens and Brueghel is evident from their individual pursuits after 1 6 0 0 . With Rubens's departure for Italy in Ma y 1600, Brueghel himself turned to large-scale historical sub jects. For the Continence of Scipio, of about 1 6 0 0 (see fig. 10 ), he borrowed Rubens's lively horses, including the white horses with the pink manes, charging across the foreground and cavorting at the side, as well as the motif of the horse men entering from the right blowing their horns. The Battle oflssus, 1602 (fig. 35), demonstrates Brueghel's ambitious treatment of battle. Here, too, many of the most prominent equine figures recall Rubens's example. However, the density of figures ensures that the armies move and swirl en masse, unified by the bird's-eye view. For Rubens, The Battle of the Amazons stands at the beginning of a series of drawn and painted engagements wit h Amazonian themes. A rapidly executed group of figures, Battle Scene between the Greeks and Amazons and Studies for Samson (Edinburgh, National Galleries of Scotland) again combines female and equine combatants. Some of the ideas from this sheet and particularly from the more finished drawing of The Battle of the Greeks and Amazons (London, The British Museum) were employed in two other paintings of the subject: the recently discovered The Battle of the Amazons of 1 6 0 3 - 0 5 (private collection) and The Battle of 28

F I G U R E 34 G i o v a n n i F r a n c e s c o P e n n i (1496-1528) after G i u l i o R o m a n o (ca. 1 4 9 9 - 1 5 4 6 ) , The Battle ofZama,

ca. 1523-28. P e n a n d b r o w n i n k ,

g r a y w a s h a n d w h i t e h e i g h t e n i n g o n paper, 41.9 x 56.7 c m (16 V2 x 22V8 i n . ) . P a r i s , M u s e e d u L o u v r e , i n v . 3718

intermediate figure size. Although Rubens was, as his nephew later attested, already renowned before leaving for Italy, the size of the painting, suitable for a gallery, the importance of the landscape, and the adaptation of key Roman fresco sources (discussed below) suggest that Brueghel, senior by eleven years, strongly influenced its direction. It is, in fact, difficult to determine in some areas exactly where Rubens's figures end and Brueghel's work begins—a situation that further promotes the supposition that their contributions to The Battle of the Amazons were equivalent. Rubens and Brueghel's conception of The Battle of the Amazons was particularly indebted to the great fresco designed by Raphael, The Battle of Constantine against Maxentius (1520-24; Rome, Vatican, Sala di Constantino), which Brueghel could have seen when he was in Italy only a few years earlier, and Rubens could have known through an engraving. In The Battle of the Amazons, the army surging into the composition from the left, as well as the viewers' remove from the melee, which allows for open ground in the foreground, and the river and arched bridge on the right, all recall the fresco. However, the foreground combat of mounted soldiers in Giulio Romano's Battle ofZama (fig. 34), one of twenty-two designs for the Deeds and Triumphs of Scipio series of tapestries for the French king 27

RUBENS

AND

BRUEGHEL

the Amazons of about 1618 (fig. 3 6 ) . Among the motifs Rubens retained from the Potsdam Battle of the Amazons and incorporated into the London drawing, and the two paint ings, is the fearsome Amazon holding her trophy of a severed head aloft. For Rubens, The Battle of the Amazons represents an early attempt at a complex figural composition, and his meticu lous drawn preparation on the panel, not found in later collaborative works, betrays the difficulties of the process. When the partnership was reestablished nearly a decade later with another war theme, The Return from War: Mars Disarmed by Venus (cat. no. 2), Rubens and Brueghel realized the political and allegorical references associated with the theme of peace through a more complex working process that nonetheless resulted in contributions of equal visual value, A T W 33

NOTES 1. N o . 321, " E i n e A m a z o n i s c h e B a t a i l l e m i t H e r c u l e u n d T h e s e o " : E c k a r d t 1980, p . 8 0 ; a n d H e l d 1983, p . 22. 2. C a t a l o g u e d i n 1779 as J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r a n d H a n s Rottenhammer;

see E c k a r d t 1980, p . 8 0 .

3. A s the w o r k o f O t t o v a n V e e n ; see H e l d 1983, p . 21. H e l d d i s c u s s e s the c o n f u s i o n o v e r t h e w h e r e a b o u t s o f t h e p a i n t i n g after 1816, w h e n i t was b e l i e v e d t o h a v e b e e n t r a n s f e r r e d t o the M u s e e des B e a u x - A r t s i n D i j o n . T h e painting, however, had been returned to B e r l i n . 4 . W a a g e n 1830, v o l . 2, p . 227; E c k a r d t 1980, p . 8 0 ; a n d c o r r e s p o n d e n c e F I G U R E 35 J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r , The Buttle oflssus,

1602. O i l o n canvas,

from G . Bartoschek.

80 x 136 c m (31.V2 x 531/2 i n . ) . P a r i s , M u s e e d u L o u v r e , i n v . 1 0 9 4

5. A s O t t o v a n V e e n .

F I G U R E 36 P e t e r P a u l R u b e n s , The Battle of the Amazons,

6. A s O t t o v a n V e e n , w i t h the l a n d s c a p e b y J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r .

ca. 1618.

O i l o n p a n e l , 120.3 x 165.3 c m ( 4 7 / s x 65 Vs i n . ) . M u n i c h , A l t e P i n a k o t h e k , 3

inv.

324

7. A s O t t o v a n V e e n . 8. F o r a n c i e n t e x a m p l e s , see B o b e r a n d R u b i n s t e i n 1986, p p . 1 7 5 - 8 0 . A c c o r d i n g t o H e l d (1983, p . 22), R u b e n s m a y h a v e k n o w n E n e a V i c o ' s p r i n t o f 1543, p o s s i b l y after G i u l i o R o m a n o . 9. A l t e r n a t i v e l y , as p r o p o s e d b y M c G r a t h a n d Jaffe i n L o n d o n 2005 (p. 4 3 ) , V i r g i l ' s c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f t h e v i r t u o u s w a r r i o r C a m i l l a i n TheAeneid

( 1 1 . 6 4 8 - 6 3 ) m a y h a v e i n f o r m e d R u b e n s ' s ideas f o r

the c o m p o s i t i o n . 10. P e r h a p s R u b e n s s o u g h t t o u n d e r s c o r e t h e r e l e v a n c e o f the s u b j e c t f o r h i s o w n t i m e w i t h t h i s d e v i c e . H o w e v e r , he d i d n o t i n c l u d e c o n t e m p o r a r y c o s t u m e e l s e w h e r e i n the c o m p o s i t i o n . 11. I n h i s n i n t h l a b o r , H e r c u l e s w a s sent t o o b t a i n t h e g i r d l e o f t h e A m a z o n queen H i p p o l y t a , succeeding o n l y by slaying her i n battle;

RUBENS AND

BRUEGHEL

see, f o r e x a m p l e , A p o l l o d o r u s , Bibliotheca

f r o m e n g r a v i n g o r c o p y . F o r R u b e n s ' s s t u d y o f t h i s m o d e l later i n his

2.5.1-12; a n d D i o d o r u s

S i c u l u s 4 . P o e s c h e l ( 2 0 0 1 , p . 97) i d e n t i f i e d t h i s figure as H i p p o l y t a . 12. " V a n P e t r o P a u l o R u b b e n s [a t o t a l o f e l e v e n p a i n t i n g s i n c l u d e d u n d e r t h i s h e a d i n g ] . . . E e n s t u c k o p p a n e e l d e n s l a g h v a n de A m a s o o n e n v o l w e r c k x v a n s y n v r o e g e m a n i e r . H e t l a n d s c a p ofte v e r s c h i e t is g e h e e l v a n d e n Fluweelen

Bruegel...

g u l d [ e n ] 1 0 0 [the s i x t h m o s t v a l u a b l e

1983, p . 2 2 .

1526-28, designed by

ofPavia,

B e r n a r d v a n O r l e y a n d d e p i c t i n g C h a r l e s V ' s defeat o f t h e F r e n c h Jan V e r m e y e n for Charles V , were an i m p o r t a n t f o r m o f i m p e r i a l p r o p a g a n d a ; see U t r e c h t - ' s - H e r t o g e n b o s c h 1993, p . 263; a n d N e w P- 75-

14. M u l l e r H o f s t e d e i n C o l o g n e 1977, p . 181; see also H e l d 1983, p p . 2 1 - 2 5 . H o w e v e r , V o n S i m s o n (1996, p . 34) d o e s n o t accept t h e a t t r i b u t i o n t o R u b e n s , a n d P o e s c h e l (2001) retains the earlier a t t r i b u t i o n t o V a n V e e n .

25. See the essay b y D o h e r t y , L e o n a r d , a n d W a d u m i n t h i s v o l u m e , p p . 223, 228. 26. See p a r t i c u l a r l y the d e c o r a t i v e use o f g o l d i n the i m p o r t a n t

15. F o r R u b e n s ' s e a r l y t r a i n i n g , see M u l l e r H o f s t e d e 1962; H e l d 1983;

of Alessandro

and B a u d o u i n 2005.

27. N o r r i s 1 9 4 0 , p . 190.

H o f s t e d e 1957; V l i e g h e 1998, p p . 1 8 - 1 9 ; 117-19; a n d p . 18 i n

28. The Battle

this v o l u m e . 17. "car avant s o n v o y a g e d ' l t a l i e ils v o i e n t q u e l q u e r e s s e m b l a n c e avec ceiux d'Octave van V e e n , son maistre" (in correspondence w i t h R o g e r d e P i l e s , 1676): N o r r i s 1 9 4 0 , p . 189. F o r P h i l i p R u b e n s ' s b i o g r a p h y , see D e R e i f f e n b e r g 1837, p p . 1 0 - 1 1 .

of Titus Gracchus

d r a w i n g a n d t h e t a p e s t r y series, see P a r i s 1978, p . 97. 29. O i l o n p a n e l , 102 x 120 c m ( 4 0 Vs x 4714 i n . ) , p r i v a t e c o l l e c t i o n .

2005, p. 44-

( e n g r a v i n g , 55 x 295 m m [ 2 V 8 x

( e n g r a v i n g , 56 x 295 m m [2V4 x I I / S i n . ] ) ; 5

see H o l l s t e i n 1 9 4 9 - , v o l . 2 , p . 2 0 3 . F o r P e t e r P a u l R u b e n s ,

Fighting

( p e n a n d b r o w n i n k o v e r b l a c k c h a l k , 14.1 x 25.2 c m [5V2 x

9 /8 i n . ] ; W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . , N a t i o n a l G a l l e r y o f A r t , J u l i u s S. F i e l d 7

C o l l e c t i o n , A l i s a M e l l o n B r u c e F u n d , 1984.3.57), see H e l d 1959, n o . 3, p p . 6 4 - 6 5 . T h e R u b e n s sheet a n d t h e B e h a m p r i n t s are d i s c u s s e d a n d r e p r o d u c e d i n L o n d o n 2 0 0 5 , p p . 5 2 - 5 3 , cat. n o . 6.

30. I n v e n t o r y o f H e r m a n de N e y t , O c t o b e r 15-21, 1642: " O p d e earner boven den w i n c k e l : . . . E e n stuck van O c t a v i ende Bruegel ende v a n R u b e n s eerst g e s c h i l d e r t , m e t b u y t e n l y s t , w e s e n d e d e n b c r c h P e r n a s s u s , get. N o . 3 6 2 " ( I n the r o o m a b o v e the s h o p : . . . a p i e c e b y O c t a v i [ O t t o v a n V e e n ] a n d B r u e g h e l a n d R u b e n s i n h i s e a r l y style, f r a m e d , d e p i c t i n g M o u n t P a r n a s s u s ) ; see D e n u c e 1932, p . 1 0 0 ; a n d G e m a l d e - G a l e r i e des z u P r e s s b u r g v e r s t o r b e n e n H e r r n G r a z i o s o E n c a L a n f r a n c o n i sale, J. M . H e b e r l e ( H . L e m p e r t z S o n n e ) C o l o g n e , O c t o b e r 1 8 - 2 0 , 1895, n o . 2 0 9 (Battle

2 0 . R u b e n s c o m p i l e d t h e h o r s e s f r o m d i f f e r e n t w o o d c u t b a t t l e scenes b y J o s t A m m a n (ca. 1539-1591) f r o m a G e r m a n e d i t i o n o f The Jewish

War

b y F l a v i u s J o s e p h u s ; see H e l d 1983, p . 23.

R u b e n s ' s M a n t u a n stay, i n w h i c h t h e artist gave h i s h o r s e s v i b r a n t p i n k of the Gods, 1 6 0 1 - 2 ( o i l o n canvas, 2 0 4 x 379 c m

[ 8 o / s x 149V4 i n . ] ; C z e c h R e p u b l i c , P r a g u e C a s t l e A r t C o l l e c t i o n s , 3

inv. H S I I I ) .

o i l o n panel,

of the Amazons,

130 x 252 c m [51 Vs x 99V4 i n . ] ) . 31. F o r J a n B r u e g h e l ' s Battle

oflssus,

see E r t z 1979, p p . 4 6 3 - 6 5 , 571, n o . 86.

T h e effect recalls A l b r e c h t A l t d o r f e r ' s v e r t i c a l Battle

21. H e l d (1983, p . 25) d r e w a t t e n t i o n t o t h e o t h e r i n s t a n c e , d a t i n g f r o m m a n e s : The Council

was e n g r a v e d b y C o r n e l l s C o r t (1567); sec H o l l s t e i n

See H e l d 1983, p . 25; P a d u a - R o m e - M i l a n 1 9 9 0 , p p . 3 6 - 3 7 , cat. n o . 1;

u / 8 i n . ] ) ; see H o l l s t e i n 1 9 4 9 - , v o l . 2 , p . 191; a n d B a r t h e l B e h a m , Nude Men

ofZama

1 9 9 3 - , v o l . 8, n o . 3, p p . 9 2 - 9 4 , n o s . 195 a n d 196. F o r G i u l i o R o m a n o ' s

E s s e n - V i e n n a 1 9 9 7 - 9 8 , p p . 238, 2 4 0 - 4 2 , cat. n o . 6 8 ; a n d L o n d o n

18. R o m b o u t s a n d V a n L e r i u s 1 8 6 4 - 7 6 , p . 4 0 1 . 19. B a r t h e l B e h a m , Battle

Portrait

(ca. 1585-92, o i l o n c o p p e r ; L o s A n g e l e s C o u n t y

Farnese

M u s e u m o f A r t , inv. M . 2003.69).

16. F o r V a n V e e n ' s career, see D e M a e y e r 1955, p p . 6 2 - 8 2 ; M u l l e r

Men

2 4 . T a p e s t r y series, n o t a b l y t h e Battle

Y o r k 2 0 0 2 , p p . 2 6 7 - 7 0 . F o r V a n V e e n ' s tapestries, see D e M a e y e r 1955,

13. E c k a r d t 1980, p . 8 0 .

of Eighteen

L o n d o n 2005, PP- 4 1 - 4 5 -

k i n g F r a n c i s I , a n d t h e Conquest of Tunis series, 1 5 4 8 - 5 4 , d e s i g n e d b y

p a i n t i n g i n t h i s g r o u p ] " : D o g a e r 1971, p p . 2 0 8 - 9 ; d i s c u s s e d i n H e l d

Battle

career, see W o o d i n E d i n b u r g h - N o t t i n g h a m 2 0 0 2 , p p . 4 0 - 4 1 ; a n d

oflssus

(1528-29;

M u n i c h , A l t e P i n a k o t h e k , i n v . 688) as o b s e r v e d b y E r t z 1979 (p. 4 6 3 ) a n d verbally to the author by D r . G e r t Bartoschek. 32. Studies for Hero and Leander Amazons

( r e c t o ) , Battle

Scene between the Greeks

and

and Studies for Samson ( v e r s o ) (ca. 1 6 0 1 - 0 3 , p e n a n d b r o w n

i n k a n d b r o w n w a s h [recto] a n d p e n a n d b r o w n i n k [ v e r s o ] , 2 0 . 4 x

2 2 . R o m a n c o p y , first c e n t u r y A . D . , R o m e , V a t i c a n , B e l v e d e r e P a l a c e .

30.6 c m [8 x 12 i n . ] ; E d i n b u r g h , N a t i o n a l G a l l e r i e s o f S c o t l a n d , i n v .

R u b e n s w o u l d m a k e several d r a w i n g s o f the g r o u p a f e w years

D 4 9 3 6 ) ; see N e w Y o r k 2 0 0 5 , p p . 8 3 - 8 5 , cat. n o . 10; a n d L o n d o n 2 0 0 5 ,

later w h i l e he was i n R o m e . F o r these d r a w i n g s , see V a n d e r M e u l e n

p p . 5 0 - 5 1 , cat. n o . 5 (as " a t t r i b u t e d t o R u b e n s " ) .

1 9 9 4 , v o l . 2 , p p . 9 2 - 1 0 4 . D e s p i t e its t i t l e , W i l l e m Paneels's d r a w i n g after R u b e n s , The Rape of the Sabines ( 1 6 2 8 - 3 0 , b l a c k c h a l k , p e n a n d b r o w n i n k , 21 x 2 6 . 9 c m [8V2 x 10V2 i n . ] ; C o p e n h a g e n , S t a t e n s M u s e u m f o r K u n s t , i n v . K K S G B 7 2 7 0 ) , is s p e c i f i c a l l y r e l a t e d t o the t r i o o f figures i n the P o t s d a m c o m p o s i t i o n ; see H e l d 1983, p p . 2 1 - 2 2 . 23. L e o n a r d o d a V i n c i ' s w a l l p a i n t i n g i n the S a l a d e l G r a n C o n s i g l i o o f t h e P a l a z z o V e c c h i o , F l o r e n c e , b e g u n a b o u t 1503 a n d

abandoned

b y L e o n a r d o i n 1506, was p r o b a b l y k n o w n t o R u b e n s i n t h e late 1590s

33. R u b e n s , Battle

of the Greeks and Amazons

(ca. 1 6 0 2 - 0 4 , p e n a n d b r o w n

i n k o v e r traces o f g r a p h i t e , 25.1 x 4 2 . 8 c m [ 9 % x J6 /8 i n . ] ; L o n d o n , 7

B r i t i s h M u s e u m , i n v . 1895.9.15.1045), see N e w Y o r k 2 0 0 5 , p p . 8 8 - 9 0 , cat. no. 12; The Battle of the Amazons (oil o n canvas, 89 x 135.5 cm [35 x 53 /8 i n . ] ; p r i v a t e c o l l e c t i o n ) , see L o n d o n 2 0 0 5 , p p . 4 8 - 4 9 , cat. n o . 4 3

( d a t e d 1 6 0 3 - 0 5 , b u t p o s s i b l y e a r l i e r ) ; a n d The Battle

of the

Amazons

(see f i g . 36). T h e last w o r k w a s o w n e d b y t h e A n t w e r p c o l l e c t o r C o r n e l l s v a n d e r G e e s t ; see R e n g e r a n d D e n k 2 0 0 2 , p p . 350-55.

RUBENS AND

BRUEGHEL

2 Peter Paul Rubens and Jan Brueghel the Elder

The Return from War: Mars Disarmed by Venus ca. 1 6 1 0 - 1 2

O i l on panel, 127.3 x 163.5 cm (50 Vs x 64 /s in.) Los Angeles, J. Paul Getty Museum, acquired in honor of John Walsh, 2 0 0 0 . 6 8 3

H o u s e , W i m b l e d o n , E n g l a n d ; given by

P R O V E N A N C E

Possibly collection o f Ferrante Spinelli, N a p l e s , 1654; p o s s i b l y p r i v a t e c o l l e c t i o n , Italy, eighteenth century; perhaps w i t h t h e d u k e o f M a n t u a ; ca. 1890, p u r c h a s e d b y the P e n n i n g t o n - M e l l o r family, Castello di L u n g h e z z a ; b r o u g h t b y the f a m i l y t o E n g l a n d , 1911, a n d t h e n t o F r a n o n , the Pennington-Mellor property in Biarritz;

M a l c o l m M u n t h e t o the P e n n i n g t o n - M e l l o r M u n t h e C h a r i t y T r u s t i n 1981; s o l d t o the J. P a u l G e t t y M u s e u m , 2 0 0 0 LITERATURE

Woollett 2001; V a n M u l d e r s 2004, pp. 70, 7 4 ; D o h e r t y 2 0 0 5 ; H o n i g 2 0 0 5 , fig. 14; V a n M u l d e r s 2 0 0 5 ; R o s e n t h a l 2 0 0 5 , p p . 73-75

transferred f r o m B i a r r i t z to E n g l a n d i n 1940 by H i l d a P e n n i n g t o n - M e l l o r ; by inheritance to her s o n M a j o r M a l c o l m M u n t h e , M u c h M a r c l e at H e l l e n s , n e a r L e d b u r y , H e r e f o r d s h i r e , a n d t r a n s f e r r e d b y 1953 t o

Southside

HIS A M B I T I O U S A L L E G O R Y W A S O N E OF T H E

first joint projects of Rubens and Brueghel's resumed partnership, following Rubens's decision to remain in Antwerp in 1 6 0 9 . The Return from War: Mars Disarmed by Venus highlights the specialties of both artists and reveals the accommodating nature of their exceptional working method. In this, one of their largest collaborative works, the artists adapted the scale of their contributions, with Brueghel painting exceedingly large pieces of armor and Rubens adopting an unusual intermediate figure scale. Significantly, in the revision of the right side of the panel, Rubens introduced figures over finished pieces of furniture and small objects, thus altering the subject but not, appar ently, the firm friendship upon which the partnership was based. Rubens and Brueghel brought together Flemish and Italian Renaissance iconography as easily as two different

R U B E N S

A N D

B R U E G H E L

pictorial styles in a composition that highlights the genius of both painters. The Return from War started out on the easel of Brueghel, who painted the cavernous interior and the foreground accoutrements. The ruined, vaulted space is a modified ver sion of the dilapidated forge Brueghel developed between 1606 and 1 6 0 8 . As in earlier compositions, the Los Angeles panel features a long corridor leading to the landscape out side and various bays inside housing the forge and smithy (the many figures working in these recesses are by his hand). Many drawings from Brueghel's Italian sojourn, particularly from the period of his residence in Rome ( 1 5 9 2 - 9 4 ) , attest to his interest in the majestic remains of antiquity and in par ticular to the rhythm and texture of the arched corridors of the Colosseum and Baths of Diocletian (see figs. 6 and 7 ) . He was further inspired by the fanciful re-creation of a vaulted 1

ruin as the setting for the Forge of Vulcan by the Antwerp painter Pauwels Franck, called Paolo Fiammingo ( 1 5 4 0 1596), who was active in Venice about 1570 (see fig. 7 8 ) . While Brueghel reversed the location of the main features of the setting (for example, the smithy and the mill wheel) in the Allegory of Fire (cat. no. 17) and related compositions, in The Return from War the position of the main figure group on the right and the display of precious articles (subsequently obscured by Rubens, see below) correspond to the Fiam mingo drawing. The Prophesy of Isaiah (cat. no. 18), a collabo rative work by Brueghel and Hendrick van Balen, features a similar alcove on the right. However, Brueghel made key changes to the vaulted set ting for The Return from War, abandoning the picturesque arching heights that dwarf the figures and foreground debris for an interior that is more circumscribed and enclosed. N o t only are the pieces of armor larger, in keeping with the scale of a substantial figure group, but they have been carefully selected for their rich surfaces and complex forms. Beautiful pieces of Milanese-style parade armor predominate, along with copper vessels, minutely described objects that include a crossbow and winders (cranequins), a powder horn, a spanner, and a wheel-lock gun. Most of these items can be found in earlier allegories of Fire and in the Prophesy of Isaiah. Surviving sheets of figure studies, apparently from life, as well as studies for birds and hunting implements (see fig. 6 4 ) , suggest that Brueghel kept drawings in the studio for reference. Although Antwerp was an important center for the fabrication of armor, Brueghel may have studied the armor firsthand in the archducal armory in Brussels, although specific archducal garnitures are not represented, as they are in the Allegory of Touch (see fig. 5 6 ) . The shield on the right with a blue tasseled fringe, its interior surface and decorative rivets broadly described, while painted by Rubens, was probably a prop in Brueghel's studio and appears face up in the immediate foreground of the Prophesy of Isaiah. Brueghel took a playful approach to the main heap of armor, showing his technical virtuosity in the evocation of edges and dark interior spaces. O n this scale, the liveliness and crisp impasto of his brushwork reveal the essentially painterly nature of his technique. Brueghel painted many objects in the alcove beneath the figures of Mars, Venus, and her helpers, which are only partially visible with the naked eye but have been revealed by X-radiography and infrared photography (see figs. 123 and 1 2 4 ) . From left to right they include a three-legged copper 3

bowl of glowing embers and a triangular wooden stool with a tazza of grapes on the seat. A little higher up are a group of small items, including a shell, a porcelain bowl, a candle stick, clippers, an overturned decorated glass, a lobed pewter container, and a circular piece of gilt plate, perhaps a salver, leaning against the wall; a wooden bench stands diagonally in the right corner. A l l of these elements appear to have been brought to a finished state by Brueghel. When Rubens received the panel, he revised the alcove by covering many of these objects with a layer of gray paint, neatly sidestepping the cranequin in the foreground and following the barrel of the musket. The standing figures of Mars and Venus must represent an acute shift in the original design, as they do not resemble the single roughly under drawn figure, visible with infrared reflectography, with its bent posture and smaller scale (see fig. 121). Together with the forge setting, the presence of the legged brazier allows for the possibility that the scene was planned as a Venus in the Forge of Vulcan. This distinctive vessel of burning embers is found near Cupid and Venus in several of the Venus in the Forge of Vulcan scenes Brueghel painted with Van Balen (see, for example, fig. 7 6 ) . However, in his conceptual partnership with Brueghel, Rubens's substantial alteration was in keeping with his independent contribution to the commission. More than simply adjusting the subject with the addition of standing figures, Rubens eliminated extraneous attributes that did not support the new theme. As we shall see, there is every reason to believe that Rubens discussed the transformation of the theme with Brueghel, whose later contributions served to enhance it. With Rubens's contribution of a figure group based on antique and Renaissance sources, Vulcan's forge became the setting for an allegory of Peace. Leaning into his embrace, the nude Goddess of Love fixes the G o d of War with a dis arming gaze. Venus divests her returning lover of his armor as he stands relaxed and oblivious to her cupids playfully stealing away his martial emblems. The untying of the war god's buskin, for example, is a reference to his binding by the fetters of love and conveys the peaceable hope that Love is more powerful than Strife. Often, the allegory of Mars and Venus was treated as an idyll that transpires in a landscape where Mars's relaxation, and even sleep, was emphasized. Rubens himself later treated the theme in a painting now lost. Ironically, in The Return from War, while the disorder of discarded musket, crossbow, and can surrounding the illicit lovers emphasizes the halt to 8

RUBENS AND

BRUEGHEL

F I G U R E 37 O t t o v a n V e e n ( c a . 1 5 5 6 - 1 6 2 9 ) , " L o v e l y c k e t h d a r k n e s s " ( C E L A R I V V L T S V A F V R T A V E N U S ) , Amorum

Emblemata

(Antwerp,

The panel subsequently returned to Brueghel, who inte grated the figure group into the interior and adjusted the still-life attributes to support an allegory of Peace. Only those objects specifically associated with the figures or neces sary for expanding upon the consequences of Peace were painted in this second campaign: in the foreground the tools relating to the armorer's craft (square, compass, clippers, scales, tweezers) and in the right corner the pocket watch and bowl of grapes (reintroduced from Brueghel's initial treatment), both of which allude to the passage of time and the impermanence of Peace. Smaller objects related to the activities of the forge were added in a subdued tone between Brueghel's pile of armor and the putto wresting away Mars's sword, including an anvil, which sits prominently behind the war god's hand. This key element was part of the long standing iconography of war, as exemplified by a sixteenthcentury print of the Art of War (fig. 39), which also includes a cannon and evidence of the armorer's craft. Perhaps, in this last phase, Brueghel also added the prominent, but not incongruous, pair of guinea pigs to the foreground as the exotic embodiment of fruitfulness that accompanies Peace. While the earliest provenance of The Return from War remains to be discovered, the substantial size of the panel, its shared authorship by Antwerp's preeminent painters, and the delightfully intertwined political allegory and theme of love strongly suggest that it was a specific commission, likely for the archducal court if not for Albert and Isabella them selves. The Return from War celebrates the Twelve Years' Truce of 1 6 0 9 , brokered by Archduke Albert, which brought hostilities between the Protestant Northern provinces and the Catholic Southern Netherlands to a halt. The occasion prompted new hope, as Rubens noted in his letter to Johann Faber in Rome just one day prior to the signing of the treaty: "The peace, or rather, the truce for many years will without doubt be ratified, and during this period it is believed our country shall flourish again." The Los Angeles panel is one of a small group of paintings to treat the theme of peace following the signing of the treaty. The Union of the Scheldt River and the City ofAntwerp (Scaldis and Antwerpia) ( 1 6 0 9 ; Antwerp, Koninklijk Museum voor Schone Kunsten) by Abraham Janssens (ca. 1 5 7 5 - 1 6 3 2 ) was commissioned by the Antwerp magistracy to decorate the Statenkamer (State Room) of Antwerp City Hall, where the treaty was signed on April 10 and ratified on April 14, 1 6 0 9 . Rubens's Adoration of the Magi (Madrid, Museo Nacional del Prado) celebrated the beginning of the new era and the bounty it was expected to 18

1608).

Getty Research Institute, Special Collections

war, the distant fires of Vulcan's forge ensure that these armaments increase, a reminder that the war god's powers, although tempered by love, can be reclaimed. The Return from War also reflects the contemporary interest at the Brussels court for playful and allusive allegories of love, as demonstrated by Otto van Veen's influential Amorum Emblemata of 1608. The emblem portraying Cupid's preference for seclusion and darkness, represented by a dark grotto (fig. 37), parallels the meeting of Mars and Venus in The Return from War. Rubens may not have looked to a single source for the figure of Venus. The cross-legged pose of the goddess appears in various antique sources, particularly on sarcophagi. In this work, together with her white mantle and jeweled girdle, it supports her characterization as Chaste Love. The power ful figure of Mars, particularly the foreshortening of his baton arm, reflects the influence of Michelangelo on Rubens's early work in Antwerp. The intertwined pose of Mars and Venus, and especially her removal of one of the god's key martial emblems, his plumed helmet, may have been suggested to Rubens by a gem carved with a scene showing Hercules Crowned by Minerva. Rubens used the sinuous posture and overhead gesture of the goddess (in reverse) again almost immediately for The Crowning of Virtue (fig. 3 8 ) . 15

1 7

RUBENS A N D BRUEGHEL

F I G U R E 38 Peter P a u l R u b e n s , The Crowning p a n e l , 221.5

of Virtue,

c a . 1613-14. O i l o n

201 c m (87 V4 x 79 Vs i n . ) . M u n i c h , A l t e P i n a k o t h e k , i n v . 9 9 7

F I G U R E 39 F i l i p s G a l l e after F r a n s F l o r i s (ca. 1519/20-1570), The Art of War. E n g r a v i n g , 205 x 2 4 6 m m ( 8 / 8 x 9 / s i n . ) . V i e n n a , G r a p h i s c h e ]

Sammlung Albertina

afford the city and was likewise commissioned by the magis trates for the same gallery. The topic remained relevant years after the signing, as indicated by Janssens's later com position Peace and Plenty Binding the Arrows of War ( 1 6 1 4 ; Wolverhampton, Municipal Museum and Art Gallery). The Return from War may have been known to the Dutch artist Adriaen van de Venne ( 1 5 8 9 - 1 6 6 2 ) , whose The Treves (Allegory of the Twelve Tears^ Truce) ( 1 6 1 6 ; Paris, Musee du Louvre) combines allegory and history in the form of portraits of di g nitaries from the Northern and Southern Netherlands in a detailed composition reminiscent of Brueghel's style, replete with its own still life of discarded armor. Alongside the primary political allegory in The Return from War, the inventively combined efforts of Rubens and Brueghel also give rise to an additional, sensual, layer of meaning. There are delightful visual puns, such as the phall ic cannons to the left of Mars and the loose bridles, added by Brueghel after Rubens's revision, hanging next to the 21

aggressively seductive goddess. The setting of Vulcan's forge contributes to the theme of the senses, and the fire, armor, and weapons each connote pain or protection from it. A l l of these elements, and the ancient structure, were later invoked in Brueghel and Rubens's Allegory of Touch (see fig. 56). Brueghel's calligraphic handling of metal surfaces rivals and contrasts with Rubens's smooth breastplate, its own cold, hard surface juxtaposed with the creamy, opulent flesh of Venus. While this painting's exceptional tactility adds an additional dimension to the allusion to the sense of touch, it also clearly demonstrates how Brueghel's graphic brushwork complements Rubens's broad handling, creating a setting that envelopes the figures and enables them to inhabit the space. Until recently, The Return from War: Mars Disarmed by Venus was only known from a print of 1778 by Jean-Jacques Avril (fig. 4 0 ) , which may represent a second version of the subject, as it shows the main armor still life having been

RUBENS

AND BRUEGHEL

company drinking

( r e c t o ) , Five figures seen from behind and Other

figures

(verso) ( C h r i s t i e ' s , L o n d o n , J u l y 6, 2 0 0 4 , l o t 163); s o m e o f these figures c o r r e s p o n d t o t h o s e i n B r u e g h e l ' s V i l l a g e S c e n e (1612; M u n i c h , A l t e P i n a k o t h e k , i n v . 1884). F o r a sheet d e p i c t i n g a l a r g e v a r i e t y o f birds, perhaps i n anticipation o f an allegory o f A i r (Braunschweig, H e r z o g A n t o n U l r i c h - M u s e u m ) a n d a sheet o f h u n t i n g i m p l e m e n t s (fig. 6 4 i n t h i s v o l u m e ) , see W i n n e r 1972, p . 159, fi g. 38, a n d p . 146, fig. 127. 6. F o r the a r m o r d e p i c t e d i n the Allegory

of Touch, see B . W e l z e l ,

" A r m o u r y a n d A r c h d u c a l I m a g e : T h e Sense o f T o u c h f r o m the F i v e Senses o f J a n B r u e g h e l a n d Peter P a u l R u b e n s , " i n B r u s s e l s 1 9 9 8 - 9 9 , p p . 1 0 0 - 1 0 2 . F o r t h e B r u s s e l s a r m o r y , see T e r l i n d e n 1961 a n d Wop ens 1992. 7. See the essay b y D o h e r t y , L e o n a r d , a n d W a d u m i n t h i s v o l u m e , pp. 230-31. 8. T h e s t o o l , b e n c h , a n d c r e d e n z a g r o u p i n g appears i n m a n y o f B r u e g h e l ' s p a i n t i n g s o f V e n u s i n t h e F o r g e o f V u l c a n a n d i n the FIGURE 4 0 Mars

J e a n - J a c q u e s A v r i l (1744-1831) after P e t e r P a u l R u b e n s ,

au Retour de la Guerre,

Allegory

1778. E n g r a v i n g , 453 x 576 m m ( 1 7 % x 22V8

of Fire e x e c u t e d b y J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r a n d H e n d r i c k

v a n B a l e n b e t w e e n 1608 a n d 1623; see E r t z 1979, n o s . 191, 252, 254, 277,

in.). S t u t t g a r t , S t a a t s g a l e r i e , G r a p h i s c h e S a m m l u n g , i n v . A 9 8 / 6 7 7 6 , c ( K K )

382; a n d W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 , n o s . A 136, A 1 4 0 , A 162, A 163, A 164, A 165. I t also appears i n the Allegory

of Fire c o m p o s i t i o n s V a n B a l e n e x e c u t e d

w i t h J a n B r u e g h e l t h e Y o u n g e r ; see W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 , p p . 194, 195,

modified with the addition of a furled standard. The com position was evidently known in Antwerp, where a painter familiar with the early works of Anthony van Dyck included the figure of Venus among other selected motifs in an oil sketch dating from about 1625. Similar figures of Mars and Venus appear in the Allegory of Fire from the late 1620s by Hendrick van Balen and Jan Brueghel the Younger. A T W

n o s . A 1 4 4 a n d A 148.

9. See D o h e r t y , L e o n a r d , a n d W a d u m , p . 231. 10.

I t is n o t p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r a n y o t h e r figures w ere p l a n n e d T

d u e t o the d e n s i t y o f the p a i n t layers i n the area o f t h e f i g u r e o f M a r s . See D o h e r t y , L e o n a r d , a n d W a d u m , p . 230. 11. N o t a b l y i n the c o m p o s i t i o n e s t a b l i s h e d w i t h t h e 1606 Allegory

of Fire

n o w i n L y o n a n d r e l a t e d t r e a t m e n t s o f the t h e m e . See n o t e 1 a b o v e . 12. T h i s i d e a h a d b e e n e x p r e s s e d b y L u c r e t i u s i n De rerum

natura

( 1 . 3 0 - 4 4 ) . F o r the i c o n o g r a p h y o f V e n u s a n d M a r s a n d t h e t h e m e o f Peace, see W i n d 1958, p a r t i c u l a r l y p p . 8 2 - 8 8 . See also B a u m s t a r k 1974, p p . 177-201. T h e m o t i f o f t h e fetters is e l o q u e n t l y c o n v e y e d i n a

NOTES

p a i n t i n g b y P a o l o V e r o n e s e , Mars 1. The Allegory

of Fire ( s i g n e d a n d d a t e d B R V E G H E L / 1 6 0 6 , o i l o n p a n e l ,

4 6 x 83 c m [18Vs x 32 /8 i n . ] ; L y o n , M u s e e des B e a u x - A r t s , i n v . 75) S

New

and Venus United

by Love (1576-82;

Y o r k , M e t r o p o l i t a n M u s e u m o f A r t , i n v . 10.189), w h i c h w a s

i n t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f R u d o l f I I i n P r a g u e . R u b e n s r e t u r n e d t o the t h e m e

a p p e a r s t o be t h e earliest e x a m p l e o f t h i s s e t t i n g i n B r u e g h e l ' s o e u v r e .

o f Peace a n d the a g e n c y o f V e n u s a g a i n i n a l o s t canvas (see n o t e 14

See p p . 6 - 9 a n d cat. n o s . 17 a n d 18 i n t h i s v o l u m e .

b e l o w ) , i n The Council

of the Gods (1625; P a r i s , M u s e e d u L o u v r e ) ,

o n e o f the p o l i t i c a l a l l e g o r i e s he d e v i s e d f o r M a r i e d e ' M e d i c i , 2. F o r B r u e g h e l ' s d r a w i n g o f r u i n s , see W i n n e r 1961, p p . 1 9 1 - 9 7 ; W i n n e r 1972, e s p e c i a l l y p p . 1 2 2 - 3 8 ; a n d B e d o n i 1983, p p . 2 9 - 3 8 .

a n d i n Venus, Mars,

and Cupid

(ca. 1630; D u l w i c h P i c t u r e G a l l e r y ,

inv. dpg285). H o w e v e r , the i n t i m a c y o f these scenes is d r a m a t i c a l l y t o r n a s u n d e r i n the Horrors

3. S o l d S o t h e b y ' s , A m s t e r d a m , N o v e m b e r 4 , 2 0 0 3 , l o t . 7.

of War (1637-38; F l o r e n c e , P a l a z z o P i t t i ) ,

where, a c c o r d i n g to R u b e n s , " M a r s . . . rushes forth w i t h shield a n d 4 . F o r a v i e w o f t h e c r o s s b o w w i t h t h e w i n d e r a t t a c h e d , see V a n d e r

pays l i t t l e h e e d t o V e n u s , h i s m i s t r e s s , w h o , a c c o m p a n i e d b y h e r

2001,

A m o r s a n d C u p i d s , strives w i t h caresses a n d e m b r a c e s t o h o l d h i m .

a n d f o r the " a l i a

fiamminga"

t y p e m a d e i n A n t w e r p , see H o f f

1978, p . 31; a n d V a n d e r S l o o t 1959, p . 112. F o r H a b s b u r g a r m o r ,

M a r s is d r a g g e d f o r w a r d b y the f u r y A l e k t o , w i t h a t o r c h i n h e r h a n d .

see Q u i n t a n a L a c a c i 1987 a n d S o l e r d e l C a m p o 2 0 0 0 a n d the l i t e r a t u r e

N e a r b y are m o n s t e r s p e r s o n i f y i n g P e s t i l e n c e a n d F a m i n e , t h o s e i n s e p a

therein. I thank L i l l i a n H s u , Getty M u s e u m undergraduate intern,

r a b l e p a r t n e r s o f W a r " (letter t o J u s t u s S u s t e r m a n s , A n t w e r p , M a r c h

for h e r h e l p i d e n t i f y i n g these i t e m s . 5. See, f o r e x a m p l e , J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r , A crowded beer stall studies of elegant figures drinking

b l o o d - s t a i n e d s w o r d , t h r e a t e n i n g t h e p e o p l e w i t h g r e a t disaster. H e

S t o c k 1991, p . 357. F o r w h e e l - l o c k f i r e a r m s , see p a r t i c u l a r l y R i m e r

RUBENS A N D

BRUEGHEL

12, 1638): M a g u r n 1955, p p . 4 0 8 - 9 , letter 2 4 2 ( " M a r t e . . . v a c o l l o with

and of two monks a priest and An

elegant

s c u d o e l a spada i n s a n g u i n a t a m i n a c c i a n d o ai p o p o l i q u a l c h e g r a n r u i n a , c u r a n d o s i p o c o d i V e n e r e sua d a m a , c h e s i s z f o r z a c o n c a r e z z e e d

abbracciamenti a ritenerlo, accompagnata dalli suoi A m o r i e C u p i d i n i .

a p p e a r e d i n the e q u e s t r i a n p o r t r a i t o f the D u k e o f L e r m a (1603;

D a l F altara b a n d a M a r t e v i e n t i r a t o d a l l a f u r i a A l e t t o , c o n u n a face i n

M a d r i d , M u s e o N a c i o n a l d e l P r a d o , i n v . 3137). F o r the i m p o r t a n c e o f

m a n o . M o s t r i a c c o n t o , c h e s i g n i f i c a n o l a Peste e l a F a m e , c o m p a g n i

the g r a y h o r s e i n B r u e g h e l ' s w o r k , see K o l b 2 0 0 5 , p p . 6 7 - 7 3 .

i n s e p e r a b i l i d e l l a G u e r r a " : R o o s e s a n d R u e l e n s 1 8 8 7 - 1 9 0 9 , v o l . 6, p . 2 0 8 ) . F o r the t h e m e o f Peace i n R u b e n s ' s o e u v r e a n d p o s s i b l e c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h h i s p e r s o n a l h o p e s a n d d i p l o m a t i c a c t i v i t i e s , see

21. F o r the Janssens p a i n t i n g , see J. V a n d e r A u w e r a i n A n t w e r p 1993,

B a u m s t a r k 1974; R o s e n t h a l 1993, p p . 1 0 3 - 5 ; R o s e n t h a l 2 0 0 0 ; P o e s c h e l 2001; and Werner 2004. 13. See, f o r e x a m p l e , S a n d r o B o t t i c e l l i , Mars and Amor

p p . 1 4 6 - 4 7 . F o r the S t a t e n k a m e r c o m m i s s i o n s , see M a d r i d 2 0 0 4 . 22. T h e p a i n t i n g is d i s c u s s e d i n B o l 1989, p p . 4 1 - 4 3 , fig- 27.

and Venus (ca. 1485; L o n d o n ,

N a t i o n a l G a l l e r y o f A r t , i n v . N G 915) a n d P i e r o d i C o s i m o , Venus, Mars,

2 0 . L e t t e r o f A p r i l 10, 1 6 0 9 ; see M a g u r n 1955, p p . 5 2 - 5 3 .

(ca. 1505; B e r l i n , G e m a l d e g a l e r i e , i n v . 107).

23. T h e text b e l o w the t i t l e reads: " D a n s les bras caressans de la b e l l e D e e s s e , L e d i e u M a r s l a n g u i s s a i t b r u l a n t et d e s a r m e , E t , le f r o n t rayo n n a n t de l a p l u s d o u c e ivresse, II g o u t o i t a l o n g s t r a i t s le b o n h e u r d ' e t r e a i m e . " It is also p o s s i b l e t h a t A v r i l m o d i f i e d the c o m p o s i t i o n f o r

14. C a . 1617, f o r m e r l y S c h l o f i K o n i g s b e r g , K a l i n i n g r a d , n o w at S t . P e t e r s b u r g , State H e r i t a g e M u s e u m ; see E v e r s 1 9 4 4 , fig . 292. T h i s

the p r i n t , w h i c h also exists w i t h o u t the verse ( S t u t t g a r t , S t a a t s g a l e r i c ,

w o r k is d i s c u s s e d b y B a u m s t a r k 1974, p p . 1 7 7 - 7 8 ; a n d V a n G e l d e r

G r a p h i s c h e S a m m l u n g , inv. A 9 8 / 6 7 7 6 , b [ i a c ] ) . I a m g r a t e f u l t o H a n s

1950/51, p p . 115-16.

M a r t i n K a u l b a c h , G r a p h i s c h e S a m m l u n g , Staatsgaleric Stuttgart, for

15. T h e s t a n d i n g f e m a l e n u d e , legs c r o s s e d , appears e a r l y i n R u b e n s ' s o e u vre in Adam

and Eve (ca. 1599; A n t w e r p , R u b e n s h u i s ) a n d i n

and Omphale

( 1 6 0 2 - 0 5 ; P a r i s , M u s e e d u L o u v r e , i n v . 854).

Hercules

his k i n d assistance w i t h these p r i n t s . S m i t h ( 1 8 2 9 - 4 2 , p p . 3 0 6 , 396, n o . 1122) was a w a r e o f the c o m p o s i t i o n as a r e s u l t o f the A v r i l e n g r a v i n g , as was R o o s e s ( 1 8 8 6 - 9 2 , v o l . 4 , p p . 5 2 - 5 3 ) , w h o c i t e d the l i k e l y p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r . E l l i s W a t e r h o u s e m a d e n o t e o f

16. R u b e n s was a n a v i d c o l l e c t o r o f g e m s , a n d s u c h a g e m w a s i n h i s c o l

the p r e s e n t p a i n t i n g i n 1953 d u r i n g a v i s i t t o M u c h M a r c l e at H e l l e n s ,

l e c t i o n ; see N e v e r o v 1979, p . 4 3 2 ; a n d A n t w e r p 2 0 0 4 , p p . 287, 289.

n e a r L e d b u r y , a P e n n i n g t o n - M e l l o r p r o p e r t y , i d e n t i f y i n g it as the

A g e m o f s i m i l a r d e s c r i p t i o n is m e n t i o n e d b y R u b e n s i n a letter

w o r k c a t a l o g u e d b y S m i t h as n o . 1122, a l t h o u g h a p p a r e n t l y w i t h o u t

t o A n t o i n e P e i r e s c ( M a y 1628); see V a n d e r M e u l e n 1994, v o l . 1, p p . 2 0 6 - 7 , n o . 4- T h e h e l m e t d e p i c t e d i n The Return from War,

while

s i m i l a r t o s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y e x a m p l e s , is d i s t i n c t f r o m the N e g r o i i style h e l m e t p o s s e s s e d b y R u b e n s a n d u s e d i n h i s Portrait as the God Mars

of a

Man

(ca. 1 6 2 0 - 2 5 ; p r i v a t e c o l l e c t i o n ) ; see B o s t o n -

T o l e d o 1 9 9 3 - 9 4 , pp. 2 8 7 - 8 9 ; N e w Y o r k 1 9 9 8 - 9 9 , pp. 152-54; a n d Karcheski 2001. 17. R e n g e r a n d D e n k 2 0 0 2 , p p . 3 7 6 - 7 9 . The Crowning

seeing it ("Account o f Pictures i n B r i t i s h Private C o l l e c t i o n s June 1 9 5 3 - A u g . 1955" [p. 35], B o x 6, F o l d e r 3, E l l i s K i r k h a m W a t e r h o u s e N o t e b o o k s a n d R e s e a r c h F i l e s , 1 9 0 1 - 1 9 8 7 [ b u l k ca. 1 9 2 4 - c a . 1979], G e t t y R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e , R e s e a r c h L i b r a r y , a c c e s s i o n n o . 8 7 0 2 0 4 ) . See V a n M u l d e r s 2 0 0 5 , p. 199 ( w h i c h a p p e a r e d t o o late t o be a d d r e s s e d here) f o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f t w o c o p i e s a n d a v a r i a n t o f t h i s c o m p o s i t i o n . 2 4 . U n k n o w n s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y F l e m i s h artist, Studies for the

of Virtue

is o n e o f a

g r o u p o f a l l e g o r i c a l p a i n t i n g s f r o m a b o u t 1614 i n w h i c h R u b e n s p o r

Martyrdom

of Saint Sebastian and Venus (ca. 1625 [ r e v i s e d t i t l e a n d d a t e ] , o i l o n p a p e r l a i d d o w n o n canvas, 63.5 x 56 c m [25 x 22 i n . ] ; B a s e l ,

t r a y e d scenes f r o m the life o f the C h r i s t i a n K n i g h t a n d the V i r t u o u s

C o l l e c t i o n L u d w i g G e i g e r ) . T h i s ricordo was a t t r i b u t e d t o A n t h o n y

S o l d i e r . C r e a t e d o n a m o n u m e n t a l scale, these w o r k s are c h a r a c t e r i z e d

v a n D y c k b y A . S c h u g ( 1 9 8 5 - 8 6 , p. 147, p i - 32). U n t i l n o w , the f e m a l e

b y s t r o n g l y l i t , p o w e r f u l figures. See V a n d e r A u w e r a 1985 a n d

figure

R o s e n t h a l 1993.

u n i d e n t i f i e d s o u r c e ; see S c h u g , i b i d . , a n d C h r i s t o p h e r B r o w n i n

18. T h i s is o n e o f a series o f e i g h t p r i n t s o f H u m a n A c t i v i t i e s , p r e s u m a b l y

o n the sheet has b e e n i d e n t i f i e d as a n A n d r o m e d a f r o m an

Y o k o h a m a - S h i z u o k a - O s a k a 1 9 9 0 , p . 1 4 4 , cat. n o . 7.

d e s i g n e d b y F r a n s F l o r i s , t h o u g h o n l y o n e is d a t e d — 1 5 7 4 (after the

25. O i l o n c o p p e r , 47.5 x 82.5 c m [18V4 x 32^2 i n . ] ; E n g l a n d , K i n g s t o n

d e a t h o f F l o r i s ) . See V a n de V e l d e 1975, v o l . 1, p p . 4 2 8 - 2 9 , n o . P129;

L a c y , N a t i o n a l T r u s t , p r i v a t e c o l l e c t i o n . See W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 , v o l . 1,

v o l . 2, f i g . 282. T h e i n s c r i p t i o n o n the p r i n t , " M a u o r t i s B e l l o n a s o r o r

p . 195, n o . A 148; v o l . 2, p . 4 2 2 .

. . . n u d u s m e m b r a P y r a e m o n , " is f r o m V i r g i l ' s Aeneid,

a source w h i c h

i n f l u e n c e d B r u e g h e l ' s i n v e n t i o n o f the v a u l t e d f o r g e i n t e r i o r . See cat. n o . 17. 19. T h e g u i n e a p i g s w e r e p a i n t e d f r o m life a n d a p p e a r i n m a n y c o m p o s i t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g cat. n o s . 4 , 6, 12, 21, a n d 26 i n t h i s v o l u m e , a n d n o t a b l y i n the e a r l y large Venus o f 1600 p a i n t e d w i t h H e n d r i c k v a n B a l e n (St. P e t e r s b u r g , State H e r m i t a g e M u s e u m , i n v . 3256). T h e a n i m a l s w e r e first i n t r o d u c e d t o E u r o p e f r o m S o u t h A m e r i c a , p o s s i b l y v i a W e s t A f r i c a a b o u t 1580. See Z e u n e r 1963, p p . 4 3 6 - 3 7 , 4 3 9 ; W e i r 1974, p p . 4 3 7 - 3 8 ; a n d V e r n o n N . K i s l i n g , Jr., " A n c i e n t C o l l e c t i o n s and Menageries: Earliest L i v e N e w W o r l d A n i m a l s Sent to E u r o p e a n M e n a g e r i e s , " i n K i s l i n g 2 0 0 1 , p . 35. F o r the a r r i v a l o f n e w species i n E u r o p e f r o m the N e w W o r l d , see K o l b 2 0 0 5 , p p . 1 7 - 2 0 . B r u e g h e l b o r r o w e d the m a g n i f i c e n t g r a y h o r s e f r o m R u b e n s , w h e r e it first

RUBENS AND

BRUEGHEL

3 Peter Paul Rubens and Jan Brueghel the Elder

The Feast of Acheious ca.

1614-15

O i l on panel, 109.5 x 165.7 cm ( 4 3 V 8 x 65V4 in.) New York, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of Alvin and Irwin Untermyer in memory of their parents, 1 9 4 5 , inv. 45.141

E r t z 1979, p p . 415, 613, n o . 335; L i e d t k e 1984,

PROVENANCE

Basile de S c h l i c h t i n g c o l l e c t i o n , Paris, 1906;

p p . 1 9 4 - 9 8 ; L i e d t k e i n V l i e g h e 1992, p p . 1 9 0 - 9 2 ; V a n M u l d e r s 2 0 0 0 , p p . 113, 118

J u l i u s B o h l e r (art d e a l e r ) , M u n i c h , 1910; Samuel Untermyer collection, N e w York,

EXHIBITIONS

1912 (sale, N e w Y o r k , P a r k e B e r n e t , M a y 10, 1 9 4 0 , l o t 52, b o u g h t i n ) ; A l v i n a n d I r w i n

N e w Y o r k 1919, cat. n o . 21; D e t r o i t 1936, cat. n o . 5; N e w Y o r k 1973; N e w Y o r k 1977,

Untermyer collection, 1940-45

cat. n o . 388; D o r d r e c h t 2 0 0 0 - 0 1 , cat. n o . 6 6

LITERATURE

H e l d i 9 4 i ; W e h l e 1 9 4 6 ; D e M a e y e r 1955, p p . 4 7 - 4 8 , 118; S p e t h - H o l t e r h o f f 1957, p . 88; V a n P u y v e l d e 1 9 6 4 ; M u l l e r H o f s t e d e 1968, p . 225; A l p e r s 1971, p p . 9 3 - 9 4 , 162;

N T H E LATE SIXTEENTH CENTURY, T H E B A N Q U E T

of the Gods became a popular subject in Haarlem and Utrecht among such artists as Hendrick Goltzius ( 1 5 5 8 - 1 6 1 7 ) , Cornelis van Haarlem ( 1 5 6 2 - 1 6 3 8 ) , Abraham Bloemaert ( 1 5 6 6 - 1 6 5 1 ) , and Joachim Wtewael ( 1 5 6 6 - 1 6 3 8 ) . In 1587 Goltzius introduced the theme in the North with his phenomenal print of The Wedding of Cupid and Psyche after Bartholomeus Spranger ( 1 5 4 6 - 1 6 1 1 ) . A Banquet of the Gods—which could depict any one of a number of stories from classical mythology—provided the artist with an opportunity to portray an array of nude figures in a variety of poses ranged around a sumptuous banquet table. In 1550 the Antwerp master Frans Floris (ca. 1 5 1 9 / 2 0 - 1 5 7 0 ) had painted a Banquet of the Gods on a monumental scale with large figures—dressed as well as nude—filling the picture plane. It was, however, the influence exerted by the 1

RUBENS

A N D BRUEGHEL

above-mentioned Mannerist masters, and also Hans Rottenhammer, that popularized the theme in the Southern Netherlands from about 1 6 0 0 onward. In Brussels it was depicted by Hendrick de Clerck and in Antwerp by Hendrick van Balen, often in collaboration with Jan Brueghel the Elder, who painted the fantasy landscapes and richly laid tables. The earliest dated Banquet of the Gods by Van Balen and Brueghel is The Wedding ofPeleus and Thetis, dated 1608 (fig. 4 1 ) . About 1 6 1 4 - 1 5 Brueghel collaborated with Rubens on The Feast ofAcheious, a Banquet of the Gods that is considerably larger than earlier Flemish cabinet paintings. Ovid recounts in the Metamorphoses ( 8 . 5 4 7 - 6 1 9 ) the story of Theseus, son of the king of Athens, who was returning home after his adventures in Crete and Calydon when he came to the rain-swollen river called Acheious. The river god advised Theseus and his traveling companions against 3

appeared and served them from her bounteous horn with all autumn's harvest" (Metamorphoses 9 . 8 0 - 9 2 ) . In the paint ing, two nymphs approach from the left, carrying a cornu copia, and a third nymph—her water-drenched blonde hair matted on her back—lifts out of the water a large conch filled with shellfish. While this water nymph is seen from the back, Rubens depicted Theseus frontally and his friend Lelex from the side. These figures derive from drawings he made in Italy of antique statues, including the Torso Belvedere in Rome. Rubens varied not only the poses of his idealized nude figures and the angle from which they are seen but also the flesh tones: the women and young men are pale, while the bearded men have darker complexions. Brueghel based his cave setting on earlier Banquets of the Gods made in collaboration with Van Balen, including depic tions of the Wedding of Peleus and Thetis, the Wedding of Bacchus and Ariadne, the Feast of Acheious, and Banquets of the Gods set in sea caves. In these paintings he had tried out various motifs, such as the arched caves lined with shells, the gifts brought forth from the water, and the ban quet table with costly vessels displayed on an oriental carpet and white tablecloth. This last motif can in fact be traced to Goltzius's influential print after Spranger. In all likeli hood, The Feast ofAcheious on which Van Balen collaborated with Jan Brueghel the Younger (fig. 4 2 ) was based on a lost work he had earlier made with Jan Brueghel the Elder. The wide-ranging variety of Rubens's figures and the wealth of detail in Brueghel's scenery, as well as the large dimensions of the panel, make The Feast ofAcheious an extremely ambitious work—undoubtedly the result of close consultation and mature deliberation. Brueghel created a highly imaginative cave landscape in which the river flows right up to the foreground. The two figures emerging from the water at the lower left, as well as the elements depicted in the foreground—water lilies, shells, and fish—all serve to emphasize the scene's aquatic surroundings. The table laid with sumptuous fare—featuring oysters, lobsters, and roast game—must have been painted after Rubens completed his figures. It is clear, for example, that the oysters were painted around the outstretched fingers of Theseus's left hand and that the wineglasses were later placed in the figures' hands. Many details—such as the cornucopia carried by the nymphs, the shellfish proffered by the blonde nymph, the lobster on the arm of the bearded sea creature at the lower left, the jug held by the servant pouring wine, and the 8

F I G U R E 41 J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r a n d H e n d r i c k v a n B a l e n , The

Wedding

ofPeleus and Thetis, 1608. O i l o n c o p p e r , 4 4 x 61 c m (17V8 x 2 4 i n . ) . D r e s d e n , Staatliche K u n s t s a m m l u n g , Gemaldegalerie A l t e Meister, inv. 920

crossing and invited them to join him at table. Theseus was entertained in "the river-god's dark dwelling, built of porous pumice and rough tufa; the floor was damp with soft moss, conchs and purple-shells paneled the ceiling." After the banquet, Theseus asked Acheious to tell him about the islands in the river, which used to be naiads. One of them, Perimele, had been the object of the river god's love. When he robbed her of her maidenhood, her father had been so incensed that he hurled her from a cliff into the sea in an attempt to kill her. Acheious, however, prayed to Neptune to save her, whereupon "a new land embraced her floating form and a solid island grew from her transformed shape." Rubens placed the river god in the middle of the picture, pointing to the island in the background while looking at young Theseus, seated opposite him at the table. Sitting next to Theseus is his bosom friend Pirithous, who turns to him impatiently. H e laughs at Acheious, calling his stories "fairy tales," but Theseus's older companion Lelex, seated at the right, upbraids him, saying, "The power of heaven is indeed immeasurable and has no bounds...." Acheious then told the assembled company how he had transformed himself into a savage bull to fight the brave Hercules, who eventually laid him low and broke off one of his horns, which the naiads filled with fruit and flowers. A t this point in Acheloiis's story, a nymph, "one of the attendants with locks flowing free,

RUBENS AND

BRUEGHEL

willow wreath in Acheious' hair (covering the wound in his head where Hercules had torn off his horn) —were painted by Brueghel in the final stages. Compared with most of the other paintings on which these two masters collaborated, Rubens's contribution to this complex composition is very great indeed. Although this might lead one to suspect that he initiated the project, the type of depiction—a Banquet of the Gods set against a cavelike backdrop—most likely stems from the repertoire that Brueghel developed together with Hendrick van Balen. A v S 12

W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 , n o s . A 5 7 - 5 9 ( A 58 a n d A 59 w i t h J a n B r u e g h e l t h e Y o u n g e r , The Feast of Acheious), The Wedding

A 6 1 - 6 2 ( w i t h J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r , A 110-12 ( A n o a n d A H I w i t h

of Bacchus and Ariadne),

J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r , A 112 w i t h J a n B r u e g h e l the Y o u n g e r , The Wedding

ofPeleus

and Thetis), A 1 1 6 - 2 2 ( A 117-21 w i t h J a n B r u e g h e l

the E l d e r , B a n q u e t s o f the G o d s ) , A 1 2 3 - 2 6 ( A 125 a n d A 126 w i t h J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r , B a n q u e t s o f the G o d s i n a sea s e t t i n g ) . 5. See W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 , n o . A n o . 6. L i k e Diana

by Jan B r u e g h e l the E l d e r and R u b e n s

at the Hunt

(cat. n o . 10), t h i s p a i n t i n g is p i c t u r e d i n an Allegory

of Painting

J a n B r u e g h e l the Y o u n g e r ( P h o e n i x - I C a n s a s C i t y - T h e H a g u e 1 9 9 8 - 9 9 , cat. n o . 8). 7. F o r t h e passages q u o t e d i n t h i s p a r a g r a p h , see O v i d ,

NOTES

Books I-VJII,

p p . 4 4 5 - 4 9 ; a n d O v i d , Metamorphoses,

Metamorphoses, Books

IX-XV,

p . 9 ( L o e b C l a s s i c a l L i b r a r y , C a m b r i d g e , M a s s . , a n d L o n d o n , 1994). 1. See V a n T h i e l 1999, n o . 159; R o e t h l i s b e r g e r a n d B o k 1993, n o s . 12 a n d 2 4 ; a n d L o w e n t h a l 1986, n o s . A 4 , 2 0 , 3 0 , 4 9 , 50, a n d 53, see also n . 2. C o m p a r e also D i r c k B a r e n d s z ' s p r i n t Mankind

before the Flood o f

ca. 1580 ( A m s t e r d a m 1986, cat. n o . 309.1).

M e u l e n 1 9 9 4 , v o l . 1, p. 4 8 ; v o l . 2, p p . 5 6 - 5 9 ; a n d v o l . 3, figs. 7 5 - 7 9 ;

2 0 0 3 - 0 4 , cat. n o . 28.

see also A n t w e r p 1993, p p . 1 2 4 - 2 7 . of the Gods (1550; A n t w e r p , K o n i n k l i j k M u s e u m

v o o r S c h o n e K u n s t e n , i n v . 956); a n d H a n s R o t t e n h a m m e r , Banquet

the Gods ( 1 6 0 0 ; S t . P e t e r s b u r g , S t a t e H e r m i t a g e M u s e u m , i n v . 6 8 8 ) ; see S c h l i c h t e n m a i e r 1988, n o . G 1 37; a n d W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 , fig. 30. 4 . See, f o r e x a m p l e , H e n d r i c k de C l e r c k a n d J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r , The Wedding

ofPeleus

M e u l e n 1 9 9 4 , v o l . 3, figs. 1 0 2 - 4 ; f o r t h e a n t i q u e statue o n w h i c h T h e s e u s was m o d e l e d (at t h a t t i m e i n F l o r e n c e , b u t n o w l o s t ) , see L i e d t k e 1984, p p . 1 9 5 - 9 6 , n . 8; f o r the T o r s o B e l v e d e r e , see V a n d e r

2. A m s t e r d a m 1 9 9 3 - 9 4 , cat. n o . 2; a n d A m s t e r d a m - N e w Y o r k - T o l e d o

3. F r a n s F l o r i s , Banquet

8. F o r d r a w i n g s after R u b e n s o f an a n t i q u e f e m a l e t o r s o , see V a n d e r

and Thetis ( P a r i s , M u s e e d u L o u v r e , i n v . R F 1 9 4 5 - 1 7 ) ,

a n d H e n d r i c k d e C l e r c k , The Feast of Acheious

(Madrid, Museo

9. See n o t e 4 a b o v e . 10. T h e s e a r c h e d caves c o u l d h a v e b e e n i n s p i r e d b y t h e a r c h e d

architecture

o f r u i n s seen i n the w o r k o f H a n s R o t t e n h a m m e r (see n o t e 3 a b o v e ) . 11. See W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 , n o . A 58. 12. See O v i d , Metamorphoses,

Books IX-XV,

pp. 3-9 (Loeb Classical

L i b r a r y , C a m b r i d g e , M a s s . , and L o n d o n , 1994).

N a c i o n a l d e l P r a d o , i n v . 2071). R e g a r d i n g H e n d r i c k v a n B a l e n , see

FIGURE 42

H e n d r i c k van Balen and

J a n B r u e g h e l the Y o u n g e r , The Feast of

Acheious,

1 6 1 0 - 2 0 . O i l o n p a n e l , 55.9 x 92.7 c m (22 x 3 6 A i n . ) . D a y t o n ( O h i o ) A r t I n s t i t u t e , ]

G i f t o f M r . R o b e r t B a d e n h o p , i n v . 1957.137

RUBENS

AND

BRUEGHEL

4 Jan Brueghel the Elder and Peter Paul Rubens

The Garden of Eden with the Fall of Man ca. 1617 O i l on panel, 74.3 x 114.7 cm (29V4 x 45Vs in.)

The Hague, Royal Picture Gallery Mauritshuis, inv. 253

L e i d e n , S e p t e m b e r 8, 1766, l o t 1; c o l l e c t i o n

I NSCRI P T I O N S

A t l o w e r left, P E T R I P A V L I . R V B E N S F I G R . ; at l o w e r r i g h t , I B R V E G H E L F E C . [ I a n d B i n

1766;

1996; V a n M u l d e r s 2 0 0 0 , p p . 114, 118;

Gallery o f Stadholder W i l l e m V, The

Hague,

W a d u m 2001; Tamis 2 0 0 1 - 0 2 ; W a d u m

1774-95; M u s e e N a p o l e o n (Musee d u

l i g a t u r e ] ; o n the reverse, panelmaker's m a r k ,

L o u v r e ) , P a r i s , 1795-1815; G a l l e r y o f

G G [in ligature]

W i l l e m V , T h e H a g u e , 1815-22; PROVENANCE

Mauritshuis,

K o l b 2005, pp. EXHIBITIONS

2 0 0 4 a (not i n catalogue)

A d r i a a n W i t t e r t van der A a c o l l e c t i o n ,

2002;

78-80.

E s s e n - V i e n n a 2 0 0 3 , cat. n o . 106; A n t w e r p

s i n c e 1822

P o s s i b l y J o h a n de B y e c o l l e c t i o n , L e i d e n ;

n o . 308; B r o o s 1993, p p . 8 8 - 9 5 ; B e a u j e a n

of Stadholder W i l l e m V, The Hague,

LITERATURE

H o u b r a k e n 1718-21, v o l . 1, p . 87; C a m p o

L e i d e n , 1710; P i e t e r de l a C o u r t v a n d e r V o o r t

W e y e r m a n 1 7 2 9 - 6 9 , v o l . 1, p . 348; H o e t

c o l l e c t i o n , L e i d e n , 1 7 1 0 - 3 9 ; A l l a r d de l a

a n d T e r w e s t e n 1 7 5 2 - 7 0 , v o l . 3, p . 542; V o n

C o u r t van der V o o r t c o l l e c t i o n , L e i d e n ,

U f f e n b a c h 1753-54, v o l . 3, p . 4 2 1 ; T h o r e -

1739-55; C a t h a r i n a de l a C o u r t v a n d e r V o o r t -

B i i r g e r 1 8 5 8 - 6 0 , v o l . 1, p p . 2 8 8 - 8 9 ; D r o s s a e r s

B a c k e r c o l l e c t i o n , L e i d e n , 1 7 5 5 - 6 6 , sale,

a n d L u n s i n g h S c h e u r l e e r 1 9 7 4 - 7 6 , v o l . 3, p p . 2 0 2 - 3 ; E r t z 1979, p p . 236, 245, 391,

N 1766,

WHEN

STADHOLDER

WILLEM

BOUGHT

The Garden of Eden for the considerable sum of 7,350 guilders at the sale of the De la Court van der Voort collection, he could feel sure he had done the right thing by recalling the high praise expressed for this panel by the artists' biographer, Arnold Houbraken. In his Groote Schouburgh of 1718, Houbraken called the painting: "the most outstanding in Art that I have seen by him [Brueghel] is the so-called paradise at Mr. De la Court van der Voort's in Leiden, in which a multitude of divers animals appear in the most ingenious way in a landscape painted no less ingeniously, with Adam and Eve rendered in the greatest of detail by Rubens." In 1729 Houbraken's younger colleague Jacob Campo Weyerman enlarged upon this encomium by adding that "this glorious work of art... was conceived and painted in collaboration by Rubens and Brueghel, each 2

BRUEGHEL

AND RUBENS

master having challenged the other, as though in a competi tion, to do his utmost." In short, both of these renowned Antwerp masters felt honored to be collaborating on this masterpiece. "Both [contributions] incomparable" were the words used by the German traveler Zacharias von Uffenbach to praise the work of these two friends and artists, whose painting he had admired in 1711 at De la Court's in Leiden. In buying this perfectly preserved painting, the stadholder had acquired an outstanding example of the collaborative efforts of these two masters—the only painting, moreover, to bear both their signatures. Inscribed at the lower right edge of the panel is I B R V E G H E L F E C , and at the lower left, in larger capitals, P E T R I P A V L I . R V B E N S F I G R . The use of the genitive case and the designation F I G R suggests that the latter inscription should be translated as: "the figures belong to [i.e., are the 3

work of] Peter Paul Rubens." As far as we know, this is the only example of an inscription that reveals the division of labor in a collaborative work of this kind. Rubens, for that matter, must have been responsible not only for the figures of Adam and Eve but also for the brown horse next to Adam and the serpent in the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. It has been assumed, because both signatures appear in the same red-brown paint, that Brueghel applied Rubens's name as well as his own upon completion of the painting. The letters of Rubens's signature are larger, however, and were applied with a finer brush, so it is conceivable that the two painters, after approving the result, applied their signatures at the same time from the same palette. Burned into the back of the panel is a panelmaker's mark, which gives some basis for dating the work. It is the mark of Guilliam G a b r o n — G G interlaced with a floral motif— who since 1609 had been registered with the Antwerp guild as a tafereelmaker (panelmaker). H e used this mark from 1614 to 1626. From 1617, the brand of the city of Antwerp would also have been burned into the panel. Its absence here sug gests a tentative dating to between 1614 and 1617, although the lack of the Antwerp brand could also be explained by the fact that the panel was ordered specially as a support for this painting, thereby possibly escaping the notice of the guild's inspectors. Dendrochronological research recently carried out on the wood indicates 1612 as the earliest possible dating but suggests 1622 or after as more plausible. The traditional dating of the painting to about 1617 is therefore still acceptable. The Garden of Eden with the EM ofMan fits into a series of animal pictures in which Brueghel concentrated on making true-to-life depictions of all God's creatures. The earliest example is a paradise landscape—now in the Galleria Doria Pamphilj in Rome—with the creation of Adam in the back ground (fig. 75). Brueghel signed this work and dated it 1594, which means it originated during his stay in Rome. The Staatsgalerie Neuburg an der Donau has a paradise scene by Jan Brueghel to which the Brussels painter Hendrick de Clerck contributed the figures of Adam and Eve (cat. no. 16). Its strong resemblance to such works as the 1594 painting means that we can assume it was painted early on, probably not long after Brueghel's return from Italy in the autumn of 1596 (De Clerck had already returned from his Italian sojourn about 1590). This small round painting shows the same moment in the story of the Creation as the Garden of Eden in the Mauritshuis; moreover, the way in which Eve 6

BRUEGHEL

AND RUBENS

reaches up to grasp the apple is very similar. Thus, some twenty years before Brueghel portrayed this subject with Rubens, he had already collaborated with another artist on a scene of the Garden of Eden. The story of the animals entering Noah's ark also provided a pretext for depicting a wide variety of species (see cat. no. 2 6 ) . Moreover, in his series of the Four Elements, Brueghel seized the opportunity offered by Water to depict both fish and shellfish; similarly, the representation of Air was the perfect occasion to portray countless birds. Just as his flower paintings gave him the chance to depict, in ency clopedic fashion, every bloom known to him, the story of the Creation provided the ideal setting for all kinds of animals— indigenous as well as exotic—nearly all of which he probably studied from life. Before this time, such artists as Albrecht Durer ( 1 4 7 1 - 1 5 2 8 ) , Hans Bol ( 1 5 3 4 - 1 5 9 3 ) , and Jacques de Gheyn ( 1 5 6 5 - 1 6 2 9 ) had painstakingly depicted animals from life, but Brueghel placed them in their natural habitat, demon strating as well his keen observation of their movements and behavior. Here, for example, the dogs bark at quacking ducks, the felines frolic, the guinea pigs nibble beans, and the heron is poised to catch fish in the shallow water. As in the painting in Neuburg—but in contrast to Brueghel's paradise scenes—the portrayal of the first couple is an important part of the Mauritshuis painting. Adam and Eve are depicted on the left, beneath the tree of the knowl edge of good and evil, on which grow not only apples but other fruits as well. O n the opposite side of the brook, emerging in the middle from the wooded landscape, another tree—the tree of life—is heavily laden with fruit. According to Genesis 2 : 8 - 1 4 , the tree of life and the tree of the knowl edge of good and evil stood in the middle of the Garden of Eden, and a river sprang forth that watered this paradise. Here, Eve gives Adam an apple while reaching up to take the apples offered to her by the serpent coiled around a branch. On the left, behind Adam, a monkey bites into an apple. This animal, which apes human behavior, stands for sin. It traditionally plays a role in depictions of the Fall of Man, together with the cat, here rubbing its head against Eve's leg. According to the doctrine of the Four Humors, the sanguine monkey next to Adam is the hothead who cannot resist temptation, whereas Eve's choleric cat is a symbol of cruel cunning. In the dark green foliage behind Adam and Eve, several bunches of grapes catch the light; in Christian symbolism they refer to Christ's death on the cross (as wine represents his blood), a prefiguration of the redemption 12

of humankind from its innate sinfulness, the consequence of the F a l l . Depicted here is the moment just before the eating of the forbidden fruit, when all the animals in para dise were still living together in harmony and Adam and Eve were naked. Brueghel, who likely took the initiative in this project, laid in the composition by means of an underdrawing, using only a few lines to sketch in the contours of the landscape on the primed panel. A couple of zigzagging lines repre senting the right bank of the brook were all he needed to indicate its course, and a few semicircular lines sufficed to suggest the clearing in the woods. H e drew one or two diag onal lines to sketch the landscape running into the distance in the right background. The position of the trees to the right of the couple in the middle distance are also indicated in Brueghel's underdrawing, though he did not follow it exactly when painting. In addition to the broad lines of the landscape in the right half of the painting, Brueghel's underdrawing included a number of animals: the dogs at the water's edge were drawn briskly and schematically, but when painted they were placed lower down and more to the left. The dog on the right seems, in the underdrawing, to have its tail between its legs instead of up in the air. Moreover, the peacocks appear in the underdrawing, but in the painting their feet are placed more to the left. Finally, the cat rubbing its head against Eve's leg also appears in the preliminary sketch, but here, too, the underdrawing seems not to have been followed precisely during the painting process. It is not known why so few animals were sketched in at this stage. That Rubens's figures were also positioned according to an underdrawing is suggested by the fact that Brueghel knew where to place his cat. However, the brownish paint Rubens often used for underdrawings cannot be detected with an infrared camera, nor was it observed here with the microscope. In any case, it was Rubens who began to paint, once the overall design of the picture had been established. H e ren dered the play of light on Adam and Eve's skin with subtle nuances of his palette. The shadow cast by the horse on the upper part of Adam's body is the effect of a dark underpainting, applied in places deliberately to shine through the uppermost paint layer. To prepare a place for his figures, Rubens rapidly applied thin, fluid paint to render the tree trunk and the rock on which Adam sits. That Rubens is also the author of the brown horse was mentioned as early as 1766 in the De la Court auction catalogue. While Brueghel 18

painted his animals in opaque paint, applying small brush strokes clearly distinguishable from one another, Rubens used transparent layers of paint that allow the underlying layers to remain visible. The serpent also displays Rubens's typical manner of painting. When Rubens had finished his part, Brueghel took over and applied a green tone as a basis for the landscape. Then he painted the sky, leaving reserves for the trees; by painting the outermost leaves over the blue of the sky he created the effect of light shining through the leaves. H e went on to paint the larger animals and then worked up the landscape surrounding them; only the ostrich and a few of the smaller animals were painted on the dry background. Working mostly from front to back in this way, Brueghel could insure that his colors stayed bright; he thus avoided the disturbing effect created by underlying colors shining through paint layers that have become more trans parent with time. Brueghel integrated Rubens's contribution into the composition by applying small retouches along the contours. The long strands he added to Eve's hair overlap part of the flying teal and a few grass stalks. Brueghel also added long strands to the mane of Rubens's horse and made the cat's ear overlap Eve's calf. H e integrated Rubens's tree trunk into the picture by endowing it with countless twigs and leaves. The detailing on the serpent's head—with its pointed ears—and a few strokes along its contours seem to betray the hand of Brueghel, who could also be responsible for some of the pastose accents in Rubens's horse. 23

Rubens's depiction of the Fall is based on late-sixteenthcentury prints—after Marten de Vos ( 1 5 3 2 - 1 6 0 3 ) , Agostino Carracci ( 1 5 5 7 - 1 6 0 2 ) , and Adam Elsheimer ( 1 5 7 8 - 1 6 1 0 ) — which apparently record an older prototype. It is not entirely clear which of these prints Rubens had in mind, but the story is usually portrayed in roughly the same way: Adam sits under the tree of the knowledge of good and evil; next to him stands Eve, who hands him an apple while reaching up to take an apple offered to her by the serpent in the tree. In portraying Adam's athletic body, Rubens was inspired by the Torso Belvedere, an antique statue—which he drew dur ing his stay in Rome—that crops up frequently in his work. Brueghel based the earthly paradise behind Adam and Eve on a design he had used several times with great success: a wooded landscape with a few trees in the foreground (including bare branches on which birds perch), a clearing, and a vast prospect unfolding in the left or right back ground. A paradise landscape painted by Brueghel in 1612, now in the Galleria Doria Pamphilj in Rome, seems to have 24

BRUEGHEL

AND

RUBENS

F I G U R E 4 3 J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r , The of Eden,

Garden

1612. O i l o n p a n e l , 50.3 x 80.1 c m

( i 9 A x 31V2 i n . ) . R o m e , G a l l e r i a D o r i a 3

P a m p h i l j , i n v . F C 341

been the immediate forerunner of the present painting (fig. 4 3 ) . In depicting the animals, Brueghel must have drawn upon his own stock of studies: numerous animals are depicted in exactly the same way in other of his paintings. Some of the animals are also to be found in the few surviv ing animal studies by his hand. The monkey biting into an apple, for example, appears in the oil sketch in Vienna (cat. no. 2 8 ) ; the surf scoter (the black duck with white on the back of its head) is based on an example in an oil sketch on panel displaying ducks and birds (fig. 4 4 ) ; the toucan in the center derives from a bird study in o i l ; the deer appear on a recently discovered sheet with studies drawn in ink (fig. 4 5 ) . These sketches reveal yet again that Brueghel based his animals primarily on his own observations of nature and that he had seen nearly all these animals at first hand. The exceptions are the romping tiger and leopard, the lion, and the white horse in the background, which are based on examples by Rubens that Brueghel often copied in his animal paintings. Rubens, in turn, based his studies of lions and horses on examples from antiquity and the Renaissance, as well as on live specimens. The penchant for encyclopedic detail—demonstrated by Brueghel in his paradise landscapes, flower pieces, and series of the Four Elements and the Five Senses—is deeply rooted in his time: an era in which new discoveries were the order of the day and there was great optimism about the possibility 27

BRUEGHEL

AND RUBENS

of acquiring complete knowledge and understanding of nature. Scores of explorers voyaging to newly discovered, far-off lands brought home unknown species of plants and animals, which were studied and recorded by scientists and avidly collected by enthusiasts, aristocratic or otherwise. Publications appearing in the second half of the sixteenth century were the first to classify the animal species, offering systematic descriptions accompanied by illustrations. These publications were based on the Historia naturalis (A.D. 77) by Pliny, who in turn based his descriptions of animals, birds, and fish on his observations of real-life specimens. The huge popularity of Pliny's encyclopedia, first printed in 1 4 6 9 , led to its translation into various languages over the course of the sixteenth century. In 1551 the Swiss naturalist Conrad Gesner published his Historia animalium, followed by the encyclopedia of nature published by the Bolognese professor Ulisse Aldrovandi in 1599. If Brueghel did not own these influential works himself, he could have consulted them in Rubens's library. H e would also have had easy access to the prints of naturalia published in Antwerp by Nicolaas Bruyn (1571-1656) and Adriaen Collaert (ca. 1 5 6 0 - 1 6 1 8 ) . Brueghel's paradise scenes may be viewed as painted encyclopedias of the animal kingdom, his depictions of the various species being based primarily on empirical knowl edge. Moreover, his exact rendering of the animals' colors is an aspect that was lacking in the illustrated encyclopedias. 33

3 5

It was precisely the dazzling range of colors in the natural world that appealed to the imagination, as evidenced, for example, by the writings of Cardinal Federico Borromeo, one of Brueghel's most important patrons. According to this Italian theologian, all aspects of the visible and natural world were made manifest through color, and it was nature's rich palette that led to the recognition of God as the supreme painter. Karel van Mander expressed the same idea in his 1 6 0 4 treatise Den Grondt der edel vrij Schilder-const: "In the beginning, when all created things... were given their colors by this supremely skillful painter and image-maker / how could the source of color prove more liberal?" In 1 6 0 4 Brueghel had been in Prague, where, at the menagerie of Emperor Rudolf II, he was able to observe countless exotic animals and birds. Closer to home, in Brussels, he had access to the archducal zoological gardens with their aviaries and fish ponds. In 1621 Brueghel wrote to Borromeo about a painting he had made in which "the birds and animals were done from life from several of Her Serene Highness's specimens." Moreover, Antwerp, where Brueghel lived, was an important harbor, a point of arrival for costly goods from the New World and a place where exotic animals were no doubt seen with regularity. The pres ent painting features a host of exotic birds, often depicted in pairs, as well as such indigenous European species as the pheasant, heron, curlew, goldfinch, swallow, stork, swan, teal, tawny owl, hoopoe, sparrow hawk, spotted wood pecker, and golden oriole. In the left foreground is a wil d turkey, which the Spanish first brought from the Americas in the early sixteenth century, and on Eve's right is a pair o f peacocks, a bird native to India, whose magnificent plumage made it a favorite in aristocratic collections. Like the Afric an ostrich, these birds, which cannot fly, make their nests on the ground. In addition to two toucans and a splendid pair of purple gallinules in the right foreground, Brueghel also painted various parrots, whose ability to speak links them to the earthly paradise, where all animals still had the capacity for speech. Swimming in the brook, besides a carp and a pike, is a male surf scoter native to North America (see fig. 4 4 ) ; the dogs at the water's edge bark at a teal and a Barrow's goldeneye. Particularly eye-catching are the birds of paradise, one on the ground at Adam's feet and the other in flight, seen against the blue sky. Since their discovery in New Guinea by the Portuguese in the early sixteenth century, these animals had been known in Europe only as stuffed specimens with their feet removed. Their seeming lack of 36

FIGURE 44

J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r , Sketches of Ducks and Birds,

ca. 1615.

O i l o n p a n e l , 2 4 x 34.5 c m (9V2 x 13Vs i n . ) . P r e s e n t w h e r e a b o u t s u n k n o w n F I G U R E 4 5 J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r , Studies of Deer in Various

Positions,

ca. 1615. P e n a n d b r u s h i n b r o w n i n k , 13.5 x 19.7 c m (5V4 x 7 /4 i n . ) . 3

H a b o l d t & C o m p a n y , N e w York and Paris, 2 0 0 1 - 0 2

BRUEGHEL

AND RUBENS

feet led to the assumption that they were perpetually in flight—in paradise, as it were. Brueghel was the first to depict this bird in its entirety, feet and all, having included flying, footless specimens in 1613 in The Entry of the Animals into Noah^sArk (cat. no. 2 6 ) . In the meantime, he had evidently been able to study a live specimen, presumably in the well-stocked aviaries of Archdukes Albert and Isabella. Various documents reveal that the archducal couple kept a great many birds: in 1605, for example, they received from Isabella's brother, Philip III, various parrots and also mon keys; in 1612 they bought nineteen parakeets and three guinea pigs; the animals they acquired in 1615 included crows, a red macaw, and a toucan; and in 1617 their collec tion was augmented with a large number of canaries. Guinea pigs, first brought to Europe from the Americas in the early sixteenth century, nearly always appear in Brueghel's animal paintings. Apparently, just after returning from Italy, he had not yet seen a live specimen, because—in contrast to the guinea pigs Brueghel painted later on—the guinea pig at Eve's feet in the Neuburg painting (cat. no. 16) does not look very lifelike. The other small animals in the foreground include—in addition to the rabbits, the squirrel, the European tortoise, and the salamander and toads in the right foreground—a squirrel monkey (with the apple) and a capuchin monkey, both native to South America. The hen and the rooster—peacefully pecking in front of the lion's paws—are domesticated animals and belong in a separate category, along with the goats, pigs, sheep, cats, dogs, horses, and dromedaries. Additionally, there are foxes, ele phants, a crocodile, a wolf, and a llama. The eye can roam forever and still fail to detect some of the animals, such as the tiny insects in the foreground. The story of the Fall of M a n provided the ideal context for Brueghel's artistic discovery of nature. His representa tions of paradise depict the animal kingdom in its harmoni ous state of perfection before the Fall. In those days, it was widely believed that the Fall of M a n had also precipitated the loss of knowledge of God's Creation, as well as the loss of the language in which Adam had named the animals. Alongside the study of nature, the book of Genesis was therefore viewed as a source of true knowledge of Creation, and the identification and naming of the species was con sidered the first step toward this renewed understanding. The collectors who acquired Brueghel's depictions of para dise must have considered their religious message of prime importance, for his paintings praise God's Creation in 43

all its variety and abundance. The individual animals usually carry no symbolic meaning, but as a whole they underscore the glory of God's Creation, which—through the fault of humankind, as represented here—can no longer be experi enced in its perfect state. The earthly paradise may have been lost, but the successive owners of this painting—starting with the first, unknown, collector—could consider them selves extremely fortunate in possessing an undisputed mas terpiece from the collaborative oeuvre of these illustrious painters and friends—Rubens and Brueghel. A v S

NOTES

B R U E G H E L

A N D

R U B E N S

1. H o u b r a k e n 1718-21, v o l . 1, p . 87. 2. "het a l l e r u i t m u n t e n s t e

i n K o n s t dat i k van h e m [Brueghel] gezien heb

is het z o o g e n a a m d e p a r a d y s , b y d e n H e e r L e C o u r t v a n d e r V o o r t , t o t L e i d e n , w a a r i n z i g een m e n i g t e v a n a l l e r h a n d e D i e r e n o p ' t a l l e r k o n s t i g s t , i n een n i e t m i n k o n s t i g g e s c h i l d e r t l a n d s c h a p d o e n z i e n : e n de A d a m e n E v a o p ' t a l l e r u i t v o e r i g s t d o o r R u b b e n s

geschildert.":

H o u b r a k e n 1718-21, v o l . 1, p . 87. I n the sale c a t a l o g u e o f S e p t e m b e r 8, 1766, H o u b r a k e n was c i t e d as a r e c o m m e n d a t i o n . A c o l l a b o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g b y B r u e g h e l a n d R u b e n s h a d p r e v i o u s l y b e e n i n the posses s i o n o f the H o u s e o f O r a n g e : i n 1677 W i l l e m H I b o u g h t a and Pomona

Vertumnus

b y the t w o artists. T h i s p a i n t i n g a n d o t h e r w o r k s d e c o

r a t i n g H e t L o o Palace w e r e s o l d at a u c t i o n i n A m s t e r d a m i n 1713; its p r e s e n t l o c a t i o n is u n k n o w n . See J o n c k h e e r e 2 0 0 4 - 0 5 , p . 193. 3. " o v e r h e e r l i j k K o n s t s t u k . . . is i n k o m p a g n i e g e o r d o n n e e r t e n g e s c h i l d e r t b y R u b e n s e n b y B r e u g e l , w e l k e b e y d e M e e s t e r s als o m s t r i j d h e b b e n g e p o o g t o m m a l k a n d e r e n daar o p te v e r p l i g t e n . " : C a m p o W e y e r m a n 1 7 2 9 - 6 9 , v o l . 1, p . 348. 4 . " B e y d e s u n v e r g l e i c h l i c h " : V o n U f f e n b a c h 1753-54, v o l . 3, p . 421. T h i s is the o l d e s t r e c o r d o f the p a i n t i n g . 5. F o r a t r a n s c r i p t i o n , see M a u r i t s h u i s 1935, p . 297. 6. O n t h i s subject, see T a m i s 2 0 0 1 - 0 2 , p . 112. 7. See, a m o n g o t h e r s , W a d u m 2 0 0 1 , p . 25; T a m i s 2 0 0 1 - 0 2 , p . 112; a n d W a d u m 2 0 0 2 , p . 1. 8. F o r a s i m i l a r s i g n a t u r e o f R u b e n s , see h i s Rest on the Plight

into Egypt

(1614; K a s s e l , S t a a t l i c h e M u s e e n , G e m a l d e g a l e r i e A l t e M e i s t e r , inv. G K 87); K a s s e l - F r a n k f u r t 2 0 0 4 , cat. n o . 1. R u b e n s , i n c i d e n t a l l y , s e l d o m signed his paintings. 9. See the essay b y D o h e r t y , L e o n a r d , a n d W a d u m i n t h i s v o l u m e . 10. D r . P e t e r K l e i n , U n i v e r s i t y o f H a m b u r g , r e p o r t d a t e d A p r i l 2 9 , 2 0 0 5 . 11. See E s s e n - V i e n n a 1 9 9 7 - 9 8 , cat. n o . 36. 12. R e g a r d i n g t h i s g e s t u r e , c o m p a r e The Garden

of Eden o f 1566 b y F r a n s

P o u r b u s the E l d e r ( 1 5 6 9 - 1 6 2 2 ) ; see B r o o s 1993, P- 93, fig- 5-

13- J a n B r u e g h e l ' s first k n o w n p a r a d i s e scene s h o w i n g the a n i m a l s enter

26. See T a m i s 2 0 0 1 - 0 2 , p. 126, n . 19. C o m p a r e cat. n o s . 3 a n d 5 i n t h i s volume.

i n g N o a h ' s ark dates f r o m 1596; see A n t w e r p 1998, cat. n o . 36.

27. See W a d u m 2 0 0 2 , p. 2, f ig. 4 ; a n d A n t w e r p 2 0 0 4 , cat. n o . 39.

14. I n the earliest e x a m p l e , d a t i n g f r o m 1 6 0 4 , B r u e g h e l p a i n t e d a l l the e l e m e n t s o n o n e p a n e l ; see E r t z 1979, n o . n o . See also E r t z 1979, p p . 3 6 3 - 8 4 ; a n d K o l b 2 0 0 5 , p p . 5 2 - 5 9 . F o r the series r e p r e s e n t i n g

the

F o u r E l e m e n t s , w h i c h B r u e g h e l p a i n t e d f o r B o r r o m e o b e t w e e n 1606 a n d 1621, see J o n e s 1993, p p . 2 3 7 - 3 8 , n o s . 3 4 a - d .

28. See T a m i s 2 0 0 1 - 0 2 , p. 130. 29. K o l b 2 0 0 0 , fig. 16; sale, Paris, G a l l i e r a , N o v e m b e r 23, 1972, l o t 28. 30. T h e p a n e l t h a t E r t z a t t r i b u t e s t o Jan B r u e g h e l the Y o u n g e r is p e r h a p s a c o p y o f a l o s t s t u d y ; see E r t z 1984, n o . 337.

15. O n t h i s subject, see K o l b 2 0 0 0 . 16. A p r e c u r s o r o f B r u e g h e l ' s a n i m a l d e p i c t i o n s is The Garden

of Eden o f

31. N e w Y o r k - P a r i s 2 0 0 1 - 0 2 , cat. n o . 8. F o r o t h e r a n i m a l s t u d i e s b y

1566 b y F r a n s P o u r b u s the E l d e r (see n o t e 12 a b o v e ) . S t a r t i n g i n a b o u t

B r u e g h e l , see K o l b 2 0 0 0 , figs. 5, 8, a n d 17; a n d K o l b 2 0 0 5 , figs. 16

1 6 0 0 , R o e l a n t S a v e r y — f o l l o w i n g the e x a m p l e o f his e l d e r b r o t h e r

a n d 54.

J a c q u e s — p a i n t e d p a r a d i s e scenes f o r v a r i o u s p a t r o n s , o n e o f w h o m w a s E m p e r o r R u d o l f II ( c o m p a r e A m s t e r d a m 1 9 9 3 - 9 4 , cat. n o . 312). See also C . V a n de V e l d e , " H e t aards Paradijs i n de b e e l d e n d e k u n sten," i n A n t w e r p 1982, p p . 1 6 - 3 5 ; a n d U . K l e i n m a n n , " W o l a g das Paradies? B e o b a c h t u n g e n z u d e n P a r a d i e s l a n d s c h a f t e n des 16. u n d 17. Jahrhunderts," i n E s s e n - V i e n n a 2003, pp. 278-85.

32. O n t h i s subject see, a m o n g o t h e r s , B r o o s 1993, p p . 9 0 - 9 3 ; a n d K o l b 2 0 0 5 , PP- 6 5 - 7 2 . 33. O n t h i s subject, see, a m o n g o t h e r s , K o l b 2 0 0 0 , p p . 5 8 - 8 0 ; a n d K o l b 2005, pp. 21-31. 34. See K o l b 2 0 0 5 , P- 85, n . 65.

17. See P. J. J. v a n T h i e l i n A m s t e r d a m 1 9 9 3 - 9 4 , p . 338.

35. C o m p a r e , f o r i n s t a n c e , a p r i n t b y A d r i a e n C o l l a e r t from Avium

vivae

o f 1580 w i t h p u r p l e g a l l i n u l c s a n d d u c k s ( K o l b 2 0 0 5 , fig. 32).

18. See B r o o s 1993, p . 9419. B o t h H o u b r a k e n a n d C a m p o W e y e r m a n (see n o t e s 2 a n d 3 a b o v e ) d e s c r i b e the p a i n t i n g i n t h e i r b i o g r a p h i e s o f J a n B r u e g h e l ; it was

36. B o r r o m e o ' s / tre Libri delle Laudi

Divine,

published posthumously in

1632, was l a r g e l y d e v o t e d t o c o l o r ; see M a r t i n i 1975, p p . 2 6 4 - 6 8 .

later a s s u m e d t h a t R u b e n s h a d t a k e n the i n i t i a t i v e i n c o n c e i v i n g this

O n B o r r o m e o ' s r o l e as an art t h e o r i s t a n d p a t r o n , see, a m o n g o t h e r s ,

c o m p o s i t i o n . O n t h i s subject, see T a m i s 2 0 0 1 - 0 2 , p. 123, n . 4 .

B e d o n i 1983, Q u i n t 1986, a n d J o n e s 1988 a n d 1993.

2 0 . A s r e g a r d s the u n d e r d r a w i n g a n d o t h e r t e c h n i c a l aspects o f the p a i n t

37. " I n ' t b e g i n / als alle g h e s c h a p e n d i n g h e n . . . heeft al z i j n c o l o u r g h e -

i n g , see the essay b y D o h e r t y , L e o n a r d , a n d W a d u m i n t h i s v o l u m e , as

h a d t v a n desen A l d e r c o n s t i c h s t e n B e e l d e n a e r en S c h i l d e r / h o e can d e r

w e l l as W a d u m 2001 a n d 2 0 0 2 ; r e g a r d i n g the u n d e r d r a w i n g , see also

V e r w e n o o r s p r o n g h b l i j e k e n m i l d e r ? " : V a n M a n d e r / M i e d e m a 1973,

T a m i s 2 0 0 1 - 0 2 , fig . 6. T h e p a i n t i n g was e x a m i n e d a g a i n o n M a r c h 10,

v o l . 1, p p . 2 6 6 - 6 7 .

2 0 0 5 , i n the r e s t o r a t i o n s t u d i o o f the M a u r i t s h u i s b y S a b r i n a M e l o n i a n d A r i a n e v a n S u c h t e l e n w i t h the a i d o f a s t e r e o m i c r o s c o p e ,

and

i n f r a r e d i m a g e s w e r e m a d e w i t h the A r t i s t c a m e r a ( A r t I n n o v a t i o n ,

38. See K o l b 2 0 0 5 , p p . 13-17, p . 83, n . 21. 39. " L i o i t c e l l i , et a n i m a l i s o n f a t t o ad v i v o de a l c u n i d e l l i s c r e n . m a

H e n g e l o ) m o u n t e d w i t h a C C D p r o g r e s s i v e scan i m a g e s e n s o r (1360 x

E n f a n t o " : C r i v e l l i 1868, p. 272. T h i s letter is d a t e d S e p t e m b e r 5, 1621.

1036 p i x e l s ) a n d a S c h n e i d e r K r e u z n a c h X e n o p l a n 1.4/23 m m C C T V -

B e c a u s e A r c h d u k e A l b e r t h a d d i e d o n J u l y 15, 1621, B r u e g h e l m u s t

lens i n N12 w i t h a 1 0 0 0 n m l o n g - w a v e pass filter.

here be r e f e r r i n g t o I s a b e l l a .

21. T h e s e u n d e r d r a w n a n i m a l s w e r e d e t e c t e d o n M a r c h 10, 2 0 0 5 , w i t h the A r t i s t c a m e r a (see p r e v i o u s n o t e ) . D o r i e n T a m i s , w h o e x a m i n e d the p a i n t i n g i n 1 9 9 5 — t o g e t h e r w i t h C h r i s t i n e v a n M u l d e r s , N i c o van H o u t , and Jorgen W a d u m — b y means o f infrared

reflectography,

u s i n g a H a m a m a t s u c a m e r a , d e t e c t e d e v e n m o r e a n i m a l s i n the

4 0 . W e are i n d e b t e d t o the o r n i t h o l o g i s t s R u u d V l e k a n d M a r d i k L e o p o l d f o r t h e i r h e l p i n i d e n t i f y i n g the v a r i o u s species o f b i r d s . 41. See P r e s t 1981, p. 31. 4 2 . T h e h i g h p r i c e s p a i d f o r t h i s b i r d ' s feathers p r o m p t e d the

Portuguese

u n d e r d r a w i n g ; see T a m i s 2 0 0 1 - 0 2 , p p . 118-19. See also W a d u m 2 0 0 2 ,

t o keep its n a t i v e h a b i t a t a secret. T h e y m a n a g e d t o d o so u n t i l 1528,

p. 477, n . 6.

w h e n the S p a n i s h finally l a n d e d o n the i s l a n d ; see G i l l i a r d 1969,

22. A u c t i o n , L e i d e n , S e p t e m b e r 8, 1766, n o . 1. See H o e t a n d T e r w e s t e n 1752-70, v o l . 3, p. 542, n o . 1.

4 3 . See also W a d u m 2 0 0 1 , p . 29. I n the late 1630s, R e m b r a n d t m a d e a

23. W a d u m 2 0 0 1 . T a m i s ( 2 0 0 1 - 0 2 , p. 121) w r o n g l y assumes t h a t the s e r p e n t is b y the h a n d o f B r u e g h e l a n d t h a t R u b e n s a d j u s t e d

p p . 15-16.

the

contours. 2 4 . O n t h i s subject, see E r t z 1979, p. 2 4 6 ; B r o o s 1993, p . 9 0 ; a n d T a m i s

d r a w i n g o f the b i r d o f p a r a d i s e w i t h o u t its feet; see B e n e s c h 1954-57 ( e n l a r g e d e d i t i o n 1973), n o . 4 5 6 ; a n d B e r l i n - A m s t e r d a m - L o n d o n 1 9 9 1 - 9 2 , cat. n o . 15. 4 4 . See K o l b 2 0 0 5 , p p . 1 4 - 1 5 .

2 0 0 1 - 0 2 , p p . 114-15, figs. 2 - 4 . 25. R e g a r d i n g t h i s m o t i f , c o m p a r e a p a i n t i n g b y F r a n s P o u r b u s o f the s a m e subject (see n o t e 12 a b o v e ) .

BRUEGHEL

AND

RUBENS

5 Peter Paul Rubens and Jan Brueghel the Elder

Pan and Syrinx ca. 1617 O i l o n panel, 39 x 59.9 c m (i5 /s x 23 /s i n . ) ; 3

w i t h added strips o f w o o d : 40.3 x 61 c m (15% x 24 in.) Kassel, Staatliche M u s e e n , Gemaldegalerie A l t e Meister, G K 1229

l o t 27; sale, L o n d o n ( S o t h e b y ' s ) , J u l y 12,

P R O V E N A N C E

S u s a n n a D o u b l e t - H u y g e n s sale, T h e H a g u e , N o v e m b e r 6, 1725, l o t 35; A d r i a a n B o u t sale, T h e H a g u e , A u g u s t n , 1733, l o t 39; H e n d r i c k van H e t e r e n collection, The H a g u e ; acquired b y W i l h e l m V I I I o f H e s s e n - K a s s e l , 1747; i n 1813 t a k e n t o P a r i s b y J e r o m e B o n a p a r t e , k i n g o f W e s t p h a l i a 1807-13; M u s e e

Napoleon

( M u s e e d u L o u v r e ) , P a r i s , 1814; A l p h o n s e

2001, lot 29; B r e m e n , Galerie N e u s e , acquired 2002 LITERATURE

H o e t a n d T e r w e s t e n 1 7 5 2 - 7 0 , v o l . 1, p p . 310, 387; E r t z 1979, p p . 4 1 7 - 1 8 , n o . 384; E r t z 1984, p p . 7 0 - 7 1 , 81, 4 1 3 - 1 4 , n o . 253 EXHIBITION

G i r o u x sale, P a r i s , F e b r u a r y n - 1 2 , 1851, l o t

Kassel-Frankfurt

159; F . K l e i n b e r g e r (art d e a l e r ) , P a r i s , ca.

additional literature)

2 0 0 4 , cat. n o . 18 ( w i t h

1930; p r i v a t e c o l l e c t i o n , L o n d o n , ca. 1934; sale, L o n d o n ( S o t h e b y ' s ) , J u n e 14, 1961, l o t 36; sale, L o n d o n ( C h r i s t i e ' s ) , M a r c h 23, 1973,

]

] H I S PAN AND SYRINX IS T H E S M A L L E S T S U R V I V I N G

collaborative p a i n t i n g by Rubens and Brueghel. Rubens's figures l o o m large: indeed, they dominate the picture, i n w h i c h Brueghel's b a c k g r o u n d attracts less attention than usual. E v e n so, Brueghel's splendid landscape provides the story w i t h a subtle backdrop. Because the tall reeds b e h i n d the figures extend b e y o n d the height o f the picture, the viewer's vantage p o i n t seems to be very close to, but slightly below, the figures. T h i s lends immediacy to the threat o f the lecherous satyr f r o m w h o m the n y m p h attempts to flee. A teal flies off (but turns its head for a last l o o k ) — the same b i r d appears to the right o f E v e i n The Garden of

Eden with the Fall ofMan (cat. no. 4 ) — a n d frogs dive i n t o the water to escape f r o m the scene o f violent menace. O v i d relates i n his Metamorphoses (1.689-712) h o w the g o d Pan falls i n love w i t h the n y m p h Syrinx. H e pursues her,

R U B E N S

A N D

B R U E G H E L

but her escape is b l o c k e d by the B i v e r L a d o n . She is trans formed i n the nick o f time, and Pan finds h i m s e l f h o l d i n g a handful o f reeds instead o f a n y m p h . I n another story from classical mythology, M e r c u r y tells A r g u s the story o f Pan and Syrinx to l u l l h i m to sleep before k i l l i n g h i m . There are places i n this p a i n t i n g along the figure's contours, especially that o f Syrinx's right leg, where one can discern the b r o w n lines o f Rubens's preparatory d r a w i n g . H e probably sketched i n the figures i n many o f the paintings he collaborated o n w i t h Brueghel, to demarcate the area allotted to their respective contributions. It is not entirely clear w h i c h o f the t w o masters first t o o k palette and brush to h a n d , but i n any case the w o r k o f b o t h authors is very w e l l integrated into the w h o l e . Brueghel thus applied some blades o f grass i n front o f Syrinx's left ankle and reed stalks i n the area o f Pan's genitals; i n Pan's left arm, however, the 1

uppermost layer of flesh-colored paint was not applied until after the reeds were in place. Brueghel also painted out two ducks in the background and made the fingers of Syrinx's right hand slightly longer (or perhaps painted them over the edge of the reserve left in the reeds). Finally, short strokes of greenish paint were added to Pan's beard and along his chest, as well as to Syrinx's hair, to soften the tran sition between the different passages. Rubens seems to have based his figures on examples from antiquity. Syrinx, for instance, is derived from his own freely interpreted pen-and-ink version of a well-known antique statue, the Venus Pudica (fig. 4 6 ) . As in the draw ing, Syrinx leans slightly forward, covering her genitals with one hand. While the chaste, statuary example covers her genitals and breasts with both hands, here Syrinx uses her right hand to ward off her assailant. In modeling Pan's upper body, bending forward to show his well-muscled back, Rubens seems to have incorporated the Torso Belvedere— an antique statue he drew several times during his Roman sojourn—which figures frequently in his paintings (compare cat. nos. 3 and 4 ) . Rubens's interest in this cloven-hoofed deity is also evidenced by his red-chalk drawing after a sixteenth-century statue—in his day regarded as antique— which was on display in the Palazzo Barberini in Rome (fig. 4 7 ) . As regards the Pan discussed here, the rendering of his muscles, cloven hoofs, and characteristic head suggests his derivation from that example. The powerful muscles and dark coloring of this deity—half-man, half-goat—contrast with the nymph's white softness. The contrast between beauty and the beast was a favorite motif of Rubens and also plays a role in, for example, Diana's Sleeping Nymphs Observed by Satyrs (cat. no. 11). The myth of Pan and Syrinx was a popular and frequently depicted subject in the Netherlands in the seventeenth cen tury. It was probably introduced to Antwerp by Hendrick van Balen, who also called upon Jan Brueghel to paint his backgrounds, as seen in a work—which possibly predates the present painting by a decade—now in the National Gallery in London (fig. 4 8 ) . Van Balen based the figures in that painting on a 1589 print of the same subject after Hendrick Goltzius ( 1 5 5 8 - 1 6 1 7 ) ; Brueghel's reed landscape is not quite so successful as the one seen in the present painting. Rubens also collaborated with Brueghel's son, Jan Brueghel the Younger, on a related but less impressive composition with the same subject, a number of variations of which are known. Rubens also tackled the theme independently, in 2

F I G U R E 4 6 Peter P a u l R u b e n s , Four Female Figures.

Pen and brown ink,

27.1 x 17.7 c m ( i o / 8 x 7 i n . ) . A m s t e r d a m , R i j k s m u s e u m , R i j k s p r e n t c n 5

kabinet, inv. 66:67

1636 painting an oil sketch of Pan and Syrinx for the series of mythological paintings he conceived for Torre de la Parada, Philip IV's hunting lodge outside Madrid. The figures in this sketch are depicted in action: reeds sprout from Syrinx's hands and Pan wears an expression of unbridled lust. The present painting displays a more subtle interpreta tion of the subject. This is possibly the painting that Jan Brueghel the Younger sold in 1 6 2 6 / 2 7 for 142 guilders from his late father's estate: "Pan and Syrinx by Mr. Rubens, the 8

RUBENS

AND BRUEGHEL

FIGURE 47

P e t e r P a u l R u b e n s after G i o v a n n i A n g e l o M o n t o r s o l i (1507-1563), Pun Resting.

R e d chalk,

w a s h , 31 x 49.3 c m (12 V4 x i 9 / s i n . ) . W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . , N a t i o n a l G a l l e r y o f A r t , A i l s a M e l l o n B r u c e 3

F u n d 1978.17.1 (B-30-457) © B o a r d o f Trustees o f the N a t i o n a l G a l l e r y

FIGURE 48

J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r a n d H e n d r i c k v a n B a l e n ,

Pan and Syrinx,

ca. 1 6 0 7 - 0 8 . O i l o n c o p p e r , 25 x 19.4 c m

( 9 % x 75/8 i n . ) . L o n d o n , N a t i o n a l G a l l e r y , i n v . N G 659

RUBENS AND

BRUEGHEL

background by [my] late father," as the son conscientiously recorded in his account book. Unfortunately, he did not mention the buyer's name. O n November 6, 1725, a "Pan and Syrinx by P. P. Rubens" was sold in The Hague at the auction of the estate of the "Lady of Sint Annaland," which is most likely the present painting, since it has exactly the same measurements. This lady of Sint Annaland—a manor on the island of Tholen in Zeeland—was Susanna DoubletHuygens ( 1 6 3 7 - 1 7 2 5 ) , the daughter of Constantijn Huygens ( 1 5 9 6 - 1 6 8 7 ) , private secretary to the princes of Orange, the stadholders Maurits and Frederik Hendrik. Susanna had probably inherited her sizable collection of paintings from her father, an avowed admirer of Rubens. In his auto biography, written between 1629 and 1631, Huygens said the following: "to my mind, one of the seven wonders of the world is the prince, the Apeiles, among painters, Peter Paul Rubens." A n erudite connoisseur and artistic adviser, Huygens succeeded admirably in conveying his admiration for Rubens's work to his lord and master, the stadholder Frederik Hendrik (see cat. no. 6 ) . This Pan and Syrinx was acquired by Elector Wilhelm VIII of Hessen-Kassel in 1747 but subsequently disappeared when it was taken during the Napoleonic era to France. It was not until 2 0 0 2 that the museum in Kassel was able to re-acquire this splendidly preserved painting. AvS 9

w h i c h he k e p t f r o m 1625 o n w a r d , several p a i n t i n g s d e p i c t i n g P a n a n d S y r i n x , i n c l u d i n g o n e he m a d e i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h R u b e n s . I n 1626 he n o t e d , " A g a i n m a d e a l i t t l e p i c t u r e o f P a n a n d S y r i n x , M r . R u b e n s the l i t t l e figures, e s t i m a t e d t o be w o r t h 120 g u i l d e r s " ( N o c h g h e m a c t een s t u x h e n P a n e n S i r i n g a , S. R u b e n s de

figurkens,

dat e s t i m c r e n d e

o p 120 g l d ) : V a e s 1 9 2 6 - 2 7 , p. 210, n o . 14. I n 1627 J a n B r u e g h e l t h e Y o u n g e r w r o t e the f o l l o w i n g : " D i a n a w i t h a p i e c e b y m y father, a P a n a n d S y r i n x , w i t h t w o c o p i e s , s o l d t o M r . G a u k t , a P a r i s i a n , f o r 535 g u i l d e r s " ( D i a n a m e t een s t u c v a n M o n P c r e , een P a n et S i r i n g a , m e t t w e e c o p y e n v e r k o c h t aen M . G a u k t , p a r i s i e n v o o r 535 g u l d e n ) , a n d i n 1628 he w r o t e " A p i c t u r e o f P a n a n d S y r i n x " ( E e n s t u c . P a n e n S i r i n g a ) : V a e s 1 9 2 6 - 2 7 , p . 213. F i n a l l y , i n 1 6 4 6 , he r e c o r d e d

"Another

s m a l l p i e c e , P a n a n d S y r i n x . A s m a l l P a n a n d S y r i n x , w h i c h [was] s o l d t o L o u i s v a n V i e r s f o r 6 g u i l d e r s " ( N o c h een c l e y n s t u c , P a n en S i r i n g a . E e n c l e y n P a n et S i r i n g a , dat v e r k o c h t aen L o u i s v a n V i e r s 6 g l d ) : V a e s 1 9 2 6 - 2 7 , p . 218. 8. H e l d 1980, n o . 2 0 7 ; a n d K a s s e l - F r a n k f u r t 2 0 0 4 , cat. n o . 28. 9. " P a n e n S i r i n g a v a n S i g . R u b e n s , d e n g r o n t v a n v a d e r z a l i g e r " : V a c s 1926-27, p. 209. 10. " P a n e n d e S i e r i n g h s d o o r P : P : R u b e n s " : " V r o u w c v a n Ste A n n c l a n d " sale, T h e H a g u e , N o v e m b e r 6, 1725 ( l o t 35 [ L u g t 1 9 4 9 , n o . 3 4 0 ] ) . T h i s sale c a t a l o g u e w a s r e p r o d u c e d i n p a r t i n H o e t a n d T c r w c s t e n

1752-70,

v o l . 1, p p . 3 0 8 - 1 2 , w i t h t h i s p a i n t i n g l i s t e d ( w i t h i n c o r r e c t m e a s u r e m e n t s ) as n o . 2 4 . 11. See S c h w a r t z a n d B o k 1989, p p . 52, 151, 319, a n d 324; a n d V a n S u c h t e l e n 1990, pp. 1 0 2 - 3 . T h i s c o l l e c t i o n c o n t a i n e d a large n u m b e r o f p o r t r a i t s , i n c l u d i n g m a n y o f the O r a n g e s , w h i c h p o i n t s t o a p r o v e n a n c e f r o m the c o l l e c t i o n o f C o n s t a n t i j n H u y g e n s .

Remarkably,

t h i s c o l l e c t i o n also i n c l u d e d t w o d e p i c t i o n s o f P a n a n d S y r i n x , b y the N o r t h e r n N e t h e r l a n d i s h masters C o r n e l l s van P o e l e n b u r c h

(1586-

1667) a n d S a l o m o n de B r a y ( 1 5 9 7 - 1 6 6 4 ) ; see n o t e 10 a b o v e (sale,

NOTES

T h e H a g u e , 1725, lots 70 a n d 81). 1. A c c o r d i n g t o C h r i s t i n e v a n M u l d e r s ( K a s s e l - F r a n k f u r t

2004,

12. H u y g e n s / H e e s a k k e r s

1987, p p . 79-81 ( t r a n s l a t e d f r o m the L a t i n ) .

p p . 7 5 - 7 6 ) , it is p o s s i b l e t h a t R u b e n s p a i n t e d the figures first a n d

H u y g e n s s p o k e less h i g h l y o f J a n B r u e g h e l i n his d e s c r i p t i o n o f the

B r u e g h e l a d d e d the l a n d s c a p e a f t e r w a r d , f o l l o w e d a g a i n b y R u b e n s ,

w o r k o f J a c q u e s de G h e y n I I , s a y i n g t h a t , as far as f l o w e r p a i n t i n g was

w h o s u p p o s e d l y a p p l i e d the f i n i s h i n g t o u c h e s .

c o n c e r n e d , D e G h e y n h a d " c a r r i e d o f f the p a l m o f v i c t o r y f o r e v e r "

2. K a s s e l - F r a n k f u r t 2 0 0 4 , cat. n o . 17. F o r the a n t i q u e statue i n t h e C a p i t o l i n e M u s e u m i n R o m e , see H a s k e l l a n d P e n n y 1981, p p . 3 1 8 - 2 0 , n o . 84.

( i b i d . , p . 75). 13. See B . S c h n a c k e n b u r g , " P a n u n d S y r i n x v o n 1747 bis

1814—Stationen

aus d e r G e s c h i c h t e eines K a s s e l e r G a l e r i c b i l d e s , " i n K a s s e l - F r a n k f u r t

3. See V a n d e r M e u l e n 1994, v o l . 1, p . 4 8 ; v o l . 2, p p . 5 6 - 5 9 ; v o l . 3,

2004, pp. 16-39.

figs. 7 5 - 7 9 . See also A n t w e r p 1993, p p . 1 2 4 - 2 7 . R e g a r d i n g the T o r s o B e l v e d e r e , see H a s k e l l a n d P e n n y 1981, p p . 311-14, n o . 8 0 . 4 . K a s s e l - F r a n k f u r t 2 0 0 4 , cat. n o . 16. T h e statue b y G i o v a n n i A n g e l o M o n t o r s o l i is n o w i n the S a i n t L o u i s A r t M u s e u m . 5. F o r the d i f f e r e n t w a y s i n w h i c h R u b e n s p a i n t e d his m a l e a n d f e m a l e nude

figures,

see t h e essay b y D o h e r t y , L e o n a r d , a n d W a d u m i n t h i s

v o l u m e , p . 227. 6. See K a s s e l - F r a n k f u r t 2 0 0 4 , cat. n o . 11; see also W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 , n o . A 105. 7. K a s s e l - F r a n k f u r t 2 0 0 4 , cat. n o s . 2 3 - 2 6 ; see also E r t z 1979, p p . 4 1 7 - 2 0 . J a n B r u e g h e l the Y o u n g e r r e c o r d e d i n h i s a c c o u n t b o o k ,

RUBENS

AND

BRUEGHEL

6 Jan Brueghel the Elder and Peter Paul Rubens

Flora and Zephyr ca. 1617 O i l o n panel, 136 x 109 c m (53 Vi x 4 2 % in.) Dessau, K u l t u r s t i f t u n g DessauW o rlitz, Schlofi M o s i g k a u , M O S . 129

INSCRIPTION

LITERATURE

O n the reverse, p a n e l m a k e r ' s m a r k i n r e d

S c h m i d t 1955, p . 3 0 ; M u l l e r H o f s t e d e

chalk, G A [in ligature]

p . 2 2 6 ; H a r k s e n 1976, n o . 6; E r t z 1979,

1968,

p . 389; E r t z 1984, n o . 187; D a u e r 1988, n o .

PROVENANCE

129; T h e H a g u e 1 9 9 7 - 9 8 , p p . 6 5 - 6 6 ;

Collection o f Stadholder Frederik H e n d r i k

Savelsberg 2003

and A m a l i a van Solms, Stadholder's Quarters, T h e H a g u e , 1632; c o l l e c t i o n o f t h e i r d a u g h t e r Albertine Agnes o f Orange-Nassau;

collection

EXHIBITION

Dessau 2003

o f h e r sister H e n r i e t t e C a t h a r i n a o f A n h a l t D i e t z ; c o l l e c t i o n o f her daughter M a r i e E l e o n o r e , duchess o f R a z i v i l l ; purchased by her niece A n n a W i l h e l m i n e o f A n h a l t - D i e t z , 1756; s i n c e 1758 i n S c h l o f i M o s i g k a u , D e s s a u

E P H Y R ,

T H E

W E S T

W I N D ,

A B D U C T E D

T H E

N Y M P H

C h l o r i s and made her his wife. A s a w e d d i n g present

Painted w i t h extreme transparency as i f to suggest a barely noticeable w i n d , the w i n g e d Zephyr, aloft, empties a

he gave her a garden filled w i t h flowers, where it was

basket o f flowers i n t o a c l o t h held by F l o r a . F l o r a , by con

always springtime. C h l o r i s thus became F l o r a , the goddess

trast, is a classical n u d e — a l l the nuances o f pale skin have

o f flowers. T h e m y t h o f F l o r a and Z e p h y r , as t o l d by O v i d

been expressed w i t h delicate brushstrokes. A p u t t o at her feet

(Fasti 5.193-214), was a suitable vehicle for Rubens and

bends over to gather up the flowers, w h i l e another reaches

B r u e g h e l to s h o w off their respective specialties i n a collabo

up t o w a r d Zephyr. T h e transparency o f the paint has left

rative p a i n t i n g : B r u e g h e l painted a courtly love garden

clearly v i s i b l e — p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the figure o f Z e p h y r — t h e

i n full b l o s s o m and Rubens peopled it w i t h idealized nudes.

b r o w n lines made by the brush w i t h w h i c h Rubens sketched

E v e n t h o u g h the p a i n t i n g is closely related thematically

i n the contours o f his figures before Brueghel painted the

to the allegories o f spring and series o f the F o u r Elements

background and the flowers. O n l y w h e n the b a c k g r o u n d had

that B r u e g h e l made i n collaboration w i t h H e n d r i c k van

been completed d i d Rubens paint the figures. M a k i n g use

Balen, the d e p i c t i o n o f F l o r a receiving Zephyr's flowers

o f his preparatory sketch, he w o r k e d i n places b e y o n d the

has n o precedent i n p a i n t i n g , so the choice o f subject is i n

outlines o f the reserves. B r u e g h e l added the finishing touches

itself h i g h l y o r i g i n a l .

by a p p l y i n g some small flowers to the figures, thereby fully integrating Rubens's c o n t r i b u t i o n into the c o m p o s i t i o n .

BRUEGHEL

AND

RUBENS

F I G U R E 49

Jan B r u e g h e l the E l d e r a n d

H e n d r i c k v a n B a l e n , Allegory

of Spring,

1616.

O i l o n c o p p e r , 56 x 8 4 c m (22 x 33 Vs i n . ) . N e u b u r g a n d e r D o n a u , B a y e r i s c h e Staats g e m a l d e s a m m l u n g e n , S t a a t s g a l e r i e , i n v . 13709

Flora and her little companions sit in a garden among blossoming plants—many of them in pots, vases, and baskets—with flowers loosely strewn upon the ground. In the right foreground sit two guinea pigs, while in the back ground appear peacocks and two cassowaries—large birds related to the ostrich. Deer are visible in the park in the dis tance. The monumental, classicist building on the left strongly resembles the artificial grottos with fountains and cascades that the French architect and hydraulic engineer Salomon de Caus ( 1 5 7 6 - 1 6 2 6 ) designed for the gardens of the aristocracy, including those of Archdukes Albert and Isabella. Similar structures are depicted in the background of the Allegory of Smell (see fig. 57) and the Allegory of Spring (fig. 4 9 ) , which Brueghel painted with Rubens and Van Balen, respectively. To be sure, no apparent jets of water can be distinguished in the present painting, but visible to the right of Flora's face is a basin of water suited to such artificial grottos. The reliefs on the building reinforce the theme of the painting. The Rape of Proserpine is depicted above the archway: after being carried off to the Underworld by Pluto, Proserpine was allowed to return every spring to see her mother, the grain goddess Ceres. The side wall contains two reliefs, partly cut off by the left edge of the painting. The upper relief shows Europa, the king's daughter, being 1

BRUEGHEL

AND

RUBENS

abducted by Jupiter in the guise of a white bull; the lower relief probably represents the myth of Pan and Syrinx. The depiction of the nymph fleeing through the reeds is based on the collaborative painting of this subject by Rubens and Brueghel (cat. no. 5). Brueghel also painted several motifs that are encountered in other of his works: the basket of flowers with a plucked tulip beside it in the foreground, for example, also occurs in a flower still life of 1617 (fig. 5 0 ) . The vase of polychrome stonework at Flora's back was probably a prop belonging to Brueghel's studio, since he frequently depicted the very same vase. The faience bowl containing grapes in the left foreground resembles a similar motif in The Return from War: Mars Disarmed by Venus (cat. no. 2). The melon sliced in half is very similar to the same motif in Fruit Garland with Angels (cat. no. 19) and The Feast ofAcheious (cat. no. 3), and the guinea pigs are nearly identical to those in The Entry of the Animals into Noah's Ark of 1613 (cat. no. 26) and The Garden of Eden (cat. no. 4 ) . The blossoming fritillary in the right foreground displays almost the same pattern of leaves as the fritillary in the Allegory of Spring of 1616 (fig. 4 9 ) , making it likely that this motif is based on the same preparatory drawing. This fritillary—a flower that was first imported from Turkey in the late sixteenth century— 4

NOTES 1. W e l z e l 1997, p p . 2 2 6 - 3 0 . F r o m 1 6 0 0 D e C a n s was e m p l o y e d b y A l b e r t a n d I s a b e l l a i n B r u s s e l s ; see W e l z e l 1997, p. 226, n . 6 0 . T w o d r a w i n g s b y H e i n r i c h S c h i c k h a r d t (1558 —1635) after d e s i g n s f o r a r t i f i c i a l g r o t t o s b y S a l o m o n de C a n s are p r e s e r v e d i n the

Hauptstaatsarchiv

at S t u t t g a r t ( W e l z e l 1997, p. 2 2 9 , n . 68, fig. 1 0 9 ) ; t h e y d i s p l a y an o b v i o u s r e s e m b l a n c e t o the s t r u c t u r e i n the p a i n t i n g d i s c u s s e d here. 2. C o m p a r e p a i n t i n g s b y J a n B r u e g h e l the Y o u n g e r w i t h p o r t r a y a l s o f F l o r a s h o w i n g s i m i l a r , g r o t t o l i k e s t r u c t u r e s w i t h f o u n t a i n s i n the b a c k g r o u n d ( E r t z 1984, n o s . 1 8 8 - 9 1 ) . 3. D e s p i t e the fact t h a t the p i c t u r e seems t o have b e e n r e d u c e d i n size o n the left, the p a n e l has n o t b e e n s a w n o f f ( o r at least n o t t o a n y appreciable extent); w i t h thanks to D r . W . Savelsberg, Dessau, F I G U R E 5 0 J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r , Flower Still Life,

1617. O i l o n p a n e l ,

55 x 91 c m ( 2 i / s x 35 /s i n . ) . F o r m e r l y P. de B o e r (art d e a l e r ) , A m s t e r d a m 5

f o r t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n . T h i s p a n e l , t h e r e f o r e , was n o t a d a p t e d t o fit the " b a r o q u e h a n g i n g " (barocke Hangung)

i n Schloft M o s i g k a u i n Dessau,

as p r e v i o u s l y m a i n t a i n e d ; see S a v e l s b e r g 2 0 0 3 , p p . 4 9 - 5 0 . T h i s palace, w h i c h b e l o n g e d t o A n n a W i l h e l m i n e o f A n h a l t - D i e t z , the greatg r a n d d a u g h t e r o f F r e d e r i k H e n d r i k a n d A m a l i a , has b e e n the h o m e

must have been one of Brueghel's stock designs, since Jan Brueghel the Younger used it some ten years later in an Allegory of Spring based on his father's work. A dating of Flora and Zephyr to about 1617, based on its stylistic relationship to dated paintings displaying similar motifs, has recently been confirmed by the discovery of a panelmaker's mark in red chalk on the back of the panel. This mark, by the Antwerp panelmaker Guilliam Aertssen, also points to a dating around 1617. Flora and Zephyr was owned by the stadholder Frederik Hendrik of Orange and his wife Amalia van Solms, whose estate—which devolved on their four daughters—largely ended up in Germany. In the earliest inventory of the paintings owned by the stadholder and his wife (drawn up in 1632), this painting was listed as "a piece by Rubens and the landscape done by Brueghel." A t that time, it was hanging as an overdoor in Amalia's gallery of paintings in the Stadholder's Quarters (the present-day Binnenhof complex) in The Hague. There has in fact been speculation as to how the painting came into the Oranges' possession in the first place. One theory suggests that it was presented to them by Archduchess Isabella on the occasion of their marriage in 1625 (Albert had died in 1 6 2 1 ) . There is, how ever, no certainty on this score. But no matter how they acquired it, Frederik Hendrik and Amalia—ambitious art collectors and avowed admirers of Rubens—were no doubt proud to own this painting by two famous Flemish masters. A v S 7

o f Flora and Zephyr s i n c e 1758. T h e g i l d e d f r a m e , m a d e s p e c i a l l y f o r M o s i g k a u , dates f r o m the t i m e o f the p a i n t i n g ' s i n s t a l l a t i o n t h e r e . 4 . S a v e l s b e r g ( 2 0 0 3 , p . 55) s u g g e s t s t h a t the last scene m i g h t d e p i c t Zephyr's abduction o f Psyche. 5. E r t z 1979, n o . 322, fig. 371 ( w i t h the art d e a l e r P. de B o e r , A m s t e r d a m , i n 1935). C o m p a r e also E r t z 1979, n o . 293, fig. 372 ( d a t e d 1615), as w e l l as figs. 3 6 1 - 6 3 . 6. E r t z 1979, n o s . 2 0 9 - 1 0 , figs. 332, 357. 7. E r t z 1984, n o . 188. 8. W i t h t h a n k s t o J o r g e n W a d u m . See also W a d u m 1990 a n d the essay by D o h e r t y , L e o n a r d , and W a d u m i n this v o l u m e . 9. T h e H a g u e 1 9 9 7 - 9 8 , p p . 6 5 - 6 6 , fig. 4 ; a n d S a v e l s b e r g 2 0 0 3 , pp. 4 9 - 5 0 . 10. " E e n s t u c k v a n R u b b e n s e n d e ' t l a n d s c h a p d o o r B r u e g e l g c d a e n " : D r o s s a e r s a n d L u n s i n g h S c h e u r l e e r 1 9 7 4 - 7 6 , v o l . 1, p p . 192, 285, n o . 1241; p . 320, n o . 791; p. 371, n o . 1468 ( n o . 230 i n the i n v e n t o r y ) . 11. S a v e l s b e r g 2 0 0 3 , p p . 5 6 - 5 8 .

BRUEGHEL

AND

RUBENS

7 Jan Brueghel the Elder and Peter Paul Rubens

The Vision of Saint Hubert ca.

1617-20

O i l on panel, 63 x 1 0 0 cm (24.V4 x 3 9 / 8 in.) Madrid, Museo Nacional del Prado, inv. 1411 3

PROVENANCE

L I T E R A T U RE

R e c o r d e d i n the 1642 i n v e n t o r y o f D o n D i e g o Mexi'a, marquis o f Leganes, no. 38;

1655

de L e g a n e s ;

n o . 366; V o l k 1980, p . 267; D i a z P a d r o n

i n the A l c a z a r b y 1686; m o v e d

f o l l o w i n g the 1734 A l c a z a r fire t o the P a l a c i o

1995, v o l . 1, p p . 2 8 8 - 8 9 , n o . 1411; V e r g a r a

N u e v o ; t r a n s f e r r e d t o the P r a d o u p o n its

1999, pp- 1 7 1 - 7 2 ; V a n M u l d e r s 2 0 0 0 , p . 121

1819

N THE VISION OF SAINT HUBERT, B R U E G H E L ' S E L E -

BRUEGHEL

AND

1955, p . 155; D i a z P a d r o n 1975, v o l . 1, p p . 6 5 - 6 7 ; E r t z 1979, p p . 3 9 3 - 9 5 , 4 8 0 , 616,

gant, tranquil forest landscape establishes the tenor for one of the most profoundly moving works he pro duced with Rubens. While related by the theme of the hunt and its motifs to Brueghel and Rubens's mythological compositions from about 1620 (see cat. nos. 10 and 11), it nonetheless stands apart as an indigenous and complemen tary variation on the popular subject of the chase that had particular significance for Archdukes Albert and Isabella. Occasionally overlooked as a collaborative work, The Vision of Saint Hubert provides considerable evidence as to Brueghel's leading role in the partnership. Although the story of Saint Hubert was seldom depicted in painting, the details of his life and sudden conversion were well known in Brussels and the Ardennes region to the southeast. Hubert, a self-indulgent Merovingian nobleman

R o o s e s 1 8 8 6 - 9 2 , v o l . 2, p . 285; D e M a e y e r

i n v e n t o r y o f the c o l l e c t i o n o f the m a r q u i s

foundation,

RUBENS

born about 656, lived in Austrasia, on the border between modern France and Germany. A n avid hunter, he neglected church services on Good Friday morning to take up the chase in the rich holdings of the Ardennes forest. U p o n sighting a magnificent stag, he and his hounds pursued the animal until it stopped suddenly and faced him, and Hubert perceived a radiant light and a crucifix between its antlers. According to legend, a voice addressed him: "Hubert, Hubert, why do you pursue me? Unless you turn to the Lord and lead a holy life, you shall quickly go down to hell." Startled, he dismounted and knelt before the stag. U p o n asking what course he should take, he was told, " G o and seek Lambert, and he shall instruct you." Hubert renounced his worldly possessions and pursuits and subsequently embarked on a Christian career, becoming bishop of Maastricht and Liege. H e was known particularly for converting pagans in

remote areas of the Ardennes forest and Brabant. He died at Fura (modern Tervuren) in 727 or 728. The mythology of Hubert embraces strands of both biblical and folkloric his tory. The conversion of the pagan hunter in the forest recalls and perhaps even draws upon the story of Saint Eustace, a popular figure in France as well as Germany, whose tale was recounted in the popular Golden Legend.** The manner in which the presence of the Almighty appears to Hubert in the form of radiant light parallels the New Testament account of the conversion of Saint Paul, in which he was struck blind by a light from heaven and thrown from his horse. Hubert was the patron saint of hunters and hunting dogs and was invoked against rabies. Significantly, in Habsburg genealogy, Hubert was considered a forebear of the archdukes. In The Vision of Saint Hubert, Hubert encounters the stag in a serene woodland clearing near a river inhabited by numerous birds. The stag's head is positioned against the luminous sky, which serves as a brilliant backdrop for the small crucifix. In a striking interpretation of the legend, Brueghel depicts the stag with his mouth open, as if it is he who speaks to the saint. A t the right, the saint kneels rever ently, his head tilted in inquiry, jeweled and plumed cap drawn back, his gesture one of wonder and veneration. The semicircular horn and the sword at his side identify him as a hunter and nobleman. A l l around him, the hounds of the chase sit or lie peacefully, emphasizing the halt to their baying pursuit of their quarry and the silence into which the heavenly command has been spoken. Hubert's handsome gray stallion stands directly behind him and gazes out at the viewer. Brueghel and Rubens's treatment of this unusual subject reflects the great interest on the part of Archdukes Albert and Isabella in the cult of this local saint. As part of their larger campaign to revitalize the Catholic faith, the couple aggres sively strove to revive religious orders in the Southern Netherlands and supported regional figures such as Hubert, renowned for his proselytizing in remote areas. Deeply pious themselves, the archdukes were personally devoted to the saint's cult. The existing wooden chapel of Saint Hubert in the forest near their hunting castle of Tervuren, thought to mark the site of the saint's death, was rebuilt in brick accord ing to the designs of court architect and engineer Wenceslas Cobergher between 1616 and 1617. The altar of the chapel was refurbished, as was the wooden statue of Saint Hubert. A pair of monumental paintings depicting the main events of the saint's life, including his conversion, were commissioned from Theodoor van Loon (1590-1660) to decorate the 3

chapel. Renovations were also carried out in the chapel dedicated to Saint Hubert in the church of Saint Gudula near the Coudenburg in Brussels (today the Cathedral of Saints Michael and Gudula), which was apparently still deco rated in the early 1620s with a diptych portraying episodes from his life by Rogier van der Weyden (1399/1400-1464) and his workshop. At her death in 1633, Isabella bequeathed works of art from her oratory, including "a Saint Hubert, painted on panel, by Bruegel" to the church of Saint Gudula. While The Vision of Saint Hubert cannot be connected conclu sively with either the chapel dedicated to Saint Hubert at Tervuren or the one in Brussels, it must have been executed during this period of intense interest in the saint's cult, pos sibly as early as 1617. Jan Brueghel the Elder and Peter Paul Rubens painted another version of The Vision of Saint Hubert, formerly in the collection of the Kaiser-Friedrich-Museum, Berlin (fig. 51), suggesting that it was both popular and significant enough to be repeated. Although the Madrid and Berlin compo sitions are similar, certain landscape details (for example, the large tree in the upper right) differ between the two panels. More significantly, the stag in the Berlin Vision has a largerset of antlers, and there are two additional animals in the foreground: a thickset hound stands directly behind the stag and a small monkey sits on the ground to the left. While the question of the primacy of the Berlin versus the Madrid panel has long been debated, the loss of the Berlin Vision of Saint Hubert and resultant lack of technical information make it difficult to determine with any certainty the order of their execution. It was not unknown for particularly admired compositions, including collaborative works, to be reiterated, and the subject of Saint Hubert's conversion might well have been popular at the Brussels court. How ever, the numerous small adjustments made by Brueghel in the Madrid panel and the anomalous additions of animals to the Berlin panel (discussed below) may indicate that the Madrid painting was the initial version. The process of the collaboration between Brueghel and Rubens in The Vision of Saint Hubert, and Rubens's minimal share in the execution, has contributed to confusion over its attribution. As in other joint paintings, Brueghel began work on the panel and returned later to integrate and, in this case, equip Rubens's figure. Infrared reflectography reveals that Brueghel required very little preparation to establish the landscape and spatial recession; he used just a few drawn verticals indicating tree trunks along the right side to help 10

BRUEGHEL

AND RUBENS

F I G U R E 51 J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r a n d P e t e r P a u l R u b e n s , The Vision of Saint Hubert.

O i l o n panel,

6 0 x 9 0 c m (23 /8 x 35 /8 i n . ) . F o r m e r l y B e r l i n , K a i s e r - F r i e d r i c h - M u s e u m , i n v . 765 ( p r e s u m e d l o s t i n 1945) 5

FIGURE 52 Infrared reflectogram, detail, The Vision of Saint Hubert

BRUEGHEL

AND

RUBENS

him plan the setting. The gravity of the scene owes much to Brueghel's landscape, which is characterized by an open foreground and airy canopy, with a relatively central reces sion and low viewpoint. As in the allegories of the Five Senses series (see cat. no. 8), Rubens's figural contribution to the landscape is an important but limited one. The simple small-scale figure of Saint Hubert resembles the female personifications and the satyr in these works. Following the execution of the figure of the saint by his colleague, Brueghel added Hubert's primary attributes, a hunting horn and a sword, as well as the saint's plumed hat, details that confused later authors who noted how finely the figure was painted and attributed the entire figure to Brueghel. The long plumes of the hat cover the horse's tail, indicating that this element was inserted after the horse had been painted (fig. 52). The hound sitting in front of Hubert was painted up to the leg of the saint. Even the small motif of the hunt ing horn and the minutely described laces of the bandolier the saint wears across his body demonstrate Brueghel's attention to detail. Brueghel evidently studied similar equip ment, as demonstrated by the existence of drawn studies of the hunting horns and other paraphernalia which feature in the hunt scenes of Diana (see fig. 6 4 ) . The hunting horn was a particularly important attribute of Hubert's and was the principal relic of the saint preserved in the renovated Tervuren chapel. The animals Brueghel chose to surround the saint help to situate The Vision of Saint Hubert between the paradise landscapes of about 1 6 1 5 - 1 7 , The Entry of the Animals into Noah's Ark (1615; London, Wellington Museum) and The Garden of Eden with the Fall ofMan (cat. no. 4 ) , and the slightly later mythological scenes of the huntress Diana from about 1620. One of the recurrent reminders of Brueghel's friendship with Rubens is his portrayal of a gray stallion that draws on the type Rubens used for the Equestrian Portrait of the Duke of Lerma (see fig. 2 2 ) . The Prado stallion stands squarely and closely resembles the horse in the corridor of Rubens and Brueghel's The Return from War: Mars Disarmed by Venus (cat. no. 2 ) . Despite using what must have been a familiar figure, Brueghel adjusted the angle of the steed's ears inward (fig. 52). H e made a similar, and evidently significant, modification to the ears of the gray stallion in the 1613 Entry of the Animals into Noah's Ark (cat. no. 2 6 ) . The hounds, whose attitudes reflect the gravity of their master's encounter with the heavenly apparition, are a partic ularly important component of the scene. The variety of their 18

2 4

F I G U R E 53 A l b r e c h t D i i r e r (1471-1528), Saint Eustace,

c a . 1501.

E n g r a v i n g , 361 x 2 6 2 m m ( 1 4 V i x i o / s i n . ) . L o n d o n , B r i t i s h M u s e u m , 3

inv. 1868-8-22-183 © T r u s t e e s o f t h e B r i t i s h M u s e u m

poses (curled, standing, profile) and coats demonstrates Brueghel's powers of observation and inventiveness, echoing Albrecht Diirer's inclusion of an elegant group of hounds in his print of Saint Eustace (fig. 53). Diirer's canines were remarked upon by Giorgio Vasari, and the composition was well known in the Netherlands as a result of Diirer's visit in 1 5 2 0 - 2 1 . The discrete group around the kneeling figure in The Vision of Saint Hubert may have been inspired by this famous composition, an idea which Brueghel then elaborated upon for Diana at the Hunt and Diana's Sleeping Nymphs Observed by Satyrs (cat. nos. 10 and 11). The cream and tan hound behind the stallion, for example, appears with a com panion in Diana at the Hunt, and the stocky, jowled hound 25

BRUEGHEL

A N D RUBENS

at the extreme right here also appears in the same location in Diana's Sleeping Nymphs. The back of the black and white hound grooming himself in the foreground was reduced slightly, and the position of his eyes changed in the Madrid panel. The same animal appears in both Diana at the Hunt and Diana's Sleeping Nymphs. While a number of animals resemble sketches in the Studies of Hunting Dogs (cat. no. 27), none have been repeated precisely in the present painting. Like The Vision of Saint Hubert, the Vienna sketch reveals the individuality and liveliness that illustrate their study from life, perhaps even from the many hounds kept by the archduchess. A contemporary group portrait of the archduchess's hounds was commissioned for Tervuren. The apes included among its forested landscape allude to the royal menagerie and may explain the presence of the ape in the Berlin Vision of Saint Hubert. Although not in keeping with the solemnity of the primary theme of Hubert's con frontation and conversion, the ape and extra hound may have been included to broaden the association of the scene with the court. The magnificent stag at the center of The Vision of Saint Hubert almost certainly derives from studies of live animals, which Brueghel could have seen firsthand in the royal park in Brussels, as well as at the castle of Mariemont. Con temporary visitors describe feeding tame animals, including deer, in the Brussels Warande. While the painting by Jan Brueghel the Younger, The Archdukes in the Garden of Their Palace in Brussels (1621; Antwerp, Rubenshuis), in which the archduchess offers a morsel to a doe, portrays the park's gentle menagerie, Brueghel the Elder's drawing Archdukes at the Chase attests to the archduke's sportive pursuits. A sinuously drawn stag from another study (see fig. 45) was incorporated into The Hague paradise landscape (cat. no. 4 ) in an elegant portrayal of this noble animal. It could similarly have served as a point of departure for the stag in The Vision of Saint Hubert, where Brueghel has minutely rendered the different lengths and colors of fur on its head and neck, A T W

2. " N o . 38 o t r a p i n t u r a de s a n h u b e r t o de m a n o de R u b e n s , e l p a i s c i e r b o , p e r r o s y c a u o l l o s de m a n o de b r u g e l " ( A p r i l 6, 1655): N a v i o 1962, p . 271. See also R o o s e s 1 9 0 0 , p . 169. 3. F o l l o w i n g h i s c o n v e r s i o n , H u b e r t t r a v e l e d t o M a a s t r i c h t a n d b e c a m e the s p i r i t u a l p u p i l o f S a i n t L a m b e r t . H e t h e n m a d e a p i l g r i m a g e t o R o m e , d u r i n g w h i c h t i m e L a m b e r t w a s assassinated a n d H u b e r t was a p p o i n t e d h i s s u c c e s s o r b y P o p e S e r g i u s . H u b e r t ' s l e g e n d dates f r o m the e a r l y fifteenth c e n t u r y a n d is n o t r e c o u n t e d i n J a c o b u s aurea (Golden Legend) o f ca. 1280. See R e a u

de V o r a g i n e ' s Legenda

1955-59, v o l . 3, p t . 2, p p . 6 5 3 - 5 8 ; a n d C . F . W e m y s s B r o w n , " S t . H u b e r t , " The Catholic Encyclopedia,

v o l . 7 (1910), p p . 5 0 7 - 8 .

4 . See R e a u 1955-59, v o l . 3, pt. 1, p p . 4 6 8 - 7 1 .

5. A c t s 9 : 1 - 9 . 6. See B r u s s e l s 1 9 9 8 - 9 9 , p . 259; a n d H u y g h e b a e r t 1927. 7. A m o r e e x a g g e r a t e d p o r t r a y a l o f the stag a d d r e s s i n g S a i n t H u b e r t appears i n T h e o d o o r v a n L o o n ' s Conversion

of Saint Hubert

o f ca. 1620,

see n o t e 10 b e l o w . 8. O n the a r c h d u k e s ' r e l i g i o u s p o l i c y , see P a s t u r e 1925 a n d E l i a s 1931. 9. See M e g a n c k 1998, p p . 1 1 4 - 1 6 . W o r k o n t h e c h a p e l o f S a i n t H u b e r t was c a r r i e d o u t at the s a m e t i m e as a m a j o r b u i l d i n g p r o j e c t , also d e s i g n e d b y C o b e r g h e r , at the p i l g r i m a g e site o f S c h e r p e n h e u v e l . 10. H i e r o n y m u s D u q u e s n o y I r e f u r b i s h e d the h i g h altar a n d the statue o f the saint i n 1617; see D e M a e y e r 1955, p p . 2 1 0 - 1 1 , d o c . 156. F o r V a n L o o n ' s p a i n t i n g s , The Conversion

of Saint Hubert

(ca. 1620, o i l o n

canvas, 278 x 199 c m [109V2 x 78V8 i n . ] ; B r u s s e l s , M u s e e s r o y a u x des B e a u x - A r t s de B e l g i q u e , i n v . 273) a n d Saint Hubert

Receiving

the

Stole (ca. 1620, o i l o n canvas, 241 x 171 c m [ 9 4 % x 67 Vs i n . ] ; B r u s s e l s , M u s e e s r o y a u x des B e a u x - A r t s de B e l g i q u e , i n v . 6147), w h i c h w e r e j o i n e d b y The Virgin

and Child between Saint John the Baptist

Saint John the Evangelist

and

(ca. 1620, o i l o n canvas, 237 x 171 c m [93 A x l

67 /8 i n . ] ; B r u s s e l s , M u s e e s r o y a u x des B e a u x - A r t s de B e l g i q u e , 3

i n v . 6 1 4 6 ) , see D e M a e y e r 1955, d o c . 124, 125, 156, a n d 272 (for the 1667 i n v e n t o r y d e s c r i b i n g the p a i n t i n g s i n the c h a p e l ) ; a n d B r u s s e l s 1 9 9 8 - 9 9 , p p . 2 6 0 - 6 1 . F o r the h i s t o r y o f T e r v u r e n castle, see cat. n o . 9. 11. T h e c h a p e l , also c a l l e d O u r L a d y o f the F l o w e r s ( N o t r e D a m e de F l e u r s ) , a n d the p a i n t i n g s w e r e d e s c r i b e d b y F r e n c h t o u r i s t F r a n c o i s N i c h o l a s B a u d o t , s i e u r de B u i s s o n et d ' A u b a n a y , w h o t r a v e l e d i n t h e N e t h e r l a n d s b e t w e e n 1623 a n d 1627; see t h e a c c o u n t p u b l i s h e d b y H a l k i n 1 9 4 6 , p p . 5 9 - 6 1 . F o r the p a i n t i n g s , b y R o g i e r v a n d e r W e y d e n a n d h i s w o r k s h o p , The Dream

of Rope Sergius (late 1430s; L o s A n g e l e s ,

J. P a u l G e t t y M u s e u m , i n v . 7 2 . P B . 2 0 ) a n d The Exhumation Hubert

of Saint

(late 1430s; L o n d o n , N a t i o n a l G a l l e r y o f A r t , i n v . N G 783), a n d

t h e i r h i s t o r y , see C a m p b e l l 1998, p p . 4 0 7 - 2 7 , p a r t i c u l a r l y p p . 4 1 8 - 1 9 . NOTES

12. F o r the i n v e n t o r y o f Isabella's c o l l e c t i o n ( J u l y 27, 1639), see D e M a e y e r

1. " N o . 38 o t r a p i r i t u r a de ssan h u b e r t o de m a n o de R u b e n s e l pais c i e r b o p e r r o s y c a b a l l o s de m a n o de b r u x e l " ( M a r c h 3 0 , 1 6 4 2 ) : V o l k 1980, p . 267. See also M a r y C r a w f o r d V o l k , " O n the C o l l e c t i o n o f t h e M a r q u i s o f L e g a n e s i n 1642: ' O n e o f t h e G r e a t e s t C o n n o i s seurs o f t h i s A g e , '

5 5

unpublished manuscript, Getty Research Institute,

P r o v e n a n c e I n d e x , C o l l e c t o r s F i l e ( u n d e r L e g a n e s ) , ca. 1980.

BRUEGHEL

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1955, d o c . 255, p p . 4 0 5 - 1 0 ( " S a i n t H u b e r t " appears as n o . 28: " U n Saint H u b e r t , peint sur panneau, par B r u e g h e l , a coute 2 0 0 florins."). 13. B u t n o t later t h a n 1621, the year the v a r i a n t b y J a n B r u e g h e l the Y o u n g e r was s i g n e d , see n o t e 14 b e l o w .

14. P r e s u m e d l o s t i n the fire o f 1945. See B e r l i n 1911, p . 325; B e r n h a r d 1965, p . 14, p i . 9 9 ; E r t z 1979, p p . 393, 4 8 0 , 619, n o . 365; a n d M u l l e r H o f s t e d e 1968, p . 226. A c c o r d i n g t o R o o s e s ( 1 8 8 6 - 9 2 , v o l . 2, p . 285), the B e r l i n Hubert

was p r e v i o u s l y i n the c o l l e c t i o n o f the k i n g o f

P r u s s i a . F o r the v a r i a n t b y J a n B r u e g h e l the Y o u n g e r , Forest

Landscape

( s i g n e d a n d d a t e d 1621, o i l o n c o p p e r , 52 x 72.5 c m

with Saint Hubert

[20V2 x 28V2 i n . ] ; N e u b u r g an d e r D o n a u , S t a a t s g a l e r i c , i n v . 2178), see E r t z 1984, p. 333, n o . 168; a n d R e n g e r a n d S c h l e i f 2 0 0 5 , p- 8 4 . 15. V l i e g h e (1980, p. 652), i n h i s r e v i e w o f D i a z P a d r o n ' s 1975 c a t a l o g u e , stated t h a t " R u b e n s ' s h a n d is n o t r e c o g n i z a b l e i n t h i s c o p y [the P r a d o J u d g i n g f r o m a p h o t o g r a p h it seems t o m e

Vision of Saint Hubert].

2 4 . See K o l b 2 0 0 5 , p . 9, fig. 13. 25. V a s a r i 1 9 6 6 - , v o l . 5, p . 8: " l a q u a l e carte e m i r a b i l e , e m a s s i m a m e n t c p e r l a b e l l e z z a d ' a l c u n i c a n i i n v a r i e a t t i t u d i n i , che n o n p o s s o n o esserc piu belli." 26. See K o l b 2 0 0 5 , p. 12. 27. A r t i s t u n k n o w n ( S o u t h e r n N e t h e r l a n d s ) , Portrait Lunar

and the Dogs of the Infanta

Isabella

of Dona Juana

v o o r S c h o n e K u n s t e n , inv. 6417). T h e canvas is t h o u g h t t o have c o m e f r o m T e r v u r e n ; see D e M a e y e r 1955, p. 171, 376, d o c . 133. T h e p a i n t i n g is d i s c u s s e d a n d r e p r o d u c e d i n B r u s s e l s 1985, p p . 6 3 7 - 3 8 , cat. n o . D18.

t h a t the v e r s i o n f o r m e r l y i n the K a i s e r - F r i e d r i c h - M u s e u m , B e r l i n , was

T h e m a r q u i s o f L e g a n e s o w n e d a c o p y of Dona Juana

o f higher quality."

Dogs of the Infanta

16. A n i n v e n t o r y o f t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f p a i n t i n g s at T e r v u r e n (1667) reveals m a n y p a i n t i n g s o f h u n t i n g subjects; see D e M a e y e r 1955, p p . 4 4 8 - 5 3 , d o c . 272. See a l s o , f o r e x a m p l e , cat. n o s . 2, 10, a n d n .

t i o n i n the 1642 i n v e n t o r y o f t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f the m a r q u i s o f L e g a n e s , w h e r e it was c l e a r l y d e s c r i b e d as b y R u b e n s a n d B r u e g h e l , t o the 1686 i n v e n t o r y o f the A l c a z a r , w h i c h a s c r i b e d it t o R u b e n s ( a n d i d e n t i f i e d t h e subject as S a i n t E u s t a c e ) ("681 O t r a P i n t u r a de v a r a y q u a r t a de n

Isabella;

de Lunar

and the

see N a v i o 1962, p. 2 9 6 , n o . 6 6 2 . T h e m a r

q u i s ' s c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the a r c h d u k e s a n d w i t h T e r v u r e n is reflected i n W i l l e m v a n H a e c h t (1593-1637), Gallery of Archduchess

Isabella

(Kent,

H a w k h u r s t , H a r d c a s t l e p r i v a t e c o l l e c t i o n ) , w h i c h is t h o u g h t t o p o r t r a y the i n t e r i o r o f T e r v u r e n a b o u t 1628 a n d i n c l u d e s the m a r q u i s ' s p o r t r a i t

17. T h e a t t r i b u t i o n o f the M a d r i d p a n e l has v a r i e d , f r o m the earliest m e n

l a r g o y tres q u a r t a s de a n c h o e n l a m i n a de v n S

(Brussels, K o n i n k l i j k e M u s e a

E u s t a q u i o de m a n o

de R u b e n e s " ) : B o t t i n e a u 1958, p . 3 0 6 . R o o s e s ( 1 8 8 6 - 9 2 , v o l . 2, p . 285) a n d Posse ( 1 9 0 9 - 1 1 , p . 325) a t t r i b u t e d t h e M a d r i d p a n e l t o B r u e g h e l ; it w a s c a t a l o g u e d as J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r a n d Peter P a u l R u b e n s b y D i a z P a d r o n (1975, p p . 6 5 - 6 7 ) , an a t t r i b u t i o n d i s p u t e d b y V l i e g h e (see n o t e 15 a b o v e ) b u t m a i n t a i n e d i n B a l i s et a l . 1989a, p . 267; a n d V e r g a r a 1999, p- 171 (as R u b e n s a n d B r u e g h e l ) .

a l o n g w i t h t h a t o f A m b r o g i o S p i n o l a . See S p e t h - H o l t e r h o f f 1957, p p . 1 0 8 - 9 , figs. 3 9 - 4 1 . 28. See, f o r e x a m p l e , B r u e g h e l ' s d r a w i n g Deerpark

of Archduke

Albert

Mariemont (Winner 1972, pp. 154-55, fig. 35). 29. S a i n t e n o y 1932-35, v o l . 1, p . 76. 30. F o r the R u b e n s h u i s p a i n t i n g (inv. R H SI30) a n d the a r c h d u c a l m e n a g e r i e , see K o l b 2 0 0 5 , p p . 13-17, fig. 23. F o r the d r a w i n g o f the a r c h d u k e s at the h u n t ( s o l d , S o t h e b y ' s , A m s t e r d a m [ N o v e m b e r 11, 1997, l o t 6 6 ] ) , see W i n n e r 1961, p. 232, f i g . 4 1 ; a n d Z w o l l o 2 0 0 0 , p. 452.

18. See the essay b y D o h e r t y , L e o n a r d , a n d W a d u m i n t h i s v o l u m e , p . 2 4 0 . I a m g r a t e f u l t o T i a r n a D o h e r t y a n d M a r k L e o n a r d at t h e J. P a u l G e t t y M u s e u m a n d t o A l e x a n d e r V e r g a r a a n d A n a G o n z a l e z M o z o at the M u s e o N a c i o n a l d e l P r a d o f o r d i s c u s s i n g the i n f r a r e d reflectograph w i t h me. 19. B r u e g h e l ' s l a n d s c a p e s take o n a g r e a t e r m o n u m e n t a l i t y a n d o p e n n e s s i n the late 1610s, a n d the p r e s e n t c o m p o s i t i o n m a y be c o m p a r e d w i t h J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r , Busy Highway

( o i l o n c o p p e r , 25.8 x 37 c m

[10Vs x 1 4 i n . ] ; M u n i c h , A l t e P i n a k o t h e k , n o . 1877), a n d J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r a n d c o l l a b o r a t o r , Wooded Landscape Dogs, and Hunting

with

Nymphs,

Spoils (fig. 68 i n t h i s v o l u m e ) , w h i c h are u s u a l l y

d a t e d a b o u t 1620. See R e n g e r a n d D c n k 2 0 0 2 , p . 112; a n d R e n g e r a n d Schleif 2005, pp. 7 8 - 7 9 . 2 0 . See n o t e 17 a b o v e . A s D o h e r t y , L e o n a r d a n d W a d u m o b s e r v e (p. 2 4 0 ) , t h e hat i n s e r t e d b y B r u e g h e l serves t o " b r i d g e " t h e space b e t w e e n the s a i n t a n d the h o r s e . 21. B r u s s e l s 1 9 9 8 - 9 9 , p p . 2 5 9 - 6 0 . 22. F o r the p o r t r a i t , see V e r g a r a 1999, p p . n - 1 6 . 23. C o n t r a r y t o D i a z P a d r o n ' s a s s e r t i o n (1975, p . 6 6 ) , t h e h o r s e i n The Vision of Saint Hubert

is d i s t i n c t f r o m the p r a n c i n g g r a y s t a l l i o n

t h a t appears i n The Entry of the Animals a n d The Garden

into Noah's Ark

of Eden with the Fall of Man

(cat. n o . 26)

(cat. n o . 4 ) . F o r B r u e g h e l ' s

use o f the h o r s e , see K o l b 2 0 0 5 , e s p e c i a l l y p p . 6 3 - 6 8 .

BRUEGHEL

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RUBENS

8 Jan Brueghel the Elder and Peter Paul Rubens

Allegory of Taste 1618

O i l on panel, 6 4 x 108 cm (25 A x 4 2 V2 in.) Madrid, Museo Nacional del Prado, inv. 1397 l

1984; M a d r i d 1992, p p . 114-53; S c a r p a S o n i n o

INSCRIPTION

1992, p p . 2 1 - 2 7 ; H a r t i n g 1993, p p . 1 2 9 - 3 1 ;

A t lower right, B R V E G H E L . F E . I 6 I 8

D i a z P a d r o n 1995, p p . 2 6 5 - 8 6 ; W e l z e l 1997; PROVENANCE

P a u l u s s e n 1997, p p . 9 1 - 1 3 2 ; W e l z e l i n B r u s s e l s

Presented by D u k e Wolfgang W i l h e l m o f

1998- 99, pp. 9 9 - 1 0 6 ; Welzel i n M a d r i d

P f a l z - N e u b u r g to C a r d i n a l Infante Ferdinand,

1999- 2 0 0 0 , pp. 82-97; V a n M u l d e r s 2000,

1634; p o s s i b l y c o l l e c t i o n o f the d u k e o f

p . 120; K o l b 2 0 0 0 , p p . 1 6 1 - 6 5 ; W e l z e l 2 0 0 2 ,

M e d i n a - S i d o n i a s de L a s T o r r e s ,

pp. 337-39; W e l z e l 2 0 0 4 ; K o l b 2005,

1634-36;

presented to K i n g P h i l i p I V o f S p a i n ; trans f e r r e d t o t h e P r a d o u p o n its f o u n d a t i o n ,

1819

LITERATURE

pp. 6 0 - 6 3 EXHIBITION

B r u s s e l s 1980, cat. n o . 142

D e M a e y e r 1955, p p . 4 2 - 4 3 , 112, 114, 118; S p e t h - H o l t e r h o f F 1957, p p . 2 9 , 4 6 - 5 4 ; E r t z 1979, pp- 3 2 8 - 5 6 , n o . 330; M u l l e r H o f s t e d e

N E

O F

T H E

B E S T - K N O W N

C O L L A B O R A T I V E

W O R K S

of Jan Brueghel and Peter Paul Rubens is without doubt the series depicting the Five Senses in the Museo Nacional del Prado, represented in this exhibition by the Allegory of Taste. Five panels, each measuring approxi mately 65 x 1 0 0 cm (twenty-five by forty inches), display female personifications of the Five Senses, portrayed against a backdrop of princely collections that together seem to paint an idealized picture of the court of the Habsburg rulers of the Southern Netherlands, the archdukes Albert and Isabella, whose castles in and near Brussels are depicted in the distance. In these ambitious allegories, encyclopedic collections of artifacts and naturalia epitomize the cosmos of sensory experience. The portrayal of the Five Senses as female personifications with attributes has its roots in sixteenth-century Flemish printmaking, but Brueghel first 1

BRUEGHEL

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tackled the subject as a means of depicting an abundance of objects related to art, culture, science, and warfare, augmented by the rich fruits of the earth and the spoils of the hunt, all of which are experienced through the senses. With unparalleled precision and an unerring touch, he repro duced countless paintings, many of which are identifiable: in Taste, for example, we see his own Garland of Fruit around a Depiction of Ceres Receiving Gifts from the Four Seasons, with figures by Hendrick van Balen (cat. nos. 2 0 and 21). The depictions are set in princely chambers that reflect the wealth and splendor of court culture. The figure of Sight contemplates a painting in a Kunstkammer, or collector's cabinet, filled with paintings, antique busts, ornate objects, tapestries, and scientific instruments (fig. 5 4 ) ; Hearing plays her lute in the midst of a collection of musical instruments and clocks (fig. 5 5 ) ; Touch kisses a cupid amid a princely 2

F I G U R E 54 J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r a n d P e t e r P a u l R u b e n s , Allegory

of Sight, 1617. O i l o n p a n e l , 65 x 109 c m

(25 /8 x 4 2 % i n . ) . M a d r i d , M u s e o N a c i o n a l d e l P r a d o , i n v . 1394 5

F I G U R E 55 J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r a n d P e t e r P a u l R u b e n s , Allegory (25 /8 x 4 2 Vs i n . ) . M a d r i d , M u s e o N a c i o n a l d e l P r a d o , i n v . 1395 5

BRUEGHEL

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RUBENS

of Hearing,

1617-18. O i l o n p a n e l , 65 x 107 c m

F I G U R E 56 J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r a n d Peter P a u l R u b e n s , Allegory

of Touch, 1617-18. O i l o n p a n e l , 65 x 106 c m

(25V8 x 4 i A i n . ) . M a d r i d , M u s e o N a c i o n a l d e l P r a d o , i n v . 1398 3

F I G U R E 57 J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r a n d Peter P a u l R u b e n s , Allegory

of Smell, 1617-18. O i l o n p a n e l , 6 4 x 109 c m

(25 V4 x 4 2 % i n . ) . M a d r i d , M u s e o N a c i o n a l d e l P r a d o , i n v . 1396

BRUEGHEL

AND RUBENS

armory (fig. 56); Smell sits in a garden among blossoming flowers (fig. 57); Taste, seated at a sumptuously laid table overloaded with food and drink, nibbles an oyster and allows a satyr to fill her wineglass. When Brueghel had finished painting his richly detailed settings, Rubens painted his female personifications in the reserves, providing each one with a companion in the form of a putto or a satyr. Brueghel then added the finishing touches, making the small adjust ments necessary to integrate Rubens's figures into their surroundings. The reserve for Taste, for example, was a bit too ample around the legs, so Brueghel made changes to the white tablecloth at that spot. H e also decorated the satyr's head with a vine wreath. Rubens, for his part, had already adjusted his contribution to fit what Brueghel had painted, as evidenced by his satyr, whose body reflects the green of the fruit on the table. That Brueghel may be regarded as the originator of the series is confirmed by the fact that he alone signed three of the five panels. The dates of 1617 and 1618 next to Brueghel's signature on Sight and Taste, respectively, also offer an important clue as to the chronology of the usu ally undated collaborative works by Brueghel and Rubens. It has often been assumed that this costly series of paint ings was commissioned by Archdukes Albert and Isabella. Rubens had, after all, held the post of court painter since his return from Italy in 1 6 0 8 , and Brueghel regularly worked for the court at Brussels. The couple's palaces serve as back ground scenery in three of the five depictions, and Sight contains a double portrait of the regents and an equestrian portrait of Albert, as well as a brass chandelier crowned with the Habsburgs' double-headed eagle. Despite these references, it is unclear to what extent the series actually represents the archducal collections, although some of the paintings and other works depicted could have belonged to the couple. It seems more likely that this series presents an idealized view of the princely culture of collecting, inspired by the court of Albert and Isabella. This series was first recorded in 1636, when the paintings were listed in an inventory of the Royal Alcazar Palace in Madrid. Their description states that the paintings were given in 1634 by Duke Wolfgang Wilhelm of Pfalz-Neuburg (1578-1653) to Cardinal Infante Ferdinand ( 1 6 0 9 - 1 6 4 1 ) , who had become the new ruler of the Southern Netherlands after the deaths of Albert and Isabella in 1621 and 1633, respec tively. Through the offices of the Spanish duke of Medina de las Torres, Ferdinand subsequently presented the paintings to his brother, King Philip I V of Spain, who had them hung in 3

BRUEGHEL

AND RUBENS

the reading room of the Alcazar. It is possible that Wolfgang Wilhelm's gift to Ferdinand was prompted by his gratitude for the victory at the Battle of Nordiingen in September 1634, an important turning point in the Thirty Years' War. It was near this town in southern Germany that the Swedes and their German Protestant allies were halted in their advance by imperial Catholic troops under the command of Ferdinand, thereby averting the threat to Wolfgang Wilhelm's territories around Regensburg and Neuburg. The duke, ruler of the small principality of Pfalz-Neuburg (in 1614 the strategically important county of Julich-Berg in the Lower Rhine Valley also devolved upon him), had been a staunch Roman Catholic since his conversion in 1 6 1 3 - 1 4 . Prompted by the Counter-Reformation, he undertook to restore the Catholic faith in the territories in his domain. H e was a brother-in-law of Maximilian of Bavaria (leader of the Roman Catholic League) and a faithful ally of Albert and Isabella, to whom he had paid a state visit in the winter of 1 6 1 4 - 1 5 . In 1617 Rubens accepted a commission from the duke to paint the main altar of the court church in Neuburg, followed in 1619 by commissions for two altarpieces for side altars. This court church had been founded as a Protes tant church in 1607, but the duke had handed it over to the Jesuits in 1614. In 1622 Rubens completed a commission from Wolfgang Wilhelm for an altarpiece for the Church of Saint Peter in Neuburg representing the Fall of the Rebel Angels, a popular Counter-Reformationist subject. H o w and when the series came into the possession of Wolfgang Wilhelm before he gave it away in 1634—whether directly from the artists or indeed from other owners, pos sibly the archdukes—we will probably never know. A t any rate, during the same period in which the present series of the Five Senses was painted, Brueghel was working on another important commission depicting the same subject in two paintings that were certainly intended for Albert and Isabella: in October 1618 the city of Antwerp bought from Brueghel "two ingenious paintings, representing the Five Senses, on which twelve of the best masters of this city have worked, to be presented to Their Most Illustrious High nesses." In 1619 these large and valuable paintings were hanging in the audience hall of Tervuren castle; in 1731 they were lost in a fire in Coudenberg Palace. The versions preserved in the Prado (figs. 58 and 59), which were already in Spain by 1633, have proved to be faithful copies of the original paintings. For Brueghel and his colleagues, these two collaborative paintings were without precedent, for no 7

F I G U R E 58 A f t e r J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r a n d o t h e r artists, Allegory canvas, 176 x 2 6 4 c m ( 6 9

of Sight and Smell, ca. 1618. O i l o n

x 104 i n . ) . M a d r i d , M u s e o N a c i o n a l d e l P r a d o , i n v . 1403

F I G U R E 59 A f t e r J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r a n d o t h e r artists, Allegory

of Hearing,

Taste, and Touch, ca. 1618.

O i l o n canvas, 176 x 2 6 4 c m ( 6 9 V4 x 104 i n . ) . M a d r i d , M u s e o N a c i o n a l d e l P r a d o , inv. 1 4 0 4

BRUEGHEL

AND

RUBENS

fewer than twelve otherwise unnamed masters contributed their own paintings within the painting, thus enabling the passionate collectors Albert and Isabella to possess in these two pictures representative works of the entire Antwerp school of painting of their day. In the series discussed here, Brueghel chose a different approach, himself reproducing his colleagues' paintings as well as his own. Nevertheless, the Madrid paintings also offer—especially in the Allegory of Sight, the sense that is so vital to the art of painting—a splendid sample of the Antwerp school of the early seven teenth century. Sight is often seen as the core of the series of the Five Senses, a position earned by virtue of its exceptionally rich and multilayered iconography. Furthermore, the date— 1617—indicates that the series began with this painting. Even so, it is important to consider the individual paintings in the context of the whole series. Just as Brueghel had previ ously attempted, in various series of the Four Elements, to document the natural world in its infinite diversity, in his allegories of the Five Senses he paints an idealized picture of every facet of courtly life, presenting a tableau in which these paintings cannot be seen separately but only as part of the larger picture. Amassing collections of artifacts and naturalia, developing a profound appreciation of music, and taking an active interest in scientific pursuits were integral parts of court culture, as were the management of the family estates and the popular pastime of hunting, as reflected, for example, in the Allegory of Taste. Each painting in the series, moreover, contains appropriate allusions to the role played by the individual senses in the doctrine of salvation. The Allegory of Sight, with the archdukes' Brussels resi dence of Coudenberg in the background, is situated in a col lector's cabinet filled with art and scientific instruments. This type of Kunstkammer, first painted by Frans Francken the Younger ( 1 5 8 1 - 1 6 4 2 ) , would eventually develop—partly through the efforts of Brueghel—into a popular genre typica l of the Antwerp school. Almost every genre of painting is represented in this work, from still life to history painting and from portraiture to seascape. Perhaps it is only natural that the paintings by Rubens and Brueghel occupy the most prominent places and are more numerous than the works of other artists. The personification of Sight studies a painting—held up by a winged putto—that depicts Christ's healing of the blind man, probably a painting by Brueghel himself. Propped against the wall below the shelves of antique portrait busts is a painting—after Pieter Bruegel the 14

BRUEGHEL

AND RUBENS

Elder—that represents the antithesis of this biblical story: the fall of the blind man. This illustrates the contrast between the vision that derives from true faith and the blind ness of the unbeliever. Similarly, an attempt has been made to interpret all the details in the picture symbolically, as exempla bona or exempla mala of the true vision of Roman Catholic believers. A l l the same, the Madonna and Child in a Garland of Flowers, for example, which is based on the collaborative painting by Brueghel and Rubens in the Louvre (see fig. 6 9 ) , seems to have been reproduced mainly to advertise this new composition by the two friends and not as a Christian pendant to the personification of Sight. Brueghel's garland does have a counterpart in the vase of freshly cut flowers standing on a cupboard to the left. A lot of philosophizing was done at the time on the relative merits of painted flowers as opposed to real ones, in the light of the topos of the rivalry between art and nature: Brueghel's artistry was, after all, capable of transforming short-lived flowers into immortal blooms. In the Allegory of Sight, Brueghel included not only the Madonna and Child on which he had collaborated with Rubens but also several of his friend's recent compositions. The tiger hunt on the back wall, for example, was a brandnew composition by Rubens, as was Daniel in the Lions' Den, a fragment of which is visible at the upper left. The Drunken Silenus in the right foreground is also by Rubens, as is the double portrait of Albert and Isabella—the proto type of which has not survived —and the equestrian por trait of Albert. The depiction above the gate of Venus and Psyche is based on a painting by Titian, while on the right, in front of the antique busts, is a Saint Cecilia by Raphael, half of which is covered up. Among the antique busts are famous portraits of Marcus Aurelius, Nero, Augustus, and Alexander the Great. The upper shelf holds scaled-down replicas of statues by Michelangelo. Antique statues are prominently displayed in the gallery of paintings at the back right. In addition to paintings and statues and the pile of folded-up carpets in the left foreground, Brueghel depicted magnificent objects in gold and silver, including a cupboard with ornate jugs, vases, and dishes. The numerous optical instruments displayed—such as the newly developed telescope between the woman and the putto—embody the scientific dimension of sight. The personification of Hearing plays the lute and sings along with the putto at her feet, accompanied by two song birds perched on a stool; the archdukes' summer castle of 18

Mariemont (compare cat. no. 9 B ) figures in the background. A group of musicians plays in the back left corner. In between a harpsichord made by the famous Antwerp firm of Ruckers and a round table with seven music stands attached to it, Brueghel depicted a large number of musical instru ments. The music on the stand closest to the viewer bears the archducal arms and the name of Albert and Isabella's court composer, the Englishman Peter Philips ( 1 5 6 0 / 6 1 - 1 6 2 8 ) . Various hunting horns lie on the floor in the right fore ground (see fig. 6 4 ) , while a number of beautifully designed clocks grace the table and the back wall—in those days the measurement of time was perceived mainly by the sense of hearing. Next to the caged parrots stands an artificial bird with a chirping mechanism. Artificial birdsong was often incorporated into garden architecture to confound the senses in a game of illusion versus reality that greatly appealed to the popular imagination. The paintings hanging on the walls include a triptych with the Annunciation to the Virgin (who hears the divine word); similarly, the lid of the harp sichord is decorated with an Annunciation to the Shepherds after Hendrick van Balen. The Concert of the Muses above the triptych is a composition by Van Balen or Hendrick de Clerck, with whom Brueghel also collaborated (see cat. no. 16). Hanging on the right is one of Brueghel's own com positions of a very appropriate subject: Orpheus Charming the Animals with His Music. The Allegory of Touch is situated in a half-open room— containing paintings, medical instruments, and shelves of armor—in which the personification of Touch tenderly kisses her putto. The left half of the depiction is filled with weapons and suits of armor; in the middle distance, weapons are forged in an outdoor smithy set amidst ruins. Directly behind the kissing personification, a dog lunging at a deer's throat is depicted in the tapestry on which the paintings hang. After all, pain as well as pleasure is experienced through the sense of touch. This is keenly expressed by the medical instruments (including a frightfully large amputating saw), the two pulled teeth lying on the table, a bird of prey hovering in the air with its quarry, and the array of weapons and armor. O n a metaphorical level, the arms represent the pain and heat of battle. In the context of these paintings, these objects represent both the culture of collecting indulged in by the higher nobility and their prestigious courtly armories. The weapons and armor of illustrious ancestors were cherished as mementos of heroic deeds of the past, the preeminent embodiment of a family's dynastic ambitions, 2 9

and weapons seized from one's enemies were proudly dis played as trophies. Suits of armor were put on dummies, thus becoming a kind of portrait of their former owners. The importance attached to these relics emerges from the fact that in 1594 Philip II had the armory belonging to his father, Charles V, declared an inalienable possession—the first of his collections to be thus entailed. The armor on the wooden stand that rises out of the display of arms on the floor is possibly a piece (formerly preserved in Brussels) that once belonged to Maximilian I ( 1 4 5 9 - 1 5 1 9 ) or Philip the Hand some ( 1 4 7 8 - 1 5 0 6 ) . Lying on the floor are pieces of a suit of armor bearing engraved and gilded ornamental bands of a kind mass-produced in Italy in the sixteenth century and therefore not associated with any specific rank: this motif belonged to the standard repertoire of Brueghel's workshop (see cat. no. 2 ) . The largest painting within the painting in this allegory is a depiction of the Last Judgment, with lead ing roles for the pain of the damned and the heat of hell fire. This work bears a strong resemblance to Brueghel's scenes of hell and purgatory (compare cat. no. 15). The Defeat of Sennacherib below this is based on a composition by Rubens and depicts the victory of the biblical king Hezekiah over the pagan enemies of Israel. Other subjects well suited to this allegory are of course The Flagellation of Christ and The Martyrdom of Saint Lawrence, the painting cut off at the lower right. The latter work is based on an altarpiece that Philip II commissioned Titian to make for the Escorial; in the caption to Cornells Cort's famous print after this composition, the subject—which refers to Philip IPs victory over the French near St. Quentin on the feast of Saint Lawrence in 1557—is interpreted as symbolic of the victory of the Habsburg dynasty over its enemies. 34

3 5

In the Allegory of Smell, the naked protagonist appears in a beautiful garden, sitting on a cushion amidst fragrant flowers, which her putto holds out to her. The castle in the background is not identifiable, but it naturally alludes to a courtly lifestyle in which it was a matter of course to have splendid gardens amply filled with rare plants and bulbs. Albert and Isabella also had gardens laid out at their residence in Brussels, for which they collected exotic flowers: in one of his letters to Cardinal Borromeo, Brueghel said that he had gone to Brussels to study a number of rare flowers at first hand. The building on the left in the middle distance must be a perfume distillery, as evidenced by the various glass vessels and the open fire, whereas the building on the right is an artificial grotto with fountains and cascades of the type 40

BRUEGHEL

AND RUBENS

designed for the archdukes by the engineer and garden architect Salomon de Caus ( 1 5 7 6 - 1 6 2 6 ) (see cat. no. 6 ) . While Smell allowed Brueghel once again to exhibit his special skills as a flower painter, in the Allegory of Taste he proves himself as a painter of still lifes of game. The fore ground contains an extremely well-rendered pile of game, with a colorful assortment of songbirds, pheasants, deer, hares, partridges, doves, a peacock, and a wild boar. Just as Brueghel's flower pieces are composed of flowers that do not actually bloom at the same time of year, this painting con tains specimens of wild game that are not hunted in the same season. In the left foreground lie several pieces of salmon and some fish. In the kitchen at the back, game is being roasted and fish prepared; the painting hanging above the door depicts a Fat Kitchen in the style of Pieter Bruegel the Elder. O n the table at which Taste is seated, the game and fish appear to have been delightfully transformed by the culinary art into pies of swan, pheasant, dove, and peacock, and plates full of lobsters, oysters, and roast fowl. The per sonification of Taste feasts on this delicious fare, while a satyr fills her wineglass. It is not only this satyr but other objects as well—the vines at the top of the picture, the bas ket of grapes in the central still-life arrangement, and the wine cooler and jugs on the left—which represent the wines produced on the princely estates. Taken altogether, these elements portray the rich and wide-ranging yields of the domains of Albert and Isabella, whose hunting lodge, Tervuren Castle—with its game park and fishponds—is depicted in the background (compare cat. no. 9 A ) . Behind the table, hanging on the gold-leather wall covering, is a painting depicting The Marriage at Cana—perhaps after the example of Frans Francken—a subject that can naturally be seen as the biblical pendant of the sumptuous table depicted here. Rather than regarding the Allegory of Taste as a warning against the intemperance possibly expressed by the winedrinking woman and her satyr, it seems more natural to interpret this bounteous repast as a reference to courtly cuisine and the culture of feasting which, like the hunt, were integral parts of an aristocratic lifestyle. A law enacted in the Southern Netherlands in 1613 prohibited hunting to all but the lords in power; it was strictly forbidden—on pain of a heavy fine—to hunt in or near the princely domains, to possess wild game, or to keep hunting dogs. This con firmed the notion that hunting costly game was a princely prerogative. In this painting, the rich spoils of the hunt serve as further evidence of the luxurious life at court which 4 2

B R U E G H E L

A N D

R U B E N S

forms the setting for this series of the Five Senses. Indeed, the reproduction in the left foreground of the Garland of Fruit around a Depiction of Ceres Receiving Gifts from the Four Seasons by Brueghel and Van Balen is a very appropriate addition to the abundance pictured here. In reproducing this recent composition, Brueghel again advertises the very latest product that he and his artist friends in Antwerp had to offer. The presence of the silky marmoset on the back of the chair can be traced, in fact, to traditional portrayals of the senses in which a monkey is the constant companion of Taste, just as a dog traditionally appears with Smell and a deer with Hearing. For Brueghel, the portrayal of the Five Senses provided the perfect opportunity to document all aspects of idealized courtly culture. These pictures were clearly inspired by the elegance of the archdukes' court and the high quality and ambitious scope of their collections. O n a symbolic level, these paintings express the prosperity and peace that prevailed in the Southern Netherlands during the reign of Albert and Isabella, when art, culture, and science could again blossom and the land could again bear fruit. A v S

NOTES 1. See N o r d e n f a l k 1985. 2. J a n B r u e g h e l t h e Y o u n g e r s p o k e o f t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f f e r e d b y t h e s u b j e c t i n a l e t t e r he w r o t e i n 1631 t o t h e art d e a l e r C h r i s o s t o m o v a n I m m e r s e e l , " A s r e g a r d s t h e F i v e Senses, I a m w o r k i n g o n t h e m w i t h p l e a s u r e , d o i n g e v e r y t h i n g f r o m l i f e , s i n c e t h e s u b j e c t is a g r e e a b l y s u i t e d t o d e p i c t i n g e v e r y t h i n g u n d e r t h e s u n . " ( W a t b e l a n c t de V y f s i n n e n , h e b b e d i e m e t l u s t o n d e r h a n d e n o m alles n a e r t l e v e n te d o e n , als 0 0 c het s u b j e c t p l a y s a n t is o m a l w a t ter w e r e l t is d a e r i n te c o n n e n m a k e n . ) : D e n u c e 1934, p . 71. 3. F o r v a r i o u s t h e o r i e s o n t h e p r o v e n a n c e o f t h e p a i n t i n g s , see D e M a e y e r 1955, p p . 4 2 - 4 9 ; E r t z 1979, p p . 3 3 6 - 3 7 ; M u l l e r H o f s t e d e

1984,

p p . 2 4 3 - 4 5 ; a n d W e l z e l 1997. 4 . See C . B r o w n , " R u b e n s a n d t h e A r c h d u k e s , " i n B r u s s e l s 1 9 9 8 - 9 9 , pp. 121-28. 5. B a l i s 1986, v o l . 2, p p . 1 3 8 - 3 9 . T h e i n v e n t o r i e s o f A l b e r t a n d Isabella's c o l l e c t i o n s o f p a i n t i n g s (as p u b l i s h e d i n D e M a e y e r 1955) are t o o v a g u e a n d i n c o m p l e t e t o p r o v i d e t h e basis f o r a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f their collections. 6. See M a d r i d 1992, p . 115. 7. M u l l e r H o f s t e d e 1984, p . 245. 8. See, f o r i n s t a n c e , D i i s s e l d o r f 2 0 0 3 .

9. R e n g e r a n d D e n k 2 0 0 2 , p p . 3 2 0 - 2 3 ( B a y e r i s c h e S t a a t s g e m a l d e s a m m l u n g e n , i n v . 8 9 0 ; n o w i n the A l t e P i n a k o t h e k , M u n i c h ) a n d p p . 3 0 5 - 1 6 , 3 2 0 - 2 3 ( B a y e r i s c h e S t a a t s g e m a l d e s a m m l u n g e n , inv. 303 a n d 9 9 9 ; b o t h n o w i n the S t a a t s g a l e r i e N e u b u r g an d e r D o n a u ) . 10. R e n g e r a n d D e n k 2 0 0 2 , p p . 312-16 ( B a y e r i s c h e S t a a t s g e m a l d e s a m m l u n g e n , i n v . 3 0 6 ; n o w i n the A l t e P i n a k o t h e k , M u n i c h ) . 11. I t is p o s s i b l e t h a t A l b e r t a n d I s a b e l l a o r d e r e d t h e p a i n t i n g s f r o m B r u e g h e l a n d R u b e n s a n d t h a t t h e y later c a m e i n t o the p o s s e s s i o n o f D u k e W o l f g a n g W i l h e l m , as a g i f t f r o m t h e a r c h d u k e s , f o r e x a m p l e , o r f r o m I s a b e l l a after the d e a t h o f h e r h u s b a n d . It is also c o n c e i v a b l e that A l b e r t and Isabella o r d e r e d the paintings specifically to present t h e m t o t h e i r i m p o r t a n t ally. W o l f g a n g W i l h e l m c o u l d have h a d the p a i n t i n g s m a d e f o r h i m s e l f , b u t he m i g h t also have o r d e r e d t h e m as a gift f o r A l b e r t a n d I s a b e l l a , i n w h i c h case the p a i n t i n g s c o u l d have b e e n r e t u r n e d t o h i m at s o m e later date. See n o t e 3 a b o v e f o r the v a r i o u s t h e o r i e s r e g a r d i n g t h e p r o v e n a n c e o f these p a i n t i n g s . 12. " t w e e c o n s t i g e s c h i l d e r i j e n , r e p r e s e n t e r e n d e de V i j f f S i n n e n , w a e r i n n e g e v r o c h t h e b b e n t w e e l f f d i v e r s c h e v a n de p r i n c i p a e l s t e meesters deser stadt, o m g e s c h o n c k e n te w o r d e n aen H a r e D o o r l u c h t i c h s t e H o o c h e d e n " : D e M a e y e r 1955, d o c . 139. See also E r t z 1979, p p . 3 5 6 - 5 7 ; D i a z P a d r o n 1995, v o l . 1, p p . 2 3 6 - 4 5 ; B r u s s e l s 1 9 9 8 - 9 9 , cat. n o . 6 0 ; a n d B . W e l z e l , " E l c i c l o de l o s s e n t i d o s de J a n B r u e g h e l el V i e j o y Peter P a u l R u b e n s c o m o espejo de l a c u l t u r a de c o r t e de A l b e r t o e Isabel," i n M a d r i d 1 9 9 9 - 2 0 0 0 . 13. D i a z P a d r o n 1995, v o l . 1, p p . 2 3 6 - 4 5 , n o s . 1 4 0 3 - 0 4 . 14. O n series o f the F i v e Senses, see e s p e c i a l l y W e l z e l 1997. 15. T h i s f e m a l e p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n has o f t e n b e e n i d e n t i f i e d as V e n u s ( S p e t h H o l t e r h o f f 1957, p . 53; a n d E r t z 1979, p p . 3 4 3 - 4 5 ) o r J u n o ( M u l l e r H o f s t e d e 1984). 16. See H a r t i n g 1989, p p . 83-91. 17. F o r t h e p a i n t i n g s w i t h i n t h i s p a i n t i n g , see M a d r i d 1992, p p . 117-25; a n d D i a z P a d r o n 1995, p p . 2 6 8 - 7 3 . 18. T h e artist is S e b a s t i a n V r a n c x (1573-1647); see M a d r i d 1992, cat. n o . 10. 19. See M u l l e r H o f s t e d e 1984. 2 0 . O n t h i s subject, see W e l z e l 2 0 0 2 a n d 2 0 0 2 a . 21. I n t h e M u s e e des B e a u x - A r t s at R e n n e s t h e r e is a v e r s i o n o f t h i s w o r k f r o m the estate o f M a x i m i l i a n o f B a v a r i a , w h i c h was m a d e i n 1615 t o d e c o r a t e his castle at S c h l e i s s h e i m ( M a d r i d 1992, p . 119, fig. 73). 22. C o m p a r e t h e v e r s i o n i n the N a t i o n a l G a l l e r y o f A r t i n W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . ( M a d r i d 1992, p p . 117-18; a n d D i a z P a d r o n 1995, p . 268). I n 1618 R u b e n s o f f e r e d t o sell t h i s p a i n t i n g t o the E n g l i s h d i p l o m a t a n d art c o l l e c t o r S i r D u d l e y C a r l e t o n . T h e r e was also a v e r s i o n

see D e M a e y e r 1955, p . 435, d o c . 2 7 0 , n o . 1; p. 4 4 8 , d o c . 271, n o . 2 3 0 ; p . 4 6 1 , d o c . 276, n o . 2. 2 4 . A c c o r d i n g t o E r t z (1979, p p . 338-39), this d o u b l e p o r t r a i t is based o n R u b e n s ' s p o r t r a i t s o f A l b e r t a n d I s a b e l l a i n t h e P r a d o (cat. n o s . 9 A and 9B). 25. C o m p a r e , f o r e x a m p l e , K o l b 2 0 0 0 , fig. 63. 26. M a d r i d 1992, p . 11927. M a d r i d 1992, p . 121. 28. E r t z (1979, p . 342) a t t e m p t e d t o i n t e r p r e t the m u s i c a l i n s t r u m e n t s as a n A l l e g o r y o f the L i b e r a l A r t s . 2 9 . D e M a e y e r 1955, p . 4 6 . 30. See W e l z e l 1997, p. 258. 31. M a d r i d 1992, cat. n o . 13. 32. E r t z 1979, p . 2 4 9 . F o r a n o t h e r p i c t u r e b y J a n B r u e g h e l w i t h t h e s a m e subject, d a t e d 1 6 0 0 , see A n t w e r p 1998, p . 126, fig. 35b. 33. See B . W e l z e l , " A r m o u r y a n d A r c h d u c a l I m a g e : T h e Sense o f T o u c h f r o m the F i v e Senses o f J a n B r u e g h e l a n d Peter P a u l R u b e n s , " i n Brussels 1 9 9 8 - 9 9 , pp. 9 9 - 1 0 6 . 34. B r u s s e l s 1994, p p . 117-19. 35. W e l z e l ( n o t e 33 a b o v e ) , p . 101, figs. 1 a n d 2. 36. W e l z e l ( n o t e 33), p p . 102, 105, n . 16; see E r t z 1979, n o . 252 ( l o s t i n 1945). 37. M a d r i d 1992, p . 286. See also a v e r s i o n i n the P u s h k i n M u s e u m , M o s c o w . A v a r i a t i o n o f this d e p i c t i o n — a c o p y b y H a n s v o n A a c h e n after C h r i s t o p h S c h w a r z ( B a l i s 1986, p . 145, n . 3 1 ) — f r o m t h e estate o f E m p e r o r R u d o l f I I h a d p o s s i b l y b e e n i n the p o s s e s s i o n o f A r c h d u k e A l b e r t s i n c e 1615; see D e M a e y e r 1955, d o c . 104. 38. W e l z e l ( n o t e 33), p p . 1 0 3 - 0 4 . 39. R o t t e r d a m 1994, cat. n o . 6 0 . 4 0 . F o r B r u e g h e l ' s letter t o B o r r o m e o o f A p r i l 14, 1 6 0 6 , see C r i v e l l i 1868, p. 63. 41. W e l z e l 1997, p . 221. 4 2 . See W e l z e l 1997, p . 2 2 9 , fig. 109. 4 3 . See M a d r i d 1992, p . 146, fig. 82. 4 4 . C o m p a r e E r t z 1979, p p . 352-54. 45. O n the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the Allegory

of Taste, see W e l z e l 1997,

pp. 1 6 1 - 9 8 . 4 6 . W e l z e l 1997, p p . 1 8 2 - 8 3 ; see also G a l e s l o o t 1854, p p . 2 7 - 5 1 .

i n t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f t h e S p a n i s h m a r q u i s o f L e g a n e s (see cat. n o s . 7 a n d 12). 23. I t is p o s s i b l e t h a t t h i s w o r k was l i s t e d i n a n i n v e n t o r y o f 1 6 5 9 — " a B a c c h u s b y t h e h a n d o f R u b e n s " ( U n B a c u s de m a n o de R u b e n s ) — w h e n s o m e o f Isabella's f o r m e r p o s s e s s i o n s w e r e b r o u g h t t o S p a i n ;

BRUEGHEL

AND

RUBENS

9A Peter Paul Rubens and Workshop and Jan Brueghel the Elder

Portrait of Archduke Albert of Austria ca. 1 6 1 8 - 2 0 O i l on canvas, 112 x 173 cm (44Vs x 68 Vs in.)

Madrid, Museo Nacional del Prado, inv. 1683 Exhibited

in Los Angeles

only

9B Peter Paul Rubens and Workshop and Jan Brueghel the Elder

Portrait of Infanta Isabella Clara Eugenia ca. 1 6 1 8 - 2 0 O i l on canvas, 102 x 173 cm (40Vs x 68 Vs in.)

Madrid, Museo Nacional del Prado, inv. 1684 Exhibited in Los Angeles only

n o s . 1683 a n d 1684; V e r g a r a 1999, pp- 2 1 - 2 4 ;

PROVENANCE

D o c u m e n t e d i n t h e i n v e n t o r y o f the S p a n i s h R o y a l C o l l e c t i o n s , A l c a z a r , M a d r i d i n 1636 (as R u b e n s ) ;

transferred t o the P r a d o u p o n

its f o u n d a t i o n i n 1819 LITERATURE

C r u z a d a V i l l a a m i l 1874, p . 3 6 4 , n o s . 28 a n d 2 9 ; R o o s e s 1903, p . 2 0 4 ; D e M a e y e r 1955, p p . 112; E r t z 1979, p p . 158, 3 3 8 - 4 0 , n o s . 3 0 9 a n d 310; V l i e g h e 1987, p p . 4 3 - 4 5 , n o s . 6 6 a n d 6 7 ; D i a z P a d r o n 1995, v o l . 2 , p p . 1 0 7 6 - 8 3 ,

100

RUBENS

AND

BRUEGHEL

V a n M u l d e r s 2 0 0 0 , pp. 118-20 EXHIBITIONS

B r u s s e l s 1975, cat. n o s . 2 9 a n d 3 0 ; B r u s s e l s 1985, cat. n o s . B 2 0 a n d B 2 1 ; B r u s s e l s 1 9 9 8 - 9 9 , p . 149, cat. n o s . 2 0 2 a n d 2 0 3 ; M a d r i d 1 9 9 9 - 2 0 0 0 , p p . 1 7 6 - 7 7 , cat. n o s . 30 a n d 31

N E

O F

T H E

E S S E N T I A L

R E S P O N S I B I L I T I E S

O F

a court painter was to create official portraits of the sovereign. These handsome canvases, the only for mal portraits of the governors of the Southern Netherlands set against landscape backgrounds, unite both Rubens's and BrueghePs contributions as portraitists with the iconography of the Brussels court. The imposing images of the archdukes were devised by Rubens and largely executed in his studio, while the meticulously executed views of two of their principal residences, the castle ofTervuren behind Archduke Albert and the Mariemont castle behind Archduchess Isabella, were painted by Jan Brueghel the Elder. Both Rubens and Brueghel utilized portrait types they had earlier developed for other commissions to create a pair of double portraits that promote the vital attributes of authority and dominion required for images of the sovereign. As collabo rative undertakings, the portraits of Archduke Albert and Archduchess Isabella represent a clear and practical working process of discrete contributions by each studio. Seated on red-velvet-covered chairs on terraces set apart from the landscape by a balustrade, with a heavy red fringed curtain draped behind them, Albert and Isabella regard the viewer steadily. The archduke appears to be positioned close to ground level—there are roses growing in front of the balustrade—while Isabella is seated at a greater distance from the castle and considerably higher, above the treetops. Bright light illuminates their features and the details of their elegant costumes. Archduke Albert, who was in his late fifties when the portrait was painted, wears a wheel ruff and corre sponding cuffs and a black costume ornamented with gold buttons. Expressive brushwork describes his austere features. Around his neck hangs the Order of the Golden Fleece, of which he became a member in 1599, and he holds a pair of gloves across his knee. By contrast, Isabella's severe counte nance is more stiffly painted. Her red hair is swept upward and decorated with pearls, a central jewel, and flowers, including a spray of lily of the valley. She wears a large wheel ruff, and her rich black gown is adorned with six long strands of pearls, a large jeweled cross, and an oval jewel with an image of the Virgin and Child on a crescent moon. She holds an open fan and a handkerchief lies across her lap. Behind Archduke Albert stands the hunting castle of Tervuren on the river Voer. The wooden bridge, inter sected by a garden, is clearly visible. Swans and the activities of a number of small figures animate the view. In the portrait of the archduchess, the castle of Mariemont stands atop a 2

knoll, from which spreads out the rolling landscape of the Hainault region, bisected by allies of trees. The castle's famous deer park is visible in the foreground. Archduke Albert (1559-1621) and Isabella Clara Eugenia ( 1 5 6 6 - 1 6 3 3 ) were married on April 18, 1599. Albert was the youngest son of the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian II and Maria, daughter of Charles V, and his career embraced both rigorous military training and diplomatic service as viceroy to Portugal ( 1 5 8 3 - 9 3 ) . Named archbishop of Toledo in 1594 (a rank he renounced before his marriage), he was appointed governor general of the Southern Netherlands by Philip II at the death of his brother, Archduke Ernst, in 1596. H e is often depicted as solemn in demeanor and was described by a contemporary as "not easily moved to laugh ter." A n equestrian portrait by Rubens, presumably lost but perhaps reproduced in the Allegory of Sight (see fig. 54), com memorates his military prowess at the capture of Oostende in 1 6 0 4 . Isabella, the favorite daughter of Philip II of Spain, was destined to play a major part in the fortunes of the L o w Countries. Upon their marriage, the couple ruled jointly until Albert's death in 1621, after which the archduchess con tinued to govern the region and to rely on the diplomatic services of Rubens. Evidently of a lively and energetic dispo sition, she assumed the habit of the Poor Clares upon the death of her spouse. Albert and Isabella shared a rigorous piety as well as a dogged commitment to sympathetic governance of the belea guered and economically weakened provinces. Upon their arrival in the L o w Countries in 1599, they were received with hopeful expectations of a prosperous and peaceful new era. The strategy of their rule was, in essence, to establish themselves as sympathetic resident regents rather than as a remote, wholly Spanish presence. Emphasizing their strong historical and familial ties to the region, the archdukes pursued a domestic policy that featured high public visibility in the form of attendance at local fetes (see fig. 14). The couple early on began to refurbish a number of properties that had formerly been in the possession of Charles V and Mary of Hungary (regent 1531-55), as part of the process of establishing their presence in the L o w Countries. Fore most among these projects was the renovation of the beloved hunting castles of Tervuren and Mariemont. Tervuren had served as a hunting castle from the twelfth century, entering the dominions of the duke of Burgundy in 1406 and the possession of Charles V in 1515. Located in the forest known as the Zoni'enwoud (also the Foret de Soignes) 5

RUBENS

AND

BRUEGHEL

101

102

103

southeast of Brussels, it was an easy journey from the Coudenberg Palace. Brueghel's portrayal of the castle in Albert's portrait clearly evokes its picturesque situation, surrounded by water, with the distinctive high roof of the Gothic great hall clearly visible. Major alterations were carried out at the castle between 1608 and 1617 under the direction of court architect and accomplished painter Wenceslas Cobergher (ca. 1 5 6 0 - 1 6 3 2 ) , including the addition of a Renaissance-style gallery to house a portion of the archducal collection, which numbered almost two hundred paintings. Between 1616 and 1617 a chapel dedicated to Saint Hubert, a particularly popular local figure (see cat. no. 7), was refurbished according to designs by Cobergher. The archdukes themselves repaired to Tervuren for elabo rately staged hunts and other festivities. Brueghel drew the aspect of the castle seen here, with its complicated rooflines, prior to this work on the castle and included a clearly later vista in the center background of the Allegory of Taste (cat. no. 8) of 1618. The views in the drawing and in Taste, however, predate the addition of the wooden gallery, visible in the present painting and in the majestic large canvas of the castle from about 1621 (fig. 6 0 ) . The palace of Mariemont was a favorite residence of Albert and Isabella. Situated in Hainault, the palace was far ther from the Brussels court than Tervuren and thus suited to longer summer stays and to hunts staged early in the season, which began in July. The castle was built with a distinctive square plan by Jacques Dubrceucq for Isabella's great-aunt, Mary of Hungary, between 1546 and 1549 and was situated on a hill at the edge of a forest, with the river Haine below. Mary used it frequently for hunts, which may explain its presence in the portrait of the archduchess. The castle was badly damaged by French troops in 1554 and rebuilt in 1560. Albert and Isabella first renovated the castle between 1606 and 1 6 0 8 . Brueghel may have visited the castle on several occasions, as it appears as both the subject and the setting for a number of compositions. The Archdukes Albert and Isabella before Castle Mariemont (1611; Munich, Alte Pinako thek), which is among the earliest views of the castle, gives a sense of the main changes to the building, which was now three stories in height, with a polygonal garden house. A much larger painting of 1611, The Archdukes Albert and Isabella Hunting before Castle Mariemont (fig. 61), demonstrates the strong connection of the archdukes to the palace and to its primary function as a hunting lodge. Part of the archducal 9

FIGURE 60 Tervuren,

J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r , The Palace of Isabella

Clara

Eugenia

c a . 1621. O i l o n canvas, 126 x 153 c m ( 4 9 / s x 6 0 V 4 i n . ) . M a d r i d , 5

M u s e o N a c i o n a l d e l P r a d o , i n v . 1453 F I G U R E 61 J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r , The Archdukes

Albert

and

Isabella

Hunting before Castle Mariemont, 1611. O i l o n canvas, 135 x 246 c m (53 Vs x 96%

i n . ) . M a d r i d , M u s e o N a c i o n a l d e l P r a d o , i n v . 1434

104

RUBENS AND

BRUEGHEL

F I G U R E 6 2 J a n M u l l e r after Peter P a u l R u b e n s , Albert,

Archduke

of Austria,

1615.

E n g r a v i n g , 418 x 289 m m (16 V2 x 11 Vs i n . ) . Vienna, Osterreichische Nationalbibliothek, inv. n o . v . s . 190 F I G U R E 63 J a n M u l l e r after P e t e r P a u l R u b e n s , Isabella,

Infanta

of Spain,

1615.

E n g r a v i n g , 418 x 289 m m (16V2 x n V s i n . ) . Vienna, Osterreichische Nationalbibliothek, inv. n o . v . s . 191

art collection was also housed at Mariemont, although no inventory from the period around 1620 survives. Further renovations were carried out between 1611 and 1617, and although one must be wary of assuming that each depiction of the castle is topographically precise, Brueghel's highly specific views seem to chart the ongoing changes to the palace. In the Allegory of Spring of 1616 by Brueghel and Hendrick van Balen (see fig. 4 9 ) , the castle and its outbuilding can be seen to have been expanded even further. Between 1618 and 1621, four distinctive corner towers were completed under Cobergher's supervision. These elements, absent from the view of Mariemont in the Allegory of Hearing of 1 6 1 7 - 1 8 (see fig. 55) but clearly visible in this work and in An Allegory of Hearing, Taste, and Touch of about 1618 (see fig. 59), help to date the present painting to the last years of the second decade. From the commencement of his appointment as "peintre de nostre hotel" on September 23, 1 6 0 9 , Rubens was respon sible for establishing the "official" images of the rulers of the Southern Netherlands. According to Rubens's biogra pher, Francisco Pacheco, "Their Highnesses the archduke Albert and the infanta Doha Isabel, his wife, always esteemed him greatly, because having done two famous portraits of them sitting in chairs shortly after his arrival, the infanta, in the presence of her husband, fitted a sword around his 14

waist, and she put a very rich golden chain around his neck, calling him the honor of his homeland." Guided by the wishes of his patrons, Rubens adhered to the conventions of court portraiture and to types established by previous court painters Frans Pourbus the Elder ( 1 5 6 9 - 1 6 2 2 ) and Otto van Veen ( 1 5 5 6 - 1 6 2 9 ) . A l l of the images convey the decorum and sobriety in keeping with the restrained magnificence of the archducal court, where taste reflected the severe Spanish fashions. Within this rather circumscribed realm, however, Rubens brought a new freshness and regality to the official portraits of the archdukes, which were often disseminated through copies. Before Albert's death in 1621, Rubens created a number of portrait types, the relationship and chronology of which are complex and disputed. Two types in particular, estab lished 1 6 1 5 - 1 7 , provided the precedents upon which the Museo Nacional del Prado portraits are based. Threequarter-length pendants of about 1615, apparently lost but preserved in prints by Jan Muller, show the figures seated against a neutral textile background (figs. 6 2 and 6 3 ) . The present portrait of Isabella in particular recalls the print in its composition, though not in the costume she wears. The for mal pose epitomizes sovereignty and deliberately links these images with earlier portraits of regents in the Netherlands by Antonis M o r (ca. 1519-ca. 1575), Van Veen, and Pourbus. 16

RUBENS

AND BRUEGHEL

105

The archdukes seem somewhat older in the paintings under discussion than they appear in the prints. In fact, Isabella more closely resembles the likeness in London (National Gallery) from Rubens's studio, which is also based upon the 1615 composition, though probably executed about 1 6 2 0 . The pendant canvases of the archducal couple in Vienna (Kunsthistorisches Museum), often described as unfinished, and certainly painted loosely, portray the subjects with a certain vividness not found in many of the painted versions of the 1615 type. Notably, as in the Madrid portraits, the brilliant red curtain background in the Vienna paintings served as a vibrant foil for the heads of the sitters and their rich black garments. A second type, for which the original paintings are presumed lost but which are represented by copies, provided the precedent for the costumes, and in par ticular for the head and hands of Albert. The prototypes for these works may be the portraits referred to by Jan Brueghel , who had by this time grown accustomed to Rubens's help with his Italian letters: " M y secretary Rubens has gone to Brussels to finish the portraits of their highnesses." Bustlength variations, combined in a single field, appear promi nently in the Allegory of Sight (see fig. 54). Considering all the different portraits of the couple, the likeness of Albert often seems the more subtle and slightly modulated of the two figures. The archduke was thought to have had a close rela tionship with Rubens, and it may be that their frequent con tact is reflected in the freer handling of the Madrid portrait. 1 9

Rubens and Brueghel's working process in these portraits appears to have been relatively straightforward. Beginning in Rubens's studio, the figures were painted, followed by the curtain and the balustrade. In the case of Archduke Albert, a small reserve area is visible around the edge of the ruff, whil e in Isabella, a correction was made to the upper left contour of her ruff and to the upper folds of the red curtain. Chairs of the type seen in both portraits, with a curled armrest, are found in other portraits by Rubens and may have been a studio prop. The shallowness of Isabella's position in the chair is closely echoed in her seated pose in the Muller print . Brueghel painted the roses in Albert, and in both canvases the landscape was painted right up to the edges of elements such as the balustrade supports, suggesting that they had already been established. Small adjustments to the outline of the roof of Tervuren castle are also visible. Archduke Albert and Archduchess Isabella represent a stately development in the Netherlandish tradition of depicting sovereigns before their palaces, views that virtually required 23

106

RUBENS AND

BRUEGHEL

a collaborative approach. The tradition of topographical portraits was splendidly established in manuscript illumina tion, notably by the Limbourg brothers in the Tres Riches Heures (ca. 1 4 1 1 - 1 6 ) , in which the chateaux of Jean, due de Berry, were incorporated into the depictions of the twelve months of the year. In Departure for the Hunt (Month of March) (ca. 1 5 2 8 - 3 1 ) , one in the series of tapestries known as the Hunts of Maximilian designed by court painter Bernard van Orley (ca. 1 4 8 8 - 1 5 4 1 ) , the hunt is set against the com manding exterior of the Coudenberg Palace, an edifice also represented by Brueghel in the background of the Allegory of Sight as well as in other large-scale compositions by his circle. Associating the archdukes with the courtly sport of the hunt was intended to solidify their identification not only with earlier Habsburg rulers but also with the countryside over which they now ruled. Interestingly, the formal presen tation of the palaces in the Madrid canvases belied the infor mal persona of the archduchess, who is known to have won local shooting contests hosted by the crossbowman's guild. Portraits of the archdukes served many purposes. Antoine Sallaert's Procession in the Place du Grand Sablon at Brussels (1615; Turin, Galleria Sabauda), for example, shows bustlength portraits of Albert and Isabella, and perhaps fulllength images as well, ceremoniously decorating the parade route. O n October 13, 1615, Rubens received a payment of 3 0 0 guilders from Archduke Albert for portraits of the arch dukes to be sent to Spain for the marquis of Siete Iglesias, Don Rodrigo Calderon. Vergara has argued that those por traits were probably the canvases discussed here. However, the age of the sitters and the configuration of Mariemont with the four corner towers that were only completed about 1620 preclude that possibility. As Vergara has observed, Archduke Albert and Archduchess Isabella would have been very striking images at the Spanish court, where landscape paint ing was unusual. Perhaps these double portraits served not only to promote Habsburg jurisdiction of the Southern Netherlands but also to introduce the particularly Nether landish specialties of landscape and portraiture to the Spanish court audience, A T W 24

NOTES

1. " D o s l i e n z o s a l o l e o , 7 p i e s de l a r g o p o c o m a s 6 m e n o s ; e n e l u n o

r e t r a t o d e l s e n o r a r c h i d u q u e A l b e r t o , de m e d i o c u e r p o a r r i b a v e s t i d o de n e g r o , l a m a n o i z q u i e r d a s o b r e l o s g u a n t e s y e n lejos u n a casa de

c a m p o . E l o t r a de l a sefiora I n f a n t a d o n a I s a b e l , s u m u j e r , d e l m i s m o

14. T h e p r i m a r y i m a g e s o f M a r i e m o n t as subject a n d l a n d s c a p e are

t a n i a f i o , v e s t i d a de n e g r o , a s e n t a d a e n u n a s i l l a , a b r i e n d o u n a b i a n c o

d i s c u s s e d i n E r t z 1979, p p . 1 5 7 - 6 3 ; a n d l i s t e d i n D e m e e s t e r 1981,

c o n a m b a s m a n o s , y e n lejos o t r a casa de c a m p o . S o n de m a n o de

p p . 2 1 9 - 2 0 . T h e 1659 i n v e n t o r y o f the c o l l e c t i o n at t h e B r u s s e l s palace

rubens.": C r u z a d a V i l l a a m i l 1874, p . 364. T h e t w o p o r t r a i t s are m e n

i n c l u d e s " Q u a t r o piecas de J u a n B r u g e l , r e p r e s e n t a n d o las b o d a s de

t i o n e d i n s u b s e q u e n t r o y a l i n v e n t o r i e s ; see D i a z P a d r o n 1975, v o l . 1,

M a r i m o n t " : D e M a e y e r 1955, d o c . 271, p. 447-

p p . 315-17.

15. D e M a e y e r 1955, p p . 9 6 , 2 9 3 - 9 4 , d o c . 6 2 ; a n d C . B r o w n , " R u b e n s a n d

2. A l t h o u g h a n e a r l y A l c a z a r i n v e n t o r y a t t r i b u t e d the M a d r i d p o r t r a i t s o f A l b e r t a n d I s a b e l l a t o R u b e n s (see n o t e 1 a b o v e ) , r e c e n t s c h o l a r s h i p

the A r c h d u k e s " i n B r u s s e l s 1 9 9 8 - 9 9 , p . 123. A t the c e r e m o n y , he r e c e i v e d a g o l d m e d a l l i o n w i t h the p o r t r a i t s o f A l b e r t a n d I s a b e l l a o n

has o f t e n a s c r i b e d t h e p o r t r a i t s o f t h e a r c h d u k e s t o t h e w o r k s h o p o f

either side, perhaps s i m i l a r to those o n the medals that c o n s t i t u t e d

R u b e n s , w i t h the e x c e p t i o n o f E r t z (1979, p p . 6 0 8 - 9 ) , w h o a c c e p t e d

first i m a g e s o f t h e c o u p l e . See M a d r i d 1 9 9 9 - 2 0 0 0 , p p . 2 3 3 - 3 7 .

R u b e n s ' s a u t h o r s h i p a n d a s s o c i a t e d t h e M a d r i d canvases w i t h p o r t r a i t s m e n t i o n e d b y B r u e g h e l i n a letter t o E r c o l e B i a n c h i (see n o t e 22 b e l o w ) . V l i e g h e (1987, p . 4 4 ) c o n s i d e r e d t h e m s t u d i o c o p i e s m a d e i n the w o r k s h o p " u n d e r his [ R u b e n s ' s ] d i r e c t s u p e r v i s i o n . " B r o w n likewise f o u n d the archducal portraits " d i s a p p o i n t i n g " a n d difficult t o accept as a n o r i g i n a l a n d separate p o r t r a i t t y p e b y R u b e n s ; see C . B r o w n , " R u b e n s a n d the A r c h d u k e s , " i n B r u s s e l s 1 9 9 8 - 9 9 , p . 123. H o w e v e r , the p o r t r a i t s w e r e the p r o d u c t o f R u b e n s ' s i n v e n t i o n , a n d t o g e t h e r w i t h the a u t o g r a p h v i e w s o f t h e t w o castles b y J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r , h a v e c o n t i n u e d t o be a t t r i b u t e d t o R u b e n s h i m s e l f i n s o m e r e c e n t P r a d o p u b l i c a t i o n s , n o t a b l y D i a z P a d r o n 1995, p p . 1 0 7 6 - 8 3 ; a n d V e r g a r a i n M a d r i d 1 9 9 9 - 2 0 0 0 , p . 176, b u t n o t i n B a l i s et a l . 1989a. 3. T h e difference i n q u a l i t y b e t w e e n the h e a d s o f A l b e r t a n d I s a b e l l a

16. " S u s A l t e z a s d e l A r c h i d u q u e A l b e r t o i l a S e f i o r a I n f a n t a d o n a I s a b e l su m u g e r , le e s t i m a r o n s i e m p r e m u c h o , p o r q u e a v i e n d o h e c h o , r e z i e n v e n i d o , d o s f a m o s s o s R e t r a t o s de l o s d o s , s e n t a d o s e n sus S i l l a s , le S e f i o r a I n f a n t a e n p r e s e n c i a de s u m a r i d o le c i h o l a e s p a d a , i p u s o al c u e l l o u n a r i q u i s fima c a d e n a d e o r o l l a m a d o l e o n r a d e su P a t r i a " : P a c h e c o 1 6 4 9 , p . 4 9 ; t r a n s l a t e d i n V e r g a r a 1999, p- 189. 17. See V l i e g h e 1987, p p . 2 2 - 2 3 , 35~47; a n d C . B r o w n , " R u b e n s a n d the Archdukes," i n Brussels 1 9 9 8 - 9 9 , pp. 122-23. 18. M a d r i d 1 9 9 9 - 2 0 0 0 , p p . 158-59. 19. G . M a r t i n 1970, p p . 2 2 7 - 2 9 , i n v . 3818 a n d i n v . 3819. 2 0 . F o r the V i e n n a p o r t r a i t s (inv. 6 3 4 4 a n d 6345), see V l i e g h e 1987,

w a s n o t n o t e d b y R o b l o t - D e l o n d r e (1913, p . 147) b u t was o b s e r v e d b y V e r g a r a (1999, p . 22).

p p . 4 5 - 4 6 ; a n d V i e n n a 2 0 0 4 , p p . 252-55. 21. Albert,

4 . T h e j e w e l e d cross appears i n m a n y p o r t r a i t s o f the

archduchess,

Archduke

a n d Isabella,

of Austria

Infanta

( A l t h o r p , C o l l e c t i o n o f the E a r l Spencer)

of Spain

(Virginia, The Chrysler Museum). Both

n o t a b l y t h e s t a n d i n g p o r t r a i t b y F r a n s P o u r b u s o f ca. 1599 ( H a m p t o n

w o r k s h a v e b e e n a t t r i b u t e d t o G a s p a r de C r a y e r b y V l i e g h e (1987,

C o u r t ) ; see M a d r i d 1 9 9 9 - 2 0 0 0 , p . 150.

PP- 3 9 - 4 3 ) -

5. F o r A l b e r t ' s career, see M i r a e u s 1 6 2 1 - 2 2 ; J. L e f e v r e , Biografisch

Woordenboek,

22. " M i o s e c r e t a r i o R u b e n s e p a r t i t a p e r B r u s s e l l o , p e r f l n i r e i r i t r a t t i d i

Nationaal

v o l . 1 (Brussels, 1964), cols. 1 4 - 2 2 ; D e M a e y e r

1955, p p . 2 0 - 2 7 ; a n d t h e essays i n B r u s s e l s 1 9 9 8 - 9 9 , n o t a b l y J o h a n V e r b e c k m o e s , " T h e A r c h d u k e s i n T h e i r H u m o u r , " p p . 137-38. Von Archduke

of Austria

on Horseback,

Albert,

see V l i e g h e 1987, p p . 35-37, n o . 58.

6. F o r Isabella's l i f e , see D e V i l l e r m o n t 1912 a n d T e r l i n d e n 1943; f o r p o r t r a i t s o f I s a b e l l a C l a r a E u g e n i a , see R o b l o t - D e l o n d r e 1913; a n d D e M a e y e r 1955, p p . 2 0 - 2 7 . F o r R u b e n s ' s p o r t r a i t , Isabella, of Spain,

in the Habit

Infanta

of a Poor Clare (1625; P a s a d e n a , N o r t o n S i m o n

M u s e u m o f A r t ) , see V l i e g h e 1987, p p . 1 2 1 - 2 2 , n o . i n . 7. F o r the g o v e r n m e n t o f t h e a r c h d u k e s , see E l i a s 1931 a n d W . T h o m a s ,

s u a a l t e z z a ser.ma." (letter t o E r c o l e B i a n c h i , D e c e m b e r 9, 1616): C r i v e l l i 1868, p. 241. See also V l i e g h e 1987, p . 4 1 . 23. See, f o r e x a m p l e , P e t e r P a u l R u b e n s , Portrait Fourment

of a Woman,

Possibly

T h e H a g u e , M a u r i t s h u i s , i n v . 1132). 24. V a n O r l e y was c o u r t painter to t w o regents o f the N e t h e r l a n d s , M a r g a r e t o f A u s t r i a a n d M a r y o f H u n g a r y . F o r the Departure the Hunt

(Month

of March),

for

see N e w Y o r k 2 0 0 2 , p p . 3 2 9 - 3 8 . F o r

V a n O r l e y ' s c o l l a b o r a t o r s a n d the use o f the palace as a b a c k d r o p , see B a l i s et a l . 1993. V i e w s o f t h e B r u s s e l s palace b a s e d o n B r u e g h e l ' s s t u d i e s i n c l u d e : A t t r i b u t e d t o J a n B r u e g h e l the Y o u n g e r , The

B r u s s e l s 1 9 9 8 - 9 9 , p p . 1-14. F o r the a r c h d u c a l p o l i c i e s o f C a t h o l i c

Palace in Brussels (ca. 1 6 2 5 - 3 0 , o i l o n canvas, 125 x 228 c m [ 4 9 V i x

r e f o r m , see P a s t u r e 1925 a n d B r u s s e l s 1 9 9 8 - 9 9 . 8. M e g a n c k 1998, p . 114. 9. Z w o l l o ( 2 0 0 0 ) a t t r i b u t e s t w o d r a w i n g s s h o w i n g a different aspect o f

10. T e r l i n d e n 1922 a n d D e M a e y e r 1955, p p . 3 5 - 3 8 . 11. F o r the d r a w i n g , see W i n n e r 1972, p p . 150-51, fig. 29. 12. D e m e e s t e r 1981 a n d H a m m - M a i n z 2 0 0 1 , p p . 2 2 0 - 2 4 . 13. See R e n g e r a n d D e n k 2 0 0 2 , p p . 1 2 6 - 2 7 .

Clara

(ca. 1630, o i l o n p a n e l , 114.5 x 90.5 c m [ 4 5 i n . x 35VH i n . ] ;

" T h e R e i g n o f A l b e r t a n d I s a b e l l a i n the S o u t h e r n N e t h e r l a n d s , " i n

t h e castle t o J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r .

the

Royal

89V4 i n . ] ; M a d r i d , M u s e o N a c i o n a l d e l P r a d o , i n v . 1451), a n d J a n B r u e g h e l the Y o u n g e r , The Archdukes the Coudenberg

Albert

and Isabella

in the Park of

Palace in Brussels (1615-21, o i l o n p a n e l , 4 6 . 2 x 75 c m

[18 Vs x 2 9 V 2 i n . ] ; A n t w e r p , R u b e n s h u i s , i n v . S130). 25. C a m p b e l l 1 9 9 0 , p . 201. 26. " . . . E l A r c h i d u q u e . . . q u e p o r m i m a n d a d o haveis d a d o a P i c t r o P a o l o R u b e n s , p i n t o r , l o s 3 0 0 f l . p o r 2 r e t r a t o s q u e a h e c h o , u n o de l a I n f a n t a , m i S e h o r a , y o t r o m i o , l o s q u a l e s m a n e y n b i a r a E s p a r i a al m a r q u e s de S i e t e Y g e l s i a s " : D e M a e y e r 1955, p . 322, d o c . 109. 27. V e r g a r a 1999, p p . 2 1 - 2 3 , 2 0 4 n . 15.

RUBENS AND

BRUEGHEL

107

10 Jan Brueghel the Elder and Peter Paul Rubens

Diana at the Hunt ca. 1 6 2 0 O i l on panel, 57 x 98 cm (22 /s x 38V8 in.) Paris, Musee de la Chasse et de la Nature, inv. 68.3.1 3

lot 489, to Gustav R o c h l i t z , Essen, Fiissen;

PROVENANCE

C o l l e c t i o n o f the d u k e o f R i c h e l i e u , before 1677, p r o b a b l y s o l d b e f o r e 1681; ca. 1700

EXHIBITIONS

J. O . L e e g e n h o e k (art d e a l e r ) , P a r i s ; i n 1967

P a r i s 1 9 7 7 - 7 8 , cat. n o . 131; P a r i s

a c q u i r e d b y F r a n c o i s S o m m e r ; i n 1968 d o n a t e d

p p . 101, 141; L i l l e 2 0 0 4 , cat. n o . 4 9

2000-01,

t o the F o n d a t i o n de l a M a i s o n de l a C h a s s e

a c q u i r e d by the elector o f Bavaria, M u n i c h ,

et de l a N a t u r e

t r a n s f e r r e d t o A u g s b u r g , 1869; s o l d i n 1938; P a r i s (art d e a l e r ) , 1939; a c q u i r e d b y

LITERATURE

H e r m a n n G o r i n g from a Belgian collection; i n 1961 r e s t o r e d t o t h e B a y e r i s c h e Staats

D e P i l e s 1677, p . 156; Z o e g e v o n M a n t e u f f e l 1923, p p . 14, 18; S p e t h - H o l t e r h o f f 1957, p . 98;

g e m a l d e s a m m l u n g e n (inv. 13182); sale,

T e y s s e d r e 1963, p . 2 9 2 ; M u l l e r H o f s t e d e

C o l o g n e ( L e m p e r t z ) , N o v e m b e r 17, 1966,

1968, p p . 2 0 0 - 2 0 7 ; W i n n e r 1972, p . 148; E r t z 1979, p p . 3 9 i ~ 9 4 , 4 0 6 , n o . 354; B a l i s 1986, p . 57; V a n M u l d e r s 2 0 0 0 , p p . 1 2 0 - 2 1

OTH

OF THESE

HUNTING

SCENES

ENDED

the art market in Paris in 1967, having come from different collections. They were acquired at that time by the founder of the Musee de la Chasse et de la Nature in Paris, who donated them a year later to the museum, where they now hang side by side as pendants. It is possible that the paintings came from Rubens's own collection. The inventory drawn up after his death in 1 6 4 0 describes one painting as "a Diana riding out to the hunt" and the next one as "a Diana returning from the hunt," both painted by Rubens and Jan Brueghel. Hunting scenes with Diana and her nymphs must have been very popular in those days (see also cat. no. 2 3 ) . The sixty paintings from the estate of Jan Brueghel the Elder that were sold by his son in 1 6 2 6 - 2 7 included no fewer than seven depictions of Diana, presumably in part by the hand of the late master: five hunt1

108

BRUEGHEL

AND

RUBENS

ing scenes—one of which was described by Jan Brueghel the Younger as a "copy after father's"—and two fishing scenes. Diana at the Hunt was reproduced repeatedly in representa tions of Antwerp collectors' cabinets—by Frans Francken the Younger ( 1 5 8 1 - 1 6 4 2 ) , Willem van Haecht ( 1 5 9 3 - 1 6 3 7 ) , and Jan Brueghel the Younger—and must therefore have enjoyed a certain renown. This painting was described by the French art critic Roger de Piles in 1677, when it was still in the pos session of the duke of Richelieu, an art collector and relative of the famous cardinal. De Piles reported that the painting was monogrammed P.P.R. on the tree below Diana, and that Brueghel had signed it at the lower right, though these inscriptions—both probably spurious—have meanwhile dis appeared. Furthermore, De Piles drew attention to the pack of hounds, which he identified—perhaps not incorrectly—as 3

11 Jan Brueghel the Elder and Peter Paul Rubens

Diana's Sleeping Nymphs Observed by Satyrs ca. 1620 O i l o n panel., 61 x 98 c m (24 x 38% in.) Paris, M u s e e de la Chasse et de la N a t u r e , inv. 68.3.2

PROVENANCE

Collection o f Friedrich II o f Prussia, Potsdam, S a n s s o u c i ; i n 1760, d u r i n g the o c c u p a t i o n o f P o t s d a m , t a k e n b y the A u s t r i a n s i n the person o f C o u n t E m m e r i c h Esterhazy to V i e n n a ; i n 1763, t h e E m p r e s s M a r i a T h e r e s a , at E s t e r h a z y ' s b e h e s t , r e t u r n e d the p a i n t i n g t o F r i e d r i c h I I , w h o gave i t t o E s t e r h a z y

as a t o k e n o f g r a t i t u d e f o r h a v i n g p r o t e c t e d S a n s s o u c i against p l u n d e r i n g ; u n t i l the S e c o n d W o r l d W a r i n the c o l l e c t i o n o f the Esterhazy family, Rede (hunting lodge),

LITERATURE

E s t e r h a z y 1901, p p . 2 1 2 - 1 4 ; M u l l e r H o f s t e d e 1968, p p . 2 1 6 - 1 9 ; E r t z 1979, p p . 394, 395, 398, 4 0 0 , 4 0 6 , n o . 355

V e s z p r e m , H u n g a r y ; u n t i l 1967 i n a p r i v a t e c o l l e c t i o n , Z u r i c h ; J. O . L e e g e n h o e k

EXHIBITIONS

(art d e a l e r ) , P a r i s ; i n 1967 a c q u i r e d b y

P a r i s 1 9 7 7 - 7 8 , cat. n o . 132; P a r i s 2 0 0 0 - 0 1 ,

F r a n c o i s S o m m e r ; i n 1968 d o n a t e d t o the

p. 15; K a s s e l - F r a n k f u r t 2 0 0 4 , cat. n o . 22

F o n d a t i o n de l a M a i s o n de l a C h a s s e et de l a N a t u r e

b e l o n g i n g to the Archduchess Isabella, w h o was a great lover of dogs.

I n b o t h paintings, the h u n t i n g dogs painted by B r u e g h e l have been lavished w i t h nearly as m u c h attention as the

the right o f the personification o f S m e l l i n the series o f the Five Senses at the Prado (see fig. 5 7 ) appears i n b o t h o f the paintings discussed here. T h a t B r u e g h e l based his dogs o n preparatory sketches is

figures by Rubens. T h e y are fine, well-cared-for purebreds,

confirmed by the study material that has survived. Brueghel's

all portrayed w i t h alert, w i d e - o p e n eyes. M a n y o f the animals

o i l sketch o f dogs i n the Kunsthistorisches M u s e u m i n

are leashed together i n pairs. I n Diana's Sleeping Nymphs

V i e n n a (cat. no. 27) displays several o f the animals seen i n

Observed by Satyrs, t w o o f the dogs are caparisoned, w h i c h

these paintings. T w o black-and-white dogs that appear at

reinforces their status as valuable animals. A w i n g e d putto

the upper left i n the sketch are i n c l u d e d i n Diana's Sleeping

holds the reins o f this pair, c a u t i o n i n g t h e m w i t h his index

Nymphs Observed by Satyrs, w h i l e D i a n a holds one o f these

finger to be still, so as n ot to wake the nymphs. Several

t w o by the leash i n the other p a i n t i n g . T h e l i g h t b r o w n d o g

dogs are depicted i n exactly the same pose i n b o t h paintings,

seen f r o m the back, appearing o n the right i n the sketch, is

an example b e i n g the pair l y i n g together, one resting its

also recognizable at the far right i n Diana at the Hunt. I n

head o n the other's neck. T h e t w o dogs w a s h i n g themselves

a d d i t i o n to the o i l sketch o f dogs, there is also a pen-and-ink

also occur i n b o t h paintings; one o f these animals also

d r a w i n g o f h u n t i n g requisites (fig. 6 4 ) . B o t h o f the h u n t i n g

appears i n The Vision of Saint Hubert (cat. no. 7 ) . T h e d o g to

horns i n Brueghel's study occur i n these paintings and were

BRUEGHEL

AND

RUBENS

109

110

111

F I G U R E 6 4 J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r , Study of Hunting

Requisites.

P e n a n d b r u s h , 18.7 x

29.5 c m (7V8 x 115/8 i n . ) . H a m b u r g , K u n s t h a l l e , inv. 21652

also used in other compositions, such as the, Allegory of Hearing (see fig. 55). Very little of Brueghel's studio stock of oil sketches and preparatory designs has survived. This lack has been compensated for to some extent by Wenceslas Hollar ( 1 6 0 7 - 1 6 7 7 ) , who copied a number of Brueghel's studies of dogs, wild game, and hunting requisites in a series of etchings in 1 6 4 6 . The etchings of the dog studies dis play in reverse various animals seen in the works discussed here: the two dogs lying together, one resting its head on the other's neck (fig. 65), the two dogs washing themselves (fig. 6 6 ) , and the pair sitting in the right-hand corner in Diana's Sleeping Nymphs Observed by Satyrs (fig. 67). These scenes of Diana and her nymphs, both before the hunt and afterward—asleep and being spied on by lecherous satyrs—offer narrative frames for the depiction of hunting dogs in a wooded landscape. In the first painting, Diana— sitting beneath a tree, with a spear resting against her shoulder—holds two of her dogs by the leash while a nymph ties on her sandals. The goddess of the hunt wears a fur slung across her shoulder. Her companions arm themselves with spears and bows, and one of the nymphs blows a horn to give the signal for the chase. In the other painting, none of the four sleeping women is immediately recognizable as Diana. In the left foreground lie the spoils of the hunt— a still life comprising small game, including hares, pheasants, and martens. The pale skin of the nymphs makes a fine 9

112

BRUEGHEL

A N D RUBENS

contrast to the dark complexion of the two satyrs who spy on them from behind a tree (compare also cat. nos. 5 and 8). Which of the two masters was the first to paint is difficult to determine, though some of the details suggest that it was Brueghel. For example, in Diana at the Hunt, the right leg of the nymph with the spear, standing in the middle of the scene, was painted around the nose of the black-and-white dog, and the forms of Diana and one of her nymphs were left in reserve by Brueghel when painting his tree. In Diana's Sleeping Nymphs Observed by Satyrs it also seems to have been Brueghel who made a start, painting around the reserves for the figures. The reserve for the satyr on the right was not completely filled in along his back. After the figures had been painted in, Brueghel again took the painting in hand to apply his last retouches, at which time he supplied the putto with wings and a quiver of arrows. H e also applied a last layer of green paint to the tree, around the arms and hands of the satyrs, and used the same green hue to apply accents to the hair and beard of the satyr on the right. It seems natural to assume that, as with most of the collaborative works by these two painters, it was Brueghel who initiated this collaborative effort. That Rubens adapted his figures to fit the small scale of Brueghel's compositions is obvious if we compare these works with Rubens's depiction of a similar subject, Diana Returning from the Hunt (cat. no. 2 3 ) . 1 2

F I G U R E 65 W e n c e s l a s H o l l a r ( 1 6 0 7 - 1 6 7 7 ) after J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r , Study of Hunting

Dogs, 1 6 4 6 . E t c h i n g , 135 x 195 m m (s A x 7 /s i n . ) . l

A m s t e r d a m , R i j k s m u s e u m , R i j k s p r e n t e n k a b i n e t , P a r t h e y n o . 2050 F I G U R E 6 6 W e n c e s l a s H o l l a r after J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r , Study of Hunting

Dogs, 1 6 4 6 . E t c h i n g , 130 x 195 m m (5V8 x 7 /s i n . ) . A m s t e r d a m , 5

Rijksmuseum, Rijksprentenkabinet, Parthey no. 2046 F I G U R E 67 W e n c e s l a s H o l l a r after J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r , Study of Hunting

Dogs, 1 6 4 6 . E t c h i n g , 130 x 190 m m (sVs x 7V2 i n . ) . A m s t e r d a m ,

Rijksmuseum, Rijksprentenkabinet, Parthey no. 2048

BRUEGHEL

A N D RUBENS

113

F I G U R E 68

J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r a n d a n u n k n o w n figure p a i n t e r , Wooded Landscape

with Nymphs, Dogs, and Hunting

63.7 x 97.2 c m (25VB x 38 A i n . ) . N e u b u r g a n d e r D o n a u , B a y e r i s c h e S t a a t s g e m a l d e s a m m l u n g e n , L

The large-scale monumentality of the figures lends this work of about 1616 a completely different character. Brueghel's hunting scenes were popular compositions, and numerous replicas and variations are known, not all of them autographed. His Wooded Landscape with Nymphs, Dogs, and Hunting Spoils in Neuburg (fig. 68) fits in perfectly, as regards subject and size, with both of the works discussed here; it is, moreover, signed by Brueghel. A n unknown painter from the circle of Rubens painted the nymph sitting among the dogs in the right foreground. In this picture the focus has shifted from the rendering of the dogs to the portrayal of a hunting tableau with large game. This paint ing is dated 1620, which provides a clear indication for the dating of the present paintings. 13

114

BRUEGHEL

AND RUBENS

Spoils, 1620. O i l o n p a n e l ,

Staatsgalerie, i n v . 842

According to an eighteenth-century source, Archduchess Isabella ordered three hunting scenes from Brueghel for Tervuren Castle, the archdukes' hunting lodge. It has sometimes been assumed that these paintings must have been the two discussed here and the one in Neuburg; together these works supposedly portray riding out to the hunt, rest ing during the hunt, and the spoils of the hunt. Although it is impossible to prove that these paintings actually belonged to Isabella's collection, it is natural to assume that it was mainly the higher nobility who were interested in such scenes, since hunting was the preserve of the princely elite. A law enacted in the Southern Netherlands in 1613 stipulated that only the ruling lords were allowed to keep hunting dogs. A v S 16

14. K o n r a d R e n g e r has c o n v i n c i n g l y d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t t h e figure i n the

NOTES

r i g h t f o r e g r o u n d c o u l d n o t have been painted by R u b e n s . T h e n y m p h s

1. " U n e D i a n e a l l a n t a l a chasse" a n d " U n e D i a n e r e v e n a n t de l a chasse"; see A n t w e r p 2 0 0 4 , p . 332, cat. n o s . 2 6 9 a n d 2 7 0 . T h e i n v e n t o r y d r a w n u p i n D u t c h o f a l l t h e p a i n t i n g s i n R u b e n s ' s estate has b e e n l o s t . O n l y E n g l i s h a n d F r e n c h t r a n s l a t i o n s h a v e b e e n p r e s e r v e d (the E n g l i s h v e r s i o n o f t h e i n v e n t o r y lists b o t h p a i n t i n g s as " A h u n t i n g e o f D i a n a " ) .

i n the b a c k g r o u n d were p o s s i b l y d o n e by a t h i r d h a n d , t h o u g h they c o u l d also h a v e b e e n p a i n t e d b y B r u e g h e l h i m s e l f ; see V i e n n a - E s s e n 2 0 0 2 , p p . 5 0 - 5 1 , cat. n o . 8 ( l i s t e d as b y J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r a n d P e t e r P a u l R u b e n s [?]). See also K a s s e l - F r a n k f u r t 2 0 0 4 , cat. n o . 21. 15. See K . R e n g e r i n V i e n n a - E s s e n 2 0 0 2 , p . 50. M u l l e r H o f s t e d e (1968, p p . 2 0 7 , 221) dates b o t h p a i n t i n g s t o a b o u t 1 6 2 3 - 2 4 , w h e r e a s E r t z

2. F o r d e p i c t i o n s o f D i a n a b y B r u e g h e l , see E r t z 1979, n o s . 356-58, 373-77- F o r B r u e g h e l ' s d e p i c t i o n s o f D i a n a m a d e i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h

(1979, p . 398), w h o t h i n k s t h a t I s a b e l l a c o m m i s s i o n e d the p a i n t i n g s , dates t h e w o r k s t o a b o u t 1620, t h a t i s , f r o m b e f o r e A l b e r t ' s d e a t h

H e n d r i c k v a n B a l e n , see W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 , n o s . A 8 0 - 8 5 , 8 9 ; see also

i n 1621.

nos. E 2 9 - 3 4 .

16. D e M a e y e r 1955, p . 157, n . 5. A c c o r d i n g t o D e M a e y e r , t h i s s o u r c e

3. " c o p y e n a e r v a d e r s " : V a e s 1 9 2 6 - 2 7 , p p . 2 0 7 - 9 ; a n d D e n u c e 1934,

c o u l d n o t be v e r i f i e d .

pp. 140-434 . See, f o r e x a m p l e , F r a n s F r a n c k e n I I , B r u s s e l s , M u s e u m v o o r S c h o n e K u n s t e n , i n v . 6853; W i l l e m v a n H a e c h t , T h e H a g u e , M a u r i t s h u i s ,

17. E r t z 1979, p . 394, n o s . 354 ~56. 18. T h e p a i n t i n g s d o n o t o c c u r i n a n y o f the i n v e n t o r i e s traceable t o

inv. 2 6 6 ; a n d J a n B r u e g h e l t h e Y o u n g e r , p r i v a t e c o l l e c t i o n . F o r the

Isabella's c o l l e c t i o n s . See D e M a e y e r 1955, d o c . 2 6 9 - 7 2 ; see also

last, see P h o e n i x - K a n s a s C i t y - T h e H a g u e 1 9 9 8 - 9 9 , cat. n o . 9.

K a s s e l - F r a n k f u r t 2 0 0 4 , p . 153.

5. D e P i l e s 1677, p . 156; see also M u l l e r H o f s t e d e 1968, p p . 2 0 5 - 6 .

19. W e l z e l 1997, p . 183.

D e P i l e s 1681 n o l o n g e r m e n t i o n s t h e p a i n t i n g , so i t is l i k e l y t h a t the d u k e h a d s o l d i t b y t h e n ; see also P a r i s 1977-78, p . 178. 6. L i s t e d i n A u g s b u r g 1869, as n o . 4 6 3 , w i t h a t r a n s c r i p t i o n o f b o t h s i g n a t u r e s , n e i t h e r r e g a r d e d as a u t o g r a p h . I n t h e s u b s e q u e n t c a t a l o g u e , A u g s b u r g 1905, u n d e r n o . 4 6 3 , n o m e n t i o n is m a d e o f Brueghel's signature. 7. M u l l e r H o f s t e d e 1968, p . 2 0 6 . C o m p a r e the Portrait Lunar

and the Dogs of the Infanta

Isabella

of Dona Juana

(Brussels, K o n i n k l i j k e M u s e a

v o o r S c h o n e K u n s t e n , i n v . 6417) w i t h p o r t r a i t s o f i n d i v i d u a l d o g s , i d e n t i f i a b l e b y t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s ; see K o l b 2 0 0 5 , f i g . 2 0 . E r t z (1979, p. 393) e v e n t h o u g h t i t p o s s i b l e t h a t Diana

at the Hunt

c o n t a i n e d an

allegorical portrait o f Isabella. 8. W i n n e r 1972, f i g . 27. 9. T h a t t h i s s t u d y was d o n e f r o m life is a p p a r e n t f r o m t h e w a y the h u n t i n g h o r n (an o b j e c t t h a t B r u e g h e l p a i n t e d several t i m e s ) is d e p i c t e d at t h e u p p e r left. Its a t t a c h e d c o r d h a n g s d o w n i n the d r a w i n g , p r o b a b l y r e p r e s e n t i n g h o w i t h u n g o v e r t h e e d g e o f a table o n w h i c h t h e i n s t r u m e n t was l y i n g w h e n i t was d r a w n ; i n the p a i n t i n g s , b y c o n t r a s t , t h i s c o r d is a l w a y s d r a p e d o n t h e g r o u n d . T h e s a m e h u n t i n g h o r n is d e p i c t e d i n the p a i n t i n g r e p r o d u c e d here f r o m the Staatsg a l e r i e N e u b u r g a n d e r D o n a u (fig. 68). 10.

See Z o e g e v o n M a n t e u f f e l 1923.

11. E r t z (1979, P- 4 0 2 ) t h o u g h t these s m a l l a n i m a l s c o u l d h a v e b e e n p a i n t e d b y F r a n s S n y d e r s , as was the g a m e i n t h e p a i n t i n g i n N e u b u r g a n d e r D o n a u (fig. 68). T h e s e passages, h o w e v e r , are p e r f e c t l y i n k e e p i n g w i t h the w o r k o f B r u e g h e l a n d derive, moreover, f r o m Brueghel's sketches, as p r e s e r v e d i n H o l l a r ' s e t c h i n g s (see n o t e 10 a b o v e a n d K . R e n g e r i n V i e n n a - E s s e n 2 0 0 2 , p . 50). 12. See R o s e n b e r g 1905, p p . 133, 336, 384; c o m p a r e also R u b e n s ' s and Iphigenia

Cimon

( V i e n n a , K u n s t h i s t o r i s c h e s M u s e u m , i n v . 532).

13. See n o t e 2 a b o v e .

B R U E G H E L

A N D

R U B E N S

115

12 Jan Brueghel the Elder and Peter Paul Rubens

Madonna and Child in a Garland of Fruit and Flowers ca. 1 6 2 0 O i l on panel, 79 x 65 cm (31 Vs x 2 5 % in.) Madrid, Museo Nacional del Prado, inv. 1418

p . 577; J o n e s 1993, p- 238, n o . 36; D i a z P a d r o n

PROVENANCE

C o l l e c t i o n o f D i e g o M e x i a F e l i p e z de G u z m a n , m a r q u i s o f L e g a n e s , M a d r i d , 1630; presented by Leganes to K i n g P h i l i p I V o f Spain; inventory, collection o f K i n g Carlos II, A l c a z a r , M a d r i d , 1666

1995, p p . 2 9 0 - 9 1 ; U . K l e i n m a n n i n E s s e n V i e n n a 1 9 9 7 - 9 8 , p p . 54-55, 58-59; V a n M u l d e r s 2 0 0 0 , p p . 117-18, 120; W . P r o h a s k a i n V i e n n a - E s s e n 2 0 0 2 , p . 325, n . 5 EXHIBITION

M a d r i d 1 9 9 9 - 2 0 0 0 , cat. n o . 77

LITERATURE

C r i v e l l i 1868, p . 272; R a t t i 1910; M u l l e r H o f s t e d e 1968, p . 225; E r t z 1979, p p . 3 0 4 - 6 , 311, 320, 6 2 0 , n o . 368; V o l k 1980, p p . 2 5 9 - 6 0 , 2 6 7 ; F r e e d b e r g 1981, p p . 118-19, 121; A . B a l i s i n A n t w e r p 1982, p . 4 4 ; F r e e d b e r g

RICHLY

DETAILED

GARLAND

OF FLOWER

1984,

BLOS-

soms, ripe fruit, vegetables, and plants surrounds an octagonal representation of the Virgin Mary, depicted as a half-length figure holding the Christ child, who has his arm around her neck, with two angels holding a small wreath of flowers above her head. This recently restored painting from the Museo Nacional del Prado is one of three surviving collaborative works containing garlands by Jan Brueghel around a Virgin and Child by Rubens (compare figs. 1 and 6 9 ) . The garland from which the painting within the paint ing is suspended is fastened to trees in a landscape with various animals in the foreground and, in the background, a herd of deer partly concealed behind the octagon. Numerous birds and monkeys are discernible—including two South American silky marmosets below the garland— all feasting on a profusion of edibles. The foreground features—in addition 1

116

BRUEGHEL

AND

RUBENS

to a porcupine, a North American chipmunk, and the usual rabbits, guinea pigs, and tortoises—a peculiar animal not seen in any other painting by Brueghel: a hare with horns. Since the publication in the mid-sixteenth century of this "lepus cornutus'' (a jackalope, or horned hare), few people doubted the existence of this animal, which was regularly described and even depicted by, among others, Joris Hoefnagel ( 1 5 4 2 1 6 0 1 ) . Skeletons of the animal—presumably counterfeit— were even found in cabinets of curiosities, such as that of Emperor Rudolf II in Prague. In view of Brueghel's extra ordinary fidelity to nature in the rendering of plants and animals, it seems that he, too, must have been deceived into believing in the existence of this mythical creature. It has recently been demonstrated that Brueghel originally planned to have an oval representation in his garland: the outlines of the oval he sketched in to demarcate his colleague's 2

117

contribution can be seen with the infrared camera. Rubens, however, used as much room as he thought fit, and exceeded the bounds of this oval, just as he did in the Fruit Garland in Glasgow (see fig. 83), where he painted right over the border of the scratched-in oval, and in The Return from War: Mars Disarmed by Venus in the Getty Museum (cat. no. 2), where he did not hesitate to paint out part of Brueghel's depiction to make room for his own figures. The eventual octagonal framing of Rubens's depiction, which also has an underdraw ing, was painted by Brueghel; this frame is illuminated on the left and at the top by light falling from the left. Finally, in the small reserve above Mary's head, Brueghel added a wreath of flowers held by angels and a few leaves that over lap Rubens's painting—in the process also removing a couple of leaves. Even though Brueghel can probably be regarded as the originator of this painting as well, he found in Rubens a self-assured collaborator who was evidently capable of claiming his own space. As is customary in Brueghel's work, in this garland all the flowers are in full bloom and all the fruits are fully ripe, despite the fact that the various species do not blossom or mature at the same time. In this densely conceived and extremely precise garland, in which each fruit and flower is identifiable, there is not one wilted flower or worm-eaten fruit. Nature is thus presented in its ideal form, with no allusion whatsoever to the transience of earthly things. Brueghel boasted in his letters that he painted his flowers from life, without recourse to drawings or other preliminary studies. In 1 6 0 6 , for example, he reported having journeyed to Brussels to visit the archducal gardens, where he was able to paint flowers from life that were not to be found in Antwerp. In his letters, Brueghel repeatedly stressed the dili gence required to make his flower paintings, partly because of the constraints placed on him by their flowering times, all of which occurred within the space of four months. Even so, he must have been taking some poetic license when he said that he painted everything "from nature" (del naturel), if only because some species seem to have been based on examples in prints. Brueghel also worked from preparatory studies, despite his assertion to the contrary, for his gar lands have many identical elements, one being the white lilies to the right of Mary's face—a motif appearing in a number of his garlands—which probably refer to her virginity. It is obvious that the same preparatory studies of flower ensem bles were used for the garlands in Munich and Paris, as well as for the fruit-and-flower garland discussed here. Using 4

those studies, Brueghel created a different garland every time by adding extra flowers, for example, or by painting arrangements of fruit and vegetables between the flowers, as he did in this painting. The same fruit and vegetables are recognizable in Brueghel's fruit garlands in Antwerp (cat. no. 2 0 ) , the Mauritshuis (cat. no. 21), and Glasgow (fig. 83). His workshop practices must have been characterized by far-reaching standardization, in which extensive use was made of his standard repertoire of drawings and preparatory studies in color. It is remarkable, in fact, how fresh and original his paintings look, despite the frequent repetitions. Unfortunately, the studies he had in stock, which his son Jan II later made use of, have largely been lost. As the Milanese cardinal Federico Borromeo wrote in 1625 in his Musaeum, a guide to his Pinacoteca Ambrosiana, Brueghel was not content to paint common garden flowers. H e preferred to portray exotic species, some of which were recent discoveries imported from far-off lands for such aristocratic collectors as Albert and Isabella, and indeed Borromeo himself. The exotic animals also elevate the fram ing of Rubens's picture to an exceptional level of sumptuousness, seemingly symbolizing the abundance and richness of nature and possibly the fertility of the Virgin (compare cat. nos. 2 0 and 21). In Musaeum, Borromeo describes his own garland by Brueghel—probably the painting now in the Musee du Louvre—as a "garland consisting of so many flowers, and so varied, that one may well call it a triumphal arch." That the art lover in him sometimes got the better of the God-fearing cardinal is apparent from his comment on the painting of the Madonna: "We need not speak about the figure surrounded by the garland, because, like a dim light, it is overwhelmed by the surrounding depiction." The appreciation of Brueghel's garlands was reflected in the astronomic prices paid for them by his patrons, most of whom were members of the highest nobility. It has often been wrongly assumed that the present painting was the subject of a spirited exchange of letters in 1 6 2 1 - 2 2 between Brueghel and Cardinal Borromeo and his agent, Ercole Bianchi. The work discussed in these letters, however, is in all likelihood the Madonna and Child in a Garland of Flowers in the Louvre (fig. 6 9 ) , which was stolen by Napoleon's troops from the Pinacoteca Ambrosiana in 1796. A n earlier version of this garland is reproduced as a painting within a painting in the Allegory of Sight (see fig. 5 4 ) . In the summer of 1621, Brueghel had of his own accord sent Borromeo a picture—a flower garland surrounding a Virgin 12

1 8

BRUEGHEL

AND RUBENS

119

and Child by Rubens—which Brueghel himself praised as "the most beautiful and rarest thing I have ever made." H e then heard nothing for a long time. After a distressed Brueghel had sent several letters to Milan and apparently received no reply, the archbishop of Antwerp, Laurentius Beyerlinck, intervened in the spring of 1622, asking his Italian colleague for news of this masterpiece by Rubens, the "Belgian Apeiles," enclosed in a flower garland by Brueghel. The bishop said that he wanted to help Brueghel in this matter because the famous painter had been plagued by set backs, such as the death in 1621 of one of his most important patrons, Archduke Albert. A t last, in the summer of 1622, Brueghel received his payment, and gave one of the golden medallions he likewise received to Rubens. As regards the collaboration between the two masters, it is interesting to note that Brueghel was evidently the inventor of this work and the one who offered it for sale. In his letter to Bianchi of September 5, 1621, Brueghel said that "the birds and animals were done from life from several of Her Highness's speci mens." As emerges time and again from his letters, Brueghel regarded the fidelity to nature shown by his birds and animals, and of course his flowers, as one of the best recommendations of his work. That the present painting is not the garland sold to Borromeo in 1621-22—described, incidentally, as a garland simply of flowers, not of fruit—seems to be confirmed by its provenance from the collection of the Spanish marquis of Leganes. This nobleman, who had long served as a page at the court of Albert and Isabella in Brussels, became an important courtier of the Spanish king Philip IV. H e married a daughter of the supreme commander of the Habsburg troops, Ambrogio Spinola, and in the 1620s and '30s regularly stayed in the Southern Netherlands, where he bought paintings on a grand scale. In 1628 Rubens praised the marquis as one of the most important collectors of his time. In the earliest inventory, dating from 1630, of LeganeYs extensive collections, this garland was recorded under number " 4 " (the number at the lower right on the panel) as a work by both masters. A t his death in 1655, the marquis owned more than 1,300 paintings, including The Vision of Saint Hubert, another work by Brueghel and Rubens (cat. no. 7 ) . A t the court in Brussels, Leganes had had the opportunity to admire various paintings made jointly by these two luminaries from Antwerp, so it is no wonder that the connoisseur also wanted to enrich his own collection with several of their collaborative works. A v S 19

F I G U R E 6 9 J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r a n d P e t e r P a u l R u b e n s , Madonna Child

in a Garland

and

of Flowers, 1621. O i l o n canvas, t r a n s f e r r e d f r o m p a n e l ,

83.5 x 63 c m ( 3 2 % x 24 /4 i n . ) . P a r i s , M u s e e d u L o u v r e , i n v . 1764 3

120

BRUEGHEL

AND

RUBENS

m e n , m a e r d i e w o r t g h e h a u d e n 1800 g u l d e n . . . d e n h e r t o c h v a n

OTES

B u c i n g a m heeft de v o e r g e g e k o c h t 3 0 0 0 g u l d e n ) : D e n u c e 1934, p- 7 0 . 1. See E r t z 1979, n o s . 3 2 5 - 2 6 ; R e n g e r a n d D e n k 2 0 0 2 , p p . 3 3 6 - 4 1 . S o u r c e s r e v e a l t h a t these t w o m a s t e r s m u s t have c o l l a b o r a t e d o n m a n y m o r e g a r l a n d s ; see, a m o n g o t h e r s , V a e s 1 9 2 6 - 2 7 .

3 0 0 . E r t z (1979, p p . 3 0 4 - 6 ) t h i n k s the letters refer t o the p r e s e n t p a i n t i n g i n the P r a d o , as d o the f o l l o w i n g a u t h o r s : J o n e s 1993, p . 238,

2. See A . B a l i s , " F a c e t t e n v a n de V l a a m s e d i e r e n s c h i l d e r k u n s t v a n de i5de t o t d e i 7 d e eeuw," i n A n t w e r p 1982, p p . 4 4 , 53, n n . 36, 37; f o r H o e f n a g e l ' s d e p i c t i o n , see K o l b 2 0 0 5 , fig. 39. K o n r a d F o r c r ' s

Historia

Animalium Liber I: De Quadrupedibus Viviparis (1563) contains an illust t r a t i o n o f a h e a d a n d a s k u l l o f a h o r n e d h a r e ( K o m p a n j e 2 0 0 4 , f i g . 3). 3. K o m p a n j e ( 2 0 0 4 ) s u g g e s t s t h a t the h o r n e d hare is a c t u a l l y an a n i m a l s h o w i n g s y m p t o m s o f i n f e c t i o n b y t h e p a p i l l o m a v i r u s , w h i c h causes

n o . 36; R a t t i 1910; a n d F r e e d b e r g 1981, p . 119, n . 25. L a t e r F r e e d b e r g (1984, p . 577) c o r r e c t e d his e a r l i e r a s s u m p t i o n . 17. See also P a r i s 1979, p- 3918. See J o n e s 1993, p . 238, n o . 35. T h e w o r k d e p i c t e d i n t h e Allegory

Sight lacks the a n i m a l s a n d b i r d s seen i n the L o u v r e p a i n t i n g . 19. " i l p i u b e l l o et rara c o s a che h a b b i a fatta i n v i t a m i a " (letter t o B i a n c h i o f S e p t e m b e r 5, 1621): C r i v e l l i 1868, p . 272.

h o r n l i k e g r o w t h s o n the h e a d a n d e l s e w h e r e . 4 . T h e p a i n t i n g was e x a m i n e d w i t h a n i n f r a r e d c a m e r a i n the s p r i n g o f 2005 b y A n a G o n z a l e z M o z o a n d J a i m e G a r c i a M a i q u e z o f the M u s e o N a c i o n a l del Prado. W i t h thanks to A l e j a n d r o Vergara.

2 0 . F o r the I t a l i a n t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h i s letter w r i t t e n i n L a t i n , see C r i v e l l i 1868, p p . 2 8 6 - 9 0 . 21. See B r u e g h e l ' s letter t o B o r r o m e o o f J u l y 8, 1622. T h e p a y m e n t was

5. O n B r u e g h e l ' s f l o w e r p a i n t i n g s a n d g a r l a n d s , see, f o r e x a m p l e , E r t z 1979, p p . 2 5 2 - 3 2 6 ; B r e n n i n k m e y e r - d e R o o i j 1 9 9 0 ; a n d W e l z e l 2 0 0 2 . 6. I n a letter o f A p r i l 22, 1611, t o E r c o l e B i a n c h i , C a r d i n a l B o r r o m e o ' s a g e n t , B r u e g h e l e x p l a i n e d h o w he set a b o u t m a k i n g h i s f l o w e r p a i n t i n g s : " T h e f l o w e r s are t r o u b l e s o m e t o m a k e . . . b u t n e i t h e r i n t h a t n o r i n o t h e r e n d e a v o r s d o I accept a n y h e l p . T h e f l o w e r s m u s t be m a d e i n o n e s i t t i n g , w i t h o u t d e s i g n s o r s k e t c h e s : a l l the f l o w e r s c o m e [i.e., b l o s s o m ] i n four m o n t h s . . . . " ( G l i fiori sone fastidioso a f a r l e . . . i n q u e s t a ne i n altre n o n m e laisse a i u t a r e . G l i fiori b e s o i g n i fae alle p r i m a , sensa d e s s e i g n i o b o i t s s a t u r o : t u t t i f i o r i v e n g e n o i n q u a t r a mesi

16. F o r t h i s e x c h a n g e o f letters, see C r i v e l l i 1868, p p . 272, 275, 283, 2 9 4 -

f o r the g a r l a n d a n d an Allegory

of Air;

f o r the latter, see J o n e s 1993,

n o . 3 4 d (this p a i n t i n g , w i t h figures b y H e n d r i c k v a n B a l e n , is n o w i n the L o u v r e , i n v . 1921). I n a letter o f the s a m e date f r o m R u b e n s t o B o r r o m e o , the p a i n t e r t h a n k e d the c a r d i n a l f o r the g o l d e n m e d a l l i o n d i s p l a y i n g a l i k e n e s s o f S a i n t C a r l o B o r r o m e o , the c a r d i n a l ' s c o u s i n ; see C r i v e l l i 1868, p p . 2 9 9 - 3 0 0 . 22. " L i o i t c e l l i , et a n i m a l i s o n fatto a d v i v o de a l c u n i d e l l i s e r e n . m a E n f a n t o " : C r i v e l l i 1868, p. 272. See also cat. n o . 4 , n . 4 0 . 23. V o l k 1980, p p . 259, 2 6 7 ; a n d D i a z P a d r o n 1995, p p . 2 9 0 - 9 1 . 2 4 . L e t t e r o f J a n u a r y 27, 1628; see M a g u r n 1955, letter 145.

): C r i v e l l i 1868, p. 168.

7. L e t t e r t o B o r r o m e o o f A p r i l 14, 1 6 0 6 : " f o r w h i c h r e a s o n I was i n B r u s s e l s t o p o r t r a y s o m e f l o w e r s f r o m n a t u r e t h a t are n o t t o be f o u n d

25. See V o l k 1980, p . 267: " a n o t h e r p i c t u r e o f a n o t h e r i m a g e o f O u r L a d y w i t h its o r i g i n a l e b o n y frame b y R u b e n s a n d a b o r d e r o f f l o w e r s

i n A n t w e r p " ( p e r q u e l l a i o s o n stata a B r u s s e l l a p e r r i t r a r e a l c u n i

a n d a n i m a l s a r o u n d i t , o r i g i n a l s b y B r u e g h e l the E l d e r " ( o t t r o

fiori

q u a d r o de o t t r a y m a g e n de n r a s

d e l n a t u r a l , c h e n o n si t r o v e i n A n v e r s a ) : C r i v e l l i 1868, p . 63.

c o n s u m a r c o de e b a n o o r i g i n a l de

r u b e n s y u n a o r l a de flores y a n i m a l e s a l r r e d e d o r o r i g i n a l e s de b r u x e l

8. O n B r u e g h e l ' s use o f t h e c o n c e p t o f " d i l i g e n z a " i n h i s letters t o

el b i e j o ) .

B o r r o m e o a n d h i s a g e n t , see C u t l e r 2 0 0 3 .

26. I n v e n t o r y o f t h e L e g a n e s c o l l e c t i o n , M a r c h 30, 1642, n o . 38; see

9. See P a r i s 1979, P- 39-

V o l k 1980, p . 267.

10. C o m p a r e B r e n n i n k m e y e r - d e R o o i j 1 9 9 0 , p p . 2 3 4 - 3 5 . 11. See B r e n n i n k m e y e r - d e R o o i j 1 9 9 0 . B r u e g h e l ' s s u r v i v i n g f l o w e r s t u d i e s are e x t r e m e l y rare; see W i n n e r 1961, fig. 47. 2. See also a g a r l a n d b y J a n B r u e g h e l a n d H e n d r i c k v a n B a l e n ( E r t z 1979 , n o . 367, fig. 384) i n the P r a d o a n d The Holy Family

in a Garland

Flowers b y J a n B r u e g h e l a n d P i e t e r v a n A v o n t i n M u n i c h (fig. 86 i n this v o l u m e ) . 3. Q u i n t 1986, p. 238. 4.. Q u i n t 1986, p p . 2 3 8 - 3 9 . 5. I n a 1631 letter t o t h e art d e a l e r C h r i s o s t o m o v a n I m m e r s e e l , J a n B r u e g h e l the Y o u n g e r p r a i s e d the w o r k o f h i s father as e x t r e m e l y c o s t l y : " T h e r e is a n o t h e r g a r l a n d o f flowers, b u t t h a t o n e is v a l u e d at 1,800 g u i l d e r s . . . the p r e v i o u s o n e w a s b o u g h t b y t h e d u k e o f B u c k i n g h a m f o r 3 , 0 0 0 g u i l d e r s " (daer is n o c h e e n e n C r a n s van b l o e -

BRUEGHEL

AND

RUBENS

121

13 Jan Brueghel the Elder and Workshop of Peter Paul Rubens

Nymphs Filling the Cornucopia ca. 1615 O i l on panel, 67.4 x 106 cm (26 V2 x 4.1V4 in.) The Hague, Royal Picture Gallery Mauritshuis, inv. 2 3 4 Exhibited in The Hague only

S c h e u r l e e r 1 9 7 4 - 7 6 , v o l . 2, p . 6 4 4 , n o . 103;

INSCRIPTION

v o l . 3, p . 214, n o . 54; E r t z 1979, p p . 3 9 0 ,

O n the reverse, p a n e l m a k e r ' s m a r k R B

535, n . 611; E r t z 1984, n o . 218; B r o o s a n d

[in ligature]

W a d u m 1993; B r o o s 1993, P- 380; B r o o s 1995, PROVENANCE

p p . 2 2 - 2 4 ; W a d u m 1996; H a r t i n g a n d

H e t L o o , A p e l d o o r n , 1757; G a l l e r y o f

B o r m s 2 0 0 3 , p . 4 2 ; W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 , n o . E 56;

Stadholder W i l l e m V , T h e H a g u e , 1774-95;

Mauritshuis 2004, pp. 82-83

M u s e e N a p o l e o n (Musee d u L o u v r e ) , Paris, 1795-1815; G a l l e r y o f W i l l e m V , T h e H a g u e ,

EXHIBITION

A n t w e r p 1930, cat. n o . 231

1815-22; M a u r i t s h u i s , s i n c e 1822 LITERATURE

H o e t and Terwesten 1752-70, v o l . 3, pp. 7 0 6 - 0 7 ; Drossaers and L u n s i n g h

N A WOODED LANDSCAPE,

NYMPHS

FILL A H O R N

plenty (cornucopia) with fruit plucked from the trees and handed to them by satyrs, putti, and other nymphs.

The key to the story depicted here is the scene in the left background, where Hercules can be seen fighting the river god Acheious, who appears in the form of a bull. During the banquet Acheious lays on for Theseus (see cat. no. 3), the river god tells how he competed with Hercules for the hand of Deianira, the daughter of another river god (Ovid, Metamorphoses 9 . 1 - 9 2 ) . During their struggle, Acheious first transformed himself into a writhing snake and then into a bull. Hercules defeated him, however, by breaking off one of his horns, but, as Acheious relates: "This horn the naiads took, filled it with fruit and fragrant flowers, and hallowed it. A n d now the goddess of glad Abundance is enriched with my horn." N o sooner does he say this than one of his 2

122

BRUEGHEL

AND RUBENS

WORKSHOP

nymphs brings to the table a richly filled cornucopia—the second course of the banquet—as depicted on the left in The Feast ofAcheious from the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York (cat. no. 3). The latter work is a splendid example of the collaboration between the friends Rubens and Brueghel, whereas the attribution of the present painting has often been cast into doubt. In 1757 the painting was listed in the inventory of Het Loo Palace in Apeldoorn as a work by Rubens; in 1763 this description was correctly emended to say that the land scape and the fruit had been painted by Brueghel. After Willem V had the painting transferred to The Hague, Pieter Terwesten—in his 1770 catalogue of the stadholder's cabinet of paintings—listed it immediately after The Garden of Eden (cat. no. 4 ) , describing it as a "ditto first-rate piece...being figures by, or in the manner of, Rubens, and the landscape 4

123

resembles Adam in The Garden of Eden (cat. no. 4 ) , albeit in reverse. The classic profile and hairstyle of this nymph relate her to the nymph bringing in the cornucopia at the far left in the former painting and to the personification of Sight in the series of the Five Senses in the Museo Nacional del Prado (see fig. 54). The crouching female satyr to the left of the cornucopia clearly resembles a similar, cloven-hoofed female in Fruit Garland with Nature Adorned by the Graces by Rubens and Brueghel in Glasgow (see fig. 83); this figure harks back to a well-known antique statue of the "crouching Venus," which also inspired Rubens's rendering of the nymph tying on Diana's sandal in Diana at the Hunt (cat. no. 10). The satyr in the tree, the tip of whose tongue sticks out of his mouth, is a variation on Rubens's satyrs in the above-mentioned painting in Glasgow. The nymph on the right, seen from the back, who leans rather uncomfortably against a tree, was also borrowed from Rubens, as evidenced by a sheet with pen-and-ink studies of female figures by Rubens's hand (fig. 7 0 ) , on the verso of which he recorded his impressions of the Venus Pudica (see fig. 4 6 ) . With her left hand this nymph places an apple in the basket shouldered by a winged putto; this figure, too, stems from Rubens's repertoire and appears, among other places, in his Futti with a Garland of Fruit, in which Frans Snyders painted the fruit and Jan Wildens (1585/86-1653) the landscape (fig. 7 1 ) . The standing nymph on the left—who is seen in profile, reaching upward with her right hand—is recognizable from several of Rubens's representations of the three graces. N o doubt one could add to this list of derivations from Rubens's stock motifs; it is obvious that these figures were plucked from the master's existing oeuvre and assembled, collage like, to form the group seen here. For the rest, the figures surrounding Hercules and the bull in the left background display the short, easily distinguishable brushstrokes charac teristic of Brueghel. Close examination of the wood from which the panel is made has yielded important information for the dating of this work. The wood proves to have originated from the same tree as several other Antwerp panels, including a Wooded Landscape with Gypsy Women of 1612 by Abraham Govaerts ( 1 5 8 1 - 1 6 4 2 ) in the Mauritshuis; the grain of the wood in these panels does not display a regular pattern; rather, it describes a large arc up to the right. A n identical panelmaker's mark (RB in ligature) was found on the back of both Nymphs Filling the Cornucopia and Govaerts's painting. This mark—which has not yet been identified—has thus far 10

FIGURE 70

Peter P a u l R u b e n s , Studies of a Female Nude.

Pen and

b r o w n i n k , 27.1 x 17.7 c m ( i o / s x 7 i n . ) . A m s t e r d a m , R i j k s m u s e u m , 5

Rijksprentenkabinet, inv. 66:67

with fruit by the aforementioned Brueghel." During the enforced stay of the stadholder's collection in Paris ( 1 7 9 5 1815), this "Triomphe de la Terre" was reattributed to Brueghel and Hendrick van Balen. Since then, doubt has clung to the attribution of this panel, whose figures have been assigned alternately to Van Balen, Rubens, and "the manner of Rubens." From 1949 to 1 9 9 0 , it lay dormant in the store room of the Mauritshuis under the name of Van Balen. During the same period, there was even doubt cast on the attribution of the landscape to Jan Brueghel the Elder, and the names of his pupils Abraham Govaerts ( 1 5 8 1 - 1 6 4 2 ) and Jan Brueghel the Younger were put forward as possible candidates. Since its restoration in 1 9 9 0 , however, the painting has been reassessed. The piece proves to have been beautifully preserved, unmistakably displaying in the landscape and fruit the precise style of Jan Brueghel the Elder. The robust nudes with their well-articulated muscles bear little resem blance to Van Balen's elegantly polished figures; instead, each and every one is a quotation from Rubens's oeuvre of the years around 1615, although the rather hard modeling makes it unlikely that Rubens is the author. These figures are proba bly the work of a collaborator from Rubens's studio, who was able to draw directly upon the master's repertoire. The seated woman in the middle, for example, who fills the cor nucopia with fruit, is very like Theseus's friend Lelex, seated on the right in The Feast ofAcheious (cat. no. 3), and also 5

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been found on eight paintings dating from the years 1611 to 1613, including Jan Brueghel's Entry of the Animals into Noah's Ark of 1613 (cat. no. 2 6 ) . This allows us to assume that Nymphs Filling the Cornucopia originated not long after 1 6 1 2 - 1 3 , that is, about 1615, which is confirmed by dendrochronological research. The motifs quoted from Rubens also date from the same period, having originally appeared in works made about 1615. The painting thus originated in the period in which the collaboration between Brueghel and Rubens was flourishing. It was surely made under the eye of Brueghel's famous colleague, as also emerges from examination of the painting technique. Infrared imaging enabled the detection of a sketchy underdrawing in the landscape that is typical of Brueghel (compare, for instance, cat. no. 4 ) . A few per spective lines were all he needed to mark the depths in the background, and with a few swiftly drawn lines he indicated 16

1 8

the approximate position of the trees, sometimes adding undulating lines to suggest the foliage. With only a few strokes and lines, Brueghel made an underdrawing of the group in the left background, but this, too, was merely a rough indication, which he blithely ignored at the painting stage. The contours of the main figures bear traces—visible with a microscope—of a preparatory sketch in red-brown paint, a sketch not discernible with the infrared camera owing to the absence of carbon in the paint mixture. Indeed, it seems to have been customary, when Rubens and Brueghel collaborated, for Rubens to mark out his share of the composition with a sketch in brownish paint (compare cat. nos. 5, 6, and 8). In the present painting, the outlines of the figures have been corrected in places and emphasized with darker, fairly heavily applied paint that is now largely obscured by the paint used for the background, but which could be rendered visible with the aid of the infrared camera.

F I G U R E 71 P e t e r P a u l R u b e n s , F r a n s S n y d e r s , a n d J a n W i l d e n s (1586—1653), Putti with a Garland

of Fruit.

O i l o n canvas, 120 x 203.8 c m (47 V4 x So A L

in.).

M u n i c h , A l t e P i n a k o t h e k , i n v . 330

BRUEGHEL

AND RUBENS

WORKSHOP

125

These corrections are comparable to certain heavily applied corrections to nudes in several autograph drawings by Rubens, so it is in fact possible that the master himself intervened here to make several adjustments to the group of figures. Around the red-brown sketch delineating the figures, Brueghel first painted the background and then his collabora tor executed the figures that slightly overlap the background in numerous places. The fingers of the female satyr holding the cornucopia, for example, clearly overlap the skimpy reserve in the horn. Another interesting detail is the leaf of the artichoke in the right foreground, which was painted before the leg of the nymph—against which it stands out; here, therefore, Brueghel did not apply the leaf over the figure at the end of the painting process, as more usually seen. The figures are composed of layers of paint applied in a technique very similar to that of Rubens, the female nudes being built up from an undermodeling, while the darkercomplexioned satyr is painted very thinly with only a single layer of transparent paint on the light gray ground. The subject of the present painting naturally offered an excellent opportunity to depict idealized nudes in a land scape. The story corresponds closely to that of The Feast of Acheious (cat. no. 3), in which Rubens rendered nudes based on classical examples and, on the left, depicted a compar able group of nymphs filling a horn of plenty. The theme is also closely related, of course, to Brueghel's fruit garlands surrounding allegories of abundance and fertility, such as the Garland of Fruit around a Depiction of Ceres Receiving Gifts from the Four Seasons by Brueghel and Van Balen (cat. nos. 2 0 and 21), in which Ceres is presented with a cornucopia, and the Fruit Garland with Nature Adorned by the Graces by Brueghel and Rubens (fig. 83). Regarding the whereabouts of Nymphs Filling the Cornucopia before it was inventoried at Het L o o Palace in 1757, a partly preserved note in seventeenth-century hand writing glued to the back of the panel provides an intriguing indication of its provenance. In the nineteenth century, when it was still reasonably legible, it was transcribed as follows: "This painting is to be delivered to the house of Mr. Samuel Suerius, steward of His Highness's domains, etc... at B[reda]." A relative and friend of Constantijn Huygens, private secretary to the princes of Orange, Samuel Suerius ( 1 6 3 3 - 1 6 8 6 ) was the steward of the Breda domains of the House of Orange. H e was succeeded in this capacity by his son of the same name, which makes it uncertain if the painting was delivered to the father or the son. It is 19

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possible, therefore, that the painting was already in the possession of the Oranges in the late seventeenth century, but further documentation substantiating this is lacking.

AvS

NOTES 1. S i n c e t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , the p a i n t i n g has b e e n c a l l e d Filling

the Horn

Naiads

of Plenty; see, f o r e x a m p l e , M a u r i t s h u i s 1993,

p . 29. B e c a u s e t h i s p i c t u r e c o n t a i n s n o d i r e c t reference t o w a t e r ( n a i a d s are w a t e r n y m p h s ) , i t is m o r e c o r r e c t t o speak o f n y m p h s . 2. A c c o r d i n g t o O v i d (Fasti 5.121-24), the h o r n o f p l e n t y , o r c o r n u c o p i a , was the h o r n o f the g o a t A m a l t h e a , w h o s u c k l e d the i n f a n t J u p i t e r . I n his Metamorphoses

( 9 . 1 - 9 2 ) , O v i d d e s c r i b e s the o r i g i n o f t h e

c o r n u c o p i a , as seen i n t h i s d e p i c t i o n . See H a l l 1974, p p . 75, 152. 3. O v i d , Metamorphoses

9.87-88 (translation by Frank Justus M i l l e r ,

r e v i s e d b y G . P. G o o l d ) ; see Metamorphoses,

Books IX-XV

(Loeb

C l a s s i c a l L i b r a r y , C a m b r i d g e , M a s s . , a n d L o n d o n , 1984), p . 94 . O n M a y 13, 1716, i n A m s t e r d a m , a n " A m a l t h e a , a d o r n i n g the h o r n o f plenty w i t h

flowers"

( A m a l t e a , d i e de H o o r n v a n o v e r v l o e t m e t

B l o e m e n c i e r t ) b y R u b e n s a n d the " V e l v e t [Jan] B r u e g h e l " w a s s o l d f r o m the c o l l e c t i o n o f J a n v a n B e u n i n g e n ; see H o e t a n d T e r w e s t e n 1 7 5 2 - 7 0 , v o l . 1, p p . 2 0 1 - 2 , n o . 37. Its i d e n t i f i c a t i o n as t h e w o r k d i s c u s s e d h e r e w a s first p u b l i s h e d b y V i c t o r de S t u e r s ( M a u r i t s h u i s 1874, p . 203). T h e q u e s t i o n m a r k p l a c e d b y D e S t u e r s n e x t t o t h i s p r o v e n a n c e w a s o m i t t e d f r o m a l l s u b s e q u e n t p u b l i c a t i o n s ; see, f o r e x a m p l e , M a u r i t s h u i s 2 0 0 4 , p . 82. H o w e v e r , t h e p a i n t i n g s o l d at t h i s a u c t i o n w a s s o m e 2 0 c m ( a b o u t 8 i n . ) l a r g e r i n b o t h h e i g h t a n d w i d t h t h a n the p r e s e n t p a i n t i n g , i n w h i c h , m o r e o v e r , t h e r e are n o f l o w e r s t o be s e e n , w h i c h m a k e s t h i s p r o v e n a n c e u n l i k e l y . R e g a r d i n g A m a l t h e a , see n o t e 2 a b o v e . 5. " d i t o u i t m u n t e n d S t u k . . . z y n d e de F i g u u r e n d o o r , o f i n de m a n i e r v a n R u b b e n s , e n het L a n d s c h a p m e t de V r u g t e n d o o r v o o r n . v a n B r e u g e l " : H o e t a n d T e r w e s t e n 1 7 5 2 - 7 0 , v o l . 3, p p . 7 0 6 - 7 . 6. P o m m e r e u l 1798, p . 2 9 9 . 7. I n a 1774 c a t a l o g u e o f the c a b i n e t o f p a i n t i n g s , t h e figures w e r e a t t r i b u t e d t o " v a n d e r H o e k " a n d the l a n d s c a p e a n d the f r u i t t o B r u e g h e l . T h e a r t i s t i n q u e s t i o n w a s p e r h a p s J a n v a n d e n H o e c k e (1611-1651) o r C a s p a r v a n d e n H o e c k e (ca. 1585-1659); see D r o s s a e r s a n d L u n s i n g h S c h e u r l e e r 1 9 7 4 - 7 6 , v o l . 3, p . 214, n o . 54. A f t e r t h e F r e n c h era, the a t t r i b u t i o n o f the figures t o V a n B a l e n k e p t c r o p p i n g u p

(see

M a u r i t s h u i s 1874, p . 2 0 3 ) , e v e n t h o u g h i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y the figures w e r e u s u a l l y d e s c r i b e d as " i n t h e m a n n e r o f R u b e n s . " R o o s e s ( 1 8 8 6 - 9 2 , v o l . 5, p . 339) l i s t e d t h e figures as p r o b a b l y b y R u b e n s ; A n t w e r p 1930, n o . 231, as b y R u b e n s a n d B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r . A c c o r d i n g t o M a r t i n ( M a u r i t s h u i s 1935, p p . 2 9 2 - 9 4 , n o . 2 3 4 ) , L u d w i g B u r c h a r d c o n s i d e r e d t h e m t o be b y V a n B a l e n . I n M a u r i t s h u i s c a t a l o g u e s f r o m 1949 t h r o u g h 1993, the figures are a t t r i b u t e d

V a n B a l e n . E r t z (1979, p . 390) c o n c u r r e d w i t h t h i s a t t r i b u t i o n

but

s u b s e q u e n t l y t h o u g h t he r e c o g n i z e d the h a n d o f J a n B r u e g h e l t h e

Y o u n g e r i n the l a n d s c a p e ( E r t z 1984, n o . 218). B r o o s (1993, p . 380, a n d a n u n p u b l i s h e d text i n the a r c h i v e s o f the M a u r i t s h u i s ) a n d W a d u m (1996) r i g h t l y p l a c e the p a i n t e r o f the figures i n the s t u d i o o f R u b e n s . C o m p a r e , finally, H a r t i n g a n d B o r m s 2 0 0 3 , p . 4 2 (the l a n d s c a p e as b y J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r o r A b r a h a m G o v a e r t s ) ; a n d W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 , n o . E 56 (figures n o t b y the h a n d o f V a n B a l e n ) . 8. T h e p a i n t i n g w a s r e s t o r e d b y E r m a H e r m e n s a n d J o r g e n W a d u m . 9. See u n p u b l i s h e d texts b y J o r g e n W a d u m a n d B e n B r o o s i n the a r c h i v e s o f the M a u r i t s h u i s . 10. H a s k e l l a n d P e n n y 1981, p p . 3 2 1 - 2 3 , n o . 86. 11. K a s s e l - F r a n k f u r t 2 0 0 4 , cat. n o . 17. 12. R e n g e r a n d D e n k 2 0 0 2 , p p . 3 8 0 - 8 1 . 13. See, f o r e x a m p l e , Peter P a u l R u b e n s , The Three Graces ( V i e n n a , G e m a l d e g a l e r i e der A k a d e m i e der b i l d e n d e n K i i n s t e , inv. 646). 14. O n the p r a c t i c e o f t a k i n g m o t i f s f r o m the w o r k o f o t h e r s (the t e r m c o m m o n l y u s e d at t h a t t i m e was rapen, w h i c h m e a n s t o " g a t h e r "

15. See B r o o s a n d W a d u m 1993. 16. I b i d . W i t h t h a n k s t o J o r g e n W a d u m f o r a l l o w i n g m e t o i n s p e c t h i s database o f A n t w e r p p a n e l m a k e r s ' m a r k s . 17. R e p o r t c o m p i l e d b y D r . Peter K l e i n , U n i v e r s i t y o f H a m b u r g , O c t o b e r 2 0 , 199518. D u r i n g r e s t o r a t i o n o f the p a i n t i n g i n 1 9 9 0 , J o r g e n W a d u m e x a m i n e d it b y m e a n s o f i n f r a r e d r e f l e c t o g r a p h y u s i n g the H a m a m a t s u

camera;

see W a d u m 1996, p . 394, fig. 4 . O n D e c e m b e r 2 4 , 2 0 0 4 , the p a i n t i n g was a g a i n e x a m i n e d w i t h the a i d o f the s t e r e o m i c r o s c o p e b y S a b r i n a M e l o n i , A r i a n e v a n S u c h t e l e n , a n d J o r g e n W a d u m i n the s t u d i o o f the M a u r i t s h u i s . O n J a n u a r y 6, 2 0 0 5 , i n f r a r e d i m a g e s w e r e m a d e w i t h the A r t i s t c a m e r a ( A r t I n n o v a t i o n , H e n g e l o ) m o u n t e d w i t h a C C D p r o g r e s s i v e scan i m a g e s e n s o r (1360 x 1036 p i x e l s ) a n d a S c h n e i d e r K r e u z n a c h X e n o p l a n 1.4/23 m m C C T V - l c n s i n N12 w i t h a 1 0 0 0 n m l o n g - w a v e pass

filter.

19. O n t h i s subject, see W a d u m 1996. 2 0 . " D e s e s c h i l d e r y sal m e n b e s t e l l e n t e n h u y s e v a n de h . S a m u e l Z u c r i u s

o r " c o l l e c t " ) , see V a n M a n d e r / M i e d e m a 1973, v o l . 2, p p . 3 8 8 - 8 9 .

Rentmeester van syn H o o c h e y t s D o m e y n e n e t c . . . tot B[reda].":

O n the art o f rapen, see also S a m u e l v a n H o o g s t r a e t e n (1678, p . 193),

M a u r i t s h u i s 1874, p . 203. F o r a d r a w n c o p y d e p i c t i n g the letter, see,

w h o cites the e x a m p l e o f R u b e n s : W h e n R u b e n s was r e p r o a c h e d

a m o n g o t h e r s , M a u r i t s h u i s 1935, p . 293.

f o r " b o r r o w i n g w h o l e figures f r o m the I t a l i a n s " (geheele b e e l d e n u i t d T t a l i a e n e n o n t l e e n d e ) , he r e p l i e d t h a t e v e r y o n e was w e l c o m e t o imitate h i m , " i f they t h o u g h t it advantageous" (indien zy'er v o o r d e e l i n z a g e n ) , t h e r e b y s u g g e s t i n g t h a t n o t e v e r y o n e was c a p a b l e o f

21. A n s p a c h 1881, p . 172; and Register op de journalen

van

Constantijn

Huygens Jr. ( A m s t e r d a m , 1 9 0 6 ) , p . 285. See a n u n p u b l i s h e d text b y B e n B r o o s i n the a r c h i v e s o f the M a u r i t s h u i s .

b e n e f i t i n g f r o m t h i s exercise.

RUEGHEL

AND RUBENS WORKSHOP

127

14 Jan Brueghel the Elder and Hans Rottenhammer

The Rest on the Flight into Egypt ja. 1595

O i l on copper, 22 x 29.1 cm (8 /s x 11V2 in.) The Hague, Royal Picture Gallery Mauritshuis, inv. 283 5

Phoenix-Kansas C i t y - T h e Hague 1998-99,

LITERATURE

PROVENANCE

StacLholder-Khjig W i l l e m I I I , H e t L o o ,

P e l t z e r 1916, p p . 318, 332, 345, n o . 31, p . 348,

A p e l d o o r n , 1712; G a l l e r y o f S t a d h o l d e r

n o . 7 4 ; T o t h - U b b e n s 1968, p p . 1 0 - 1 1 ;

W i l l e m V , The'jHague, 1774-95; M u s e e

Drossaers and L u n s i n g h Scheurleer 1974-76,

N a p o l e o n (Musee d u L o u v r e ) , Paris,

v o l . 2, p . 6 4 5 , n o . 119; v o l . 3, p . 205, n o . 9;

1795-1815; Galljery o f W i l l e m V , T h e H a g u e ,

E r t z 1979, p p . 2 0 4 - 6 , n o . 1; E r t z 1984,

1815-22; M a u r i t s h u i s , s i n c e 1822

n o . 150; S c h l i c h t e n m a i e r 1988, n o . K 3; E s s e n - V i e n n a 1 9 9 7 - 9 8 , p p . 111, 112;

p p . 149, 150, n . 8; W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 , p . 236, n o . E 7; M a u r i t s h u i s 2 0 0 4 , p p . 8 2 - 8 4 ; J o n c k h e e r e 2 0 0 4 - 0 5 , p . 215 EXHIBITIONS

D o r d r e c h t 1955, cat. n o . 27; T h e H a g u e 1 9 8 8 - 8 9 , cat. n o . x i v

15 Jan Brueghel the Elder and Hans Rottenhammer

The Descent into Limbo 1597

O i l on copper, 26.2 x 35.4 cm (io A x 13% in.) The Hague, Royal Picture Gallery Mauritshuis, inv. 285 l

INSCRIPTION

A t lower right, . B R V E G H E L . 1 5 9 7

1795-1815; G a l l e r y o f W i l l e m V , T h e H a g u e ,

562 ( u n d e r n o . 32); E r t z 1984, p p . 4 4 , 65,

1815-22; M a u r i t s h u i s , s i n c e 1822

3 0 1 - 2 , n o . 128; F r e e d b e r g 1984, p . 576; B r o o s

LITERATURE

PROVENANCE

Stadholder-King W i l l e m III, H e t L o o , A p e l d o o r n , b e f o r e 1697; G a l l e r y o f Stadholder W i l l e m V , T h e H a g u e , 1774-95; M u s e e N a p o l e o n ( M u s e e d u L o u v r e ) , Paris,

H o e t a n d T e r w e s t e n 1 7 5 2 - 7 0 , v o l . 3, p . 6 9 3 ;

BRUEGHEL

AN }

ROTTENHAMMER

p . 8 4 ; J o n c k h e e r e 2 0 0 4 - 0 5 , p . 215

P e l t z e r 1916, p p . 332, 345, n o . 32; T o t h U b b e n s 1968, p . 11; D r o s s a e r s a n d L u n s i n g h

EXHIBITIONS

S c h e u r l e e r 1 9 7 4 - 7 6 , v o l . 1, p . 677, n o . 839,

T h e H a g u e 1 9 8 8 - 8 9 , p . 119 ( i n e x h i b i t i o n ) ;

p . 6 9 8 , n o . 6 9 ; v o l . 2, p . 4 7 9 , n o . 2 4 , p . 6 4 0 ,

Phoenix-Kansas C i t y - T h e Hague 1998-99,

n o . 2 4 ; v o l . 3, p . 2 0 6 , n o . 16; E r t z 1979,

cat. n o . 8e

p p . 116, 119, 124, 135, 501, 519 ( n n . 76, 87, 88),

128

1993, p p . 7 9 - 8 7 , n o . 7 ( w i t h a d d i t i o n a l l i t e r a ture); Costaras 1994; M a u r i t s h u i s 2 0 0 4 ,

•

O L L A B O R A T I O N S

W H I C H

S T A F F A G E

P A I N T E R

added his figures to a landscape by another artist were common in Flemish art from the sixteenth cen tury onward. As a staffage painter, Jan Brueghel made many contributions to landscapes painted by his friend Joos de Momper ( 1 5 6 4 - 1 6 3 5 ) . However, in The Rest on the Flight into Egypt of about 1595 and The Descent into Limbo of 1597 it was the German figure painter Hans Rottenhammer who first took the copper plates in hand. In the former work, he painted the Holy Family and the two flying angels in the foreground, whereupon Brueghel added the wooded land scape and the flowers, as well as the ass, whose body is largely hidden by the imposing tree that closes off the composition on the right. Rottenhammer, who began The Descent into Limbo by painting the nude figures in the foreground, is the author not only of the main group—Christ with Adam and Eve—but also of the righteous whom Christ liberates, the three devils in the left foreground, and five of the doomed souls in the abyss on the right. Brueghel then completed the composition by adding the infernal landscape with its myriad monsters and devils. Hans Rottenhammer, a native of Munich, left for Italy in 1589; after a stay in Venice, he arrived in Rome around 1591. There he met the Flemish-Roman landscape painter Paul Bril ( 1 5 5 3 / 5 4 - 1 6 2 6 ) , as well as Jan Brueghel, first recorded as being in Naples in 1590 and subsequently active in Rome until 1595- These artists belonged to the circle of Cardinal Federico Borromeo ( 1 5 6 4 - 1 6 3 1 ) , a theologian and impor tant collector of art, and it was in his palace facing the Piazza Navona in Rome that Brueghel took up residence. Karel van Mander wrote the following about Rotten hammer: "When he arrived in Rome he devoted himself to painting on plates as is customary with the Netherlanders." Italian painters occasionally used copper plates as supports as early as the first half of the sixteenth century, but this is first seen among Netherlandish artists when Bartholomeus Spranger ( 1 5 4 6 - 1 6 1 1 ) of Antwerp painted on copper during his stay in Rome ( 1 5 6 6 - 7 5 ) . It was however the Flemings Paul Bril and Jan Brueghel, as well as the German Hans Rottenhammer, who were responsible for the popularity painting on copper achieved from the early 1590s in Rome. A l l three found the smooth, glossy surface eminently suitable as a support for their meticulously detailed paintings. Bril produced the earliest known landscape on copper in 1 5 9 2 . He was soon followed by Jan Brueghel, who used copper almost exclusively for the paintings he made in Italy. After 1

returning to Antwerp in September 1596, Brueghel intro duced this new technique to his native city, where he contin ued to paint on copper with great regularity: about half of his extant paintings—some four hundred altogether—have copper supports. The figure painter Hans Rottenhammer collaborated with both Bril and Brueghel on various paintings on copper, to which the Flemings contributed the backgrounds. After Rottenhammer moved to Venice in the summer of 1595, his collaboration with Bril and Brueghel continued for a while, thanks in part to the small size and robust nature of copper plates, which made them easy to transport. In The Rest on the Flight into Egypt, Rottenhammer's smooth, enamel-like brushwork in the figures is clearly dis tinguishable from the manner of Brueghel, in which the individual brushstrokes are plainly visible. That the back ground was painted around the figures is apparent from the places where the brushstrokes overlap the contours. The ass displays Brueghel's characteristically precise style, featuring short, separate brushstrokes. Where the ass's head touches Joseph's tunic, Brueghel retouched the garment, using a slightly different shade of yellow, on which he painted the animal's mane wet-in-wet. Joseph's right hand, which holds some grass up to the beast's mouth, also appears on close inspection to have been added by Brueghel: this hand is not modeled as smoothly as Joseph's left hand, which is the work of Rottenhammer. It is possible that Brueghel was also responsible for the decoration on the Holy Family's saddle bag, which displays his characteristic detailing. Rottenhammer's contribution to The Descent into Limbo is also obvious: his smooth, polished figures are easily recognizable. The faces, too-—with their high foreheads and pronounced eyelids—are characteristic of his style. If one compares, for example, Christ's naked torso with that of Brueghel's devil in the sky at the upper left, the differences are obvious: Rottenhammer's brushstrokes flow together, whereas Brueghel used short, pastose brushstrokes to apply hatching within clearly delineated contours. Brueghel filled in the edges of Rottenhammer's contributions: at the back left, for example, he added hands reaching out from the throng of people, and at the front left he added pointed wings to the devil kneeling in shadow. H e supplied Christ's head with an aureole and also added the cross and the ban ner of the Resurrection (a red cross on a white ground) to the Savior's staff, which Rottenhammer had already indicated when laying in the composition. Brueghel enhanced the 12

BRUEGHEL

AND

ROTTENHAMMER

129

130

i3i

FIGURE

Hans

Jan

B r u e :ghe ^ l the E l d e r a n d

R o t t e n h a m m e r•, . The Rest on the

Flight

into Egypt, 1595. O i o n c o p p e r , 26 x 35.5 c m (io A l

x 14 i n . ) . P r i v a t e c o l l e c t i o n

group of devils in the left foreground by making their eyes and mouths spout fire. In the far right foreground, a strik ing detail was c iscovered in the figure of the naked woman being carried o f by two of Brueghel's demons: infrared reserve i n her leg, which means that, when painting her, Rottenhammer must have taken into account the demon's arm that was to be painted by Brueghel. O f the eight to ten known paintings Brueghel and Rottenhammer made together, no fewer than four depict the Rest on the Flight into Egypt; in each case Brueghel painted a different landscape behind the nearly identical group consisting of Joseph, the two angels, and Mary breast feeding her child. With production-line efficiency, Rotten hammer supplied copper plates with this motif—evidently and Brueghel then individualized them by adding different landscapes. In a painting dated 1595, for example, he painted a vast mountainous landscape with the Roman temple of the Sibyl at Tivoli (fig. 7 2 ) , whereas the present painting's forest clearing and pool of water offer the H o l y Family a more secluded resting place. The date on the former work suggests that the Mauritshuis painting and the other versions of the same theme ail date from about 1595. 16

132

BRUEGHEL

AND ROTTENHAMMER

Paul Bril, who had stayed behind in Rome, also collabo rated with Rottenhammer on a Rest on the Flight into Egypt (fig. 73), but this work of 1 6 0 0 shows the H o l y Family in a different constellation and lacks the angels. Here, too, it appears that the figures were painted first: Rottenhammer's copper plate must have been sent from Venice to Rome, where Bril added a Flemish landscape with a windmill. This procedure is confirmed by the artists' biographer Carlo Ridolfi, who in 1648 reported that various people had com missioned collaborative works, having Rottenhammer in Venice paint the figures and then sending the pictures to Rome, where Bril supplied the landscapes. The Descent into Limbo of 1597 fits into a series of scenes of the Underworld, which Brueghel painted over the course of about ten years, starting in 1594 in Italy and continuing in Antwerp. Against a fire-lit background with a broad river and high cliffs—dotted with ancient ruins and burning Catherine wheels—Brueghel indulged himself freely, depicting gruesome events and fanciful creatures derived from the tradition of Hieronymus Bosch (ca. 1 4 5 0 - 1 5 1 6 ) . Fuzzy monsters with cloven hoofs, a helmeted head on short legs, a horned marmot tending a brazier, a chopped-off head dangling from a tree, a winged, fire-spewing fish-mouth 18

— the eye can roam endlessly and never fail to discover new details. The subject of this story—Christ's descent into limbo to liberate the souls of the O l d Testament saints— naturally lent itself to elaborate depictions of the Under world. The story, first recorded in the fifth century in the apocryphal Gospel of Nicodemus, was later retold in the thirteenth-century Golden Legend Since Byzantine times i t had been a popular subject in art—its depictions include a print after Pieter Bruegel the Elder (fig. 7 4 ) — b u t after the sixteenth century the theme fell into disuse. Brueghel was probably inspired by his father's design, which contains similar Boschian beasts as well as the motif of the broken doors of Limbo. In the summer of 1595, Federico Borromeo moved from Rome to Milan, where he had been appointed cardin al. Brueghel followed his patron, staying for a year in Milan before returning to Antwerp with a letter of recommendati on from Borromeo to the Bishop of Antwerp. Rottenhamme r returned to Venice, where he was active until 1 6 0 6 , after which he settled in Augsburg. The 1595 Rest on the Flight into Egypt (fig. 72) could have been made in Rome, although it is also possible that Brueghel took this and other copper plates—already begun by Rottenhammer—to Milan and completed them there. A t any rate, Brueghel did not finish The Descent into Limbo until 1597, after his return to Antwer p. In a letter of July 8, 1605, Brueghel wrote to Borromeo: "Before long I shall be expecting the paintings from Your Highness, in order to decorate them with landscapes and other things befitting the figures' stories." Apparently it was not unusual for Brueghel (or Paul Bril, for that matter) to adapt his work to that of a figure painter, as evidenced by these two paintings made with Rottenhammer. Althoug h Brueghel did not mention the figure painter by name, he was almost certainly referring in this letter to Rottenhamm er and not to Hendrick van Balen, since the first figure paint ing by Van Balen that Brueghel "decorated" was one made for Cardinal Borromeo in 1 6 0 7 - 0 8 (see fig. 8 2 ) . Brueghel's letter perhaps refers to the two Rottenhammer-Brueghel paintings that Borromeo owned—Music-making Angels with Flowers and Winter Landscape with Angels Scattering Flowers— in which case these would be the last collaborative works by these two masters. These paintings are still to be found in the Pinacoteca Ambrosiana in Milan, the museum Borrom eo founded in 1 6 1 8 . Borromeo describes the Winter Landscape in his 1625 treatise on art titled Musaeum, an introduction to 21

F I G U R E 73 P a u l B r i l (1553/54-1626) a n d H a n s R o t t e n h a m m e r , The Rest on the Flight

into Egypt, 1 6 0 0 . O i l o n c o p p e r , 21.9 x 30 c m (8 /s x nM 5

in.).

Private collection F I G U R E 74 A f t e r P i e t e r B r u e g e l the E l d e r , The Descent into Limbo, E n g r a v i n g , 233 x 287 m m ( 9 V 8 x u A l

ca. 1561.

in.). A m s t e r d a m , R i j k s m u s e u m ,

Rijksprentenkabinet

BRUEGHEL

AND ROTTENHAMMER

133

his art collection, in which he philosophizes on the extremes of nature depicted in that work. It was the fruitful partnership with Hans Rottenhammer, begun in Rome, which seemingly inspired Brueghel to seek the cooperation of other figure painters after his return to Antwerp in September 1596. It was probably the differing styles of such masters as Rottenhammer, Hendrick de Clerck, Van Balen, and Rubens that represented for Brueghel the added value of artistic collaboration. A v S

5. See W i n n e r 1961 a n d E r t z 1979, p . 14.

6. O n t h e R o m a n palaces i n w h i c h B o r r o m e o o f f e r e d a c c o m m o d a t i o n t o artists a n d p i l g r i m s a l i k e , see V a e s 1 9 2 6 - 2 7 , p p . 171-72 ( w i t h a reference t o G i u s e p p e R i v o l a , Vita di Federico Borromeo

[ M i l a n , 1656]).

F o r t h e c o n t a c t b e t w e e n these a r t i s t s — B r i l , R o t t e n h a m m e r ,

and

B r u e g h e l — a n d B o r r o m e o , see, a m o n g o t h e r s , B e d o n i 1983, p p . 3 8 - 4 9 ; a n d J o n e s 1993. 7. " T e R o o m g h e c o m e n w e s e n d e / b e g a f h e m o p p l a t e n te s c h i l d e r e n / gelijck de wijse der N e d e r l a n d e r s i s " : V a n M a n d e r 1604, f o l . 296r ( V a n M a n d e r / M i e d e m a 1 9 9 4 - 9 9 , v o l . 1, p p . 4 4 2 - 4 4 ; see also v o l . 6, p. 7 0 ) . 8. See E . Peters B o w r o n , " A B r i e f H i s t o r y o f E u r o p e a n O i l P a i n t i n g o n

NOTES

C o p p e r , 1560-1775," i n P h o e n i x - K a n s a s C i t y - T h e H a g u e 1 9 9 8 - 9 9 , pp. 9 - 3 0 .

1. S e e , f o r e x a m p l e , E r t z 1979, p p . 4 7 0 - 9 1 . 2. B r u e g h e l ' s n a m e is s c r a t c h e d i n t o t h e c e n t e r o f t h e b a c k o f t h e c o p p e r p l a t e i n t h e c a p i t a l letters c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e p a i n t e r ; see also T h e H a g u e 1 9 8 8 - 8 9 , p . 121. H o w e v e r , t h e fact t h a t w e k n o w o f n o o t h e r c o n t e m p o r a r y e x a m p l e o f a n artist's n a m e s c r a t c h e d i n t o a c o p p e r p l a t e (letter f r o m I s a b e l H o r o v i t z t o L u u k R u t g e r s v a n d e r L o e f f , d a t e d N o v e m b e r 2 0 0 4 ) casts d o u b t o n t h e a u t h e n t i c i t y o f t h i s " s i g n a t u r e . " E r t z (1979, p p . 2 0 4 - 6 , fig. 248 [ o n p . 501]) w r o n g l y rejected The Rest into Egypt as t h e w o r k o f J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r ; i n h i s

o p i n i o n t h e p a i n t i n g , d o n e i n t h e style o f A d a m E l s h e i m e r (1578-1610), c o u l d n o t h a v e o r i g i n a t e d b e f o r e 1 6 0 0 a n d m u s t t h e r e f o r e be t h e w o r k o f a f o l l o w e r . L a t e r , E r t z (1984, n o . 150) a t t r i b u t e d i t t o J a n B r u e g h e l

restoration studio o f the M a u r i t s h u i s by Sabrina M e l o n i and A r i a n e stereomicroscope

(1360 x 1036 p i x e l s ) a n d a S c h n e i d e r K r e u z n a c h X e n o p l a n 1.4/23 m m C C T V - l e n s i n N12 w i t h a 1 0 0 0 n m l o n g - w a v e pass filter. as

J a n B r u e g h e l t h e Y o u n g e r ( E r t z 1984, n o . 128). E r t z q u e s t i o n e d t h e a u t h e n t i c i t y o f t h e s i g n a t u r e ( i n h i s o p i n i o n j B R U E G H E L 1597). H o w e v e r , d u r i n g t h e r e s t o r a t i o n c a r r i e d o u t i n 1992 i t b e c a m e clear t h a t t h e s i g n a t u r e ( w i t h o u t t h e l e t t e r j b e f o r e t h e n a m e ) was i n d e e d authentic. Schlichtenmaier again f o l l o w e d Ertz's rejection (Schlichten i n Aschaffen-

b u r g w a s r e g a r d e d b y S c h l i c h t e n m a i e r as a n a u t o g r a p h w o r k b y R o t t e n h a m m e r a n d B r u e g h e l ( i b i d . , n o . G 1 11). O n t h e p r o v e n a n c e o f t h e t w o p a i n t i n g s f r o m t h e E n g l i s h r o y a l c o l l e c t i o n , see T h e H a g u e

175 o n p a n e l , a n d t h e rest o n canvas, p a p e r , o r p a r c h m e n t . F o r a c r i t i c a l d i s c u s s i o n o f E r t z ' s s e l e c t i o n , see F r e e d b e r g 1984. K l a u s E r t z is p r e p a r i n g a r e v i s e d e d i t i o n o f h i s 1979 m o n o g r a p h .

by R o t t e n h a m m e r a n d B r i l . F o r the c o l l a b o r a t i o n between R o t t e n h a m m e r a n d B r u e g h e l , see S c h l i c h t e n m a i e r 1988, p p . 3 2 - 3 4 ,

(for t h e last t w o , see J o n e s 1993, n o s . I A 2 9 b a n d I A 1 0 0 ) ; E r t z 1984, n o . 148; a n d A n t w e r p 1998, cat. n o . 30. O n r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n B r i l

14. C o m p a r e , f o r e x a m p l e , H a n s R o t t e n h a m m e r ' s Rest on the Flight

into

Egypt i n S c h w e r i n ( S t a a t l i c h e s M u s e u m ) ; see P i j l 1998, f i g . 2. 15. T h e A r t i s t c a m e r a (see n o t e 3) r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e ass's m u z z l e w a s at first p l a c e d l o w e r a n d m o r e t o t h e r i g h t . 16. I n a d d i t i o n t o the p r e s e n t p a i n t i n g , these i n c l u d e t w o w o r k s i n p r i v a t e c o l l e c t i o n s ( o n e o f w h i c h is r e p r o d u c e d h e r e as f i g . 72) a n d o n e i n V i e n n a ( K u n s t h i s t o r i s c h e s M u s e u m ) . F o r t h e first t w o , see A n t w e r p 1998, cat. n o s . 29 ( S c h l i c h t e n m a i e r 1988, n o . G 1 6) a n d 3 0 ; f o r t h e V i e n n a p a i n t i n g , see E r t z 1979, n o . 19a; a n d S c h l i c h t e n m a i e r 1988, n o . G 1 7. A c o p y o f t h e l a s t - m e n t i o n e d p a i n t i n g is t o b e f o u n d i n the S t . A n n e n - M u s e u m , L i i b e c k . F o r a c o p y after t h e p a i n t i n g i n t h e

4 . O n R o t t e n h a m m e r , see P e l t z e r 1916, S c h l i c h t e n m a i e r 1988; a n d of Art,

J. T u r n e r , e d . , v o l . 27 ( N e w Y o r k ,

1996), pp. 2 2 7 - 2 9 .

BRUEGHEL

12. E r t z 1979 i n c l u d e s 390 p a i n t i n g s , o f w h i c h 183 are p a i n t e d o n c o p p e r ,

a n d B r u e g h e l , see P i j l 1996, p p . 7 4 - 7 6 , 78, n . 4 1 .

a w o r k by B r u e g h e l and Rottenhammer, attributing it instead to

134

( a b o u t 10 x 14 i n . ) .

n o s . 10, 15 (see A n t w e r p 1998, cat. n o . 6 9 ) , 19a, 27, 4 2 , 121, a n d 124

H e n g e l o ) m o u n t e d w i t h a C C D p r o g r e s s i v e scan i m a g e s e n s o r

K . A n d r e w s i n Dictionary

p a n e l . M o s t o f B r u e g h e l ' s I t a l i a n c o p p e r plates m e a s u r e ca. 25 x 35 c m

8 6 - 9 6 . See also E r t z 1979, p p . 4 9 9 - 5 0 4 , 552 (sources 5 8 8 - 9 7 ) a n d

a n d m a d e infrared images w i t h the A r t i s t camera ( A r t I n n o v a t i o n ,

1988-89, pp. 119-22.

11. See E r t z 1979, n o s . 1-32, t h e earliest o f w h i c h ( n o s . 4 - 5 ) are d a t e d

S c h l i c h t e n m a i e r (1988) d o e s n o t m e n t i o n a n y c o l l a b o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g s

3. B o t h p a i n t i n g s w e r e e x a m i n e d o n J a n u a r y 4 a n d 5, 2 0 0 5 , i n t h e

m a i e r 1988, n o . K 4 0 ) ; a c o p y o f The Descent into Limbo

see P h o e n i x - K a n s a s C i t y - T h e H a g u e

1998 a n d P h o e n i x - K a n s a s C i t y - T h e H a g u e 1 9 9 8 - 9 9 , cat. n o . 6;

S c h l i c h t e n m a i e r (1988, n o . K 3 ) also r e g a r d e d i t as a c o p y .

E r t z (1979, n o . 32) also m i s t a k e n l y r e j e c t e d The Descent into Limbo

with Saint Jerome;

1 9 9 8 - 9 9 , p . 147, n . 3.

13. R e g a r d i n g c o l l a b o r a t i o n s b e t w e e n R o t t e n h a m m e r a n d B r i l , see P i j l

t h e Y o u n g e r , w i t h figures b y H e n d r i c k v a n B a l e n . F o l l o w i n g E r t z ,

van Suchtelen, w h o v i e w e d t h e m u n d e r the

10. Landscape

1594. O f t h i s g r o u p , o n l y n o s . 17, 2 0 , 21, a n d 23 are p a i n t e d o n

J u n e 22, 1988, as w e l l as a c o m m u n i c a t i o n f r o m J o r g e n W a d u m ,

on the Flight

9. See P h o e n i x - K a n s a s C i t y - T h e H a g u e 1 9 9 8 - 9 9 , p p . 1 4 6 - 5 8 , 2 6 6 - 6 9 .

AND ROTTENHAMMER

M a u r i t s h u i s , see E r t z 1979, u n d e r n o . 10; E r t z 1984, n o . 151; a n d T h e H a g u e 1 9 8 8 - 8 9 , p . 122, f i g . b (sale, S o t h e b y ' s , L o n d o n , A p r i l 11, 1 9 9 0 , l o t 38). See also S c h l i c h t e n m a i e r 1988, n o s . G I 6 - 1 0 , K 2 - 1 1 .

17- See A n t w e r p 1998, cat. n o . 29. T h e d e p i c t i o n o f t h e classical t e m p l e is b a s e d o n B r u e g h e l ' s d r a w i n g o f 1593 ( P a r i s , F o n d a t i o n C u s t o d i a ) ;

see Cardinal

see E r t z 1979, fig. 199.

Federico Borromeo, arciv. di Milano:

lui dirette, conservate alVAmbrosiana

18. See P h o e n i x - K a n s a s C i t y - T h e H a g u e 1 9 9 8 - 9 9 , cat. n o . 7.

Indice delle lettere a

( M i l a n , i 9 6 0 ) . B r u e g h e l ' s letters t o

B i a n c h i , w h i c h e n d e d u p i n t h e A m b r o s i a n a i n the late s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y , are b o u n d t o g e t h e r i n o n e v o l u m e ( M S . G 2 8 o i n f ) . A l m o s t

19. See P i j l 1998, p . 6 6 0 , n . 7. T h e c l o s e r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n B r i l a n d

a l l these letters w e r e p u b l i s h e d i n C r i v e l l i 1868. B r u e g h e l ' s first l e t t e r

R o t t e n h a m m e r w e r e d o c u m e n t e d i n 1610; i b i d . , n . 4 . 2 0 . See E r t z 1979, P P - 1 1 6 - 3 6 , n o s . 5, 9, 2 5 - 2 7 , 32, 6 5 - 6 7 , 8 0 , 81, 9 9 , a n d 107.

t o the c a r d i n a l is d a t e d O c t o b e r 10, 1596; t h e n e x t s u r v i v i n g letter dates f r o m J u l y 8, 1605, f o l l o w e d b y e x t a n t letters f r o m e v e r y y e a r u p t o 1625.

21. B r u e g h e l s o m e t i m e s u s e d the s a m e m o t i f s i n h i s H e l l scenes; see B r o o s 1993, pp- 7 9 - 8 7 .

26. See C r i v e l l i 1868, p . 51. R o t t e n h a m m e r is n o t a c t u a l l y m e n t i o n e d b y n a m e i n a n y o f B r u e g h e l ' s s u r v i v i n g letters.

22. C o m p a r e , a m o n g o t h e r s , R e a u 1955-59, v o l . 2, p p . 531-37; see also H a l l 1974, p- 1 0 0 . J a c o b u s de V o r a g i n e ' s Legenda

F e d e r i c o B o r r o m e o a n d t o his a g e n t , the M i l a n e s e n o b l e m a n E r c o l e B i a n c h i . T h e s e letters are k e p t i n t h e B i b l i o t e c a A m b r o s i a n a i n M i l a n ;

aurea (Golden

Legend)

(ca. 1280) w a s a p o p u l a r v o l u m e t r e a t i n g t h e lives o f t h e s a i n t s ; t h e first D u t c h t r a n s l a t i o n s a p p e a r e d i n 1505 a n d 1516. 23. H o l l s t e i n 1 9 4 9 - , v o l . 3, p . 2 6 8 , n o . 115. 2 4 . See C r i v e l l i 1868, p p . 3 - 4 . 25. " F r a t a n t o i o staro a s p e t t a n d o g l i q u a d r i de V S 111.mo p e r o r n a r e de p a i e s i et a l t r i c o s i s e c o n d e l ' i s t o r i d e l l i f i g u r i . " : C r i v e l l i 1868, p p . 5 0 - 5 1 . B e t w e e n 1596 a n d 1625, J a n B r u e g h e l w r o t e at least e i g h t y letters t o

27. See E r t z 1979, n o s . 124 a n d 121; a n d J o n e s 1993, n o s . I A 100 a n d I A 2 9 b (as ca. 1 6 0 5 - 0 6 ) . T h e angels i n t h e Winter

Landscape

were attributed

b y S c h l i c h t e n m a i e r (1988, p p . 3 4 - 3 5 ) t o H e n d r i c k v a n B a l e n , f o l l o w i n g J o s t (1963, p . 92). R o s s i a n d R o v e t t a (1997, p p . 124, 1 2 7 - 2 8 ) d a t e b o t h p a i n t i n g s i n t h e P i n a c o t e c a A m b r o s i a n a t o 1594-95. 28. I n t h e d e e d o f gift ( d a t e d A p r i l 28, 1618) p r e s e r v e d i n the P i n a c o t e c a A m b r o s i a n a , Music-making

Angels

is a t t r i b u t e d t o R o t t e n h a m m e r a n d

B r u e g h e l ; see J o n e s 1993, p . 352, n o . I A 1 0 0 . 29. See also B e d o n i 1983, p . 4 5 ; a n d Q u i n t 1986.

BRUEGHEL

AND

ROTTENHAMMER

135

16 Jan Brueghel the Elder and Hendrick de Clerck

The Garden of Eden with the Fall of Man ca.

1597-98 3

O i l on copper, diam. 27.4 cm (io /4 in.) Neuburg an der Donau, Bayerische Staatsgemaldesammlungen, Staatsgalerie, inv. 1274

PROVENANCE

G a l e r i e D i i s s e l d o r f , 1730 i n v e n t o r y , n o . 88 LITERATURE

T e r l i n d e n 1952, p . 102; L a u r e y s s e n s 1967, p. 175; R e n g e r a n d S c h l e i f 2 0 0 5 , p p . 2 8 - 3 1

•

'HIS

P A R A D I S E

L A N D S C A P E

W I T H

T H E

F A L L

O F

M A N

—painted on a round copper plate—has traditionally been seen as a collaborative creation by the Brussels painters Denis van Alsloot (ca. 1570-ca. 1626) and Hendrick de Clerck, the latter being responsible for the figures. As regards the rendering of the animals and the landscape, how ever, the picture is so closely related to several early para dise depictions by Jan Brueghel that there can be little doubt that these passages were painted by the Antwerp master. O f importance is this painting's similarity to one of BrueghePs earliest-known paintings, a Paradise Landscape with the Creation ofAdam^ signed and dated 1594, which he painted during his stay in Rome (fig. 7 s ) . O n that copper plate, Brueghel combined a wooded landscape and numer ous animals and birds with a stream full of fish and a view to a sea with whales in the left background. Because the work 1

136

BRUEGHEL

A N D DE

CLERCK

was made without the help of a figure painter, the biblical story is depicted on a small scale and in the distance, not prominently in the foreground. The lion—seen from the side and turned toward the right—is identical in both paintings, and other animals, such as the cats and the rabbits, correspond very closely. The style of foliage in both these works also points to the same hand, as does the use of fine, nearly white brushstrokes for the detailing in the dis tant background, where several animals (including a llama) are depicted in silhouette. When Brueghel painted this paradise scene, he had apparently never seen a live guinea pig. The animal depicted here does not look particularly lifelike—its head seems simply stuck onto its body—and must have been based on knowledge gained from prints. A n identical lion occurs in a Paradise Landscape with the Entry of the Animals into Noah's Ark, signed and dated 1 5 9 6 , in 4

137

F I G U R E 75 J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r , Paradise

Landscape

with the Creation

of Adam,

1594. O i l o n c o p p e r , 26.5 x 35 c m ( i o / s x i^A

in.). R o m e , Galleria D o r i a

P a m p h i l j , i n v . F C 274

which the same sheep—with its curiously close-set eyesis recognizable in the right foreground. In the context of the present picture, this animal can perhaps be interpreted as a reference to the Lamb of God, whose sacrifice redeemed humankind from the original sin of Adam and Eve. A striking detail to the left of Adam and Eve is the ass with antlers, which was originally depicted somewhat larger and in profile, as revealed by infrared imaging. It is not clear how Brueghel hit upon the idea of including this myth ical beast, which neither he nor anyone else seems subse quently to have depicted. Its source was possibly the Greek 5

138

BRUEGHEL

AND

CLERCK

writer Herodotus, who in the third century before Christ wrote about the "horned ass" of Africa. His mention of this animal is in fact regarded as the source of the legend of the unicorn; a creature that appears, among other places, in the background of BrueghePs Paradise Landscape with the Creation ofAdam (fig. 75). In contrast to BrueghePs two above-mentioned paradise scenes dating from 1594 and 1596, there are practically no birds in the Neuburg painting, which means that the wooded landscape makes a less crowded—and hence more natural—impression. 6

In making this small painting, Jan Brueghel sought the collaboration of the Brussels court painter Hendrick de Clerck, who, like Brueghel, had worked for several years in Italy. De Clerck's somewhat mannered nudes are recog nizable by their elegant poses, the smooth modeling of their bodies (the painted surface of which seems almost enam eled), their elongated proportions and small heads, and such details as their long toes, of which the second is the longest. De Clerck was recorded in Rome in 1 5 8 6 - 8 7 , but by 1590 he was already back in Brussels, before Brueghel had even set foot in the holy city. After returning from Rome, De Clerck painted large altarpieces for churches in Brussels and its environs, as well as small cabinet pieces depicting mythological and biblical subjects, which were popular among high-placed collectors, including Emperor Rudolf II. In 1596 the emperor recommended De Clerck to Archduke Albert; indeed, De Clerck had already worked for Albert's predecessor, Ernst of Austria (Rudolf, Albert, and Ernst were brothers). Given its strong similarities to Brueghel's earliest para dise scenes, this collaborative painting depicting Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden must have been painted early on, probably not long after Brueghel returned from Italy in the autumn of 1596. The few known collaborative paintings by Brueghel and De Clerck are generally dated 1 6 0 6 - 0 8 and include an ambitious portrayal of The Wedding of Peleus and Thetis (Paris, Musee du Louvre) and an Allegory of the Tour Elements (Madrid, Museo Nacional del Prado). The present painting—which, as far as we know, is the first the masters made together—proves that they were acquainted as much as a decade before collaborating on the two abovementioned paintings. Even so, they collaborated only occasionally, which probably had to do with the distance between their respective places of residence. Brueghel often worked with his fellow townsmen Hendrick van Balen and Rubens, whereas De Clerck regularly asked Denis van Alsloot, who also lived in Brussels, to execute the land scape settings for his figures. This small painting from Neuburg shows the same episode in the story of the Creation as The Garden of Eden by Rubens and Brueghel in the Mauritshuis (cat. no. 4 ) , with Eve reaching up in similar fashion to take the apple offered to her by the serpent in the tree. It is remarkable that at this early stage in his career Brueghel collaborated with another artist on a Fall of Man, some twenty years before he portrayed the subject with Rubens. A v S

NOTES

1. See N . S c h l e i f i n R e n g e r a n d S c h l e i f 2 0 0 5 , p p . 2 8 - 3 1 . F o r a v a r i a n t i n a m u c h l a r g e r scale o f the p a i n t i n g d i s c u s s e d h e r e , see E s s e n - V i e n n a

2 0 0 3 , cat. n o . 104 (as b y D e n i s v a n A l s l o o t a n d H e n d r i c k de C l e r c k ) ; the e x e c u t i o n is t o o w e a k , h o w e v e r , t o j u s t i f y t h i s a t t r i b u t i o n . 2. I n S c h l e i s s h e i m 1905, p. 216, n o . 1001, the p a i n t i n g is a s s i g n e d

H e n d r i c k de C l e r c k a n d the a n i m a l s t o J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r . I n S c h l e i s s h e i m 1914, p . 56, n o . 4 0 0 1 , the b a c k g r o u n d is a t t r i b u t e d t o D e n i s v a n A l s l o o t . T e r l i n d e n (1952, p . 102) l i k e w i s e c o n s i d e r s

the

w o r k a c o l l a b o r a t i v e effort o f H e n d r i c k de C l e r c k a n d J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r . 3. E s s e n - V i e n n a 1 9 9 7 - 9 8 , cat. n o . 36. 4 . J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r , Paradise into Noah's Ark

Landscape

with the Entry of the

Animals

( i n s c r i b e d at l o w e r left, B R V E G H E L 1596, o i l o n c o p p e r , 5

27 x 35.5 c m [ i o / s x 14 i n . ] ; p r i v a t e c o l l e c t i o n ) ; see A n t w e r p 1998, cat. n o . 35. 5. See R e n g e r a n d S c h l e i f 2 0 0 5 , p . 30. 6. O n the i m p o r t a n c e o f B r u e g h e l a n d P a u l B r i l (1553/54-1626) f o r the d e v e l o p m e n t o f the w o o d e d l a n d s c a p e i n F l e m i s h art, see P i j l 2 0 0 5 , p. 560. 7. O n H e n d r i c k de C l e r c k , see W . L a u r e y s s e n s i n Dictionary

of Art,

J. T u r n e r , e d . , v o l . 7 ( N e w Y o r k , 1996), p p . 413-15. 8. I n f r a r e d i m a g i n g has s h o w n an e l a b o r a t e u n d e r d r a w i n g o f the f i g u r e s ; see R e n g e r a n d S c h l e i f 2 0 0 5 , p . 30. 9. H e n d r i c k de C l e r c k a n d J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r , The Wedding

ofPeleus

and Thetis ( s i g n e d at l o w e r left H . D . C . , o i l o n c o p p e r , 54.5 x 76.5 c m [21V2 x 30 Vs i n . ] ; P a r i s , M u s e e d u L o u v r e , i n v . R . F . 1945-17); sec E r t z 1979, n o . 148, fig. 4 9 9 ; H e n d r i c k de C l e r c k a n d Jan B r u e g h e l the E l d e r , Allegory

of the Four Elements

( o i l o n c o p p e r , 51 x 6 4 c m

[20 Vs x 2514 i n . ] ; M a d r i d , M u s e o N a c i o n a l d e l P r a d o , i n v . 1401); see E r t z 1979, n o . 145, fig. 4 3 8 ; J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r a n d H e n d r i c k de C l e r c k , Diana

andActaeon

( o i l o n p a n e l , 51 x 89.5 c m [20 Vs x

35V4 i n . ] ; P r a g u e , N a r o d n i G a l e r i e , inv. D O - 4 1 3 0 ) ; see E r t z 1979, n o . 146, fig. 6 2 6 . See also D e M a e y e r 1955, p p . 155-56, 4 3 7 ; T e r l i n d e n 1952, p p . 1 0 5 - 0 6 ; L a u r e y s s e n s 1967, p p . 1 6 4 - 6 6 ; a n d E r t z 1979, p . 513 a n d figs. 627 a n d 628. 10. O n the c o l l a b o r a t i o n b e t w e e n H e n d r i c k de C l e r c k a n d D e n i s v a n A l s l o o t ( e i g h t c o l l a b o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g s d a t e d b e t w e e n 1608 a n d 1612 are k n o w n ) , see L a u r e y s s e n s 1967 a n d B r o s e n s 1998. C o m p a r e , f o r e x a m p l e , Paradise

Landscape

with the Four Elements,

by D e Clerck

a n d V a n A l s l o o t i n the A l t e P i n a k o t h e k , M u n i c h (inv. 2 8 9 0 ) , w h i c h is s i g n e d b y b o t h p a i n t e r s ; see R e n g e r a n d D e n k 2 0 0 2 , p p . 1 3 8 - 4 0 . 11. R e g a r d i n g t h i s g e s t u r e , see F r a n s P o u r b u s ' s Garden ( B r o o s 1993, P- 93, %

of Eden o f 1566

5).

B R U E G H E L A N D DE C L E R C K

139

17 Jan Brueghel the Elder and Hendrick van Balen

Allegory of Fire ca.

1608-10

O i l on panel, 53.8 x 94.3 cm (21 Vs x 37Vs in.) Rome, Galleria Doria Pamphilj, inv. 332

PROVENANCE

I n the G a l l e r i a f r o m 1819 LITERATURE

T o n c i 1794, pp- 132-33; S e s t i e r i 1942, p p . 2 3 8 - 3 9 ; E e m a n s 1964, p . 8 4 ; T o r s e l l i 1969, n o . 2 4 ; E r t z 1979, p p . 364, 368, 369, 372, 599, n o . 251; S a f a r i k a n d T o r s e l l i 1982, p . n o ; B e d o n i 1983, p p . 116-17; P a r i s - L y o n 1991, p . 30; G e n o a

1996,

p p . 7 6 , 78

=HE

????

SPLENDID

VAULTED

INTERIOR

WITH

FORGE

was one of BrueghePs most effective and versatile inventions. Inspired by his own experience of the ancient monuments of Rome and by the artistic responses of other Northern artists to the city's ruins, Brueghel created a magnificent stage set suitable for a variety of related allegor ical themes. In this work, the element of Fire is represented by Vulcan's forge. A t left, the muscular god of fire and metalworking hammers out the shield of Aeneas on an anvil, observed by Venus, his wife and the mother of Aeneas, and Cupid. The dramatic setting portrays the "underground cavern and galleries leading from [Mount] Etna" on the island of Vulcania, site of Vulcan's forge as described in The Aeneid ( 8 . 3 7 0 - 4 5 3 ) , where the terrible arms of war were made by the Cyclopes and where "bronze and pure gold-ore flowed along the conduits, and wounding steel melted in a 1

140

BRUEGHEL

AND VAN

BALEN

great furnace," and "the cavern rumbled under the anvils planted on its floor." Allegories of the elements were part of Flemish pictorial tradition, popularized in the late sixteenth century through print series. Brueghel and Hendrick van Balen transformed the symbolic vocabulary of these scenes into delightfully lush and abundant landscapes. Brueghel first undertook allegorical subjects in Antwerp during the first years of the seventeenth century, painting the atmospheric and primal Allegory of Tire (fig. 76) for Cardinal Borromeo in 1608, one of his first treatments of the vaulted interior. Perhaps as a result of the success of this panel, he created a series of elements, painting three additional panels for Borromeo, with allegorical figures by Van Balen, completing the group 2

in 1 6 2 1 .

141

F I G U R E 76 J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r , Allegory

of Fire,

1608. O i l o n p a n e l , 4 6 x 6 6 c m (18 Vs x 26 i n . ) . M i l a n , P i n a c o t e c a A m b r o s i a n a , i n v . 68

The panel in the Doria Pamphilj collection is related to another treatment of the element of Fire, which employs a more insistent, three-part, vaulted interior with a lower viewpoint and smaller-scale still life. Brueghel's first version of the composition, Allegory of Fire ( 1 6 0 6 ; Lyon, Musee des Beaux-Arts) may have been conceived as an independent panel, the subject of which was Venus and Cupid in the Smithy of Vulcan. Brueghel and Van Balen subsequently executed the elements of Earth, Air, and Water to form a series of the Four Elements. Virtually identical to the Lyon panel, the Doria Pamphilj Allegory of Fire was probably com pleted slightly later, about 1 6 0 8 - 1 0 , and was also part of a series of Elements. In the Doria Pamphilj Allegory of Fire, the top, right, and lower edges of the composition have 5

142

BRUEGHEL

A N D VAN BALEN

been extended, and small implements have been added to the foreground. The elegantly disposed architecture of the Allegory of Fire, overgrown in places with foliage, recalls Brueghel's drawings of the immense interiors of the Roman Colosseum, with its flickering dark corners and textured masonry (see fig. 7 ) . A detailed drawing of an antique ruin on the Palatine H i l l (fig. 77) demonstrates the powerful impact these architec tural remains had on Northern artists and has often been seen as the direct source for the Rome and Lyon panels and their variants. However, a recently discovered drawing (fig. 78) reveals that Brueghel based his overgrown ruined setting, and the subject of Venus in the Forge of Vulcan within it, on a composition by Paolo Fiammingo ( 1 5 4 0 8

1596), an Antwerp painter active in Venice.

That he may have known the composition only in the form of a print is indicated by the fact that the angle of the main tunnel and the bay with the forge as well as the placement of the stepped display of objects and the large wooden waterwheel opposite are reversed in Brueghel's paintings. Notably, Brueghel included a number of the small elements that refer to the theme of metalworking, including the precious objects dis played on shelves and the mysterious chandelier. Fiammingo was adept at devising detailed and clever mythological land scapes for his patrons, who included the German banker Hans Fugger. It is not surprising that Brueghel, aware of other Venetian innovations, such as the paradise landscapes of Jacopo Bassano (ca. 1 5 1 0 - 1 5 9 2 ) , was also interested in the lively and detailed compositions of his older colleague. While Fiammingo's ideas for the Forge of Vulcan stimu lated Brueghel, the imposing distant landscape and particu larly the dazzling array of objects strewn across the floor of the cavern in the Allegory of Fire were the product of his own lively imagination. In its prolific detail, the vaulted interior was ingeniously and even conscientiously conceived. A n entire industry takes place around the main figures. O n the left, several men are seen working around a second anvil, while another tends the forge. Still farther into the interior, a worker chases a cannon with a hammer and chisel and a horse moves a large windlass, turning a drill for boring can non. In the right foreground, two men work molten metal into a sheet beside a water-powered battering mill, while two others polish finished objects on small buffing wheels. Details such as the little footbridge over the stream and the rickety wood bridge at the right invite the viewer to meander through the forge and into the formidable landscape. In the foreground, the still-life items represent the diversity of fire's products. Precious gold and pewter items cascade over a rough-hewn sideboard. Spread across the foreground, appropriately adjacent to Vulcan, are pieces of steel armor, elegant damascened armor, a crossbow, sword, and rapier, as well as the copper pots used in the armorer's craft. In front of the foreground trough, bench shears sit upright in a vice, while Vulcan's anvil, and the anvil used by the Cyclopes in the background, sit correctly on a wood support. In the corridor behind the Cyclopes stand the main products of the foundry and the source material for ordnance: a cannon and a bell. Brueghel was immensely proud of his inventive allegories of Fire. In a letter to Ercole Bianchi, agent for his patron 10

F I G U R E 77 U n k n o w n N o r t h e r n artist, View of'AntiqueRuins, 5

ca. 1595.

P e n a n d i n k , 19.3 x 27.1 c m (7 /s x i o / s i n . ) . A m s t e r d a m , R i j k s m u s e u m , Rijksprentenkabinet, inv. 1989-187 F I G U R E 78

P a o l o F i a m m i n g o ( 1 5 4 0 - 1 5 9 6 ) , The Forge of Vulcan,

ca. 1575.

P e n a n d b r o w n i n k o v e r b l a c k c h a l k , 14.6 x 20.8 c m (5V4 x 8V4 i n . ) . Location unknown

BRUEGHEL

AND VAN

BALEN

143

F I G U R E 79

S t u d i o o f J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r ,

Venus in the Smithy of Vulcan,

ca. 1608. P e n a n d 3

i n k w i t h w a s h , 21.4 x 36 c m (8 /s x 14 Vs i n . ) . D r e s d e n , K u p f e r s t i c h k a b i n e t t , i n v . c 3775

Cardinal Borromeo, the artist stated (referring, perhaps, to the 1608 Allegory of Fire) that he had a painting of Fire of "various devilish invention and painstakingly made." A few months later, he wrote to Cardinal Borromeo, noting that in a few days he will send a painting of the element of Fire in which "one sees every sort of arms, gold silver metals and fire, also alchemy and distillation, everything done from nature with the greatest diligence." Some of the relationships between still-life elements in the Allegory of Fire may have been planned in advance. A sheet of birds apparently served as a starting point for the arrangement of birds in the Allegory ofAir in the Lyon and Doria Pamphilj series. Though none are known today, when composing the still-life elements Brueghel may have relied on drawn studies of certain pieces of armor, tools, and other objects that would have been similar to an existing sheet of hunting gear (see fig. 6 4 ) . Many pieces of armor and other objects recur in other compositions, sometimes in similar arrangements, but more often rearranged (see cat. no. 16). The sideboard, bench, and stool were part of his initial campaign on The Return from War: Mars Disarmed by Venus (cat. no. 2) but were later obscured by Rubens. Brueghel delighted in meticulously described surfaces and in contrasting volumes, creating a visual counterpoint of protrusions and recesses in the central pile of accouterments. Hendrick van Balen, Brueghel's primary collaborator in these years, painted the main trio of figures in this work 14

and the female personifications in the rest of the series. Van Balen's elegant, polished forms contrast with the minute, textured brushwork of his colleague and served to set the gods subtly apart from other figures in the interior. A drawing often considered a preparatory sketch for the Doria Pamphilj allegory (fig. 79) is neither the work of Jan Brueghel the Elder nor Hendrick van Balen and may simply record the relationship of the figures to the forge interior and the primary features in i t . A T W 18

NOTES

1. See p p . 6 - 9 i n t h i s v o l u m e . 2. V i r g i l , The Aeneid,

W . F. Jackson, trans. ( H a r m o n d s w o r t h ,

1956),

pp. 213-14.

1 6

144

BRUEGHEL

AND VAN

BALEN

3. F o r e x a m p l e , F r a n s F l o r i s (1516-1570), The Elements,

ca. 1568; see

V a n de V e l d e 1975, v o l . 1, p p . 4 2 2 - 2 3 , n o . P 1 0 3 - 1 0 6 . 4 . F o r the M i l a n Allegory

of Fire, s i g n e d a n d d a t e d B R V E G H E L 1608, see

E r t z 1979, p p . 374, 589, n o . 1 9 0 ; J o n e s 1993, p p . 7 9 - 8 0 , 86, 237 ( n o t i n g t h a t Fire m a y h a v e b e e n r e t u r n e d t o B r u e g h e l f o r c h a n g e s ) ; a n d R o s s i a n d R o v e t t a 1997, p . 138. T h e Element of Water ( M i l a n , P i n a c o t e c a A m b r o s i a n a , i n v . 65) was the s e c o n d p i e c e i n the series t o be c o m p l e t e d a n d was sent t o t h e c a r d i n a l i n t h e s p r i n g o f 1614; see E r t z 1979, p p . 374, 6 0 7 , n o . 302. T h e Element

of Earth

(ca. 1618) a n d the

Element

of Air (dated 1621) are today i n the c o l l e c t i o n o f the Musee d u L o u v r e inv. 1092 a n d 1921; see E r t z 1979, p p . 6 1 4 - 1 5 , n o . 342, a n d p . 6 2 0 , n o . 372, respectively. B o r r o m e o already o w n e d the B r u e g h e l - V a n B a l e n

c o l l a b o r a t i o n , Ceres with the Four Elements

fig. 38) b e l i e v e d t h i s sheet was a p r e p a r a t o r y s k e t c h f o r the D o r i a

( M i l a n , Pinacoteca

P a m p h i l j Allegory

A m b r o s i a n a , i n v . 7 4 - 1 6 ) , w h i c h m a y be the " C e r e s " m e n t i o n e d b y the artist i n a letter t o B o r r o m e o d a t e d J u l y 8, 1605; see C r i v e l l i 1868, p . 50. See E r t z 1979, p p . 3 6 3 - 6 4 ( n o t an a u t o g r a p h w o r k b y Jan B r u e g h e l the E l d e r ) ; a n d B e d o n i 1983, p . 108. F o r B r u e g h e l ' s treat

16.

See W i n n e r 1972, p p . 1 4 6 - 4 8 .

17.

W e r c h e ( 2 0 0 4 , p p . 1 9 3 - 9 4 , n o s . A 1 4 0 - A 143) dates the D o r i a P a m p h i l j panels ca. 1 6 0 6 - c a . 1611 o n the basis o f V a n B a l e n ' s figure style.

m e n t o f the F o u r E l e m e n t s t h e m e a n d its r e l a t i o n s h i p t o the paradise l a n d s c a p e , see K o l b 2 0 0 5 , p p . 5 2 - 5 9 .

18.

5. S i g n e d a n d d a t e d o n the side o f the table at left: B R V E G H E L / 1 6 0 6 , o i l

of Air.

T h e sheet d o e s n o t c o r r e s p o n d t o a n y o f the k n o w n v e r s i o n s o f t h i s c o m p o s i t i o n . G e r s o n ( G e r s o n a n d T e r K u i l e i 9 6 0 , p. 59) c o n s i d e r e d

o n p a n e l , 4 6 x 83 c m (18Vs x 32V8 i n . ) ; L y o n , M u s e e des B e a u x A r t s ,

the D r e s d e n sheet a p r e p a r a t o r y d r a w i n g f o r the D o r i a P a m p h i l j

inv.

p a n e l , b u t the a t t r i b u t i o n o f the sheet t o Jan B r u e g h e l the E l d e r was

6. Air

75-78. is s i g n e d a n d d a t e d B R V E G H E L 1611; Earth

is s i g n e d a n d d a t e d

q u e s t i o n e d b y W i n n e r (1961, p . 231) a n d E r t z (1979, p- 372).

B R V E G H E L 1610. T h e series appears i n the 1659 i n v e n t o r y o f the c o l l e c t i o n o f A r c h d u k e W i l h e l m L e o p o l d ; see B u i j s i n P a r i s - L y o n p p . 2 6 - 3 1 ; a n d W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 , p p . 1 9 1 - 9 3 , n o s . A 1 3 6 - A 139.

1991,

7. T h e o t h e r t h r e e p a i n t i n g s i n the series are a l l i n R o m e , G a l l e r i a D o r i a P a m p h i l j : Allegory

of Earth,

(21V8

x 37 /4 i n . ) , i n v . 322; Allegory

o i l o n p a n e l , 54.2 x 94.5 c m of Water, o i l o n p a n e l , 54 x 9 4 c m

(21V4 x 37 i n . ) , inv. 348; a n d Allegory cm

of Air,

o i l o n p a n e l , 50.3 x 80.1:

(19V4 x 31V2 i n . ) , i n v . 328. See E r t z 1979, p . 599, n o s . 2 4 8 - 5 0 ; a n d

S a f a r i k a n d T o r s e l l i 1982, p . 22. S e v e r a l v e r s i o n s o f the L y o n - R o m e Allegory

of Fire are k n o w n ; see P a r i s 1 9 7 7 - 7 8 , p . 50; E r t z 1979, n o s . 252,

254; a n d W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 , p. 192. F o r later v e r s i o n s b y J a n B r u e g h e l the Y o u n g e r a n d his s t u d i o , see V a e s 1 9 2 6 - 2 7 , p. 184; a n d P a r i s 1 9 7 7 - 7 8 , p. 50. 8. F o r m e r l y V o s m a e r C o l l e c t i o n , L e i d e n . G e r s o n c o n s i d e r e d the d r a w i n g t o be the w o r k o f J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r ( G e r s o n a n d T e r K u i l e i 9 6 0 , p. 59), a n a t t r i b u t i o n d o u b t e d b y W i n n e r (1961, p p . 1 9 4 - 9 5 ) . E r t z (1979, p . 373, fi g. 4 4 4 ) t e n t a t i v e l y a t t r i b u t e d the d r a w i n g t o P a u l B r i l . T h e d r a w i n g d o e s n o t a p p e a r i n R u b y 1999. See also B u i j s i n P a r i s - L y o n 1991, p . 30, n . 17. 9. S o l d S o t h e b y ' s , A m s t e r d a m , N o v e m b e r 4 , 2 0 0 3 , l o t 710.

F o r F i a m m i n g o ' s d r a w i n g s , see M e i j e r 1975 a n d M e i j e r 1983; f o r his c o m m i s s i o n s f o r the F u g g e r , see F u c i k o v a a n d K o n e c n y 1983.

ri.

F f o u l k e s 1911, p p . 4 2 , 47.

12.

T h e a p o t h e c a r y b o t t l e s i n the L y o n F i r e are l a b e l e d : CORALORV; ARAM

1991,

P O T A B I ; A Q V A P A R A D I S I ; see

TINTVRA

Buijs in

Paris-Lyon

p . 26. F o r d i s c u s s i o n o f the M i l a n e s e - s t y l e p a r a d e a r m o r , see

cat. n o . 2. 13.

T h e w o o d s u p p o r t increases the s p r i n g o f the a n v i l ; see W e b b e r 1972, p. 53-

14. " . . . c h e h a i n m a n e i l q u a d r o d e l f u o c o q u a l sera de u a r i o i n v e n c i o n d i a b o l i c a p e i n a de lauor." (letter o f J u n e 13, 1608, t o B i a n c h i ) : C r i v e l l i 1868, p . 1 0 4 ; a n d B e d o n i 1983, p . 115; " I n p o c h i g i o r n i m a n d e r a i l q u a d r o E l e m e n t a d e l f u o c o , e n q u a e l e de v e d e r e o i g n i s o r t e d a r m e r i a , m e t a l i o r o a r g e n t o e f u o c o , a n c h o 1'alchimio et d i s t i l a t t i o n i , t u t t i fatti del

n a t u r a l c o n g r a n d i s m o d i l i g e n c . " (letter o f S e p t e m b e r 2 6 , 1608, t o

C a r d i n a l B o r r o m e o ) : see C r i v e l l i 1868, p. 112; a n d B e d o n i 1983, p . 116. 15.

J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r , Bird Study for an Allegory

of Air

(Braunschweig,

H e r z o g A n t o n U l r i c h - M u s e u m , i n v . K K 79). W i n n e r (1972, p . 159,

BRUEGHEL

AND VAN

BALEN

145

18 Jan Brueghel the Elde r an d Hendrick van Balen

The Prophes y o f Isaiah ca. 160 9 O i l o n copper , 4 0 . 2 x 50. 4 c m (15 % x 19 % in. ) M u n i c h , Bayerisch e Staatsgemaldesammlungen, A l t e Pinakothek , inv . 199 9

INSCRIPTIONS

LITERATURE

O n th e table t h e l d b y Isaiah , I V D I C A B I T /

S c h l e i f i h e i m i n v e n t o r y o f 1775 , n o . 79 7

G E N T E S , E T A R: / G V E T P O P V L O S M V L T O S ; /

(Brueghel w i t h V a n Balen) ; Rittershause n

ET / C O N F L A B V N T / G L A D I O S SVO S / I N

1788, p . 305 ; M u l l e r H o f s t e d e 1962 , p . 119 ;

V O M E R E S , / E T / L A N C E A S / SVA S / I N F A L C E S .

J o s t 1963 , p p . 1 1 9 - 2 0 ; B a u m s t a r k 1974 ,

/ I S A I A E . 11 ; b e n e a t h th e p u t t o , P A X ; a t fa r

p p . 1 3 6 - 3 7 , 1 4 6 - 4 7 ; E r t z 1979 , p . 383 , 5 9 i ,

right, beneat h seate d female , F O E L I C I T A S ;

n o . 2 0 2 ; D i e m e r 1980 , p p . 16 4 ( n o . 16) , 233 ;

o n th e cross , P I E T A S ; o n th e c o r n u c o p i a ,

M u l l e r H o f s t e d e 1984 , p . 2 4 6 ; R e n g e r a n d D e n k 2002 , pp . 78-79 ; Werch e 2004 , v o l . 1 ,

ABUNDANTIA

p p . 8 3 - 8 5 , 1 4 0 , n o . A 14 ; v o l . 2 , p . 32 4

PROVENANCE Prince Electo r Maximilia n I , Kammergalerie ,

EXHIBITIONS

R e s i d e n z , M u n i c h , b y 162 8 ( n o . 16) ; i n t h e

M u n i c h 1980 , v o l . 2 , cat . n o . 2 6 4 ; M u n i c h

E l e c t o r a l i n v e n t o r i e s o f 1641/42 , 1775 , 1885 ,

1993, cat . n o . 3 2

a n d 190 5 ( S c h l o f i S c h l e i f i h e i m )

S P A C I O U S , A R C H E

D I N T E R I O

R O

R U I

N P R O

holds a n oliv e branc h i n hi s lef t h a n d an d a n ornat e helme t

vides th e settin g fo r a comple x an d unusua l allegor y

over th e flames o f a smal l fire— a m o t i f f r o m antiquit y

o f Peac e tha t unite s biblica l prophes y w i t h th e classica l

signifying th e en d o f war. A t th e right , thre e femal e figure s 2

accouterments o f c o n c o r d . S t a n d i n g a m i d a profusio n o f

personify th e reward s tha t accompan y freedo m f r o m strife :

metal item s p r o d u c e d i n th e smithy , i n c l u d i n g armor, coppe r

Felicity, seate d an d h o l d i n g M e r c u r y 's caduceus, th e tradi -

vessels, an d swords , th e O l d Testament prophe t Isaia h hold s

tional attribut e o f peace , embodie s divin e happiness. B e h i n d

a table t bearin g th e L a t i n tex t o f his prophes y o f peace: "an d

her stan d Piet y i n blue , h o l d i n g a radian t cross , an d A b u n -

he shal l judge a m o n g th e nations , an d shal l rebuke man y

dance, w h o embrace s a b r i m m i n g c o r n u c o p ia an d hold s

people: an d the y shal l beat thei r sword s i n t o plowshares ,

a shea f o f wheat. A solitar y artichoke , a n a d d i t i o n a l s y m b ol 3

and thei r spear s i n t o p r u n i n g h o o k s : n a t i o n shal l not lif t u p

o f fruitfulness , visuall y bridge s th e spac e betwee n th e t w o

s w o r d agains t n a t i o n , neithe r shal l they lear n wa r an y

groups o f figures , w h i l e a spanie l an d a baske t o f flower s

more." I n th e forg e b e h i n d h i m , muscula r w o r k m e n refash -

signify faithfulnes s an d th e f l o u r i s h i n g of c o n c o r d . T h e

i o n sword s t o m o r e peaceabl e purpose s o n a n anvil . W i t h hi s

allusive visua l languag e almos t certainl y refer s t o th e Twelv e

left h a n d , Isaia h gesture s t o w a r d th e discarde d implement s

Years' Truc e signe d i n A n t w e rp o n A p r i l 9 , 1609 , b r i n g i n g

o f wa r tha t li e befor e h i m , emphasizin g thei r disuse . A

hostilities betwee n th e N o r t h e r n Netherland s an d S p a i n t o

p u t t o a t hi s feet , identifie d by a n i n s c r i p t i o n as Pax (Peace) ,

halt.4 The combination o f the O l d Testament subject with

146 B R U E G H E

L A N D V AN B A L E N

147

symbols and personifications drawn from classical and emble matic sources reflects not only the intertwined facets of Counter-Reformation politics in the Southern Netherlands but also the erudite clientele for such cabinet pictures in Antwerp. As the only overtly political subject in Brueghel and Hendrick van Balen's joint oeuvre, The Prophesy of Isaiah offers a refined counterpoint to large-scale treatments of the theme of Peace. This beautiful work on copper is one of Brueghel's most imposing conceptions of the familiar arched interior with its long, receding corridor. The ruins served as the setting for the subject of Venus in the Forge of Vulcan, first painted in 1606 and executed with Van Balen, and several variations from 1608, along with Brueghel's Allegory of Tire (see fig. 76). The structure represents an amalgam of Brueghel's own observations while in Rome and the fantastic compositions of other artists, particularly those of Paolo Fiammingo ( 1 5 4 0 - 1 5 9 6 ) , who also included the incongruent chandelier motif (see fig. 7 8 ) . Here, the perspective is from a somewhat lower vantage point, and the distant reaches of the corridor are more luminous than in previous works by Brueghel and Van Balen, while the foreground has been closed in on the right side to form an alcove similar to the one seen in Rubens and Brueghel's The Return from War: Mars Disarmed by Venus (cat. no. 2). A number of the still-life objects hang ing on the wall nearby—including the lamp, the quiver, and the bridle—appear in both works. As in his other forge interiors, Brueghel littered the foreground with an astonish ing array of metal items produced by the busy forge in the background, as well as wonderfully detailed weapons and their parts, such as the crossbows on the wall, and their winders and the musket with its ornate crutch just visible behind Felicity. Many of the implements, such as the pincers, hammers, and shears, reflect the armorer and metalworker's craft. In the left foreground are the tools and products of the goldsmith and the mint master. This highly successful and evidently popular setting was Brueghel's own invention, and thus places the origins of this work in his studio about 5

1608.

As in his collaborations with Van Balen on similar themes, Brueghel painted the men around the forge and in the passage. The prophet Isaiah, as well as Felicity and her companions, are characteristic of Van Balen's style about 1608, with its more elongated figures, an approach that would change with the influence of Rubens, who arrived in Antwerp later that year. Isaiah resembles the tall, bearded 9

saint in Van Balen's Saint John the Baptist Preaching from 1608 and reverses his pose. While in other compositions of the forge by these two artists, such as the Allegory of Tire (cat. no. 17), Van Balen's figural contribution was a relatively straightforward addition to an elaborate landscape, the Munich painting was a some what more complex matter. There is a strong possibility that the subject was altered at a late stage. Close inspection reveals that drapery was added to all of the main figures. Brown legs are visible through the yellow hem of Isaiah's robe, and there appear to be objects beneath or behind him, while creamy skin is visible through the garments of Felicity and Abundance. A pentimento in the proper right hand of Felicity indicates that it was once open in an outward point ing gesture. Significantly, the sensuous seated figure of Felicity resembles that of Venus in the 1608 Feast of the Gods (fig. 8 0 ) . The Prophesy of Isaiah may have initially been con ceived and executed as a Venus in the Smithy of Vulcan or perhaps as Venus Preparing Mars for War (see, for example, fig. 81), subjects Brueghel and Van Balen painted in collabo ration and later modified either at the behest of a patron or to appeal to a specialized market for subjects related to the Twelve Years' Truce. The additional drapery would have been required by the transition of the theme from a sensuous scene of Mars and Venus to that of elevated political discourse. 10

1 1

The unusual inclusion of Isaiah may also have been speci fied by a patron. The subject of the prophet Isaiah, while unusual, is compatible with the ancient interior. Moreover, an earlier episode in the life of the prophet, not directly alluded to in this scene, when the seraph pressed a glowing ember to his lips, links him with the element of fire. Although the additions of draperies and attributes need not have been made in early 1609 (other treatments of the theme of peace were executed by other painters within a few years of the signing of the truce), their careful integration into the scene suggests that they were made by Van Balen him self. In contrast to The Return from War: Mars Disarmed by Venus, with its sensuous and playful treatment of the themes of Peace and the sense of Touch, The Prophesy of Isaiah has a didactic quality, perhaps reflecting a concern to emphasize the revised content over the captivating setting. As Renger has recently suggested, the appearance of The Prophesy of Isaiah in the collection of the Wittelsbach prince, later elector of Bavaria, Maximilian I (1573-1651), may offer some insight into its early history and significance. Deeply religious and morally rigorous, Maximilian organized the 13

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149

FIGURE 8 0

H e n d r i c k v a n B a l e n a n d J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r , The Feast of the Gods, 1608. O i l o n c o p p e r , 5

34.5 x 46.5 c m ( i 3 / 8 x 18 V4 i n . ) . C o p e n h a g e n , Statens M u s e u m f o r K u n s t , i n v . S p . 225 F I G U R E 81 J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r a n d H e n d r i c k v a n B a l e n , Venus Preparing

Mars for War,

160(8 ?).

O i l o n c o p p e r , 51 x 77 c m (20V8 x 3 0 i n . ) . F o r m e r l y K o n i g s W u s t e r h a u s e n , S c h l o f i ; n o w at S t . P e t e r s b u r g , State H e r i t a g e M u s e u m © S t i f t u n g P r e u f i i s c h e S c h l o f t e r u n d G a r t e n B e r l i n - B r a n d e n b u r g

150

BRUEGHEL

AND VAN

BALEN

Catholic League of German states and was almost constantly engaged in war during his reign. H e was also an ardent collector who expanded the princely collection and estab lished the Kammergalerie in 1 6 1 1 . The Prophesy of Isaiah accompanied another O l d Testament scene in the gallery, Jan Brueghel the Elder's Jonah Emerging from the Whale of about 1 5 9 5 - 9 6 (Munich, Alte Pinakothek). A T W 17

9. T h e m a i n figures w e r e i d e n t i f i e d as the w o r k o f V a n B a l e n as e a r l y as 1775 a n d w e r e later a t t r i b u t e d t o F r a n s F r a n c k e n the Y o u n g e r a n d H a n s R o t t e n h a m m e r , b e f o r e t h e i r r e a t t r i b u t i o n t o V a n B a l e n i n 1962 b y M i i l l e r H o f s t e d e (1962, p . 119). See R e n g e r a n d D e n k 2 0 0 2 , p . 7 9 ,

a n d W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 , v o l . 1, p . 1 4 0 , f o r references t o p r e v i o u s a t t r i b u t i o n s i n g a l l e r y c a t a l o g u e s b e t w e e n 1775 a n d 1963. 10. L o c a t i o n u n k n o w n . See J o s t 1963, p . 117; a n d W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 , v o l . 1,

p. 141, n o . A 17; v o l . 2, p . 326. 11. See J o s t 1963, p . 101; E r t z 1979, pp- 4 0 9 , 586, n o . 170; a n d W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 , v o l . 1, p . 183, n o . A 117; v o l . 2, p . 4 0 1 .

NOTES 12. F o r Venus Preparing

Mars for War, see E r t z 1979, p p . 383, 5 8 9 - 9 0 , n o .

191, fig. 455; W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 , v o l . 1, p . 2 0 0 , n o . A 164; v o l . 2, p . 4 3 6 ; a n d

1. I s a i a h 2 : 4 .

Bartoschek and Vogtherr 2004, pp. 102-3. 2. F o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f the m o t i f o f Peace b u r n i n g a r m s a n d its s o u r c e s , see B a u m s t a r k 1974, p p . 131 - 3 7 - T h e m o t i f o f the b u r n i n g o f a r m s ,

13. I s a i a h 6 : 6 0 7 .

t h o u g h relatively u n c o m m o n in A n t w e r p p r i o r to Rubens's return in

14. G i v e n its p r o p h e t i c subject, The Prophesy of Isaiah

c o u l d also have

1608, w a s k n o w n t o s i x t e e n t h - a n d e a r l y - s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y A n t w e r p

b e e n e x e c u t e d i n the m o n t h s l e a d i n g u p t o the s i g n i n g o f t h e T r u c e .

artists w h o w e r e f a m i l i a r w i t h I t a l i a n R e n a i s s a n c e e x a m p l e s , n o t a b l y

See cat. n o . 2 f o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f o t h e r a l l e g o r i e s o f Peace.

t h e fresco Peace Burning

Arms

b y F r a n c e s c o S a l v i a t i (1510-1563) i n

t h e S a l a d e l l ' U d i e n z a , P a l a z z o V e c c h i o , F l o r e n c e ; see W o o l l e t t 2 0 0 4 ,

3. I n C e s a r e R i p a ' s e m b l e m r e p r e s e n t i n g Peace {Iconologia,

15. It is n o t e w o r t h y t h a t a l l o f the m a i n figures are i d e n t i f i e d b y i n s c r i p t i o n s , d e s p i t e t h e i r clear a t t r i b u t e s .

pp. 4 5 - 4 6 . 1603,

16. R e n g e r a n d D e n k 2 0 0 2 , p . 79. T h e p a i n t i n g appears i n the 1627/30

PP- 3 7 5 - 7 8 ) , the e l e m e n t s o f t h e earth's f r u i t f u l n e s s i n t i m e s o f peace,

i n v e n t o r y o f p a i n t i n g s i n the K a m m e r g a l e r i e as " e i n K u p f e r 1 S c h u e c h

the o l i v e and g r a i n , a n d the s y m b o l o f abundance, the c o r n u c o p i a ,

5 Z o l l h o c h , u n d 1 S c h u e c h 9V4 Z o l l b r a i t t , d a r a u f f P a x , pietas u n d

are u n i t e d w i t h t h e p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n o f Peace, a y o u n g w o m a n h o l d i n g

a b u n d a n t i a , i n d e r m i t t e n stehet d e r P r o p h e t Isaias m i t v o l g e n d e r

a t o r c h to a pile o f arms.

i n s c r i p t i o n . I u c d i c a b i t gentes et a r g u e t p o p u l o s m u l t o s , et c o n f l a b u n t g l a d i o s suos i n v o m e r e s , et lanceas suas i n f a k e s . Isaiae 11. W i c d a n n

4 . J o s t (1963, p . 119) first s u g g e s t e d a c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e T w e l v e Y e a r s '

K r i i e g e s u n d a n d e r e W a f f e n , v o r u n d u m b i h n e h e r u m b l i n g e n , alles gar

T r u c e . See also R e n g e r a n d D e n k 2 0 0 2 , p . 7 9 . T h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e

m i i h e s a m , u n d v l e i s s i g v o n o b g e d a c h t e m P r i i g e l g e m a l t , m i t N o . 16":

subject o f V u l c a n b e a t i n g s w o r d s i n t o p l o u g h s h a r e s w i t h P a x a n d

D i e m e r 1980, p . 164. W e r c h e ( 2 0 0 4 , v o l . 1, p . 14) n o t e s t h a t the p a i n t

Justitia o c c u r r e d i n the decorations for the t r i u m p h a l entry o f A l b e r t

i n g m u s t date after 1609 because it d o e s n o t a p p e a r i n the i n v e n t o r y

a n d I s a b e l l a i n t o L e u v e n i n N o v e m b e r 1599, w h e n s i m i l a r h o p e s f o r

o f t h a t year.

peace a n d p r o s p e r i t y w e r e e x p r e s s e d b y t h e city's i n h a b i t a n t s u p o n the a c c e s s i o n o f the c o u p l e t o t h e g o v e r n o r s h i p o f t h e S o u t h e r n N e t h e r l a n d s . See W e r n e r T h o m a s , " A n d r o m e d a U n b o u n d : T h e R e i g n o f A l b e r t a n d I s a b e l l a i n t h e S o u t h e r n N e t h e r l a n d s , 1598-1621," i n B r u s s e l s 1 9 9 8 - 9 9 , p . 2.

17. P i u s W i t t m a n n , " M a x i m i l i a n I," The Catholic Ency lop edia, v o l . 10 (1911), PP- 75-7718. M u n i c h , A l t e P i n a k o t h e k , i n v . 1886; see D i e m e r 1980, p p . 1 2 9 - 1 7 4 . A l s o d i s c u s s e d i n W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 , v o l . 1, p p . 1 4 0 , 262. M a x i m i l i a n c o m

5. T h e t h e m e o f Peace r e m a i n e d c e n t r a l f o r A n t w e r p artists i n the decades

i s s i o n e d four hunt scenes f r om Rubens, i n c l u d i n g The Hippopotamus

f o l l o w i n g the T r u c e , p a r t i c u l a r l y after its f a i l u r e a n d t h e r e s u m p t i o n o f

Hunt (ca. 1616; M u n i c h , A l t e Pinakothek, inv. 4797), for his palace at

h o s t i l i t i e s i n 1621 a n d i n l i g h t o f A n t w e r p ' s o w n l a b o r e d e c o n o m i c

S c h l e i f i h e i m ; see R e n g e r a n d D e n k 2 0 0 2 , p p . 4 4 8 - 5 1 .

recovery. Rubens's inventive allegories a b o u n d e d w i t h b o t h sacred a n d

19. N u m b e r e d 16 a n d 14 r e s p e c t i v e l y i n the 1629/30 i n v e n t o r y o f the

s e c u l a r e l e m e n t s . A l m o s t t h r e e decades later, t h e p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n s o f

K a m m e r g a l e r i e , the t w o p a i n t i n g s m a y have h u n g i n p r o x i m i t y ; see

f r u i t f u l n e s s ( A b u n d a n t i a ) , F e l i c i t y , a n d P i e t y f o u n d i n The Prophesy of

D i e m e r 1980, p . 164.

Isaiah

recur i n Rubens's design for the T e m p l e o f Janus i n his p a i n t i n g

o f the t r i u m p h a l entry o f A r c h d u k e F e r d i n a n d i n t o A n t w e r p i n A p r i l 1635 ( o n t h e r i g h t side o f t h e a r c h d e v o t e d t o Peace a n d its a t t r i b u t e s ) ; see M a r t i n 1972, p p . 1 6 4 - 6 6 , 1 6 9 - 7 3 . 6. Allegory

of Fire ( 1 6 0 6 , o i l o n p a n e l , 4 6 x 83 c m [18 Vs x 32V8 i n . ] ;

L y o n , M u s e e des B e a u x A r t s , i n v . 75); see W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 , p p . 1 9 1 - 9 3 , n o . A 136. 7. See p p . 8, 1 4 2 - 4 3 a n d fig. 76 i n t h i s v o l u m e . 8. M i i l l e r H o f s t e d e (1984, p- 2 4 6 ) d i s a g r e e d w i t h E r t z (1979, p . 383) a n d a r g u e d t h a t V a n B a l e n d e v i s e d the subject.

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19 Jan Brueghel the Elder and Hendrick van Balen

Fruit Garland with Angels ca. 1615 O i l on panel, 25.3 x 21.2 cm (10 x 8 /s in.) Private collection 3

PROVENANCE

B r o d G a l l e r y , L o n d o n , 1979 LITERATURE

E r t z 1979, p p . 3 1 8 - 1 9 , n o . 352a; F r e e d b e r g 1984, p . 577; W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 , p . 155, n o . A 56 EXHIBITION

A m s t e r d a m - B r a u n s c h w e i g 1983, cat. n o . 23

'HE

????

M A D O N N A

A N D

C H I L D

( P E R H A P S

T H E

C O M -

pany of Joseph or Saint John the Baptist) are missing in this Fruit Garland with Angds by Jan Brueghel the Elder and Hendrick van Balen. A rectangle with an arched upper edge has been sawn out of the panel, and it was this very piece that must have contained a little painting, most likely by Van Balen. The garland of fruit and vegetables is suspended from ribbons held up by angels emerging from the clouds. Two other angels are poised to crown the nowmissing Madonna with a wreath of flowers. Yet another two sit in the garland at the bottom, turned toward each other: one angel holds a bunch of grapes—possibly referring in this context to the Eucharist—while the other strokes a parrot. About 1 6 0 5 - 0 6 Brueghel painted his first flower pieces, depicting numerous species and varieties of flowers—often exotic ones—in full bloom. Two years later he executed his 1

152

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first flower garland around a small painting on a silver plate of the Virgin and Child by Hendrick van Balen (fig. 8 2 ) . By 1607 that composite work was already in the possession of Cardinal Federico Borromeo in M i l a n , but Brueghel's letters to Borromeo and his agent, Ercole Bianchi, reveal that the cardinal sent the picture back to Antwerp at the beginning of 1608 to have Brueghel paint a small landscape behind the Madonna. The foundation charter of Borromeo's Pinacoteca Ambrosiana of 1618 records that the work had "a frame and cover illuminated with gold," offering protection worthy of a precious jewel. Unfortunately, the cover has been lost. Brueghel informed his Maecenas of the expenses he had incurred: "I spent a few scudi on the golden frame and the painting of the Madonna." Brueghel praised his own flower garland as "exceedingly precise" and rendered "completely from nature." The Milan work is the only surviving, intact 2

153

early 1580s. The archdukes Albert and Isabella, demonstrating their stout defense of the Catholic faith, had a basilica built in Scherpenheuvel—a place of pilgrimage in the Southern Netherlands—to house a statue of the Virgin said to possess miraculous powers. In Italy there was a long tradition of Einsatzbilder: holy or miraculous images inserted into works of art specially designed to enclose them. The best-known example is undoubtedly the altarpiece Rubens made in 1606-08 for the Madonna della Vallicella in the Chiesa Nuova in Rome: the final version of the altarpiece features the miraculous image of the Virgin and Child (originally painted on the wall of a house), borne by angels forming a garland (compare cat. no. 29). The holy image—which was covered by another depiction of the Virgin and Child, this one painted by Rubens—was shown only on high feast days. While Rubens was working in Rome on his largest Italian commission, Brueghel painted his first flower garland around Van Balen's small painting of the Virgin and Child, probably in close consultation with his patron, Cardinal Borromeo, and perhaps with Rubens's work on the Madonna della Vallicella in his mind's eye, for it is not only the depic tion of Mary as a half-length figure that recalls miraculous images of the Virgin but also Brueghel's splendid flower garland, which strengthened the impression—as surely as did the costly golden cover that once protected the whole— that the image was holy. The effect of a special painting within a painting, whose significance is reinforced by the garland surrounding it, continues to crop up in Brueghel's later garlands and also in, for instance, the work of Daniel Seghers (1590-1661). From about 1615 Brueghel expanded his repertoire to include garlands of fruit, vegetables, and sheaves of grain (see fig. 83), at times combined with flowers (see cat. no. 12 and fig. 86). When used to frame a representation of the Virgin and Child, fruit symbolizes the fertility of the mother of G o d and the abundance of God's creation (see fig. 85). These garlands, too, were painted with the utmost exactness, as evidenced by the panel displayed here, in which sundry varieties of fruit and vegetables are rendered with painstak ing precision. Remarkably, not one of the fruits or plants appearing in this painting is to be found in other garlands by Brueghel—as, for example, parts of the Mauritshuis fruit garland appear identically in the Madonna and Child in a Garland of Emit and Flowers from the Museo del Prado 9

FIGURE 82 Jan Brueghel the E l d e r and H e n d r i c k van Balen, Madonna and Child 5

in a Flower Garland,

1 6 0 7 - 0 8 . O i l o n p a n e l a n d silver, 27 x 22 c m

( i o / 8 x 8 /8 i n . ) . M i l a n , P i n a c o t e c a A m b r o s i a n a , i n v . 71

Einsatzbild by Brueghel, who from then on painted garlands mainly around seemingly separate paintings by such artists as Van Balen and Rubens (see cat. no. 12 and figs. 1, 69, and 84). The work discussed here—Brueghel's smallest fruit garland—is the only other example of a garland made to surround a picture on a separate support. The restoration of Catholicism in Antwerp in 1585 (still referred to in the North as the "Fall of Antwerp") did much to revive the worship of the Virgin Mary. New brother hoods were dedicated to her, and there was renewed interest in miraculous images. This reaction was provoked in part by the fact that it was precisely such images of the Blessed Virgin that had fallen victim to the iconoclastic furies that raged periodically in the Netherlands between 1566 and the 8

154

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(compare cat. nos. 21 and 12). After all, Brueghel generally used his stock motifs—with only small adjustments and variations—again and again. This is not the case here, how ever, which suggests that this fruit garland is one of Brueghel's earliest, and that while executing it he was not yet able to draw upon an extensive store of preparatory studies. The angels in this garland recall Rubens's altarpiece for the Madonna della Vallicella—in which the holy image is supported by angels fashioned into a garland—as well as the large flower garland surrounding the Virgin and Child in Rubens and Brueghel's Madonna in a Flower Garland in the Alte Pinakothek in Munich (see fig. 1), which can be regarded as an adaptation of the Italian altarpiece. The angels—perhaps somewhat sentimental in our eyes—were especially popular in the art of the Counter-Reformation, because they were considered capable of inducing in the viewer a state of pious rapture. A v S

therefore, that B r u e g h e l t o o k the initiative to s u p p l y V a n Balen's p a i n t i n g — w h i c h he h i m s e l f h a d p u r c h a s e d (see n o t e 6 b e l o w ) — w i t h a g a r l a n d . I n t h e letter q u o t e d a b o v e , B r u e g h e l seems s i m p l y t o be s a y i n g t h a t he is f o l l o w i n g B o r r o m e o ' s i n s t r u c t i o n s a n d a d d i n g a landscape to the e x i s t i n g picture. 5. " c o n c o r n i c e e c o n c o p e r t a m i n i a t a d ' o r o " : J o n e s 1993, a p p e n d i x 11, P- 3536. " i o h o spesa alle c o r n i c i o r e f r i et a le p i t t u r a d e l l e M a d o n a a l c u n i s c u d i " (letter f r o m B r u e g h e l t o B i a n c h i o f J u n e 13, 1 6 0 8 ) : C r i v e l l i 1868, p . 104. I n h i s letter t o B i a n c h i o f A u g u s t 1 o f t h a t s a m e year, B r u e g h e l w r o t e t h a t he h a d p a i d f o u r filipi f o r the frame a n d t w e l v e filipi f o r the s m a l l p a i n t i n g o f the M a d o n n a , w h i l e the cardinal had g i v e n h i m 3 0 0 filipi f o r t h e w h o l e . I t is n o t e n t i r e l y clear w h a t he m e a n t w h e n he w r o t e t h a t he was c o n s i d e r i n g the m o n e y "as a s m a l l p r e s e n t , b u t n o t as p a y m e n t " (per u n a g e n t i l e z z a m a n o n per p a g a m e n t o ) : C r i v e l l i 1868, p . 107. 7. " f a s t i d i o s o " a n d " t u t t o d e l n a t u r e l " (letter f r o m B r u e g h e l t o B i a n c h i o f A u g u s t 1, 1 6 0 8 ) : C r i v e l l i 1868, p. 107.

8. W h a t f o l l o w s is b a s e d l a r g e l y o n F r e e d b e r g 1981. 9. R e g a r d i n g t h i s c o m m i s s i o n , see cat. n o . 29. 10. See F r e e d b e r g 1981, p p . 133-34.. NOTES

1. R e g a r d i n g B r u e g h e l ' s earliest f l o w e r p i e c e o f 1605, see S e g a l 1982. F o r B r u e g h e l ' s flower p a i n t i n g s , see E r t z 1979, p p . 2 5 2 - 5 6 . 2. See F a l c h e t t i 1969, p p . 1 3 2 - 3 3 ; E r t z 1979, n o . 187; F r e e d b e r g 1981, p p . 116-17; J o n e s 1993, p p . 8 4 - 8 7 , p . 233, n o . 2 6 ; a n d W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 , n o . A 33. 3. T h e p a i n t i n g is m e n t i o n e d i n t h e c o d i c i l t o B o r r o m e o ' s w i l l , w h i c h is d a t e d S e p t e m b e r 15, 1607; see J o n e s 1993, a p p e n d i x 1, p . 341. 4 . T h e p a i n t i n g is m e n t i o n e d i n letters w r i t t e n b y B r u e g h e l t o B o r r o m e o a n d B i a n c h i o n F e b r u a r y 1 ( t w o l e t t e r s ) , J u n e 13, a n d A u g u s t 1, 1608; see C r i v e l l i 1868, p p . 9 2 , 9 9 , 1 0 4 , 107. B r u e g h e l w r o t e t o B o r r o m e o o n F e b r u a r y 1, " I s h a l l n o t f a i l t o d o m y best as r e g a r d s the s m a l l p a i n t i n g w i t h the c o m p a r t m e n t s o f flowers, i n w h i c h I shall a c c o m m o d a t e a M a d o n n a w i t h a landscape, a c c o r d i n g to the instructions o f Y o u r Illustrious H i g h n e s s [alternatively: i n w h i c h I shall insert, a c c o r d i n g to the instructions o f Y o u r I l l u s t r i o u s H i g h n e s s , a M a d o n n a w i t h a l a n d s c a p e ] . I h o p e a n d b e l i e v e t h a t , i f a n y w o r k o f m i n e has ever p l e a s e d Y o u r I l l u s t r i o u s H i g h n e s s , t h i s w i l l surpass t h e m a l l . " ( N o n m a n c h o d i n d u s t r i a r m e i n t o r n o al q u a d r e t t o d e l

compertemento

delli fiori: nel quale secondo l'ordine d v s I L L . m a accomedero dentro u n a M a d o n n a c o n p a i e s e t t o . S p e r o et c r e d o c h e , si a l c u n a o p e r a m i a h a b b i a p i a c e u t o a v s I l l . m d a t o g u s t o , che q u e s t a h a b b i a d a s u p p o r t a r e t u t t e . ) : C r i v e l l i 1868, p . 92. T h i s passage is a m b i g u o u s ,

but

s i n c e C r i v e l l i (1868, p . 1 0 0 ) , i t has b e e n t a k e n t o m e a n t h a t i t was B o r r o m e o ' s i d e a t o p a i n t a g a r l a n d o f flowers a r o u n d V a n B a l e n ' s p a i n t i n g . H o w e v e r , t h e p a i n t i n g was a l r e a d y i n t h e c a r d i n a l ' s posses s i o n i n 1607, as e m e r g e s f r o m the c o d i c i l t o h i s w i l l , w h e r e i t is l i s t e d as " F l o w e r G a r l a n d with M a d o n n a " (see n o t e 3 a b o v e ) . It seems l i k e l y ,

BRUEGHEL

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20 Jan Brueghel the Elder and Hendrick van Balen

Garland of Fruit around a Depiction of Ceres Receiving Gifts from the Four Seasons ca. 1617 O i l on panel, 1 0 4 x 6 8 . 9 cm (41 x 27Vs in.) Antwerp, Dexia Bank, inv. 1291 Not exhibited

PROVENANCE

LITERATURE

Captain Montague Thomas collection,

A n n u a l R e p o r t M a u r i t s h u i s 1895, p- 9 7 ; J o s t

W e y m o u t h , sale, L o n d o n , J u l y 13, 1895,

1963, p . X L ; E r t z 1979, p p . 316, 614, n o . 341;

l o t 82; S a l o m o n v a n B e r g c o l l e c t i o n , N e w

W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 , n o . A 98

York; Bart van Berg collection, N e w York, EXHIBITIONS

1950; sale, L o n d o n ( S o t h e b y ' s ) , J u n e 25, 1969,

GARLAND

l o t 8 6 ; D u i t s (art d e a l e r ) , L o n d o n ; a c q u i r e d

L o n d o n 1979, cat. n o . 37; B r u s s e l s 1 9 9 7 - 9 8 ,

1969

cat. n o . 4 9 ; A n t w e r p 1998, cat. n o . 87

OF FRUIT, V E G E T A B L E S ,

AND

BLOSSOMS

depicted against a landscape background surrounds an oval medallion containing an allegorical repre sentation of agriculture. A t the upper right, winged putti fasten the garland to a tree; at the upper left, others bear the long garland up to the heavens, where Jupiter and his eagle are seated. In the foreground, two kneeling nymphs and their little helpers put the finishing touches on the garland, which consists of melons, grapes, lemons, plums, apples, strawberries, and cherries, as well as cabbages, beans, artichokes, carrots, and sheaves of wheat. Birds, monkeys, squirrels, rabbits, and guinea pigs feast on the rich pickings. In the medallion, four figures personifying the Four Seasons present the fruits of the earth to Ceres, the goddess of agriculture and abundance, who is seated beneath a red bal dachin. Spring crowns the goddess with a wreath of flowers;

156

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Summer, kneeling at her feet, presents her with a cornu copia; Autumn offers her grapes; the old man representing Winter brings her a plate of dried corncobs. The putti around them represent the signs of the zodiac; their attri butes are depicted on their wings and on the objects they hold. They likewise symbolize the cycle of nature. Both versions of this composition by Jan Brueghel and Hendrick van Balen are autograph paintings, but small differences between the two suggest that the panel in Antwerp was the "principaeP (i.e., the original, or first version), and that it was this painting which is depicted in the 1618 Allegory of Taste by Brueghel and Rubens in the Museo Nacional del Prado (cat. no. 8 ) . The Mauritshuis painting was probably made slightly later, about 1 6 2 1 - 2 2 , as confirmed by the brand marks on the back of the panel. 1

21 Jan Brueghel the Elder and Hendrick van Balen

Garland of Fruit around a Depiction of Ceres Receiving Gifts from the Four Seasons ca. 1 6 2 1 - 2 2 x

O i l on panel, 106.5

70 cm ( 4 1 % x 27V2 in.)

The Hague, Royal Picture Gallery Mauritshuis, inv. 233

W i l l e m V , T h e H a g u e , 1815-22; M a u r i t s h u i s ,

INSCRIPTIONS

s i n c e 1822

O n the reverse, p a n e l m a k e r ' s m a r k M V [in ligature], A , and A n t w e r p city mark

G h e n t i 9 6 0 , cat. n o . 38; B r u s s e l s 1965, cat. n o . 25; A m s t e r d a m - B r a u n s c h w e i g 1983,

LITERATURE

H o e t a n d T e r w e s t e n 1 7 5 2 - 7 0 , v o l . 3, p p . 6 0 6 ,

PROVENANCE

6 9 2 ; T h o r e - B u r g e r 1 8 5 8 - 6 0 , v o l . 1, p . 287;

J o h a n A n t h o n y v a n K i n s c h o t sale, D e l f t ,

A n n u a l R e p o r t M a u r i t s h u i s 1895, p . 9 7 ; J o s t

J u l y 21, 1767, l o t 2 9 , w i t h d r a w n ; s o l d

1963, p p . 9 4 , 121; D r o s s a e r s a n d L u n s i n g h

t o S t a d h o l d e r W i l l e m V , T h e H a g u e , 1767;

S c h e u r l e e r 1 9 7 4 - 7 6 , v o l . 3, p . 2 0 4 ; E r t z 1979,

Gallery o f Stadholder W i l l e m V, The Hague,

EXHIBITIONS

cat. n o . 22; E s s e n - V i e n n a 1 9 9 7 - 9 8 , cat. n o . 9 0 ; A n t w e r p 1998, cat. n o . 8 6 ; Amsterdam - Cleveland 1999-2000, cat. n o . 4 ; D e n B o s c h - L e u v e n 2 0 0 2 - 0 3 , cat. n o . 78

p p . 313, 323, n o . 3 4 0 ; D i a z P a d r o n 1995,

1774-95; M u s e e N a p o l e o n (Musee d u

p . 314-15; W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 , p p . 8 0 - 8 1 , 1 7 3 - 7 4 ,

L o u v r e ) , P a r i s , 1795-1815; G a l l e r y o f

n o . A 97

Since 1767 the Hague painting has been described as a depiction of Cybele, the ancient Phrygian goddess of the earth and nature. It must be said, however, that the specific attributes of this goddess are lacking. We do see, rather, the attributes of Ceres, or Demeter as she was known to the Greeks, such as the scythe held by a putto on the right. In the Antwerp painting, the enthroned goddess wears a crown of wheat—another of Ceres' attributes—but in the Mauritshuis painting she is bare-headed, which is possibly what caused the confusion as to her identity, for in this painting the crown of wheat is worn by the woman present ing the cornucopia. A t any rate, both Cybele and Ceres personify the abundance of nature and are sometimes com bined in one figure. The estate of Jan Brueghel the Elder contained a "large fruit garland with Ceres in the middle, ' which Jan Brueghel 4

5 7

the Younger sold after his father's death for 588 guilders, making it the costliest painting in his father's estate. Jan II recorded this in the account book he had kept since 1625, which has been partly preserved in an eighteenth-century transcription. This notation might refer to one of the fruit garlands discussed here, of which there is also an extant copy by Jan Brueghel the Younger. It could also be the Fruit Garland with Nature Adorned by the Graces in Glasgow (fig. 83), in which Rubens painted the figures to accompany an identical fruit garland by Brueghel. With no other artist did Brueghel work so intensively as he did with Van Balen. Brueghel seems to have collabo rated with Rubens only on special occasions, but he worked with his friend and colleague Van Balen—his junior by eight years—on almost a daily basis. Indeed, a considerable part of both their oeuvres was produced in collaboration. 8

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157

158

159

landscapes, flowers, fruit, animals, and precious objects. After Brueghel's death in 1625, Jan Brueghel the Younger took over his father's studio and continued to run it in the same way, as evidenced not only by the surviving paintings in the style of his father but also by the uninterrupted collab oration with such artists as Rubens and Van Balen. Jan IPs account book for the years 1 6 2 6 - 3 1 contains such passages as "made for Mr. van Balen a ground [background] behind a piece," "completed a ground... the little figures are by Mr. van Balen," and "made... a ground behind a Madonna by Mr. van Balen." Because the working methods of both the elder and younger Brueghel must have been nearly identical, these passages suggest that Van Balen usually painted the figures first, after which Brueghel added the backgrounds. This order was not rigidly adhered to, how ever, and was perhaps different when painting garlands; in the medallion of the painting from the Mauritshuis, Van Balen actually painted the figures first, after which Brueghel added the landscape and flowers. Remarkably, the order appears to have been reversed in the rest of the paint ing, with Brueghel painting his garland first and Van Balen his figures afterward. This sequence of events could be estab lished only by close examination with a stereomicroscope. It was difficult to unravel this working procedure because Brueghel had deliberately obscured the transitions between the two hands with numerous final retouches. It has not yet been possible to determine the order in which the artists worked on the Antwerp painting. The Hague panel was begun by Brueghel, who painte d the garland and probably also the frame around the medal lion. He depicted the fruit and vegetables so precisely around the reserves that we may assume Van Balen's figures had already been sketched in. In several places there are traces of an underdrawing in the figures that could not be detected with the infrared camera, such as that seen along the thigh of the putto at the upper right, who touches the medallion with his foot. This preparatory line in red-brown paint partially disappears underneath the flesh color. Beneath the paint of the belly and foot of this same figure, several leaves were painted out; in the Antwerp version, however, these same leaves were applied over the flesh color. This suggests that the artists might have worked on the latter painting in the opposite order. Moreover, it confirms that Brueghel scrupulously followed his own example when painting the Mauritshuis garland. That he worked very close to the reserves is evidenced, for instance, by the fruit above the 16

FIGURE 83 Jan Brueghel the E l d e r and Peter Paul Rubens, Fruit Garland with Nature Adorned by the Graces, ca. 1615. O i l o n panel, 106.7 x 72.4 c m ( 4 2 x 28 V2 i n . ) . G l a s g o w A r t M u s e u m s , K e l v i n g r o v e , i n v . 6 0 9

The fact that in 1 6 0 4 both painters moved to the Lange Nieuwstraat in Antwerp no doubt simplified their collabora t i o n , since their panels and copper plates could now be carried back and forth with ease. The earliest known painting in which the hands of both masters can be recognized dates from 1 6 0 0 , presumably just after Van Balen's return from an Italian sojourn of several years. Their first allegory, Ceres and the Four Elements, was painted in 1 6 0 4 . In their col laborative paintings—allegories, mythological and biblical scenes, and garlanded compositions—Van Balen was respon sible for most of the figures, while Brueghel painted the 13

1 4

160

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AND VAN

BALEN

head of the nymph in the left foreground: with great preci sion he painted only half a peach along the contour of her head. The reserve left for the head of the nymph on the right was so small that Van Balen was forced to overlap Brueghel's fruit when painting her cheek. With regard to the little boy on the right, who drags the branch of an apple tree into the picture, the working procedure appears to have been different—this figure was painted first and only afterward was the greenery added by Brueghel, who presum ably also applied the final touches of flesh color bordering the leaves. After Van Balen had painted the two nymphs in the fore ground, the putti in the reserves in the garland, and the figures in the medallion, Brueghel again took the Mauritshuis painting in hand and finished it. H e completed the repre sentation in the medallion by adding the background, the flowers, and a few other details, such as the scale. Finally, he integrated Van Balen's figures into his garland by means of detailing and retouches. H e painted the cutting from a plum tree that the winged putto holds against the body of the nymph in the left foreground. With the same greenish paint he used for the plums to the left above this nymph, he added—over his background—some curly strands to her hair. H e also added some curly strands to the hair of the nymph on the right. The versions in The Hague and Antwerp display a num ber of differences in the composition, some of which con firm that the Antwerp painting is the older version. In this painting the nymph in the left foreground is blonde instead of dark-haired, wears a white veil around her shoulders, and has a large fruited branch running along the right side of her body. This branch is missing in the Hague painting. Curiously, the same nymph's left leg—which in the Antwerp version is half hidden in the garland—was not painted at all: sloppiness of this kind occurs only in copies or variations, not in first versions. In the Antwerp painting, the same nymph's blue drapery was applied (carefully worked around the green leaves) over an underlying pink layer, whereas the drapery in the Hague version was blue from the start, in imitation of the Antwerp example. The kneeling putto in the left foreground has no wings in the Antwerp painting and holds a stalk of rhubarb instead of a plum-tree cutting. Another oversight in the Hague version is the lack of a cord with which to fasten the garland to the tree on the right, causing one of the putti to reach out and grasp nothing but thin air. Numerous small differences are discernible in

the medallion as well. The putti holding the baldachin, for instance, scatter flowers in the Antwerp painting, and the zodiacal attributes are depicted differently. The scale held by one of the putti at the top seems to fly through the air, whereas in the Hague variation it hangs down stiffly, convey ing no sense of motion. There are different birds in the sky in the two versions, making it clear that the Hague painting is not a slavish copy: indeed, Brueghel painted out two owls in the latter work. A striking addition to the Mauritshuis version is the suspension of the medallion on cords attached to rings. In the Antwerp version a kneeling figure offers the garland to Jupiter in the clouds, a detail which is missing in the Mauritshuis picture. In the Antwerp painting the frame around the medallion was originally painted about a centimeter more to the right; a compositional adjustment of this kind is yet another indication that this is the first version. In this work the transitions between Van Balen's and Brueghel's contribu tions are somewhat more abrupt: for example, the strands Brueghel added to the figures' hair in the Mauritshuis version are missing in the Antwerp painting. Moreover, the cheek of the nymph in the right foreground was not painted over the background, as it was in the Hague painting, but the fruits do overlap her cheek somewhat, which suggests that in this case the figures were painted first. The fact that it was not the Hague panel but the Antwerp version that was included in the Allegory of Taste of 1618 (cat. no. 8) emerges from small similarities in detail: the painting within a painting also displays the left leg of the blonde nymph in the foreground, the wingless putto at the front left holds a stalk of rhubarb, and the medallion is not suspended on cords. Obviously this allegorical repre sentation of abundance and fertility was eminently suited to an Allegory of Taste, possibly featuring the rich yields of the lands of the archdukes Albert and Isabella. In the 1 6 1 7 - 1 8 series of the Five Senses, Brueghel mostly depicted the pick of the crop produced by contemporary Antwerp painters, i.e., paintings by himself and by his co-court painter Rubens. In the Allegory of Taste, Brueghel seems to be advertising, as it were, the result of his latest collaboration with Hendrick van Balen, a composition that he executed at least twice and most likely numerous times. Brueghel combined the same fruit garland with depic tions by Van Balen of the H o l y Family, in which the Mother of G o d stands in for Mother Earth, and the superabundant garland symbolizes the richness of God's creation (fig. 8 4 ) . 19

2 1

BRUEGHEL

AND VAN

BALEN

161

F I G U R E 84 J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r a n d H e n d r i c k v a n B a l e n , The Holy Family Garland

of Fruit

in a

and Flowers, late 1620s. O i l o n p a n e l , 104.8 x 74.9 c m (41 A x 29V2 i n . ) .

R i c h m o n d , Virginia M u s e u m o f Fine Arts, The A d o l p h D . and Wilkins C . Williams F u n d , inv. 6 6 - 1 6

In similar fashion, Cornells Galle—in his print after Ceres Garlanded by Angels by Rubens and Frans Snyders in the Hermitage —replaced Ceres with the Virgin and Child (fig. 85), who in the caption are compared with, among other things, the Tree of Life that "brings forth everlasting abun dance." Cardinal Borromeo praised the fruit and vegetables in another of Brueghel's garlands, which "show us the wisdom and refinement of divine providence; their profu 22

162

BRUEGHEL

AND VAN

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sion, abundance and great variety will open our eyes to the liberality and generous heart of this so magnanimous and glorious Creator." In the painting Brueghel made with Rubens that is now in Glasgow (fig. 83), the fruit garland encloses an allegorical image of the all-nurturing primeval mother, endowed with multiple breasts, crowned by putti, and adorned with drapery by the Graces; the pedestal bears a vaguely legible inscription: M A G N A E M A T R I / 23

T E R R A E O M N I S P A R E N T I (To the Great Mother, Parent of A l l Earth). Countless satyrs betraying various degrees of beastliness were added by Rubens, whose contribution makes this picture truly spectacular. In the face of Rubens's brilliance, Van Balen seems like a lesser light. Although in this painting, too, it has not yet been possible to say with any certainty which of the two masters began to paint first, it seems that Brueghel adapted himself to Rubens's contribu tion. H e thus made the garland a bit thicker or stretched it slightly to accommodate the figures, and he painted the melon around the fingers of the female satyr in the left fore ground, for example. Viewing the painting in raking light makes it possible to discern the double and sometimes triple outline of an oval that was scratched into the middle of this panel. Rubens, for his part, paid no attention whatsoever to this oval and painted well over its contours. Evidently, however, another type of painting had initially been planned: an image in a medallion surrounded by a garland of fruit, very comparable to the two paintings with Van Balen dis cussed here. The existence in Antwerp and The Hague of two nearly identical paintings clearly shows that it was part of Jan Brueghel's daily routine to make repetitions of popular com positions, if only in order to meet the great demand for his work (see also cat. no. 7 ) . This was common practice in seventeenth-century Antwerp. Indeed, the fact that the painter Sebastian Vrancx ( 1 5 7 3 - 1 6 4 7 ) was opposed to copy ing as a matter of principle was considered very odd by his contemporaries. Jan Brueghel the Younger, who took over the business from his father, frequently mentioned the mak ing of copies, even for such prominent patrons as the "prince of Poland," although he always made a clear distinction— also in price—between originals and copies. It was not only entire compositions, however, that were repeated: Brueghel also drew upon a repertoire of motifs that he used over and over again. Parts of the fruit garland discussed here, for example—the ensemble with the artichokes and cabbages, the ears of wheat, and the arrangement consisting of lemons and bunches of grapes—can be detected in the Madonna and Child in a Garland of Fruit and Flowers from the Prado (cat. no. 12). Moreover, The Holy Family in a Garland of Fruit and Flowers by Jan Brueghel and Pieter van Avont in Munich (fig. 86) also contains parts of the same garland, augmented with flowers. Some of these flowers, in turn, have exact counterparts in the large garland surrounding the Virgin and Child by Brueghel and Rubens, also in Munich (seefig.i ) . 25

F I G U R E 8 5 C o r n e l l s G a l l e after Peter P a u l R u b e n s a n d F r a n s S n y d e r s , The Virgin

in a Niche Adorned

by Angels with a Garland.

Engraving,

555 x 4 0 7 m m ( 2 1 % x 16 i n . ) . A m s t e r d a m , R i j k s m u s e u m , R i j k s p r e n t e n kabinet, inv. R P P - O B - 6 7 . 6 7 4

3 0

It seems almost certain that Brueghel based his flower and fruit ensembles on fairly detailed preparatory studies. Only a few examples have survived, however, one of which is a study sheet depicting the left-hand part of Brueghel's garland in the above-mentioned work made with Van Avont (fig. 8 7 ) . Furthermore, Brueghel's manner of painting seems to have been extremely standardized. A typical example of this can be seen in the Mauritshuis garland, namely the white cabbage with the long, trailing root on the right. A few of the leaves have been painted over the cabbage and the carrots next to it, but the white root was painted first and only afterward the medlar tree behind it: in the garland surrounding Van Avont's Holy Family, Brueghel did this in exactly the same order. To prevent the disturbing effect caused by under3 1

BRUEGHEL AND VAN BALEN

163

F I G U R E 86 Jan B r u e g h e l the E l d e r a n d P i e t e r v a n A v o n t ( 1 6 0 0 - 1 6 5 2 ) , The Holy in a Garland

of Fruit

Family

and Flowers, ca. 1 6 2 0 - 2 3 . 3

O i l o n p a n e l , 93.5 x 7 0 . 7 c m (36 /4 x 2 7 % i n . ) . M u n i c h , A l t e P i n a k o t h e k , i n v . 149

F I G U R E 87 J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r , Part of a Garland

of Fruit

and Flowers. P e n i n b r o w n i n k , 5

b r o w n w a s h , 2 9 . 6 x 11.7 c m ( n / s x 4 % i n . ) . Antwerp, M u s e u m Plantin-Moretus, inv. D . i x . 2 3

lying paint layers shining through the surface, Brueghel frequently took the trouble to paint from foreground to background, as demonstrated by this detail. Whenever he found a satisfactory way to realize a distinct element in paint, he repeated this method exactly—to whatever extent possible—the next time he had need of the motif. A v S

p o i n t s t o 1612 as t h e earliest p o s s i b l e d a t i n g b u t suggests a d a t i n g after 1618 as m o r e p l a u s i b l e . T h e p a i n t i n g i n A n t w e r p c o n s i s t s o f o n e p l a n k ; the t h i c k l a y e r o f w a x o n t h e b a c k o b s c u r e s a n y m a r k s i t m i g h t c o n t a i n .

4 . See J o h a n A n t h o n y v a n K i n s c h o t sale, D e l f t , J u l y 21, 1767, l o t 2 9 ; a n d H o e t a n d T e r w e s t e n 1 7 5 2 - 7 0 , v o l . 3, p p . 6 0 6 , 6 9 2 . O n C y b e l e , see H a l l 1974, p . 89. 5. A s n o t e d i n A m s t e r d a m - C l e v e l a n d 1 9 9 9 - 2 0 0 0 , p . 113. 6. O n C e r e s , see H a l l 1974, p p . 6 2 - 6 3 .

NOTES 7. " g r o o t e n f r u y t crans m e t C e r e s i n ' t m i d d e n " : V a e s 1 9 2 6 - 2 7 , p . 2 0 9 . 1. O n t h e p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n o f A g r i c u l t u r e , see C e s a r e R i p a ,

Iconologia

8. See V a e s 1 9 2 6 - 2 7 a n d D e n u c e i 9 3 4 p p . 1 3 9 - 6 0 . T h e o r i g i n a l a c c o u n t 5

b o o k k e p t b y J a n B r u e g h e l t h e Y o u n g e r has n o t s u r v i v e d , b u t its

( D u t c h e d i t i o n , 1 6 4 4 ) , p . 280 (first e d i t i o n , 1593).

c o n t e n t s h a v e b e e n p r e s e r v e d i n p a r t i n a c o p y m a d e i n 1770 b y J a c o b 2. See V a n M u l d e r s i n B r u s s e l s 1 9 9 7 - 9 8 , p . 108. C o m p a r e also E r t z i n

van der Sanden.

A n t w e r p 1998, p . 2 7 0 . 9. T h i s c o p y is n o w i n M a d r i d ( M u s e o N a c i o n a l d e l P r a d o , i n v . 1414); 3. T h e M a u r i t s h u i s p a n e l c o n s i s t s o f t h r e e v e r t i c a l p l a n k s . B u r n e d i n t o

see D i a z P a d r o n 1995, p p . 314-15. C o n s i d e r i n g t h e s m a l l differences

t h e b a c k o f t h e p a n e l is t h e m a r k ( M V i n t e r l a c e d ) o f t h e p a n e l m a k e r

between the H a g u e a n d the A n t w e r p versions, Jan B r u e g h e l the

M i c h i e l V r i e n t ( a c t i v e 1615-37), as w e l l as t h e b r a n d o f t h e c i t y o f

Y o u n g e r m u s t have c o p i e d the v e r s i o n i n the M a u r i t s h u i s ( o n l y the

A n t w e r p a n d t h e l e t t e r A . T h i s last m a r k — p e r h a p s d e n o t i n g t h e

c o r d s a t t a c h e d t o t h e m e d a l l i o n are l a c k i n g ) .

y e a r — a p p e a r s o n a series o f p a n e l s d a t i n g f r o m 1 6 2 1 - 2 2 . See W a d u m 1998, p p . 192, 198. D e n d r o c h r o n o l o g i c a l analysis o f t h e p a n e l c a r r i e d o u t b y D r . P e t e r K l e i n ( U n i v e r s i t y o f H a m b u r g , A p r i l 11, 2005)

164

BRUEGHEL

AND VAN

BALEN

10.

F o r t h i s p a i n t i n g , see G l a s g o w 1961, p p . 1 1 7 - 2 0 ; a n d E r t z 1979, n o . 349. A s t o t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t P r i n c e V l a d i s l a s Z y g m u n t o f P o l a n d

2 4 . See, f o r e x a m p l e , W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 , p p . 8 0 - 8 1 .

o n c e o w n e d t h i s p a i n t i n g , see D e n u c e 1934, p. 81; a n d M u l l e r H o f s t e d e 1968, p . 225, n . 52.

25. T h i s w a s first m e n t i o n e d i n V a n M u l d e r s 2 0 0 0 , p p . 1 1 9 - 2 0 . T h e t r i p l e o v a l , w h i c h is s c r a t c h e d i n t o the g r o u n d , is a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e s a m e

11. See B . W e r c h e , " D i e Z u s a m m e n a r b e i t v o n J a n B r u e g h e l d . A . u n d

size as t h e o v a l m e d a l l i o n i n the p r e s e n t p a i n t i n g s ( t h a n k s t o R o b e r t

H e n d r i c k van Balen," i n E s s e n - V i e n n a 1997-98, pp. 6 7 - 7 4 .

W e n l e y f o r t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n ) . T h e c o n t o u r s o f a n o v a l m e d a l l i o n are 12. I n K l a u s E r t z ' s 1979 m o n o g r a p h o n J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r , 6 4 o f t h e 384 c a t a l o g u e d p a i n t i n g s w e r e d o n e i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h H e n d r i c k v a n B a l e n . (It is i n d e e d c u r i o u s t h a t E r t z d i d n o t d e v o t e a separate chapter to their w o r k i n g friendship.) I n her 2 0 0 4 m o n o g r a p h o n V a n B a l e n , B e t t i n a W e r c h e r e g a r d s 78 o f the 192 c a t a l o g u e d c a b i n e t pieces as c o l l a b o r a t i o n s w i t h J a n B r u e g h e l .

and Child in a Garland

of Flowers

t h e t w o p a i n t i n g s b y B r u e g h e l a n d V a n B a l e n d i s c u s s e d here. 26. T h e d e m a n d f o r p a i n t i n g s b y J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r was g r e a t e r t h a n the s u p p l y . H i s p a i n t i n g s w e r e o f t e n s o l d e v e n b e f o r e he b e g a n w o r k

13. See D e n u c e 1934, p p . 2 1 - 2 2 ; a n d W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 , d o c . n o . 15, p p . 2 5 2 - 5 3 ;

i n g o n t h e m ; see V a e s 1 9 2 6 - 2 7 , p . 181. 27. O n t h i s A n t w e r p c u s t o m o f c o p y i n g p a i n t i n g s , see, a m o n g o t h e r s ,

b o t h d o c u m e n t s are d a t e d D e c e m b e r 2 0 , 1 6 0 4 .

H o n i g 1995, p . 2 6 9 .

14. See W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 , n o . A 106.

28. A n o t h e r v e r s i o n o f t h e " l a r g e f r u i t g a r l a n d w i t h the i m a g e o f M a r y "

15. See E r t z 1979, n o . n o ; a n d W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 , n o . A 128.

( g r o o t e n f r u y t c r a n s m e t het M a r i e n b i l d ) , w h i c h J a n B r u e g h e l t h e

16. " g h e m a e c k t v o o r S . [ i g n o r ] v a n B a l e n e e n e n g r o n t acter een s t u c . . . " ; " v o l d a e n eenen g r o n t . . .de

also s c r a t c h e d i n t o the Madonna

b y B r u e g h e l a n d R u b e n s i n the L o u v r e (fig. 6 9 ) . T h i s is n o t the case i n

figurkens

d o o r S. v a n B a l e n " ; " g h e m a e c t

Y o u n g e r s o l d f r o m h i s father's estate t o A n t o n i e C o r n e l i s s e n C h e e u s f o r 512 g u i l d e r s (see V a e s 1 9 2 6 - 2 7 , p . 2 0 9 ) , h a d p r e v i o u s l y b e e n s o l d

. . . e e n e n g r o n d t agter een L i v r a u k e n v a n S. v a n B a l e n " : V a e s 1 9 2 6 - 2 7 ,

b y h i s father f o r " 4 0 0 escudi" t o t h e p r i n c e o f P o l a n d . See a letter f r o m

p p . 210, 213, 215; a n d D e n u c e 1934, p p . 147, 151, 154. M o r e e x a m p l e s

J a n B r u e g h e l the Y o u n g e r t o C a r d i n a l B o r r o m e o , d a t e d A u g u s t 22,

c o u l d be q u o t e d . R e m a r k a b l y , B r u e g h e l o f t e n m e n t i o n e d t h a t he h a d

1625, r e g a r d i n g h i s father's d e a t h a n d several i n t e r e s t i n g p a i n t i n g s f r o m

p r o d u c e d w o r k f o r a n art d e a l e r — " f o r G o e t k i n t " ( A n t h o n i e G o e t k i n t ,

h i s estate ( C r i v e l l i 1868, p p . 3 3 9 - 4 1 ) .

his wife's uncle), "for H a n s v a n M e c h e l e n , " "for Peer v a n L i e n d e r " — w h i c h s u g g e s t s t h a t art dealers w e r e i n s t r u m e n t a l i n b r i n g i n g a b o u t

2 9 . See R e n g e r a n d D e n k 2 0 0 2 , p p . 9 2 - 9 5 , n o . 149 ( w i t h a d d i t i o n a l literature).

these c o l l a b o r a t i v e efforts. See also H o n i g 1995, p p . 2 5 9 - 6 0 . 17. T h i s p a i n t i n g was e x a m i n e d w i t h a s t e r e o m i c r o s c o p e o n D e c e m b e r 21 a n d 23, 2 0 0 4 , i n t h e r e s t o r a t i o n s t u d i o o f the M a u r i t s h u i s b y S a b r i n a M e l o n i , A r i a n e van Suchtelen, and Jorgen W a d u m . Infrared images w e r e m a d e w i t h the A r t i s t c a m e r a ( A r t I n n o v a t i o n , H e n g e l o ) m o u n t e d

30. See R e n g e r a n d D e n k 2 0 0 2 , p p . 3 3 6 - 4 3 , n o . 331 ( w i t h a d d i t i o n a l literature). 31. See W i n n e r 1961, fig. 50; a n d E r t z 1979, fig. 39. T h i s p e n - a n d - i n k w a s h d r a w i n g seems m o r e l i k e a d r a w n c o p y t h a n a p r e p a r a t o r y s t u d y .

w i t h a C C D p r o g r e s s i v e scan i m a g e s e n s o r (1360 x 1036 p i x e l s ) a n d

C o m p a r e a s t u d y sheet d i s p l a y i n g a n i m a l s a n d f r u i t — i n c l u d i n g c o l o r

a S c h n e i d e r K r e u z n a c h X e n o p l a n 1.4/23 m m c c r v - l e n s i n N12 w i t h a

i n d i c a t i o n s b y J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r — i n the B r i t i s h M u s e u m ; see

1 0 0 0 n m l o n g - w a v e filter.

K o l b 2 0 0 5 , fig. 5. T h i s sheet c o n t a i n s m o t i f s b o r r o w e d f r o m J o r i s

18. T h e D e x i a B a n k p a i n t i n g was e x a m i n e d o n A p r i l 12, 2 0 0 5 , i n A n t w e r p w i t h the a i d o f a s t e r e o m i c r o s c o p e b y S a b r i n a M e l o n i a n d A r i a n e v a n S u c h t e l e n . I n f r a r e d i m a g e s w e r e m a d e w i t h the A r t i s t c a m e r a (see p r e v i o u s n o t e ) . W e are g r a t e f u l t o P a t r i c i a Jaspers f o r h e r efforts o n o u r behalf.

H o e f n a g e l ' s i l l u m i n a t e d b o o k s o n t h e e l e m e n t s , Earth, Air, Water

and

Fire (1575-82) f r o m the c o l l e c t i o n o f E m p e r o r R u d o l f I I ; see H e n d r i x 1984, p. 333; a n d K o l b 2 0 0 0 , p p . 1 4 1 - 4 3 . O n B r u e g h e l ' s d r a w i n g s , see, a m o n g o t h e r s , W i n n e r 1961 a n d 1972; m o s t o f these d r a w i n g s are studies for his landscapes a n d village views. 32. See also t h e essay b y D o h e r t y , L e o n a r d , a n d W a d u m i n t h i s v o l u m e .

19. A d r a w n c o p y o f t h e scene i n t h e m e d a l l i o n ( W e i m a r , G o e t h e N a t i o n a l m u s e u m , i n v . S c h u c h a r d t I , s. 314, n o . 931) seems t o f o l l o w t h e A n t w e r p p a i n t i n g , because the angels h o l d i n g the b a l d a c h i n also scatter flowers; see A n t w e r p 1998, p. 2 6 8 , fig. 86c. 2 0 . See also A n t w e r p 1998, p . 2 6 6 , cat. n o . 86, fig. 8 6 b . 21. See E r t z 1979, n o . 350. C o m p a r e also v a r i a t i o n s a t t r i b u t e d t o J a n B r u e g h e l the Y o u n g e r ; see E r t z 1979, fig. 389; E r t z 1984, n o . 302 ( A n t w e r p , K o n i n k l i j k M u s e u m v o o r S c h o n e K u n s t e n , i n v . 813, as w i t h P i e t e r v a n A v o n t ) ; a n d sale, S o t h e b y ' s , A m s t e r d a m , M a y 9, 1995, lot 42. 22. S t . P e t e r s b u r g , H e r m i t a g e State M u s e u m , i n v . 5 0 4 ( H o l l s t e i n 1 9 4 9 - , v o l . 7, n o . 106). See F r e e d b e r g 1981, p p . 128, 132, fig. 17. 23. J o n e s 1993, p . 86 (after F e d e r i c o B o r r o m e o , I tre libri delle laudi

divine

[ M i l a n , 1632], p . 158).

BRUEGHEL

AND VAN

BALEN

22 Peter Pau l Rubens and Frans Snyders

Prometheus Boun d ca. 1611-1 2

O i l o n canvas , 2 4 3 x 21 0 c m (95V 2 x 82 Vi in. ) Philadelphia Museu m of Art, purchased wit h th e W . P. Wilstach Fund , 1950 , inv . w-1950-3-1

PROVENANCE

Traded b y Ruben s t o Si r D u d l e y Carleton , 1

S e p t e m b e r 1618 , b u t n o t s o l d ;

possibl y

LITERATURE

transferred f r o m C a r l e t o n t o K i n g Charle s I ; perhaps w i t h th e A n t w e r p deale r M a t t h i j s M u s s o n , 1658 ; i n t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f C h a r l e s , f o u r t h ear l o f Manchester , K i m b o l t o n Castle , H u n t i n g d o n s h i r e , b y S e p t e m b e r 28 , 1 6 8 7 ;

L i e d t k e 1992 , p p . 1 8 4 - 8 5 ; K o s l o w 1995a , p p . 18 , 3 0 3 - 3 0 7 ; B i k k e r 2 0 0 4

o f A r t f o r th e W . P . W i l s t a c h C o l l e c t i o n , 195 0

1618; offere d t o th e k i n g o f D e n m a r k i n 2

dealer M a r t i n B . Asscher, L o n d o n , f r o m w h o m a c q u i r e d b y th e P h i l a d e l p h i a M u s e u m

i n t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f t h e earl s a n d d u k e s o f M a n c h e s t e r u n t i l it s sal e a t a u c t i o n a t K i m b o l t o n Castl e ( K n i g h t , Fran k & Rutley) , J u l y 18 , 194 8 (a s n o . 8 ) ; a c q u i r e d b y t h e 4

EXHIBITIONS

L o n d o n 1850 , cat . n o . 142 ; M a n c h e s t e r 1857 ,

B a u d i u s 1616 , p . 578 ; R o o s e s 1 8 8 6 - 1 8 2 , v o l . 3 ,

cat. n o . 534 ; L o n d o n 1867 , cat . n o . 126 ;

p p . 152-53 , n o . 671 ; v o l . 5 , p p . 3 4 0 - 4 1 ;

C l e v e l a n d 1956 , cat . n o . 4 1 ; P h i l a d e l p h i a

K i m b a l l 1952 ; P o p h a m 1952 ; R a g g i o 1958 ,

M u s e u m o f A r t , " P h i l a d e l p h i a : 10 0 Year s o f

p p . 58 , 6 1 - 6 2 ; H e l d 1963 , p p . 1 7 - 3 2 ; D e m p s e y

A c q u i s i t i o n s " ( M a y 3 - J u l y 3 , 1983 ) ( n o

1967, p p . 4 2 0 - 2 5 ; S t e c h o w 1968 , p p . 4 0 - 4 1 ;

c a t a l o g u e ) ; B o s t o n - T o l e d o 1 9 9 3 - 9 4 , p p . 35 ,

M a r t i n a n d B r u n o i n M a r t i n 1972 , p p . 17 ,

2 3 8 - 4 1 , cat . n o . 10 ; L i l l e 2 0 0 4 , p p . 8 8 - 8 9 ,

19; S u t t o n 1983 , p p . 2 7 0 - 7 5 ; B a l i s 1986 ,

cat. n o . 4 3

p p . 67 , 7 0 , 77 , 83 , 93 ; R o b e l s 1989 , p p . 35 , 119, 3 5 4 - 5 6 , n o . 261 ; S u t t o n 1 9 9 0 , p p . 2 5 1 - 6 1 , n o . 91 ; C . v a n d e V e l d e i n B a u m a n a n d

U B E N S ' S E A R L

Y Y E A R S

, A F T E

R H

E S E T T L E

D A G A I

in Antwerp , wer e a n exceptionally fertile period in whic h h e implemente d highly innovativ e compositions that demonstrat e hi s knowledge of ancient an d Renaissance precedents. Prometheus Bounds an extraordinary depiction o f torment an d contained corporeal energy, epitomizes Rubens' s forcefu l artisti c ambition, which trans formed Flemis h painting . Shackled to th e rock y sid e of Mount Caucasus , the Tita n Prometheu s contort s hi s muscular bod y in a heroic but vai n effor t t o evad e th e probing beak o f a great eagle , whose talon s als o tear a t hi s face an d groin an d which return s dail y to consum e hi s regeneratin g liver. A joint effort betwee n Ruben s an d Frans Snyders, Prometheus Bound i s among the best-documente d collaborations o f the earl y seventeenth century . In correspondenc e with Si r Dudley Carleton , Britis h ambassado r t o th e Unite d

166

RUBENS A N D SNYDER S

Provinces residin g in The Hague, Rubens describe d Prometheus Bound amon g a group o f paintings he was offering Carleton i n exchange fo r the latter' s collectio n o f antique marbles, "a t presen t I hav e in the hous e th e flowe r o f my stock , particularly some picture s whic h I hav e kept fo r my own enjoyment; som e I hav e even repurchased fo r more tha n I had sol d the m t o others," an d placed it at th e top o f a list o f twelve paintings for Carleton' s consideration: " 5 0 0 florins —A Prometheu s boun d on Mount Caucasus , with a n eagle whic h peck s his liver. Origina l b y my hand, and th e eagl e don e b y Snyders—9 x 8 ft." The nature o f th e collaboration i n the Prometheus is crucial to understandin g the work' s significance. Rubens' s relationshi p with Snyder s a t this time, while les s reciprocal and perhaps mor e business like tha n hi s association with Brueghel , shoul d nonetheles s 5

167

be considered an artistic partnership, one in which Rubens played the dominant role. Frans Snyders was only two years younger than Rubens and a close acquaintance of Jan Brueghel the Elder. The latter introduced Snyders to potential patrons in Italy, where Snyders traveled between the spring of 1608 and 1 6 0 9 . In two letters dated September 2 6 , 1608, Brueghel enthusiasti cally described Snyders to Cardinal Federico Borromeo, bishop of Milan, recommending him as "a young man of good morals." H e further attests that "I am indebted to this youth by a true act of friendship," referring to the support Snyders had shown him during a difficult period, perhaps following the death of his first wife. When Snyders sud denly left Milan for Antwerp in the spring of 1 6 0 9 , Brueghel apologized to the cardinal for his friend's behavior. Once settled in Antwerp, Snyders established himself a specialist in still life. Rubens may have encountered Snyders in Italy or more likely within the circumscribed community of artists in Antwerp who had made the same journey. Prometheus was among the first joint works Rubens executed with Snyders. Their relationship may have begun when Rubens engaged him to paint a large still life in The Recognition of Philopoemen^ a composition depicting a sub ject from Greek history (see fig. 26). Rubens devised the composition, including the major elements of the game and vegetable still life, as demonstrated by an oil sketch (see fig. 27). As the sheets of drawn motifs from some years later suggest, Snyders may have made studies or sketches for particular elements. After the still life had been painted, Rubens returned to integrate and adjust certain elements. It was characteristic of their partnership from this point on that Snyders adopted the expressive, large scale of his partner, along with lively brushwork, and often a high-keyed palette. In the Philopoemen, as in Prometheus^ the concept, design, and final integrative contributions were all made by Rubens. Prometheus occupies a pivotal place in Rubens's oeuvre. Unfortunately, we cannot know whether it was a work that he painted as an investigative trial and "kept" for himself, or a commission that he "repurchased." However, it is one of several mythological and historical subjects from about 1611 in which Rubens explored figures in violent action. After 1 6 0 9 Rubens increasingly pushed the boundaries of corporeal description and strove to generate a visceral reac tion in the viewer. The Beheading of Saint John the Baptist ( 1 6 0 9 ; private collection), notable for the extreme muscularity of the figures, and Judith Killing Holofernes ( 1 6 0 9 - 1 0 ; Frank 6

168

RUBENS AND SNYDERS

furt, Stadelsches Kunstinstitut), a scene of intense nocturnal violence, reveal Rubens's study of the robust figures of Michelangelo and the physiognomies of antique sculptures such as the Laocoon (Vatican City, Vatican Museums, Museo Pio-Clementino) and the Torso Belvedere. In particular, Rubens was fascinated by the challenges of depicting falling figures. The inverted figure of Hippolytus in The Death ofHippolytus (1610; Cambridge, Fitzwilliam Museum; see also an oil sketch in London, Courtauld Institute of Art Gallery) and the outstretched Argus in Juno and Argus (1611; Cologne, Wallraf-Richartz Museum), both provide antecedents for the figures of Prometheus. Many of these works are animated by innovative compositions. The diago nal arrangement of figures in Prometheus follows Rubens's earlier implementation of figures placed on transverse orien tations, for example in Saint George ( 1 6 0 8 ; Madrid, Museo Nacional del Prado). Painted in Genoa, Saint George is made up of several different pieces of canvas and, like the Prometheus, was kept by Rubens in his studio. It was in the context of such artistic challenges that Rubens turned to the subject of Prometheus. The subject was well established in classical texts and was associated by the early seventeenth century with a range of conflicting moral, philosophical, and religious interpretations. Hesiod portrayed Prometheus as a rogue who deceived the gods and destroyed the golden age of mankind by stealing fire and giving it to humans, a sacrilege for which he was deservedly punished by being shackled to the top of Mount Caucasus, where a voracious eagle perpetually devoured his regrowing liver until he was freed by Hercules. Aeschylus saw Prometheus as providing mankind with both real and figura tive fire, the flame of reason and wisdom that serves as the basis of civilization. His punishment, while just, was evi dence of a tragic imbalance between the order of the gods and humanity. Plato conceived of fire as a creative force and Prometheus's act of stealing fire from the forge of Vulcan as a moral failing. In the medieval period, the Titan was portrayed as an inventor and linked to the story of Genesis by the church fathers. Renaissance emblems portrayed Prometheus under a tree, attacked by an eagle, as an example of punished pride and as "knowledge acquired with care." The sheer physicality of the Philadelphia canvas, while not precluding allegorical interpretations, suggests that Rubens was primarily seeking to evoke the horror of Prome theus's suffering. Dominicus Baudius, a professor at the university of Leiden and a friend of Rubens's brother Philip, 11

extolled the vividness of Prometheus and the terror it gener ated in onlookers in his Poematum. The date of these verses, April 7, 1612, helps date the canvas, which must have been finished or nearly so by that time. It may have been started early in 1611, following the Juno and Argus, which was finished by May 11, 1 6 1 1 . Rubens's debt to antique sculpture for his powerful male figures of about 1611 has long been appreciated. His numer ous drawings, several known today through copies by stu dents, attest to his study of the Laocoon, the most influential antique portrayal of suffering and violent motion. The manner in which the chest of the central figure of the antique group, the priest Laocoon, projects is very similar to that of the inverted Prometheus, which may also reflect Rubens's study of the projecting torso of the Centaur Tormented by Cupid (Paris, Musee du Louvre). The vitally important inventions of Raphael's Stanze (the series of rooms the artist and his assistants decorated for the popes Julius II and Leo X), notably the reclining figure of Heliodorus in the Expulsion of Heliodorus fresco, were a key inspiration. As Held observed, Prometheus's bent leg probably derives from this source. Both the Heliodorus and the Laocoon figure prominently among the quotations from the antique in the early Rubens and Brueghel collaboration The Battle of the Amazons (ca. 1 5 9 8 - 1 6 0 0 ; cat. no. 1). However, it was Michel angelo's drawing of Tityus (1532; Windsor Castle, Royal Library)—the elongated pose and outstretched arm of the figure, and particularly the parallel arrangement of the figure and the bird—that was the foundation for Prometheus. The story of Tityus was a closely related myth, in which the son of Earth was punished for ravishing Latona by being chained to a rock in Hades where a vulture attacked his per petuating liver. Even knowledgeable observers were often confused when distinguishing between the two myths. Rubens, however, portrayed his subject very specifically, and even without his own identification of the scene, it could not be mistaken. The Titan is clearly chained outside, beneath a massive tree and beside a rocky overhang. The site, Mount Caucasus, is specified by the sharp vertical surface to which he is chained, the crevasse beneath him over which his torso and drapery hang, and by the distant landscape. Prometheus's torch, by which he sought to elevate mankind, burns brightly in the lower left corner. Titian's large Tityus ( 1 5 4 8 - 4 9 ; Madrid, Museo Nacional del Prado), dramatic in scale and conception, may have been the primary inspiration for Rubens's cascading figure. Titian's canvas, painted for 19

2 0

F I G U R E 8 8 C o r n e l l s C o r t after T i t i a n , Tityus, 1566. E n g r a v i n g , ]

380 x 308 m m (15 x i 2 / 8 i n . ) . S a n F r a n c i s c o , F i n e A r t s M u s e u m s , Palace o f the L e g i o n o f H o n o r , A c h e n b a c h F o u n d a t i o n for G r a p h i c A r t s , inv.

1963.30.36756

Mary of Hungary when she was regent of the Netherlands, depicts one of the "Quattro Dannati" (the four damned, Tantalus, Sisyfus, Ixion, and Tityus) who are mentioned in Ovid's Metamorphoses. It decorated the Grote Zaal of her palace at Binche, where it was observed and described (as Prometheus!) by Juan Cristoval Calvete de Estrella, secretary to Philip II, in 1549. The painting was later trans ferred to M a d r i d . While Rubens may have seen it there, the print after Titian's canvas by Cornells Cort (fig. 88) could equally have served as a point of departure. In contrast to the precedents discussed above, Rubens gave the eagle a prominent role in Prometheus Bound. In order to strengthen the fierce intensity of the Titan's struggle, Rubens expanded the size of the tormenter and engaged Snyders to follow his design. We can only speculate as 26

RUBENS

A N D SNYDERS

169

FIGURE 8 9 Peter Paul Rubens, Reclining Male, ca. 1611. C h a l k a n d h e i g h t e n i n g , 55 x 4 2 . 6 c m 5

(2i /8 x 16 A in.). Paris, M u s e e d u L o u v r e , inv. 20207

to the reasons for this curious decision. Rubens was himself an accomplished painter of animals and of eagles in parti cular, as can be seen in Cupid Supplicating Jupiter ( 1 6 1 0 ; New York, Forbes Collection) and Ganymede ( 1 6 1 1 - 1 2 ; Vienna, Prince Karl zu Schwartzenberg Collection [on loan to the Liechtenstein Museum, Princely Collection, Vienna]). The eagle in Ganymede, for example, shows a fastidious, refined treatment in keeping with the elevated mythological subject. Snyders may have been engaged simply because he wasn't Rubens. That is, his technique, descriptive and painterly, was compatible but nonetheless distinct from Rubens's brushwork, thereby providing visual emphasis to this part of the composition. Eagles feature among the stylized illustrations in Ulisse Aldrovandi's Ornithologia ( 1 5 9 9 ) , along with a fulsome description of the bird's observed and mythical char acteristics. Rubens recorded an antique statue of an eagle (Rome, Vatican Museums) in a drawing (now lost, but known through a student's copy, Two Views of an Eagle^ Copenhagen, Royal Print Room) and used its perched form for Cupid Supplicating Jupiter. Perhaps, as Martin and Bruno proposed vis-a-vis the Forbes canvas, Rubens studied a live eagle and "grasped the particulars of its appearance and 28

170

RUBENS A N D SNYDERS

sensed the ferocity of the bird of prey." Rulers of the Netherlands had long kept aviaries, which included small birds of prey such as sparrow hawks and, apparently, royal eagles. It is certainly clear that, in contrast to the schematic Renaissance depictions of eagles, Rubens and Snyders's bird is based in reality; the two artists were aware not only of the specific physical characteristics of the golden eagle, including variations in the types of feathers in its plumage, but also the true extent of its wingspan, which can reach 225 cm (seven and a half feet)—in this case just smaller than the writhing figure of a Titan. The relationship between the noblest of birds, Jove's companion, and Prometheus is expressively portrayed through the placement of the two figures in parallel alignment, the dark form of the eagle hovering menacingly over the illuminated nude form. It has long been assumed that Rubens planned the composi tion in a drawing or oil sketch which has been lost. Rubens's drawing of a male torso (fig. 89) relates both to Hippolytus and Prometheus. A drawing of an eagle (fig. 9 0 ) was probably Snyders's working drawing, made after Rubens's presumptive oil sketch. Faint chalk outlines indicate the placement of the torso and, notably, the liver. Comparison 32

of the Snyders drawing with the finished painting shows that additional adjustments were made to the contour of the right wing and the distance between the left foot and head, presumably the result of discussions between the two artists. The process of execution was subsequently relatively straightforward. Rubens painted the figure of Prometheus with his usual economy: the proper right side of the Titan's face, for example, was never elaborated and instead was treated as a reserve for the eagle's left foot, while small reserves on the face and torso anticipated the insertion points of the talons. After Snyders painted the eagle, Rubens added highlights to its feet and beak and may also have enhanced the bloody effects of beak and talons with addi tional daubs of red. Sutton has shown that the strip of canvas on the left side, approximately seventeen inches wide, which includes the landscape and the torch, was added when the ground and paint layers of the main canvas were dry and has argued persuasively that this area could have been added at the time of Rubens's negotiations with Dudley Carleton in the spring of 1 6 1 8 . We should, however, reconsider the pos sibility that the addition represents another example of Rubens's additive working method. Carleton, an avid collec tor who admired Rubens, approached the artist with an offer to exchange his collection of antique marbles for paint ings by the artist. They had recently negotiated the sale of a hunt scene, an exchange that revealed Carleton's interest in work by Snyders. After stating his preference for "brief negotiations, where each party gives and receives his share at: once," Rubens attached a list of twelve paintings, specifying which were "by my hand" and which had been begun by a pupil and had been or would be retouched by Rubens. One painting, Leopards, was described as "by my hand except a most beautiful landscape, done by the hand of a master skill ful in that department." The dimensions given in the list are thought to be general, but in the case of Prometheus, they roughly correspond to the current size of the painting, rather than to the first, more vertical, format. Carleton chose only the "originals," including Prometheus, all of which Rubens promised to retouch before sending them to Carleton. It is difficult to imagine that the addition of the canvas strip, which also involved the inclusion of an important iconographic element, the torch, would have been considered part of the finishing touch (Pultima mano) Rubens says he has given to the greater part of the paintings. While we cannot 36

FIGURE 90

F r a n s S n y d e r s , Study for an Eagle,

ca. 1611. I n k a n d w a s h ,

28.1 x 20.3 c m (nVfe x 8 i n . ) . L o n d o n , B r i t i s h M u s e u m , i n v . 1946-7-13-176 © T r u s t e e s o f the B r i t i s h M u s e u m

be entirely certain when the strip was added, it seems more likely that Rubens expanded the composition while he was working on it in 1611 or early 1612. Among Rubens's oeuvre, many examples of panels with additions are known, as are an increasing number of canvases that show the same phenomenon, including the Saint George and The Recognition ofPhilopoemen. The tightly formulated composition of Prometheus Bound, with its powerful downward diagonal momentum, may have appeared too extreme in the first, nar row, format; the sense of the figures sliding precipitously was ameliorated with the addition of the foreground torch, which serves to visually counterbalance this effect, and the view into the distance. 42

RUBENS AND SNYDERS

171

Rubens and Snyders's Prometheus Bound evidently sparked new interest in the subject in the Netherlands, where Jacob Jordaens ( 1 5 9 3 - 1 6 7 8 ) , Dirck van Baburen (ca. 1 5 9 0 / 9 5 - 1 6 2 4 ) , and others painted their own versions. It has been sug gested that i f the Prometheus remained in Dudley Carleton's collection in The Hague following his unsuccessful sale to the King of Denmark, the stadholder's influential secre tary Constantijn Huygens, who had a particular appreciation of Rubens and Snyders (see cat. no. 2 4 ) , would have had firsthand acquaintance with the composition. If so, it seems fitting that Rembrandt later presented to Huygens his Blinding of Samson (1636; Frankfurt, Stadelsches Kunstinstitut), in which the figure of Samson strongly recalls that of Prometheus. Although Rembrandt may have seen Rubens and Snyders's original while it hung in The Hague, as an avid collector of prints, he could also have received his inspiration for the violent figure of Samson from Cornells Cort's engraving. ATW 43

B r u e g e l t h e Y o u n g e r a n d p o s s i b l y also H e n d r i c k v a n B a l e n , see R o b e l s 1989, p p . 4 7 - 4 8 ; a n d K o s l o w 1995a, p p . 1 3 - 1 6 . 7. C r i v e l l i 1868, p p . 113-14 ( B r u e g h e l t o C a r d i n a l B o r r o m e o ) a n d p p . n o - 1 2 ( B r u e g h e l t o B i a n c h i ) ; see K o s l o w 1995a, p . 14. 8. L i t e r a l l y f o r " d ' i m p o r t u n e n t e (sua) f a m i l i a r i t a " (letter o f M a y 14, 1 6 0 9 ) : C r i v e l l i 1868, p . 135. 9. F o r e x a m p l e , t h e sheet o f s t u d i e s o f d e a d d e e r ( B e r l i n , K u p f e r s t i c h k a b i n e t t , i n v . 8 4 9 7 ) ; see R o b e l s 1989, p p . 4 1 6 - 1 7 , n o . Z 4 3 . 10. See G a y o G a r c i a a n d V e r g a r a 2 0 0 4 , e s p e c i a l l y f i g . 22. F o r R u b e n s ' s o i l

s k e t c h , see H e l d 1980, v o l . 1, p p . 3 7 4 - 7 5 , n o . 278; a n d R o b e l s 1989, p p . 353-54. 11. F o r t h e a n t i q u e m o n u m e n t s , see B o b e r a n d R u b i n s t e i n 1986, p p . 151-55 ( L a o c o o n ) a n d p p . 1 6 6 - 6 8 ( T o r s o B e l v e d e r e ) . F o r d r a w i n g s b y a n d after R u b e n s o f these w o r k s , see V a n d e r M e u l e n 1994, v o l . 2, pp. 9 3 - 1 0 4 , nos. 76-93 (Laocoon) and pp. 56-59, nos. 37-39 (Torso Belvedere). 12. See H . V l i e g h e i n B a l i s et a l . 1989a, p p . 1 4 8 - 4 9 , i l l . T h e Saint

George

appears i n the i n v e n t o r y o f t h e artist's estate; see M u l l e r 1989, p p . 77, 122, n o . 155. 13. See R a g g i o 1958; H e l d 1963, p p . 2 5 - 2 6 ; S u t t o n 1 9 9 0 , p p . 2 5 6 - 5 7 ; a n d Bikker 2004. 14. Works and Days, v. 4 2 - 8 9 ; T h e o g o n y , v. 5 0 7 - 6 1 6 ( d i s c u s s e d i n R a g g i o

NOTES

1958, p p . 4 4 - 4 5 ) . 1. S a l e c o n c l u d e d b y J u n e 1, 1618, w h e n R u b e n s w r o t e t o C a r l e t o n " . . . I have delivered to M r . Frans Pieterssen all the pictures [(in the m a r g i n ) : t h e D a n i e l , t h e L e o p a r d s , t h e H u n t , t h e S t . Peter, t h e Susanna, the St. Sebastian, the P r o m e t h e u s , the L e d a , Sarah and H a g a r ] , i n g o o d c o n d i t i o n a n d p a c k e d w i t h care. I b e l i e v e Y o u r E x c e l l e n c y w i l l be c o m p l e t e l y satisfied w i t h t h e m . " F o r R u b e n s ' s o r i g i n a l I t a l i a n text, see R o o s e s a n d R u e l e n s 1 8 8 7 - 1 9 0 9 , v o l . 2, p p . 1 8 1 - 8 3 ; t h e t r a n s l a t i o n is f r o m M a g u r n 1955, p . 67, l e t t e r 34.

15. Prometheus

Bound, v. 4 3 6 - 5 0 6 ( d i s c u s s e d i n R a g g i o 1958, p . 45).

16. P l a t o , Works, v o l . 2 (Protagoras)

(Loeb Classical Library, C a m b r i d g e ,

M a s s . , a n d L o n d o n , 1967), p p . 1 2 9 - 3 7 . 17. F o r e x a m p l e , A l c i a t i , Emblematum

Liber

(1531) a n d Emblematum

Liber

( L y o n , 1549); see D a l y 1985, v o l . 2, e m b l e m 103; a n d R a g g i o 1958, p p . 55-56. 18. A s D e m p s e y (1967, p . 421) n o t e d , " c r u e l t y is t h e t r u e subject o f h i s

2. T h e Prometheus

a p p e a r s as t h e first p a i n t i n g o n t h e " L i s t o f m y p i c t u r e s

g i v e n t h e first o f 7

b e r

s t ° . vet. t o t h e K : o f D e n m a r k ' s m a r c h a n t ,

brought unto me by M r . H u g g i n s . . . 9 piedi alto—8 piedi largo U n P r o m e t h e o l e g a t o s o p r a i l m o n t e C a u c a s o c o n u n a a q u i l a che l i b e c c a

painting." 19. " F l e r e , w i t h h o o k e d beak, a m o n s t r o u s v u l t u r e d i g s a b o u t i n t h e l i v e r o f P r o m e t h e u s , w h o is g i v e n n o peace f r o m h i s t o r m e n t s as ever a n d

i l f e g a t o , i l P r o m e t h e o d i R u b e n s , l ' A q u i l a fatta d a l S n y d e r s " : R o o s e s

a g a i n t h e savage b i r d d r a w s n e a r h i s s e l f - r e n e w i n g breast a n d attacks i t

a n d R u e l e n s 1 8 8 7 - 1 9 0 9 , v o l . 2, p . 185; a n d F i s k e K i m b a l l 1952, p . 67.

p u n i s h i n g l y . H e is n o t c o n t e n t w i t h his i n h u m a n s a c r i f i c i a l feast, b u t w i t h h i s c l a w s lacerates, here the a g o n i z e d face, t h e r e the m a n ' s t h i g h .

3. A c c o r d i n g t o a n i n v e n t o r y o f t h a t d a t e ; see F i s k e K i m b a l l 1952, p . 67. 4 . F o r e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y v i e w e r s ' a c c o u n t s o f t h e p a i n t i n g at K i m b o l t o n

H e w o u l d fly m u r d e r o u s l y o n t h e s p e c t a t o r s , d i d n o t h i s c h a i n e d p r e y detain h i m . H e can d o n o m o r e t h a n terrify the frightened o n l o o k e r s b y t u r n i n g h i s f l a m i n g eyes f r o m o n e t o t h e o t h e r . B l o o d f l o w s f r o m

C a s t l e , see F i s k e K i m b a l l 1952, p p . 6 7 - 6 8 .

t h e chest a n d e v e r y p a r t w h e r e h i s c l a w s leave t h e i r m a r k , a n d h i s 5. " I o m i r i t r o v o a l p r e s e n t e f i o r d i r o b b a i n casa p a r t i c o l a

t e

alcuni

q u a d r i che h o t e n u t i per gusto m i o ansi r i c o m p r a t o n e a l c u n i p i u d i q u e l l o l i a v e v a v e n d u t i a l a l t r i " (letter o f A p r i l 18, 1618): R o o s e s a n d R u e l e n s 1 8 8 7 - 1 9 0 9 , p . 136; t r a n s l a t i o n f r o m M a g u r n 1955, P- 6 0 , letter 28.

h i s feathers t r e m b l e . H o r r o r g r i p s the o n l o o k e r s . " ( H e i c r o s t r o a d u n c o v u l t u r i m m a n i s f o d i t / Jecur P r o m e t h e i , nec datur quies malis, S i c u s q u e et u s q u e r a b i d u s ales i m m i n e t / F a e c u n d a p o e n i s a p p e t e n s p r a e c o r d i a . / N o n est eo c o n t e n t u s i n f a n d a e d a p i s / P a s t u , s e d u n g u e

6. S n y d e r s w a s b o r n i n A n t w e r p i n 1579 a n d b e c a m e a free m a s t e r i n t h e

172

p i e r c i n g eyes d a r t savage flames. Y o u m i g h t t h i n k t h a t he m o v e s , t h a t

laniat insuper fero / H i n c o r a palpitantis, h i n c f e m u r v e r i . / Ipse

A n t w e r p G u i l d o f S a i n t L u k e i n 1602, w h e n O t t o v a n V e e n a n d

involaret i n necem spectantium / N i vincla tardent; q u o d potest u n u m

J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r w e r e c o - d e a n s ; see R o m b o u t s a n d V a n L e r i u s

t a m e n / F l a m m a t a t o r q u e n s h u e et i l l u c l u m i n a , / T e r r e t t i m e n t e s ;

1 8 6 4 - 7 6 , p . 418. F o r h i s f a m i l y h i s t o r y a n d t r a i n i n g w i t h P i e t e r

p e c t o r e e b u l l i t c r u o r , / E t p a r t e ab o m n i q u a p e d e s s i g n a n t n o t a m , /

RUBENS AND

SNYDERS

T r u c e s q u e flam mas v i b r a t acies l u m i n u m / R a p i d a e v o l u c r i s ; h a n c

p. 355; C . v a n de V e l d e i n B a u m a n a n d L i e d t k e 1992, p. 184; a n d

m o v e r i , h a n c t u p u t e s / Q u a s s a r e p e n n s a s ; h o r r o r adstantes h a b e t . ) :

H . V l i e g h e i n L i l l e 2 0 0 4 , p . 88.

D . B a u d i u s , Poematum,

nova editio (1616), p . 578. T r a n s l a t i o n a n d

L a t i n text f r o m D e m p s e y 1967, p p . 4 2 1 - 2 2 ; see also R o o s e s 1 8 8 6 - 9 2 , v o l . 5, p . 341; a n d S u t t o n 1983, p . 274.

38. See R u b e n s ' s letter t o C a r l e t o n o f M a r c h 17, 1618 ( t h e i r c o r r e s p o n d e n c e o v e r t h e e x c h a n g e c o n t i n u e d d u r i n g the c o u r s e o f the s p r i n g ) : R o o s e s a n d R u e l e n s 1 8 8 7 - 1 9 0 9 , v o l . 2, p p . 1 3 0 - 8 3 . D u r i n g t h e c o u r s e

2 0 . A s s t a t e d b y R u b e n s i n a letter t o J a c o b de B i e ; see M a g u r n 1955,

o f earlier discussions c o n c e r n i n g Carleton's interest i n a large h u n t scene, w h i c h was s o l d t o t h e d u k e o f A a r s c h o t ( C a r l e t o n a c q u i r e d t h e

p . 55, letter 22.

s e c o n d v e r s i o n , Wolf and Fox Hunt 2 1 . V a n d e r M e u l e n 1994, v o l . 2, p p . 9 3 - 1 0 4 , n o s . 7 6 - 9 3 .

[ N e w York, Metropolitan M u s e u m

o f A r t , i n v . 10.73]), R u b e n s was s a i d t o c o m m e n t t h a t "the t a l e n t

22. F o r t h e r e c e n t l y d i s c o v e r e d d r a w i n g s b y R u b e n s o f the C e n t a u r

o f S n y d e r s , is t o r e p r e s e n t beasts b u t e s p e c i a l l i e B i r d s a l t o g e t h e r d e a d ,

T o r m e n t e d b y C u p i d , see N e w Y o r k 2 0 0 5 , p p . 1 0 8 - n , cat. n o s . 2 0 , 2 1

a n d w h o l l y w i t h o u t a n y a c t i o n , " as r e p o r t e d b y T o b y M a t t h e w t o

( d a t e d ca. 1 6 0 6 - 0 8 ) ; a n d B r a u n s c h w e i g 2 0 0 4 , p p . 2 8 9 - 9 1 ; o t h e r

S i r D u d l e y C a r l e t o n (letter o f F e b r u a r y 25, 1617): R o o s e s a n d R u e l e n s

d r a w i n g s o f t h e g r o u p are d i s c u s s e d i n V a n d e r M e u l e n 1 9 9 4 , v o l . 2,

1 8 8 7 - 1 9 0 9 , v o l . 2, p . 9 9 . See cat. n o . 2 4 .

pp. 83-89.

39. " L e o p a r d i . . . O r i g i n a l e de m i a m a n o , e c c e t t o u n b e l l i s s i m o paese fatto p e r m a n o d i v a l e n t h u o m o i n q u e l m e s t i e r e . " (letter o f A p r i l 28,

23. H e l d 1963, p . 28.

1618): R o o s e s a n d R u e l e n s 1 8 8 7 - 1 9 0 9 , v o l . 2, p . 137; t r a n s l a t i o n f r o m 2 4 . Inv. R L 1 2 7 7 1 ( r e c t o ) ; see F i s k e K i m b a l l 1952; a n d H e l d 1963, p p . 2 6 - 2 7 . F o r M i c h e l a n g e l o ' s d r a w i n g , see P o p h a m a n d W i l d e 1949, p. 4 2 9 , p i . 2 1 . 25. Baudius, for example, identified the b i r d o f prey i n Prometheus Bound as a v u l t u r e .

M a g u r n 1955, p p . 6 0 - 6 1 , l e t t e r 28. F o r the Leopards,

see cat. n o s . 4

a n d 2 6 ; a p a i n t i n g n o w i n M o n t r e a l is l i k e l y a later c o p y ; see fig. 132. 4 0 . A s n o t e d b y R u b e n s i n h i s letter t o C a r l e t o n o f M a y 12, 1618: " . . . h a v e n d o l e i c a p p a t o s o l i l i o r i g i n a l i de che i o s o n o c o n t e n t i s s i m o . "

26. See U t r e c h t - ' s - H e r t o g e n b o s c h 1993, p . 337, cat. n o . 233; a n d W e t h e y

( Y o u r E x c e l l e n c y has t a k e n o n l y t h e o r i g i n a l s , w i t h w h i c h I a m per fectly satisfied.): R o o s e s a n d R u e l e n s 1 8 8 7 - 1 9 0 9 , v o l . 2, p . 149, n o .

1 9 6 9 - 7 5 , v o l . 3, p p . 1 5 6 - 6 0 .

168; t r a n s l a t e d i n M a g u r n 1955, p p . 6 1 - 6 2 , letter 29. 27. C o r t a d d e d a t o r c h t o t h e c o m p o s i t i o n , t h e r e b y c h a n g i n g T i t y u s i n t o P r o m e t h e u s ; see S u t t o n i n B o s t o n - T o l e d o 1 9 9 3 - 9 4 , p . 2 4 0 . 28. See J o h n R u p e r t M a r t i n a n d C l a u d i a L a z z a r o B r u n o , " R u b e n s ' s ' C u p i d S u p p l i c a t i n g Jupiter'," i n M a r t i n 1972; a n d V i e n n a 2 0 0 4 , p . 68. S i m i l a r l y , i n Juno and Argus

(1611), R u b e n s e x e c u t e d t h e p e a c o c k s , a b i r d w h i c h

features p r o m i n e n t l y i n b o t h The Recognition a n d Larder

of Philopoemen

(see f i g . 26)

with Game Birds (1614; C o l o g n e , W a l l r a f - R i c h a r t z M u s e u m ,

i n v . W R M 2 8 9 4 ) (the latter also i n c l u d e s a d e a d eagle). 2 9 . F i r s t n o t e d i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h R u b e n s ' s Ganymede

b y E v e r s (1942,

p p . 1 0 6 - 7 ) ; see also M a r t i n a n d B r u n o ( n o t e 28 a b o v e ) , p . 13.

41. " I o h o g i a fra t a n t o si trattava d a t o l ' u l t i m a m a n o a l l m a g g i o r p a r t e d e l l e p i t t u r e c a p p a t e d a l e i e r i d o t t e a q u e l l a p e r f e t t i o n e c h e m i e stata p o s s i b i l e , d i m a n i e r a che s p e r o V . E . sia p e r h a v e r n e i n t i e r a s o d i s f a t t i o n e , finit s o n o d i t u t t o p u n t o i l P r o m e t h e o , la L e d a , l i L e o p a r d i , i l S e b a s t i a n o , et i l P i e t r o et D a n i e l i , l i q u a l i i o s o n o p r o n t o a c o n s e g n a r c a q u e l l a p e r s o n a che l e i c o n o r d i n e espresso m i o r d i n a r a p e r r i c e v c r l i . " (I have already, d u r i n g t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s , g i v e n t h e

finishing

touch to

t h e g r e a t e r p a r t o f the p i c t u r e s c h o s e n b y y o u , a n d b r o u g h t t h e m t o w h a t p e r f e c t i o n I a m a b l e , so t h a t I h o p e y o u r E x c e l l e n c y w i l l be c o m p l e t e l y satisfied. I have e n t i r e l y finished the P r o m e t h e u s , the L e d a , the L e o p a r d s , t h e S t . S e b a s t i a n , the S t . P e t e r . . . , a n d t h e D a n i e l , a n d

30. M a r t i n a n d B r u n o ( n o t e 28), p . 13, f i g . 9. F o r the a n t i q u e statue a n d t h e c o p y d r a w i n g s , see V a n d e r M e u l e n 1 9 9 4 , v o l . 2, p p . 1 1 2 - 1 4 , n o s . 1 0 3 - 4 ; v o l . 3, figs. 181-83. 31. M a r t i n a n d B r u n o ( n o t e 28), p . 13. 32. S a i n t e n o y 1932-35, v o l . 1, p p . 73, 7 6 ; a n d K o l b 2 0 0 5 , p . 15. G o l d e n eagles are f o u n d i n the m o u n t a i n o u s r e g i o n s o f S p a i n , w h e r e F a i b e n s m a y have o b s e r v e d t h e m i n 1 6 0 3 - 0 4 . 33. H e l d 1963, p . 2 1 ; a n d S u t t o n 1 9 9 0 , p . 255. 34. L u g t 1 9 4 9 , n o . 1029; a n d S u t t o n 1983, p p . 2 5 7 - 5 8 . 35. T h e i n d i c a t i o n s o f t h e t o r s o a n d l i v e r are d i f f i c u l t t o see i n r e p r o d u c t i o n , a n d I o w e t h i s o b s e r v a t i o n t o K o s l o w 1995a, p . 3 0 6 .

I a m r e a d y t o d e l i v e r t h e m t o the p e r s o n w h o has Y o u r E x c e l l e n c y ' s express o r d e r t o r e c e i v e t h e m ) : R o o s e s a n d R u e l e n s , 1 8 8 7 - 1 9 0 9 , v o l . 2, p p . 1 6 1 - 6 2 ; t r a n s l a t e d i n M a g u r n 1955, p . 63. 4 2 . S u t t o n (1983, p p . 2 7 2 - 7 4 ) e n u m e r a t e d s o m e o f the panels a n d canvases. 4 3 . J a c o b J o r d a e n s , Prometheus

Bound

(ca. 1 6 4 0 ; C o l o g n e , W a l l r a f -

R i c h a r t z M u s e u m , i n v . 1 0 4 4 ; see B i k k e r 2 0 0 4 ) a n d D i r c k v a n B a b u r e n , Prometheus

Being

Chained

by Vulcan

(1623; A m s t e r d a m , R i j k s m u s e u m ,

i n v . sic A 1 6 0 6 ) ; f o r o t h e r c o n t e m p o r a r y t r e a t m e n t s o f t h e t h e m e , see S u t t o n 1 9 9 0 , p . 258, n n . 37, 4 0 - 4 1 . A later c o p y o f R u b e n s a n d S n y d e r s ' s canvas, t h e n i n the c o l l e c t i o n o f the M u s e e O l d e n b o u r g ( n o w i n t h e R i j k s m u s e u m c o l l e c t i o n ) was c o n s i d e r e d b y R o o s e s a n d R u e l e n s ( 1 8 8 7 - 1 9 0 9 , v o l . 2, p p . 1 4 0 - 4 1 ) a n d O l d e n b o u r g (1921, p . 74) 3

36. A l s o t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f K o s l o w 1995a, p . 306. 37. P r o p o s e d b y S u t t o n (1983, p . 275), w h o a f f i r m e d h i s p o i n t i n S u t t o n 1 9 9 0 , p p . 2 5 4 - 5 5 ; a n d B o s t o n - T o l e d o 1 9 9 3 - 9 4 , p . 241, t h i s c o n t e n t i o n w a s s u b s e q u e n t l y r e i t e r a t e d i n m o s t s o u r c e s , i n c l u d i n g R o b e l s 1989,

t o be t h e o r i g i n a l , a l t h o u g h t h e d i m e n s i o n s (189 x 2 4 0 c m [74 /s x 9 4 V 2 i n . ] ) are c o n s i d e r a b l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m the P h i l a d e l p h i a p a i n t i n g ; see also H e l d 1963, p p . 22, 2 4 ( w i t h s u b s e q u e n t p r o v e n a n c e ) . 4 4 . V a n G e l d e r 1950/51, p . 132; a n d S u t t o n 1 9 9 0 , p. 258. 45. F o r R e m b r a n d t ' s d e b t t o R u b e n s , see H e l d 1963, p p . 3 1 - 3 2 ; a n d R e z n i c e k 1977, p p . 8 8 - 9 1 .

RUBENS

A N D

SNYDERS

173

23 Peter Pau l Rubens and Frans Snyders

Diana Returnin g from the Hun t ca. 161 6 O i l o n canvas , 13 6 x 182. 5 c m (5 3 V2 x 7 1 % in. ) Dresden, Staatlich e Kunstsammlungen, Gemaldegaleri e Alte Meister , N O . 9 6 2 A

3 6 0 , 395 ; E v e r s 1942 , p p . 1 9 6 - 2 0 1 , n o . 137 ;

provenance A c q u i r e d f r o m d e W i t , A n t w e r p , i n 170 9 f o r A u g u s t u s I I " T h e Strong, " electo r o f Saxon y and k i n g o f Polan d (reigne d 1694-1733);

first m e n t i o n e d i n t h e i n v e n t o r y o f h i s c o l l e c tion o f paintings , 1722-28,

t h e n c e i n th e

R o y a l C o l l e c t i o n , a n d t h e n Stat e C o l l e c t i o n ,

B a l i s 1986 , p p . 57 , 161 ; R o b e l s 1989 , p p . 121 , 149, 3 6 2 - 6 3 , n o . 2 6 8 ; D r e s d e n 1992 , p . 332 ; B o s t o n - T o l e d o 1 9 9 3 - 9 4 , p . 3 0 ; K o s l o w 1995a , pp. 2 4 0 - 4 1 exhibitions

Dresden literature S m i t h 1 8 2 9 - 4 2 , v o l . 2 , p . 82 ; H i i b n e r 1872 ,

A n t w e r p 1977 , p . 103 , cat . n o . 4 0 ; B e r l i n 2 0 0 2 - 0 3 , p p . 1 2 6 - 2 7 , cat . n o . 4 7 ; L o n d o n 2 0 0 3 , p p . 132-35 , cat . n o . 4 3 ; J a c k s o n 2 0 0 4 , p p . 2 5 - 2 6 , cat . n o . 1.1 1

p. 202 , n o . 826 ; R o o s e s 1 8 8 6 - 9 2 , v o l . 3 , p p . 7 9 - 8 0 , n o . 597 ; W o e r m a n n 1905 , p . 312 , n o . 9 6 2 ; G l i i c k 1933 , P P - 16 0 ( n o . 133) , 185 ,

e t w e e n a b o u t 16 l 5 a n d 1 6 2 0 , r u b e ns d e v i s e d

new imager y around the them e o f the hunt . Th e physicality an d dram a of his large-scale combat s between men , their mounts, an d exotic beasts transforme d ancient an d Renaissanc e traditions for the depictio n of hunting scenes. A t the sam e time , Rubens develope d idylli c subjects tha t celebrate d nature's abundanc e an d the sensua l aspects o f the mythologica l chase . Whil e Ruben s an d his studio execute d the hunts , includin g th e animals , the mag nificence an d expressiveness o f the mythologica l subject s were enhance d b y the contribution s of eminent colleagues, notably Jan Brueghel the Elder , Frans Snyders, and Jan Wilden s ( 1 5 8 5 / 6 - 1 6 5 3 ) . Diana Returning from the Hunt i s Rubens's seminal portrayal of Diana—in i t he establishe d both th e erotic tone an d the descriptiv e visual vocabulary for subse quent treatment s o f the huntress . Th e fruit, dea d game , 4

174

rubens an d snyder s

and huntin g dogs painte d b y Snyders are sumptuou s attri butes tha t demonstrat e hi s skillfu l renderin g of diverse textures whic h complemen t the figures ' richly colore d draperies. The important , thoug h subsidiary , role played by Snyders in major figur e pictures lik e thi s one contrast s wit h Brueghel's principal shar e i n the treatment s o f Diana an d her nymph s from abou t 162 0 (cat . nos . 1 0 an d 11) , wher e h e was not onl y the painte r o f the animal s and accouterments bu t als o th e creator o f the landscape . In Diana Returning from the Hunt, th e goddes s an d her companion s encounter a gregarious ban d o f satyrs who, in keepin g with thei r mischievous and lascivious nature , tempt th e virgina l huntresse s wit h offering s o f fruit i n the hope o f seducing them. The scene i s a delightfully imagined encounter i n keeping with description s in Ovid (Metamorphoses) an d Virgil (The Aeneid, Georgics) o f the goddes s Dian a

175

convey the associated theme of bacchic revelry. Rubens por trayed the same bearded, wily satyr squeezing a bunch of grapes in a bust-length portrait from this period (fig. 9 1 ) . While the mythological themes of Diana's Punishment of Callisto and the Hunt of Actaeon had been frequently depicted by painters in the sixteenth century, particularly at the French court of Fontainebleau, Rubens established the subject of Diana's Return from the Hunt with the present painting. H e drew on his empathy for the world of classical mythology to breathe life into well-known mythological characters, in this case portraying the charged interaction between opposite types: the lusty, earthy personification of nature, the satyr, and the aloof virgin goddess. The frieze like composition, with the robust figures placed close to the picture plane and almost no landscape visible behind them, underscores the allusion to an antique past. Diagonal elements, such as Diana's spear, which separates the bands of nymphs and satyrs, and even the leaning stance of the foreground satyr, moderate the vertical formality of the pro cession of nymphs and continue through Snyders's grape stems, the beak of the curlew, and the muzzles of the inquis itive greyhounds. Witty details pervade the scene: one of the hounds warily sniffs at the (presumably malodorous) inter loper, while the satyr in the background uses his horns to balance the overflowing basket of fruit on his head as he offers a bunch of grapes to a nymph. The appeal of the Diana theme for Rubens was the opportunity to portray the beauti ful seminude goddess and her band as well as the boisterous companions of Bacchus. While the outcome of the encounter between the two groups in Diana Returning from the Hunt is provocatively indeterminate, the licentious aspects of the subject were emphasized in the caption on the print after the Dresden painting by Schelte Bolswert (ca. 1 5 8 6 - 1 6 5 9 ) dating from the early 1 6 2 0 s : "May the weary young women be a favorable prize for you: together fruit and game make a suit able feast. * 6

FIGURE

91 P e t e r P a u l R u b e n s , Two Satyrs, ca. 1617-19.

O i l o n panel,

75.5 x 61 c m (29 A x 2 4 i n . ) . M u n i c h , A l t e P i n a k o t h e k , i n v . 6 9

(Greek: Artemis), who was extolled for her fair beauty, strength of character, and chastity. In the Dresden painting, a formidably athletic Diana wears her red chiton over one shoulder, breast exposed like an Amazon (see cat. no. 1), and her hair pulled back (in this case, elegantly decorated with pearls), as she was portrayed in antique sculpture and on Roman sarcophagi. In one hand she carries a long spear and in the other holds her bounty of colorful song- and game birds. Behind her are three nymphs, one of whom carries a dead hare on the shaft of her spear and looks out at the viewer. The satyrs, bearded with short, turned horns, are wrapped in goatskins, which also serve to support the overflowing array of fruit clasped by the satyr in the foreground. H i s grape vine crown (also the work of Rubens) and laughing visage 5

176

RUBENS

A N D

SNYDERS

Despite his concurrent absorption in vigorous hunt subjects, in this period of his career Rubens never portrayed the goddess actively pursuing her quarry. H e began to depict her engaged in her favorite pastime only in the late 1 6 2 0 s . The relieflike character of the scene, profile treat ment of the female heads, and vertical division of the com position into two halves make this one of the most balanced and restrained Diana compositions painted by Rubens and Snyders between 1615 and 1620. In Diana Returning from the Hunt, the artists created a decorum appropriate to the 9

mythological subject, in which each figure behaves in accor dance with their rowdy or chaste character. Rubens and his studio expanded the scene into a full-length format with additional figures (fig. 92), a format that undercuts the monumentality achieved in the present painting with halflength figures but elaborates on the interactions between the satyrs and nymphs. Rubens's attention to decorum would have resonated in courtly circles, where hunting was a royal prerogative pursued seriously by the archdukes and by Isabella in partic ular. The hunting law issued by the archdukes in 1613 specified the rights, rules, and regulations of the hunt and underscored the traditional regional view of appropriate behavior, which required participants to hunt "fur with fur and feather with feather." With Diana Returning from the Hunt, Rubens addressed specifically the courtly and noble taste for elevated and allusive treatments of the hunt. The inventory of the archducal hunting castle, Tervuren, refers to many paintings of similar subjects, and although it is unclear whether Archduchess Isabella commissioned Diana at the Hunt and Diana^s Sleeping Nymphs Observed by Satyrs (cat. nos. 10 and 11) from Brueghel and Rubens, the subject and particularly the collection of hounds must certainly have carried an allusion to her pursuits. The popularity of such 10

images in the early seventeenth century is reflected in the collections of the artists themselves. The inventory drawn up at Rubens's death lists two paintings of Diana subjects exe cuted with Jan Brueghel, and Snyders himself possessed a "hunt" by Rubens and Brueghel. In contrast to his friend Brueghel, Snyders was adept at working on the large, expressive scale required by Rubens, producing substantial and weighty still-life elements. Frans's sojourn in Italy (1608-09) was crucial for his development of fruit motifs in particular. With the aid of a letter of intro duction from Brueghel, he met Cardinal Borromeo and would thus have known Caravaggio's striking and influential Basket of Fruit (ca. 1595-98; Milan, Pinacoteca Ambrosiana) commissioned by Borromeo, and possibly also Caravaggio's Boy with a Basket of Fruit (ca. 1593-94; Rome, Galleria Borghese). A n intriguing reference to "paintings on paper of Italian Fruit" (beschilderde papieren met Italiensche Vruchten) in Snyders's will of 1655 may allude to studies he made himself during this period. As Balis observed, Snyders's use of the motif of the split melon, for example, may reflect his exposure to Italian still life. Rubens relied heavily on Snyders to help create the visual richness that defined a genre where abundance and bounteousness were principal themes. The fruit and game elements in Diana Returning from the Hunt were Snyders's own invention as an established still-life specialist. While Rubens planned the huge still life in one of their earliest joint works, The Recognition of Philopoemen of ca. 1609 (see fig. 27), by 1611 Snyders had established an independent career. Brueghel continued to promote Snyders to Cardinal Borromeo, com menting in a letter of 1611 that Snyders had painted a tazza of different sorts of fruit. In 1613 Brueghel related to Borromeo (with Rubens acting as secretary) that Snyders had "progressed in his art" and the prices of his work had increased correspondingly. Snyders's style was close enough to Rubens's own descrip tive brushwork that contemporaries had difficulty distin guishing between them. Rubens was quick to clarify the differences for clients such as Sir Dudley Carleton. Carleton's agent, Toby Matthew, described his confusion over the authorship of a hunt scene to Carleton: "I have been in an errour, for I thought as y doe, that his [Snyders] hand had been in that peece, but sincerley and certainly it is not soe. For in this Peece the beasts are all alive, and in act eyther of escape or resistance, in the expressing whereof Snyder doth infinitlie come short of Rubens, and Rubens saith that he 14

F I G U R E 92 Peter P a u l R u b e n s a n d w o r k s h o p a n d F r a n s S n y d e r s , Returning

from 3

the Hunt,

ca. 1616. O i l o n canvas, 231 x 238 c m

(91 x 93 /4 i n . ) . D a r m s t a d t , H e s s i s c h e s L a n d e s m u s e u m , i n v . G K 180

Diana

RUBENS

AND

SNYDERS

177

FIGURE

F r a n s S n y d e r s , Studies of Four Heads of Dogs, ca. 1615.

O i l o n p a n e l , 52 x 70 c m (20V2 x 27 V2 i n . ) . F o r m e r l y B e r l i n , S t a a t l i c h e M u s e e n , K a i s e r - F r i e d r i c h - M u s e u m , i n v . 7 7 4 A ( d e s t r o y e d 1945)

should infinitlie take it in ill part, i f I should compare Snyders w him on that point. The talent of Snyders, is to represent beasts but especiallie Birds altogether dead, and wholly w o u t anie action; and that w y LP, M r . Gage, and I sawe of his hand, w we liked so well was a gruppo of dead Birds, in a picture of Diana, and certain other naked Nimphes.'' Diana Returning from the Hunt is notable among the joint treatments of the goddess and her nymphs by Rubens and his collaborators for the integration of the still-life and animal elements with the figures. The bundle of fruit, the armful of birds, and the hounds in Diana Returning from the Hunt must have been discussed in advance in order to achieve a harmonious balance between these components and the figures. Although no overall preparatory sketch for Diana Returning from the Hunt is known, the composition was almost certainly planned by Rubens, who first painted the figures. Robels considered an oil sketch of greyhounds by Snyders (fig. 93) a source for the two greyhounds on the right, and in fact the black and white hound in the lower left of the sketch appears in the Diana as w e l l . If the sketch preceded the painting, then Snyders already had a clear idea of the relationship between the hound and the hanging hare (whose ears appear in the sketch), as well as the position of Diana's spear in front of the black and white hound. Snyders planned some of the contours of the hounds in advance; a t h

c h

smaller ear can be seen in the head of the dog in the right foreground. H e also adjusted the contours of the rear dog's muzzle and ear, which were painted over the blue drapery. Rubens and Snyders enjoyed a productive and genial partnership that continued until Rubens's death. In 1628 they collaborated on two hunts of Diana destined for the Alcazar. Between 1636 and 1639, Rubens received commissions from the Spanish king Philip I V for many hunts to decorate the royal hunting lodge, the Torre de la Parada, as well as the Alcazar and Buen Retiro palaces. Snyders's participation is documented for eight of these hunting scenes, including a Diana and Her Nymphs Hunting Fallow Deer (presumed lost) and Diana and Her Nymphs Attacked by Satyrs (Madrid, Museo Nacional del Prado). In correspondence associated with this prestigious commission, their individual expertise and established division of labor were recognized by their patron, and Rubens was directed to paint the figures and landscape, while Snyders was expected to execute the animals. ATW 22

NOTES

1. T h e u n i d e n t i f i e d D e W i t c i t e d b y H i i b n e r (1872, p . 2 0 2 , g i v i n g t h e p r i c e as " 2 0 0 p i s t o l e n " ) a n d U t a N e i d h a r d t i n B e r l i n 2 0 0 2 - 0 3 (p- 126)

c h

178

RUBENS

A N D

SNYDERS

w a s p r o b a b l y t h e art d e a l e r J a c o b u s de W i t . A l a r g e n u m b e r o f p a i n t i n g s w e r e a c q u i r e d a b o u t 1710 f r o m D e W i t f o r t h e e l e c t o r a c c o r d i n g t o S t a r i n g (1958, p . 53). D e W i t w a s the u n c l e o f t h e D u t c h a r t i s t J a c o b de W i t , w h o c o l l e c t e d a n d r e t o u c h e d d r a w i n g s b y R u b e n s a n d also made drawn variations o n Rubens's compositions, including a fulll e n g t h v e r s i o n ( C a m b r i d g e , F i t z w i l l i a m M u s e u m , i n v . 2235) o f R u b e n s a n d F r a n s S n y d e r s ' s Diana

Returning

from

the Hunt

(fig. 9 2 ) ; see n o t e

10 b e l o w . F o r t h e e l d e r a n d y o u n g e r d e W i t , see S t a r i n g 1958, a n d M i c h i e l P l o m p , " C o l l e c t i n g Rubens's D r a w i n g s , " i n N e w Y o r k 2005, p p . 51-53. A c c o r d i n g t o H i i b n e r , t h e p a i n t i n g w a s a c q u i r e d i n A n t w e r p f r o m " R a s c h k e , " w h o s e i d e n t i t y is u n k n o w n , b u t w h o m a y h a v e b e e n a n a g e n t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e sale o f t h e p a i n t i n g t o t h e elector. J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r ' s Dutch Landscape

( H i i b n e r 1872, p . 182, n o . 728,

p r e s u m e d l o s t ) w a s d e s c r i b e d as p u r c h a s e d t h r o u g h R a s c h k e f r o m "Jac. de W i t . " 2. " L i t . A et B . I n v e n t a r i a Sr. K o n i g l . M a j e s t a t i n P o h l e n u n d C h u r f i i s t l . D u r c h l . z u Sachsen grofie, w i e auch kleine Cabinets u n d andere S c h i l d e r e y e n . . . " prepared by Johann A d a m Steinhauser between 1722-28, n o . A 4 8 . 3. " S r . k o n i g l . M a j . i n P o l e n u n d k u r f i i r s t l . D u r c h l . z u S a c h s e n S c h i l d e r e i I n v e n t a r i a s u b L i t . A et B . , " p r e p a r e d b y J o h a n n A d a m S t e i n h a u s e r , no. 4 8 A ; " C a t a l o g o delli q u a d r i , che s o n o n e l G a b i n e t t o d i S u a M a e s t a , " p r e p a r e d b y P i e t r o G u a r i e n t i , n o . 136; " I n v e n t a r i u m v o n d e r K o n i g l i c h e n B i l d e r - G a l e r i e z u D r e f i d e n , gefertiget M e n s : Julij & A u g u s t : 1754," p r e p a r e d b y M a t t h i a s O e s t e r r e i c h , n o . 359.

4 . T h e m o n u m e n t a l h u n t scenes c r e a t e d a b o u t 1616 i n c l u d e , f o r e x a m p l e , f o u r p a i n t i n g s a c q u i r e d b y the E l e c t o r M a x i m i l i a n o f B a v a r i a : Boar Hunt

( o i l o n canvas, 250 x 320 c m [98V8 x 126 i n . ] ; M a r s e i l l e s , M u s e e

des Beaux-Arts, inv. 103), Hippopotamus and Crocodile Hunt (oil o n

( A h u n t b y R u b e n s a n d B r u e g h e l ) v a l u e d at the s u b s t a n t i a l p r i c e o f 500 g u l d e n ; see D e n u c e 1 9 4 9 , P- 18915. F o r B r u e g h e l ' s letters, see C r i v e l l i 1868, p p . i n a n d 113. F o r C a r a v a g g i o ' s r o l e i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f s t i l l l i f e , see L a u r a L a u r e o t i ,

canvas, 248 x 321 c m [97 /s x 126V8 i n . ] ; M u n i c h , A l t e P i n a k o t h e k , i n v . 4 7 9 7 ) , Lion Hunt

( o i l o n canvas, 248 x 324 c m [97V8 x 127V2 i n . ] ;

f o r m e r l y B o r d e a u x M u s e u m , l o s t ) , a n d Tiger, Lion, and Leopard

Hunt

( o i l o n canvas, 256 x 324 c m [100 A x 127V2 i n . ] ; R e n n e s , M u s e e des B e a u x - A r t s , i n v . 811.1.10). F o r R u b e n s ' s h u n t scenes, see R o s a n d 1969 a n d B a l i s 1986.

" P a i n t i n g N a t u r e : F r u i t , F l o w e r s and Vegetables," i n L o n d o n - R o m e 2 0 0 1 , p p . 6 8 - 8 8 . F o r S n y d e r s ' e x p o s u r e t o C a r a v a g g i o , see R o b e l s 1989, p . 22; a n d K o s l o w 1995a, p . 34, 4516. See A r n o u t B a l i s , " W o r k i n g I t O u t : D e s i g n T o o l s a n d P r o c e d u r e s i n S i x t e e n t h - a n d S e v e n t e e n t h - C e n t u r y F l e m i s h A r t , " i n V l i e g h e et a l . 2 0 0 0 , p . 138.

5. F o r R u b e n s ' s f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h a n c i e n t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f A r t e m i s a n d D i a n a , see B a l i s 1986, p . 58. 6. R u b e n s a d d e d t h e s e c o n d satyr i n the M u n i c h p a n e l (see n o t e 4 a b o v e )

17. See p p . 2 5 - 2 6 i n t h i s v o l u m e . 18. " F r a n c e s c o S n y d e r s fa u n R a m o , c o n u n t a t z a de p o r c e l l a n e p e i n o

d u r i n g a later c a m p a i g n o f p a i n t i n g ; see R e n g e r a n d D e n k 2 0 0 2 ,

d i f r u t t i , d i u n i " ( F r a n s S n y d e r s has m a d e a [ p i c t u r e o n ] c o p p e r ,

pp. 366-67.

w i t h a p o r c e l a i n t a z z a f u l l o f v a r i o u s k i n d s o f f r u i t ) : C r i v e l l i 1868,

7. F o r t h e i c o n o g r a p h y o f the g o d d e s s at F o n t a i n e b l e a u , i n s p i r e d b y D i a n e de P o i t i e r s , see B a r d o n 1963. 8. " S i c v o b i s lassae s i n t p r o e m i a fausta p u e l l a e : C o n u e n i u n t e p u l i s p o m a feraeque bene." F o r the p r i n t , see V o o r h e l m S c h e e v o o g t 1873, p . 122, no. 24. I thank L o u i s M a r c h e s a n o , collections curator o f prints and d r a w i n g s , G e t t y Research Institute, for sharing his insights i n t o S c h e l t e ' s p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the c o m p o s i t i o n . 9. Observed by Balis 1986, p. 58. Rubens's Diana and Nymphs Hunting Deer, e x e c u t e d w i t h F r a n s S n y d e r s , was b r o u g h t t o M a d r i d b y R u b e n s i n 1628 b u t is n o w l o s t ; see B a l i s 1986, p p . 1 8 7 - 9 1 , n o . 13; a n d V e r g a r a 1999, p p . 4 6 , 4 8 . 10. R o b e l s (1989, P- 362) was t h e first t o p r o p o s e t h a t t h e p r e s e n t p a i n t i n g is t h e earliest v e r s i o n o f t h e c o m p o s i t i o n . A s m a l l e r c o p y o f t h e pres ent p a i n t i n g , p e r h a p s p a i n t e d i n R u b e n s ' s s t u d i o , r e c e n t l y a p p e a r e d o n t h e art m a r k e t ( o i l o n canvas, 72 x 104.1 c m [28V8 x 41 i n . ] ; S o t h e b y ' s , N e w Y o r k , J a n u a r y 28, 2 0 0 5 , l o t 581). A n o t h e r v e r s i o n o f the D a r m s t a d t canvas was f o r m e r l y l o c a t e d i n t h e D r e s d e n c o l l e c t i o n (inv. 9 8 0 ; d e s t r o y e d 1 9 4 s ) ; see R o b e l s 1989, p . 364. A d r a w i n g

p . 185 (letter o f J u n e 10, 1611). 19. "II s i g . F r a n c e s c o S n y d e r s si c o m e h a fatto d a q u e l l h o r a che v s i l c o n o b b e i n M i l a n o g r a n d i s s i m o p r o g r e s s o n e l l ' a r t e sua c o s i a n c o a p r o p o r t i o n e e cresciuto i l prezzo del opre sue" (Since the t i m e w h e n Y o u r H o n o r k n e w h i m i n M i l a n F r a n c e s c o S n y d e r s has m a d e g r e a t p r o g r e s s i n art a n d his w o r k has p r o p o r t i o n a l l y i n c r e a s e d i n p r i c e ) : C r i v e l l i 1868, p . 198 (letter o f J a n u a r y 25, 1613). 2 0 . L e t t e r o f F e b r u a r y 25, 1617; see R o o s e s a n d R u e l e n s 1 8 8 7 - 1 9 0 9 , v o l . 2, p. 9 9 . K o s l o w (1995a, p . 18) p r o p o s e d t h a t t h e p a i n t i n g o f " D i a n a a n d c e r t a i n o t h e r n a k e d N i m p h e s " m e n t i o n e d b y M a t t h e w s m a y be i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e Diana

and Her Nymphs Asleep Surprised

by Satyrs i n

L o n d o n , K e n s i n g t o n Palace ( R o y a l C o l l e c t i o n ) o r t h e r e l a t e d v e r s i o n i n G e n e v a ( M u s e e d ' A r t et d ' H i s t o i r e ) . 21. R o b e l s 1989, p . 4 0 4 , n o S K 6. R o b e l s ( p p . 4 0 4 , 5 0 5 ) also a s s o c i a t e d a drawing o f four greyhounds (Rotterdam, M u s e u m Boijmans V a n B e u n i n g e n , i n v . v 8 8 ) w i t h the D r e s d e n Diana 22. F o r the series, see B a l i s 1986, p p . 2 1 8 - 6 4 . R u b e n s ] m a n o y de Esneyre,

Returning

from

the

Hunt.

T o d a s s o n de su [ i . e . ,

d e l u n o las figuras y paises y d e l o t r o l o s

( C a m b r i d g e , F i t z w i l l i a m M u s e u m , i n v . 2235) after the D a r m s t a d t c o m

animales" ( E v e r y t h i n g by y o u r h a n d a n d by Snyders, f r o m the f o r m e r

p o s i t i o n (fig. 92) b e l i e v e d t o be b y J a c o b J o r d a e n s (1593-1678) has

the figures a n d l a n d s c a p e s a n d f r o m t h e o t h e r t h e a n i m a l s ) , q u o t e d

recently been reattributed to the eighteenth-century A n t w e r p painter-

i n B a l i s 1986, p . 228, n . 9. F o r the e v i d e n c e c o n f i r m i n g t h a t " E s n e y r e "

c o l l e c t o r J a c o b de W i t w h o , c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y , m a d e several c h a n g e s

r e f e r r e d t o F r a n s S n y d e r s , see A l p e r s 1971, p p . 117-18.

t o t h e c o m p o s i t i o n ; see M i c h i e l P l o m p ( n o t e 1 a b o v e ) , p p . 52-53. 11. See e s p e c i a l l y cat. n o s . 9, 10, a n d 11. 12. K o s l o w 1996, p . 701. See also cat. n o s . 10 a n d 11. 13. See t h e 1617 a n d 1667 i n v e n t o r i e s o f p a i n t i n g s at T e r v u r e n p u b l i s h e d b y D e M a e y e r 1955, p p . 3 3 6 - 3 7 , d o c . 134, a n d p p . 4 4 8 - 5 3 , d o c . 272. A m o n g the p a i n t i n g s l i s t e d i n t h e a n t i c a m e r ( a n t i c h a m b e r ) o f the latter (p. 452), t h r e e are i d e n t i f i e d as D i a n a subjects. 14. " A h u n t i n g e o f D i a n a ; the figures o f S r Peter R u b e n s — T h e L a n d s c h a p s a n d the beasts o f B r u g e l " ( n o . 2 6 9 ) a n d " A h u n t i n g e o f D i a n a b y P e t e r R u b e n s a n d B r u g e l " ( n o . 270) w e r e l i s t e d a m o n g R u b e n s ' s p o s s e s s i o n s ; see M u l l e r 1989, p p . 1 3 8 - 3 9 , a n d n o . 10, a n d A n t w e r p 2 0 0 4 , p p . 1 9 7 - 9 8 . T h e 1659 i n v e n t o r y o f p a i n t i n g s i n t h e estate o f F r a n s S n y d e r s i n c l u d e d " e e n J a c h t v a n R e u b e n s e n B r u e g h e l "

RUBENS

A N D

SNYDERS

179

24 Peter Paul Rubens and Frans Snyders

The Head of Medusa ca. 1617-18

O i l on canvas, 68.5 x 118 cm (27 x 4 6 V 2 in.) Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Gemaldegalerie, inv. 3834

H a i r s 1977, p . 16; Jaffe 1989, p . 232, n o . 4 4 8 ;

PROVENANCE

R o b e l s 1989, p p . 3 7 0 - 7 1 , n o . 2 7 6 ; F e r i n o -

Collection o f George Villiers, duke o f

P a g d e n 1991, P- 1 0 4 ; K o s l o w 1995a, p p . 303,

B u c k i n g h a m , b y 1635, f r o m w h i c h s o l d , l

Antwerp, 1648; sold by W i l l i a m Aylesbury to S a l o m o n C o c k , along w i t h other paintings f r o m t h e B u c k i n g h a m sale, M a y 14, 1 6 4 9 ;

3 0 6 , 3 0 8 - 1 2 ; K o s l o w 1995b, p p . 1 4 7 - 4 9 , 3 4 9 - 5 0 ; V l i e g h e 2 0 0 3 , p . 115

n o t i n the i n v e n t o r y o f A r c h d u k e L e o p o l d W i l h e l m , but p r o b a b l y b r o u g h t by his brother E m p e r o r Ferdinand III to Prague; P r a g u e i n v e n t o r y 1718, n o . 38; t r a n s f e r r e d f r o m P r a g u e t o V i e n n a 1876

EXHIBITIONS

A n t w e r p 1977, cat. n o . 27; V i e n n a 1977, cat. n o . 23; P a d u a - R o m e - M i l a n 1 9 9 0 , p . 118-12, cat. n o . 4 0 ; B o s t o n - T o l e d o 1 9 9 3 - 9 4 , p p . 35, 2 4 5 - 4 7 , cat. n o . 12; V i e n n a - E s s e n 2 0 0 2 , p p . 5 8 - 5 9 , cat. n o . 12; Braunschweig 2004, pp. 6 9 - 7 0 , 222-25,

LITERATURE

R o o s e s 1 8 8 6 - 9 2 , v o l . 3, p . 116, n o . 636; G l i i c k

cat. n o . 4 4

1928, n o . 8 4 6 ; M u l l e r H o f s t e d e 1971, p . 271;

U B E N S

U T I L I Z E D

T H E

A D V A N T A G E S

O F

P A I N T I N G

in collaboration, notably the descriptive eloquence of separate hands, to create an arresting image of Medusa's severed head. Working with the animal and stilllife specialist Frans Snyders, by this time a frequent partner, Rubens updated a traditionally iconic subject. The Head ofMedusa combines aspects of various genres, including still life, history painting, and allegory, and Rubens and Snyders reversed their usual roles of portraying people and animals that are respectively, alive and lifeless, to capture the unique power of the Gorgon's head. Medusa's pallid countenance lies on the ground at the edge of a precipice, her blackened lips parted to reveal her teeth and bloody sputum, her knit brows and rolling eyes reflecting her startled horror and rage at her fate. The mass of snakes that make up her hair seethe around her, surging in

180

RUBENS

AND

SNYDERS

all directions, even forming in the gory remains of her throat. The story of Medusa is told by O v i d . The most beautiful of the three daughters of the sea gods Phorcys and Ceto, Medusa, the only mortal, was celebrated for her beautiful hair. Her locks were transformed by Minerva into a knot of loathsome snakes after Medusa was violated by Neptune in the goddess's temple. Thereafter, anyone who looked upon this Gorgon was turned to stone. Perseus, using only the reflection in his shield, followed Medusa and decapitated her as she slept. Even once severed, Medusa's head, with its writhing mass of live snakes, continued to exert its power and was used by Perseus to transform Atlas into a moun tain and to rescue Andromeda. In one episode, after Perseus placed the head on a mat of seaweed to protect it from the sand, the Gorgon's blood transformed the seaweed into a new precious substance: coral. As Perseus traveled over Africa, 4

181

drops of blood from Medusa's head fell to the sand below and changed into snakes of many kinds. Perseus gave the head to Minerva, who mounted it upon her breastplate (aegis) and thereafter utilized its terrible transfixing power in battle. By the early seventeenth century, the iconography of the Medusa head centered on the image's apotropaic character, that is, its power (or reputed power) to avert evil or bad luck by intimidating or repelling enemies. The political and moralizing aspects of this function endowed the subject with additional levels of complexity that appealed to learned viewers, and perhaps particularly to the duke of Buckingham, one of the first owners of The Head ofMedusa. According to Ludovico Dolce, the Gorgon's head was associated with intellect or reason, which battles the opponents of virtue. Likewise, Cesare Ripa represented the triumph of reason over sensuality with an emblem depicting the Gorgon's head. A t the same time, there existed in the Netherlands a more pessimistic view of Medusa's transformative powers, one not likely to have interested Buckingham but certainly known to Rubens and Snyders. In his 1 6 0 4 treatise " O n the interpretation and explanation of Ovid's Metamorphoses" Karel van Mander asserted that Perseus was the "reason or the intellect of our souls while Medusa was the carnal desires or natural lusts which transform in mankind all reason, prudence and wisdom unto unfeeling stones." H e character ized Medusa, once proud of her hair, as "misusing God's gifts or dishonoring G o d or his commandments through pride." The opposing interpretations of the subject only served to heighten the visual effects of fascination and revul sion. For an erudite artist like Rubens, the range of inter pretations may have offered one of the appealing challenges of the subject, and the forthright presentation of Medusa's head for our scrutiny does not exclude either the positive or negative associations and interpretations. 6

However, while the Vienna canvas has often been dis cussed in the context of Renaissance and Baroque depictions of Medusa, either as painted ornamental shields or as the metalwork decoration for parade shields, The Head of Medusa in fact departs from such precedents in a number of impor tant ways. The earlier treatments of Medusa exploit its apotropaic aspects, presenting the head from the front in a confrontational and emblematic fashion. In 1568 Vasari described a Medusa head in a round format by a youthful Leonardo da Vinci (once in the Medici collection but now lost), describing the tangled serpents as "the most queer and extravagant invention." This famous work may have 9

182

RUBENS

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SNYDERS

inspired the magnificently decorated shields made by the Milanese armorers Filippo and Francesco Negroli in the mid-sixteenth century. Shields made for Emperor Charles V portray the Gorgon's head in relief, brows furrowed, eyes rolled back and mouth ajar in a silent scream, the snakes in her hair intertwined above and below her face. The Gorgon's head motif appeared frequently in political allegory, notably on the shield carried by Alessandro Farnese in a print of about 1586, which shows the governor and general as Hercules at the crossroads pursuing the path of militant Catholicism and repelling (with the help of the shield and the personification of his religious convictions) his enemies, Envy and Ungodliness. It is thought that Rubens knew Caravaggio's famous painted wooden shield, The Medusa Head on Minerva's Shield (fig. 9 4 ) , which was sent by Cardinal del Monte to Grand Duke Ferdinand of Tuscany about 1 6 0 8 . The gaping mouth and furrowed brow of this image have their origins in Caravaggio's physiognomic studies, while the gushing blood, writhing serpents, and strong illumination infuse the motif with new realism. Giambattista Marino's poem of 1620 dedicated to Cara vaggio's Medusa, then hanging in the grand duke's gallery, concludes with the flattering conceit that the duke's own valor served as the true Medusa ("la vera Medusa e i l valor vostro"). Unlike the frontal and repellent forms of Medusa found on these painted and sculpted shields, and in Caravaggio's near-mirror image, Rubens rests the Gorgon's head on the ground. The landscape format and the place ment of Medusa's visage slightly off-center emphasize the descriptive and observational presentation of Rubens's composition, while the soil and the nearby vegetation call attention to the corporeal qualities of the head. 11

The extraordinary descriptiveness of The Head of Medusa suggests that rather than focusing on allegorical connota tions, Rubens emphasized instead the image's terribilitd— its intense (and delightful) ability to inspire awe or dread. Certainly Constantijn Huygens, secretary to Stadholder Frederik Hendrik in The Hague, responded to its powerful visual impact. Huygens saw a version of the Medusa in the collection of his friend, the Amsterdam merchant Nicolaas Sohier, and his comments from 1 6 2 9 - 3 0 are worth repeating at length for their vividness and for the way in which they reveal his obvious appreciation of the painting's effect: "of his [Rubens's] many paintings, there is one that always sticks in my memory. That one I was able to see once with my friend Nicolaas Sohier, in his splendidly furnished house 16

FIGURE

C a r a v a g g i o (1571-1610), The Medusa

Head on Minerva's

Shield, 5

ca. 1597. O i l o n canvas a p p l i e d t o a p o p l a r - w o o d s h i e l d , 60 x 55 c m (23 /s x

FIGURE

X - r a d i o g r a p h s h o w i n g detail, Peter P a u l R u b e n s a n d Frans

S n y d e r s , The Head of Medusa

2i /8 i n . ) . F l o r e n c e , U f f i z i , i n v . 135

in Amsterdam. There is the compelling painted head of Medusa, wreathed by snakes that spring from her hair. The countenance of the extremely beautiful woman has its grace still preserved, but at the same time evokes the horror of the fitting beginning of death and of the wreath of hideous snakes. The combination is so shrewdly executed that the spectator would be shocked by the sudden confrontation (normally the painting is covered), but at the same time is moved by the lifelikeness and beauty with which the grim subject is rendered." As Huygens notes, the Medusa's head has a ghastly, deathly appearance, while retaining vestiges of her former beauty. The skin, with its greenish undertones, has a slightly metallic look that recalls the sculptural quality of Rubens's expressive and dynamic early works in Antwerp and effectively connotes death. Unlike Rubens's personi fications of snake-haired Envy, which have the generalized, haggard features of a type (see, for example, Envy/Invidia peering out of the right background of The Crowning of Virtue, fig. 38), Medusa is not abstracted. 17

Prohaska dated the painting to about 1617/18 based in part on the resemblance between Medusa and the head of a possessed woman in the great Miracles of Saint Ignatius altarpiece of 1618 (Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum). At about this time, Rubens employed similarly horrified expressions for the tormented and damned in the Great Last Judgment (1617; Munich, Alte Pinakothek). A n X-radiograph of the Vienna painting (fig. 95) reveals that Medusa origi nally was painted with her black, pointed tongue extended, an aspect that was perhaps deemed too horrific by Rubens. In contrast to Medusa's visage, the snakes are extremely mobile and very much alive. They recall the Roman poet Lucan's contention in Pharsalia that her snakes actively kept watch while she slept and protected Medusa's face. Those that emerge from her blood recall the Ovidian description of snakes being birthed from drops of the Gorgon's blood. As Sutton has shown, the snakes themselves are common European water snakes (Natrix natrix), a nonvenomous species. Koslow identified the grappling pair on the right as 19

RUBENS

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SNYDERS

183

vipers, which in their exhibition of mating behavior carried strong associations of evil. Other noxious and fearsome animals have been included on the bare earth of the ledge, including spiders, the magnificent European fire salamander (Salamandra salamandra), and the mythical two-headed amphisbaena, which follows a description by Pliny. Snakes were not frequently depicted in Flemish painting. One of the most extraordinary and often overlooked examples occurs in Frans Floris's Fall of the Rebel Angels (1554; Antwerp, Koninklijk Museum voor Schone Kunsten), the altarpiece of the swordsman's guild in Antwerp Cathedral, in which one of the rebel angels has serpent tresses, while in the lower right corner vipers attack a rat. Snakes appear in only a few works by Snyders; his detailed rendering of scales in The Head ofMedusa may derive from sixteenth-century bronze snakes cast from live specimens by the Paduan sculptor Andrea Riccio ( 1 4 7 0 / 7 5 - 1 5 3 2 ) and the German gold smith Wenceslas Jamnitzer ( 1 5 0 7 / 8 - 1 5 8 5 ) , among others. One of the central questions about this image must be why Rubens chose to execute it in collaboration with another artist. H e must have felt that terribilita would be best achieved by working with a specialist. Sir Dudley Carleton's agent recounted that Rubens, who was skilled in the repre sentation of animals and had already painted a large and vicious hunt of wolves and foxes, pointedly stated that he disliked comparison with Snyders, whose skill was depicting "beasts but especiallie Birds altogether dead." In the Medusa, intriguingly, it was Rubens who painted the still life. The painting's traditional and earliest attribution to Rubens and Snyders is maintained here, but the identity of Rubens's coworker is still debated. Following the 1635 Buckingham inventory attribution to "Rubens and Subter" (very likely Snyders), it was sold in 1648 as a Rubens, an attribution maintained until Rooses proposed Jan Brueghel the Elder as Rubens's coworker in 1892, while also noting a suggested attribution to Snyders. However, Brueghel's lively, graphic brushwork cannot be discerned here. G . Heinz proposed the involvement of Paul de Vos ( 1 5 9 1 - 1 6 7 8 ) . The possibility that Rubens, who certainly contributed some of the reptile forms, particularly those with their roots in Medusa's scalp, may have painted The Head ofMedusa with out assistance has recently been reconsidered. However, the forms of the serpents are polished and opaque and articulated with the bright crisp highlights that are charac teristic of Snyders's treatment of still-life objects. Unlike Rubens's earlier grand-scale collaborative works with Frans 21

Snyders, such as Prometheus Bound (cat. no. 22) and The Recognition of Philopoemen (see fig. 2 6 ) , for which he designed the entire composition, no preparatory sketch by Rubens for this composition survives. Snyders may have added the serpents to the head laid down by Rubens, who perhaps returned to apply finishing touches to the white drapery on the right side, as well as the touches of b l o o d . The sale of the present painting in Antwerp in 1648 enabled artists to copy it, including the Flemish artist Victor WolfVoet ( 1 6 1 2 - 1 6 5 2 ) . The same occasion may also have provided the opportunity for Jan van Kessel the Younger ( 1 6 2 6 - 1 6 7 9 ) to copy some of the animals. The snakes are incorporated into his imaginative scene of Angola for the Asia portion of the series the Four Parts of the Earth ( 1 6 6 4 6 6 ; Munich, Alte Pinakothek), while the fire salamander appears among a myriad of studies in Insects and Reptiles (ca. 1 6 5 0 - 6 0 ; Bonn, Rheinisches Landesmuseum). A T W 28

N O T E S

1. P r o b a b l y t h e p a i n t i n g d e s c r i b e d as " R u b e n s a n d S u b t e r [sic] — M e d u s a ' s h e a d w i t h s n a k e s " ( M a y 11, 1635); see D a v i e s 1 9 0 6 - 0 7 , p. 379. D e s c r i b e d i n t h e 1648 a u c t i o n c a t a l o g u e as " B y R u b e n s . M e d u s a ' s H e a d " : F a i r f a x 1758, p . 15, n o . 8. 2. " N o . 7 0 . I t e m u n e p e i n t u r e d e l a T e i t e d e M e d u z a de R u b e n s " :

2 6

184

RUBENS AND SNYDERS

D u v e r g e r 1 9 8 4 - , v o l . 5, p . 4 8 2 , d o c . 1559; see also B o s t o n - T o l e d o 1 9 9 3 - 9 4 , p . 245. 3. T h e a n i m a l s are a t t r i b u t e d t o F r a n s S n y d e r s a n d P a u l d e V o s . 4 . Metamorphoses

4.617-803.

5. T h e subject appears i n a d r a w i n g , Perseus Disarming Coral,

and the Origin

after G i u l i o R o m a n o ' s d r a w i n g o f t h e s a m e s u b j e c t ( L o n d o n ,

B r i t i s h M u s e u m , i n v . 1895-9-15-645), w h i c h has b e e n a t t r i b u t e d t o R u b e n s b y M . Jaffe (1977, p . 4 4 ) a n d D . Jaffe ( i n C a n b e r r a M e l b o u r n e 1992, p p . 1 9 1 - 9 4 , cat. n o . 7 6 ) , b u t d i s p u t e d b y W o o d ( i n E d i n b u r g h - N o t t i n g h a m 2 0 0 2 , p p . 6 1 - 6 2 , cat. n o . 38). 6. W . P r o h a s k a i n V i e n n a 1977, p . 83; a n d W . P r o h a s k a i n V i e n n a - E s s e n 2 0 0 2 , p . 58. A l t h o u g h The Head of Medusa

is r e c o r d e d i n t h e 1635

i n v e n t o r y o f t h e d u k e o f B u c k i n g h a m ' s c o l l e c t i o n , i t is n o t clear w h e n he a c q u i r e d t h e p a i n t i n g . T h e d u k e , w h o m e t R u b e n s i n P a r i s i n 1625, c o m m i s s i o n e d an equestrian portrait o f himself a n d a ceiling p a i n t i n g The Glorification of the Duke of Buckingham, which were p l e t e d i n 1627. B o t h w e r e d e s t r o y e d i n 1949 b u t are r e p r e s e n t e d today by o i l sketches: Glorification of the Duke of Buckingham (London, N a t i o n a l G a l l e r y , i n v . 187) a n d Equestrian

Portrait

of the Duke of

Buckingham (Fort W o r t h , Texas, K i m b e l l A r t M u s e u m , inv. A P 76.8); see H e l d 1980, p p . 3 9 0 - 9 5 . T h e d u k e b o u g h t a l a r g e g r o u p o f a n t i q u i ties a n d o t h e r w o r k s o f art f r o m R u b e n s a b o u t 1627.

w e e r g e g e v e n " : H u y g e n s / H c e s a k k e r s 1987, p p . 8 0 - 8 1 . F o r S o h i e r ' s

7. D o l c e 1913, p . 1 4 0 ; a n d R i p a 1603, p . 4 2 6 ; q u o t e d b y P r o h a s k a i n V i e n n a 1977. F o r o t h e r uses o f t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , see also S u t t o n i n

p a i n t i n g , w h i c h r e m a i n e d i n A m s t e r d a m u n t i l the m i d d l e o f the e i g h

B o s t o n - T o l e d o 1 9 9 3 - 9 4 , p . 247, n . 6.

t e e n t h c e n t u r y , see R o b c l s 1989, p . 371.

8. " . . . d a t Perseus is te g h e l i j c k e n , oft b e d u y d t de r e d e l i j c k h e y t , oft

18.

g e n t h e y t , oft n a t u e r l i j c k e w e l l u s t i c h e y t d i e d e n M e n s c h e n a l l e n c x b e n e m e n d e alle r e d e l i j c k h e y t v o o r s i c h t i c h e y t e n w i j s h e y t d o e t v e r a n deren en w o r d e n gelijck onbevoelijcke steenen;" " O o c k w o r d t by h a e r [ M e d u s a ] g h e l e e r t d a t m e n de G o d l i j c k e g a v e n n i e t b e h o o r t te m i s b r u y c k e n n o c h d o o r d e r t e l h o o g h m o e d t G o d t oft z i j n g h e b o d e n te v e r a c h t e n g h e l i j c k sy o p haer s c h o o n h e y t e n s c h o o n h a y r

G l i i c k 1928 d a t e d The Head of Medusa

ca. 1610 a n d a t t r i b u t e d it t o

Rubens.

het v e r s t a n d t o n s e r S i e l e n , e n M e d u s a de v l e e s c h e l i j c k e q u a d e g h e n e 19.

P r o h a s k a i n V i e n n a 1977, p . 83.

20.

K o s l o w 1995b, p . 148.

21. S u t t o n i n B o s t o n - T o l e d o 1 9 9 3 - 9 4 , p. 2 4 7 ; a n d K o s l o w 1995b, p . 147. 22.

See B a l i s i n A n t w e r p 1982, p . 45 ( w i t h a reference t o C . P l i n i u s

v e r h o o v e e r d i g h t d e d e " : V a n M a n d e r 1 6 0 4 , b o o k 4 , f o l . 3 9b; q u o t e d

S e c u n d u s , Naturalia

b y S u t t o n i n B o s t o n - T o l e d o 1 9 9 3 - 9 4 , p . 247. W h i l e K o s l o w

1 9 9 3 - 9 4 , p- 2 4 7 ; a n d K o s l o w 1995b, p. 148.

historiae

libri 38.7.85); S u t t o n i n B o s t o n - T o l e d o

(1995b) e x p l o r e d p o s s i b l e m i s o g y n i s t t h e m e s i n the i c o n o g r a p h y o f M e d u s a , i t is n o t clear t h a t these w e r e R u b e n s ' s i n t e n d e d

meanings

23. T h e o n l y o t h e r c o m p o s i t i o n b y S n y d e r s i n w h i c h snakes figure p r o m i n e n t l y is The Eagles and the Dead

for the p a i n t i n g .

Wolf (cz. 1 6 1 0 - 3 0 , o i l o n canvas,

164 x 238 c m [ 6 4 / 8 x 93V4 i n . ] ; P a r i s , M u s e e de la C h a s s e et de l a 9. P r o h a s k a p r o v i d e d a d e t a i l e d a c c o u n t o f these p r e c e d e n t s i n V i e n n a

N a t u r e , o n d e p o s i t at the C h a t e a u C h a m b o r d , i n v . 71-1-1); see R o b c l s 1989, p p . 315-16, n o . 2 0 9 ; a n d K o s l o w 1995b, p . 147.

197710.

" a n i m a l a c c i o m o l t o o r r i b i l e e s p a v e n t o s s o , r a p p r e s t a n d o l o effeto

2 4 . L e t t e r o f F e b r u a r y 25, 1617, f r o m T o b y M a t t h e w t o S i r D u d l e y

stesso che la testa g i a d i M e d u s a " : V a s a r i 1 9 6 6 - , v o l . 4 , p p . 2 1 - 2 2 .

C a r l e t o n ; see R o o s e s a n d R u e l e n s 1 8 8 7 - 1 9 0 9 , v o l . 5, p . 9 9 . See also

L e o n a r d o ' s w o r k is d i s c u s s e d i n r e l a t i o n t o the p r e s e n t w o r k b y

cat. n o . 23.

P r o h a s k a i n V i e n n a 1977, p . 82. 11. Medusa

Shield of Charles

V (1541; M a d r i d , R e a l A r m e r i a , i n v . D 6 4 0 ;

see N e w Y o r k 1998-99, pp. 177-79, cat. no. 32) and Medusa Shield (ca. 1550-55; V i e n n a , H o f j a g d - u n d R i i s t k a m m e r des K u n s t h i s t o r i s c h e n M u s e u m s , i n v . A 6 9 3 a ; see N e w Y o r k 1 9 9 8 - 9 9 , p p . 2 1 6 - 2 4 , cat. n o . 4 2 ; a n d P f a f f e n b i c h l e r i n V i e n n a 1987, p p . 1 4 8 - 5 0 ) . 12.

25.

F o r the 1635 a n d 1648 references, see n o t e s 1 a n d 2 a b o v e .

26.

M e n t i o n e d b y P r o h a s k a i n V i e n n a 1977, p . 83.

27.

P r o h a s k a i n V i e n n a - E s s e n 2 0 0 2 , p . 58.

28.

T h i s p o s s i b i l i t y is s u g g e s t e d b y a s i m i l a r a d j u s t m e n t o b s e r v e d b y G a y o G a r c i a a n d V e r g a r a i n The Recognition

of Philopoemen

(see fig. 2 6 ) ; see

G a y o Garcia and Vergara 2004.

B y G i j s b e r t v a n V e e n after a d e s i g n b y O t t o v a n V e e n ; see A n t w e r p 1993, p p . 2 6 9 - 7 0 , cat. n o . 123. 29.

13. A c c o r d i n g t o the I t a l i a n p a i n t e r a n d b i o g r a p h e r G i o v a n n i B a g l i o n e

T h e c o p y is s i g n e d V I C T O R W O L F V O E T ( o i l o n canvas, 44.5 x 59 c m [17V2 x 23 V4 i n . ] ; D r e s d e n , S t a a t l i c h e K u n s t s a m m l u n g e n ,

(ca. 1 5 6 6 - 1 6 4 3 ) ; see F r i e d l a e n d e r 1955, P- 157, n o . 13. F r i e d l a e n d e r

G e m a l d e g a l e r i e , i n v . 1050); see P r o h a s k a i n V i e n n a 1977, p . 81; a n d

(p. 87) discusses the c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n C a r a v a g g i o ' s w o r k a n d t h a t

R o b e l s 1989, p . 371. A n o t h e r p a i n t i n g o f the s a m e subject, " ' t H o o f t

o f R u b e n s a n d S n y d e r s . See also H e i k a m p 1966, p p . 6 2 - 7 6 ; a n d

van M e d u s a , v a n F e y t [the a n i m a l p a i n t e r J a n F y t ] , " a p p e a r e d i n

P r o h a s k a i n V i e n n a 1977, p . 82.

the estate o f E r a s m u s Q u e l l i n u s , 1678; see S u t t o n i n B o s t o n - T o l e d o 1 9 9 3 - 9 4 , p . 247, n . 1.

14. F r i e d l a e n d e r 1955, p p . 8 7 - 8 9 . 15. G i a m b a t t i s t a M a r i n o , Galeria Distinta

( V e n i c e , 1620), p . 28; q u o t e d i n

F r i e d l a e n d e r 1955, p p . 8 8 - 8 9 . See also P r o h a s k a i n V i e n n a 1977, p . 83.

30.

See R e n g e r a n d D e n k 2 0 0 2 , p. 2 3 7 - 4 0 ; a n d V i e n n a - E s s e n 2 0 0 2 , pp. 9 8 - 9 9 .

16. A l t e r n a t i v e l y i d e n t i f i e d b y H e i n e n as the " ^ ^ - E f f e k t e " i n B r a u n s c h w e i g 2 0 0 4 , p. 224. 17. " V a n z i j n vele s c h i l d e r i j e n is er e e n , dat m i j a l t i j d is b i j g e b l e v e n . D a t k r e e g i k een keer te z i e n bij m i j n v r i e n d N i c o l a a s S o h i e r , i n d i e n s p r a c h t i g i n g e r i c h t e h u i s i n A m s t e r d a m . D a a r o p is het

afgehouwen

h o o f d v a n M e d u s a g e s c h i l d e r d , o m k r a n s t d o o r s l a n g e n d i e u i t haar haar o n t s p r u i t e n . H e t gelaat v a n de w o n d e r s c h o n e v r o u w heeft z i j n g r a t i e n o g b e w a a r d , m a a r t e g e l i j k w e k t het a f g r i j z e n d o o r de z o j u i s t i n g e t r e d e n d o o d e n d o o r de k r a n s v a n a f z i c h t e l i j k e s l a n g e n . D e c o m b i n a t i e is z o geraffineerd u i t g e v o e r d , dat de t o e s c h o u w e r d o o r de p l o t s e l i n g e c o n f r o n t a t i e ( n o r m a a l is het s c h i l d e r i j n a m e l i j k afgedekt) g e s c h o k t w o r d t , m a a r t e g e l i j k de o n t r o e r i n g o n d e r g a a t v a n de l e v e n s e c h t h e i d e n de s c h o o n h e i d , w a a r m e e het w r e d e o n d e r w e r p is

RUBENS

A N D SNYDERS

185

25 Jan Brueghel the Elder

The Sermon on the Mount 1598

O i l on copper, 26.7 x 36.8 cm (10V2 x 14V2 in.) Los Angeles, J. Paul Getty Museum, 84.PC.71 Exhibited in Los Angeles only

INSCRIPTION

A t l o w e r left, B R V E G H E L 1598 PROVENANCE

LITERATURE

E r t z 1979, p p . 9 0 , 9 2 , 4 2 9 , 4 3 1 - 3 2 , 5 6 6 , n o . 53; W e l u 1983, p . 35, n . 6; F r e d e r i c k s e n 1985, p . 261; K o l b 2 0 0 5 , p . 41

Private collection, V i e n n a , Austria; purchased b y D a v i d G o l d m a n , N e w Y o r k , 1935; b y inheritance to a private collection, N e w Y o r k ;

EXHIBITION

V i e n n a 1935, cat. n o . 25

s o l d S o t h e b y ' s , N e w Y o r k , A p r i l 19, 1984, lot 4 4 ; purchased by N o o r t m a n & B r o d , L t d . , N e w Y o r k , f r o m w h o m a c q u i r e d b y the J. P a u l G e t t y M u s e u m , 1984

N T H E E A R L Y Y E A R S A F T E R J A N B R U E G H E L R E T U R N E D

from Italy in 1596, he artfully combined thematic and figural references to his Northern predecessors, particu larly his father, Pieter Bruegel the Elder, with the expressive compositional innovations accumulated during his sojourn to create lush and sophisticated landscapes. The Sermon on the Mount, which has a visual impact beyond its small scale, exemplifies Brueghel's unique command of dramatic land scape settings and his ability to compose richly descriptive multifigure scenes. The work is painted on copper, and Brueghel's luminous palette and refined yet energetic brushwork together create a precious, jewel-like picture intended for close scrutiny. Though long considered to depict the Preaching of Saint John the Baptist, the present painting can be firmly identified as the Sermon on the Mount, a subject tentatively proposed

186

BRUEGHEL

by Ertz, who acknowledged that some of its features were incompatible with the more common theme of the Baptist Preaching. In the center of a large crowd, Christ stands on a rustic podium composed of branches, with the apostles behind him, and fervently addresses his audience. More and more followers ascend the hillside to join the throng, which is made up of people of different nationalities and stations in life. The scene is the first instance in the Gospels where Christ's teachings are described in some detail. According to Matthew (5:1-12), "when Christ saw the multi tudes, he went up into a mountain, and when he was set, his disciples came unto him, and he opened his mouth, and taught them," beginning with the Eight Beatitudes, or conditions of blessedness.2 Unlike the forest preaching of Saint John the Baptist (Luke 3:1-17; Matthew 3:1-17), which was widely depicted by Flemish landscape painters of the 1

187

FIGURE

9 6 P i e t e r B r u e g e l t h e E l d e r , Sermon of Saint John the Baptist,

1566. O i l o n p a n e l , 9 4 . 9 x 160.7 c m (37V8 x 63 V4 i n . ) . B u d a p e s t , S z e p m i i v e s z e t i

M u s e u m , i n v . 51 2829

early and mid-sixteenth century, the Sermon on the Mount was a highly unusual subject. Brueghel might well have known Cosimo Rosselli and Piero di Cosimo's fresco devoted to the theme in the Sistine Chapel (ca. 1481), for example, as a result of his residence in Rome, although it was not a source for this scene. Instead, Brueghel's atmospheric treat ment offers a creative refashioning of late-sixteenth-century Flemish landscape modes to vividly describe the festive atmos phere and excitement of the event. The Sermon belongs to a group of landscapes with reli gious subjects, including themes from the life of Christ, executed around 1598, which invert the relationship between the religious subject and its setting. Notably, the Sermon reflects Jan's concurrent absorption in Pieter Bruegel the Elder's Sermon of Saint John the Baptist of 1566 (fig. 9 6 ) , which Jan painted in two versions in 1598: the large panel in Munich, signed and dated 1598, and the version in Basel 3

188

B R U E G H E L

(Kunstmuseum). In the 1566 composition, Pieter Bruegel packed a colorful multitude of figures between the tree trunks framing a forest clearing, almost obscuring the earnest figure of Saint John the Baptist, just left of center. Painted in the year of the iconoclastic outbreaks in the L o w Countries, Pieter's Sermon has been interpreted as an allusion to the Protestant hedge preachers who had sprung up in the countryside in response to harsh anti-Protestant Habsburg policies. However, the significance of Pieter's Sermon for painters was not its political associations, i f indeed those were his intention, but rather the transformation of the theme from an earlier landscape tradition into a rationale for portraying the great variety of humanity. Among the diverse, colorfully attired figures are scattered more recog nizable Netherlandish types in contemporary dress who are seen from behind, as i f the viewer too is a spectator. The seated woman with an infant is Egyptian, while the elabo5

rate slashed pantaloons of the standing man on the right signify his Asian origins. The man with the fur-trimmed hat just in front of him bears a resemblance to a contemporary depiction of a Tartar. The larger scale of the spectators at the edges of the crowd draws attention to their activities and their dissociation from the divine event taking place a short distance away. In his Munich and Basel versions of the theme, Jan reiterated all of the colorful elements of the scene, but leveled the terrain and altered its color harmonies by employing a cooler, bluer palette. The Sermon on the Mount, however, stands apart from the versions depicting Saint John the Baptist. While Jan bor rowed the eloquent gesture of Christ's delivery from the 1566 Sermon (though in reverse), the figure in the Los Angeles painting does not wear the Baptist's shaggy dark brown skins, but rather a short, belted tunic. Unlike the woodland sermon depicted by Pieter in which Christ appears to the right of the saint, no such prominent secondary figure can be found in the present painting. Rather, the radiance around the figure's head identifies him as Christ, and the group of bearded men around and behind him as the apostles. The view over a port to the peaks beyond alludes to the elevated location of the gathering, as well as to the city of Capernaum and the Sea of Galilee. The skeleton of a horse in the right foreground was a favorite motif of Jan's, which appears along the dirt roads of his forest scenes as a more general reference to the arduousness of life. Brueghel employed a similar reverse organization of reli gious themes and bustling surroundings in two other scenes from the life of Christ from 1598. As in the Los Angeles Sermon, onlookers at the fringe of Calvary (fig. 9 7 ) appear oblivious to the crucifixion of Christ in the distance. The minute figure of Christ in Harbor Scene with Christ Preaching (fig. 9 8 ) is embedded among the busy exchanges of the port and the fish market in the foreground. Brueghel was influenced by Joachim Beuckelaer (ca. 1534-ca. 1574), an Antwerp contemporary of his father, whose fish markets included biblical subjects in the background. Some of the figures around the central foreground group in the Munich Harbor Scene are derived from Beuckelaer's 1563 Miraculous Draft of Fishes (Los Angeles, J. Paul Getty Museum). Like his father's treatment of Saint John the Baptist, The Sermon on the Mount is filled with an astonishing assort ment of figures and delightful vignettes that emphasize the dissociation of many from the message of God. Here can be seen one of the earliest instances of Jan's extraordinary 6

ability to describe costume and facial features on a minute scale, coupled with a sensitive and effective use of color that moves the eye through the scene. A number of notable figures are drawn directly from Pieter's 1566 composition, such as the gypsy and child in the foreground, as well as the fortune-teller reading the palm of an elegantly dressed gentleman. The woman in the middle distance wearing a pink gown and carrying a pack and staff is found in the 1566 composition in the left foreground. The striking red-andblue-appareled Landsknecht (a mercenary foot soldier) behind her in the Sermon also derives from the 1566 panel. Like Pieter, Jan included headgear typical of the Near East, including the flat sun hat of the foreground woman and the turbans of Turkish viewers. 10

To these received motifs Brueghel added characters of his own who appear in other compositions of about the same date. The woman resplendently attired in yellow, who approaches the crowd with her companions from the right, wears her hair in a mitre. According to Welu, this distinctive style of headdress was worn by fashionable women in north Italy and appears in Brueghel's Port Scene in Venice (ca. 1 6 0 0 ; private collection). She and her companion in pink also appear in the 1598 Landscape with Toung Tobias (Liechtenstein Collection) and in the 1598 Munich panel (fig. 9 8 ) , along with the decidedly Flemish woman with the bright blue underskirt and a basket over her arm, and the boy in red and black. The two Capuchin friars attending the fish market in the Munich panel converse at the edge of the crowd in the Sermon. The seated woman stroking a small white dog recurs in the Tobias. Brueghel's assembly also reflects the diversity of humanity—on its fringes, persons from different levels of society mingle, some pleasantly, as in the central group around the pretzel vendor, others, such as the gentle man having his palm read, with some concern, while the boy behind the hunter on the left simply seems bored. 11

Allusions to the 1566 Sermon of Saint John the Baptist not withstanding, The Sermon on the Mount represents a depar ture from the 1566 compositional type and reflects Jan's introduction of ideas from his southern travels along with his own emerging treatment of multifigure landscapes. Brueghel's friendship with the Flemish expatriate Paul Bril ( 1 5 5 3 / 5 4 - 1 6 2 6 ) in Rome was an important influence on his landscape style. Some of Brueghel's early forest landscapes employ trees in an architectural fashion, with long trunks and arching branches mimicking the forms of ancient monu ments. In the Sermon, Jan opened up the circumscribed 13

B R U E G H E L

189

F I G U R E 97 J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r , Calvary,

1598. O i l o n c o p p e r , 36.3 x 55.2 c m ( 1 4 x 21V4 i n . ) . M u n i c h ,

A l t e P i n a k o t h e k , i n v . 823 F I G U R E 9 8 J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r , Harbor (31V4

190

BRUEGHEL

Scene with Christ Preaching,

x 4 6 / 4 i n . ) . M u n i c h , A l t e P i n a k o t h e k , i n v . 187

1598. O i l o n p a n e l , 7 9 . 4 x 118.7 c m

setting o f the elde r BruegeP s 156 6 Sermon of Saint John the Baptist i n to a spaciou s glade . Characteristically , eve n o n thi s

K u n s t m u s e u m , i n v . 139) ; se e E r t z 1979 , p p . 7 9 , 4 2 9 - 3 0 , 4 5 9 , 566 , n o . 51 ; a n d R e n g e r a n d D e n k 2 0 0 2 , p p . 8 2 - 8 3 .

miniature scale , Ja n realize s th e expansivenes s o f the " w o r l d

5. Se e G r o s s m a n n 1973 , p . 6 6 ; a n d M a r i j n i s s e n e t a l . 1988 , p p . 3 0 4 - 5 .

view." T h e rusti c f o r u m , screene d i n th e rea r b y dens e

6. D i s c u s s e d b y K a v a l e r 1999 , p p . 1 8 0 - 8 1 .

foliage, i s balance d b y th e sweepin g vist a ove r a por t t o distant mountains . Brueghel' s c o o l palett e fo r thi s v i e w wa s part o f well-established N o r t h e r n practice i n w h i c h land scapes wer e separate d i n t o a b r o w n - t i n t e d f o r e g r o u n d, a green m i d d l e g r o u n d, an d a blu e b e y o n d t o creat e spatia l recession. H o w e v e r , in th e Sermon B r u e g h e l e m p l o y ed c o m plex l i g h t i n g technique s t o defin e th e audience . Figure s in the f o r e g r o u n d ar e brilliantl y i l l u m i n a t e d , w h i l e thos e i n a w i d e zon e a r o u n d th e attentiv e (perhap s seated? ) listener s are i n shadow . T h e c r o w d closes t t o C h r i s t i s sharpl y define d by b r i g h t i l l u m i n a t i o n create d t h r o u g h th e us e o f a sof t palette. Brueghel' s sophisticated light effect s anticipat e A d a m Elsheimer's us e o f light i n w o r ks suc h a s th e Stoning of Saint Stephen (1602 ; E d i n b u r g h , N a t i o n a l Gallery) , wher e heavenl y i l l u m i n a t i o n accentuate s th e dram a o f the scene , A T W

7. Se e K a v a l e r 1999 , p . 181 , f o r th e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f C h r i s t ' s p r o m i n e n t p o s i t i o n a s th e m a i n focu s o f Pieter' s B u d a p e s t panel . 8. S i g n e d a n d d a t e d B R V E G H E L 1598 ; se e E r t z 1979 , p p . 8 0 , 4 3 3 - 3 7 , 566 , n o . 54 ; a n d R e n g e r a n d D e n k 2 0 0 2 , p p . 9 0 - 9 1 . 9. S i g n e d a n d d a t e d B R V E G H E L 1598 ; se e E r t z 1979 , p p . 33 , 36 , 38 , 4 1 , 8 4 , 9 0 , 9 2 - 9 4 , 172 , 4 3 2 - 3 6 , 565 , n o . 4 6 ; a n d R e n g e r a n d D e n k 2 0 0 2 , pp. 85-87 . 10. Se e K a v a l e r 1 9 9 9 , p . 180 . 11. W e l u (1983 , p . 32 ) r e p r o d u c e s " F e m i n a r u m V e n e t a r u m O r n a t u s (The Dres s o f th e W o m e n f r o m V e n i c e ) , " a detai l f r o m Piete r va n de n K e r r e ' s m a p o f I t a l y (1616 ; M u n i c h , B a y e r i s c h e S t a a t s b i b l i o t h e k ) . 12. F o r th e L i e c h t e n s t e i n p a i n t i n g ( s i g n e d a n d d a t e d B R V E G H E L 1598) , se e E r t z 1979 , p p . 4 1 - 4 7 , 81 , 93 , 178 , 4 7 9 , 565 , n o . 4 7 ; a n d U w e W i e c z o r c k in E s s e n - V i e n n a 1997-98 , pp . 150-54 . 13. F o r B r u e g h e l ' s f r i e n d s h i p w i t h B r i l , se e E r t z 1979 , p p . 9 2 - 9 4 ; B e d o n i 1983, p p . 3 8 - 4 8 ; a n d p . 6 i n t h i s v o l u m e . 14. Se e p . 7 i n t h i s v o l u m e .

N O T E S

1. E r t z (1979 , pp - 4 2 9 - 3 2 ) c a t a l o g u e d t h e L o s A n g e l e s p a i n t i n g ( t h e n i n a privat e c o l l e c t i o n i n V i e n n a ) a s on e o f thre e autograp h w o r k s b y Ja n B r u e g h e l th e E l d e r o n t h e t h e m e o f S a i n t J o h n th e B a p t i s t P r e a c h i n g , o u t o f m o r e tha n t w o d o z e n attribute d t o h i m . E r t z correctl y ques t i o n e d t h e d a t e , g i v e n i n th e 193 5 e x h i b i t i o n c a t a l o g u e a s 1594 , n o t i n g t h e w o r k ' s affinitie s w i t h Jan' s o u t p u t f r o m th e lat e 1590s . E r t z als o e x p r e s s e d r e s e r v a t i o n s a b o u t th e subject , w h i c h h e fel t r e l a t e d b o t h t o P i e t e r B r u e g e l th e E l d e r ' s 156 6 B u d a p e s t Sermon of Saint John the Baptist a n d A d a m E l s h e i m e r ' s Preaching of

Saint John.

2. "(3 ) B l e s s e d ar e t h e p o o r i n s p i r i t : f o r t h e i r s i s t h e k i n g d o m o f h e a v e n . ( 4 ) B l e s s e d ar e t h e y t h a t m o u r n : f o r t h e y s h a l l b e c o m f o r t e d . (5 ) B l e s s e d ar e t h e m e e k : f o r t h e y s h a l l i n h e r i t t h e e a r t h . (6 ) B l e s s e d ar e t h e y w h i c h d o h u n g e r a n d t h i r s t afte r r i g h t e o u s n e s s : f o r t h e y s h a l l be r i l l e d . (7 ) B l e s s e d ar e th e m e r c i f u l : f o r t h e y s h a l l o b t a i n m e r c y . (8) B l e s s e d ar e th e p u r e i n h e a r t : f o r t h e y s h a l l se e G o d . (9 ) B l e s s e d are t h e p e a c e m a k e r s : f o r t h e y s h a l l b e c a l l e d t h e c h i l d r e n o f G o d . (10) B l e s s e d ar e t h e y w h i c h ar e p e r s e c u t e d f o r r i g h t e o u s n e s s ' sake : f o r theirs i s th e k i n g d o m o f heaven. " M a t t h e w 5:3-1 0 ( K i n g Jame s Version). 3. T h e subjec t w a s d e p i c t e d i n s e v e r a l v e r s i o n s b y H e r r i m e t d e B l e s ( b o r n ca . 1510) , a m o n g o t h e r s ; se e G i b s o n 1989 , p p . 2 7 - 2 9 . 4 . J a n B r u e g h e l th e E l d e r , Sermon of Saint John the Baptist ( s i g n e d a t l o w e r r i g h t , B R V E G H E L 1598 , o i l o n p a n e l , 4 1 x 5 9 c m [1 6 Vs x 23 A i n . ] ; M u n i c h , A l t e P i n a k o t h e k , i n v . 834 ) a n d Preaching of L

John the

Baptist ( t e m p e r a o n p a n e l , 11 5 x 16 4 c m [ 4 5 A x 6 4 V 2 i n . ] ; B a s e l , L

BRUEGHEL

191

26 Jan Brueghe l th e Elder

The Entr y of the Animals int o Noah' s Ark 1613 O i l o n panel, 54. 6 x 83. 8 c m (21V2 x 3 3 in. ) L o s Angeles , J . P a ul Gett y M u s e u m , 92 .PB.82

w h e n s o l d a t a u c t i o n t o th e deale r L a m b e r t

INSCRIPTION

A t l o w e r r i g h t , B R V E G H E L - F E C - I 6 I 3 ; o n t he reverse, p a n e l m a k e r ' s m a r k , R B [ i n l i g a t u r e ] and A / no . 247

J a n v a n N i e u w e n h u y s, A n t w e r p ( B i n c k e n ) , J u l y 2 9 , 1822, l o t 2 7; a p p a r e n t ly s o l d b y h i m to James-Alexandre , comt e d e Pourtales G o r g i e r , f r o m w h o s e c o l l e c t i o n i n L o n d on i t

PROVENANCE

was s o l d i n 1826 to " S m a r t " ; a b o u t 1920 , 4

J a n - E g i d i u s Peeter s d ' A e r t s e l a a r d e C l e y d a e l

p r i v a t e c o l l e c t i o n , V i e n n a, A u s t r i a ; b y 1977 ,

( d . 1786) , A n t w e r p ; b y i n h e r i t a n ce t o H e n r i

p r i v a t e c o l l e c t i o n , S w i t z e r l a n d ; f r o m 197 7

Joseph, b a r o n Stie r d'Aertselaar , w h o b r o u g h t

w i t h R o b e r t H . S m i th ( N e w Y o r k a n d

t h e p a i n t i n g t o t h e U n i t e d State s i n 1793 t o

Washington, D.C.) ; sol d throug h Joh n an d

escape t h e F r e n c h o c c u p i e r s a n d r e t u r n e d

P a u l H e r r i n g & C o m p a n y , I n c . , N ew Y o r k , t o

t o A n t w e r p i n 1 8 1 6 ; o f f e r e d f o r sale b y S t i e r

t h e J . P a ul G e t t y M u s e u m , 1992

( u n d e r t h e n a m e Peeters) , 1817 , a n d b o u g h t

LITERATURE

B r o w n 1979 , p p . 1 7 4 - 7 7 ; E r t z 1979 , p p . 75 , 82, 2 3 6 - 4 0 , 2 4 4 - 4 7 , 6 0 3 , n o . 273; B r u s s e l s 1980, p p . 1 7 4 - 7 5 ; E r t z 1981 , p p . 1 1 0 - 1 3 ; B r o o s 1993, p p . 91, 9 4, 95; D i az P a d r o n 1995 , v o l . 1, p. 3 0 6 ; E s s e n - V i e n na 1 9 9 7 - 9 8 , p p . 2 9, 166 , 168; G i f f o r d 1999 , p . 1 8 1 - 8 3 ; N e w Y o r k 2 0 0 5 , p . 169 ; A n t w e r p 2 0 0 4 , p p . 196, 198, n . 5; K o l b 200 5 EXHIBITIONS

L o n d o n 1979 , p p . 19, 9 6, cat. n o. 2 9; L o s Angeles 1999-200 0

i n ; r e m a i n e d i n t he S t i e r c o l l e c t i o n u n t i l 1822 ,

A N B R U E G H E L '

S F A M

E A

S P E C I A L I S T I

N S U B J E C T

was specifie d b y the designatio n F I G R (jigura), i n d i c a t i n g

f r o m natur e derive d i n large par t f r o m th e popularit y

that h e was responsible fo r the figures a n d n ot for the

o f hi s paradis e landscapes , a genre h e redefine d fo r the

overall desig n o f the p a i n t i n g . I n a d d i t i on t o the autograp h 6

seventeenth centur y a n d b r o u g ht t o the highest level s of

version o f The Entry of the Animals into Noah's Ark i n Buda-

specialization a n d technical finish. O l d Testament theme s

pest (Szepmiiveszet i M u s e u m ) , man y replica s a n d version s

f r o m th e b o ok o f Genesis, notabl y th e story o f N o a h 's A r k

exist, attestin g t o the work's eage r receptio n b y collectors.

and th e F a l l o f M a n, serve d a s occasions t o portra y th e

T h e L o s Angeles c o m p o s i t i o n represent s Brueghel' s mos t

magnificent diversit y o f nature a s exemplified b y the carefu l d e p i c t i o n o f a lively assortmen t o f animals a n d birds. Jan

innovative idea s fo r the genre, a n d w h i le The Entry of

the Animals into Noah's Ark wa s no t a physical collaboratio n

Brueghel considere d The Entry of the Animals into Noah's Ark

between B r u e g h e l a n d his friend Rubens , i t bears witnes s

a significan t i n v e n t i o n a m o n g hi s treatments o f earthl y

to thei r clos e associatio n a n d artistic exchange .

paradise, sinc e h e p r o u d ly a n d clearly signe d i t B R V E G H E L

O n a well-traveled pat h betwee n a stand o f trees a n d a

F E C (Brueghelfecit, i.e. , B r u e g h e l mad e it) . H e denoted a

stream r u n n i n g alon g th e edge o f the w o o d s, a parade

similarly n o t e w o r t h y late r achievemen t b y s i g n i ng The

o f animal s mak e thei r wa y t o w a r d th e distan t massiv e f o r m

Garden of Eden with the Fall of Man (cat . no. 4) in the same

o f th e ark. D r i v en alon g b y a figure i n a r ed tunic, the y p r o -

fashion, w h i l e Rubens' s c o n t r i b u t i o n t o the c o m p o s i t i o n

ceed i n pairs a n d small groups , domesti c animal s m i n g l e d

192

BRUEGHEL

193

FIGURE

9 9 S t u d i o o f J a n v a n T i e g h e m ( a c t i v e b y 1550) a n d J a n d e K e m p e n e e r ( a c t i v e b y 1540), Adam

Gives Names to the Animals,

ca. 1550. T a p e s t r y i n

w o o l , s i l k , g o l d , a n d s i l v e r t h r e a d , 465 x 815 c m (15 ft. 3V4 i n . x 26 ft. 9 i n . ) . F l o r e n c e , S o p r i n t e n d e n z a d e l l e G a l l e r i a , i n v . 18.626

with species from the Near East and Africa. Waterfowl occupy the marshy area at the lower left as well as the stream, while cats and monkeys clamber up the small tree in which other feathered creatures sit. Various birds and even bats wheel through the sky overhead. The story of the building of the ark and saving of mankind and clean and unclean birds and beasts is told in Genesis (chapters 6 - 8 ) : When G o d in his wrath against the wickedness of mankind resolved to destroy the human race as well as animals and birds, he warned Noah, a "just" man, to build an ark "and of every living thing of all flesh, two of every sort shalt thou bring into the ark, to keep them alive with thee; they shall be male and female. O f fowls after their kind, and of cattle after their kind, of every creeping thing of the earth after his kind." The bearded patriarch Noah, in bucolic attire, appears in the center of the scene, with his laden donkey, wife and daugh ter-in-law, and their supplies. In the distance, other figures, presumably Noah's sons and their wives, lead pairs of animals, including giraffes, up a steep ramp onto the ark.

194

B R U E G H E L

The clarity and monumentality of The Entry of the Animals into Noah's Ark resulted in part from Brueghel's long engage ment with richly descriptive landscape subjects. Brueghel's earliest treatments of paradise scenes date from the period of his Roman sojourn. The small roundel of The Garden of Eden with the Fall ofMan (cat. no. 16), attributed here by Ariane van Suchtelen to Brueghel and Hendrick de Clerck, probably dates from about 1 5 9 7 - 9 8 . The careful arrangement of animals throughout the landscape resembles earlier sixteenthcentury examples, notably the print series of subjects from Genesis designed by Marten de Vos ( 1 5 3 2 - 1 6 0 3 ) . A t about the same time, Brueghel experimented with the idea of a group of animals entering the landscape from one side. The Paradise Landscape with the Creation ofAdam of 1594 (see fig. 75) is one of the earliest examples of his use of this device, in which some of the animals are partially depicted at the extreme right, just as the ox and the elephant's heads appear at the right edge of The Entry of the Animals into Noah's Ark. While many of the animals in the Entry move together toward the distant ark, some join the procession 8

from over a small hill on the right, and the rest fill the land scape across the foreground and along the stream. In a midsixteenth century precedent for a parade of animals, one of a series of tapestries with subjects from the book of Genesis by an artist working in the circle of the Brussels weavers Jan van Tieghem and Jan de Kempeneer (fig. 9 9 ) , many different types of animals are neatly grouped in pairs and separate columns. However, rather than situating the figures in the foreground with the procession behind, as in the sixteenthcentury example, Brueghel instead elucidated the biblical subject through the description of the setting. Even during his early career in Rome, as demonstrated by the 1594 Paradise, Brueghel occasionally positioned the biblical subject in the background of the landscape, behind the charming and diverse inhabitants of paradise. This characteristic tech nique, used effectively by his father Pieter Bruegel the Elder in the 1560s among others, was an essential aspect of Jan's paradise landscapes (see cat. no. 25) and is one of the seem ingly outmoded elements that persist in his oeuvre. After Brueghel settled in Antwerp in 1596, he painted Paradise Landscape with the Entry of the Animals into Noah's Ark (private collection), an important early treatment of the sub ject. H e did not revisit the paradise landscape for more than a decade, concentrating instead on garlands and flower still lifes for his patron Cardinal Borromeo, the archbishop of Milan, allegorical paintings executed with Hendrick van Balen (see, for example, cat. nos. 17 and 18), and forest landscapes. Among these, the Allegory of Eire (cat. no. 17), the first in a series of the four elements created for Borromeo, offers an important precedent for the paradise landscapes and shows Brueghel's predilection for filling his compositions with a tremendous variety of objects and creatures that invite the eye to linger over the scene. O n April 22, 1611, in a letter to Borromeo in which he alludes to the ongoing series of elements for the Cardinal, Brueghel mentions a painting of Noah's A r k . In 1612 Brueghel returned to subjects from the book of Genesis, and particularly to the development of a landscape genre that was similarly rich in its description of the natural world. In The Garden of Eden from that year (see fig. 4 3 ) , Brueghel devised a lush wooded landscape suitable for the subject of paradise. The complex topog raphy, with a stream, small hillocks, a distant glade in which Adam and Eve accept the apple from the serpent, and a soaring view over a river landscape is further elaborated by the profusion of animal and bird life contained within it. The type of paradise landscape established in this painting 10

permitted considerable adjustment in subsequent related compositions but remained the perfect embodiment of the lush, idyllic Garden of Eden. By contrast, The Entry of the Animals into Noah's Ark has a more sober and monumental character. The landscape is less enclosed, and the open foreground recedes vigorously into the distance, emphasizing the processional march to the ark. Despite the abundant display, there is a sense that Brueghel's approach in this landscape was more measured and controlled. As with the arched interiors, in which earlier iterations (see cat. nos. 17 and 18) were characterized by picturesque detail, while the later Return from War: Mars Disarmed by Venus (cat. no. 2) employed a tighter and simpler treatment of the same setting, so The Entry of the Animals into Noah's Ark offers an alternative paradise type in contrast to the lush 1612 depiction of Eden (see fig. 4 3 ) . The strong diagonal recession of the Entry developed from Brueghel's many scenes of travelers and cattle drovers, though here the viewpoint is lower, and monumental figures anchor the foreground. Brueghel's only other treatment of a subject from the story of Noah, The Flood with Noah's Ark (fig. 1 0 0 ) , also employs a strong diagonal to create different zones within the landscape, but this early work emphasizes the dramatic confusion and terror of the Flood, a prospect not yet felt in the paradisiacal Entry. 14

The impact of Rubens and Brueghel's artistic friendship shaped The Entry of the Animals into Noah's Ark, where it is particularly evident in Brueghel's treatment of animals. Brueghel was himself a skilled painter of animals, and his refined technique was particularly suited to executing smaller-scale figures, such as the lively animals in the Paradise Landscape of 1594 (see fig. 75). Jan depicted those animals with which he presumably had firsthand experience, notably the domesticated creatures such as the goats and donkey, with greater specificity and assurance than the leopard, for example. Even before leaving for Rome, Rubens demon strated his skill at capturing the twisting, vigorous forms of horses (see cat. no. 1), and Brueghel absorbed his friend's more robust approach from their earliest joint endeavor. The domestic animals in the 1612 Garden of Eden and the 1613 Entry are much more solid and convincing than his earlier attempts during his Italian sojourn. Exotic animals and their sinuous movement remained a challenge, however. In the Daniel in the Lions' Den, a small-scale work painted for Cardinal Borromeo in 1 6 1 0 , Brueghel's leopards and lions appear almost fantastic when compared to the sculptural 17

1 8

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195

FIGURE

100 J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r ,

The Flood with Noah's Ark,

1601. O i l o n c o p p e r ,

26.7 x 3 5 . 9 c m (10V2 x 14.V8 i n . ) . Z u r i c h , Kunsthaus, Stiftung Betty u n d D a v i d M . Koester, inv. KS4. © 2 0 0 6 Kunsthaus Z u r i c h

forms in Rubens's Daniel in the Lions'Den (ca. 1613/15; Washington, D . C . , National Gallery of Art). By this period, Brueghel had also developed the ability to impart a sense of lively activity in his depictions of animals, and in general the scene is characterized by looser brushwork that con tributes to the overall sense of momentum between the different animal elements. Brueghel's friendship with Rubens is most evident in his direct borrowing of animals: the lions, the magnificent gray stallion, and the pair of playful leopards, all of which he also incorporated into the Garden of Eden (see fig. 43) of the preceding year. Brueghel would certainly have had access to Rubens's studio, both as a colleague and as a collaborator. There can be no greater expression of their intimacy than Rubens's willingness to allow Jan to utilize his animal studies, the kind of preparatory material he guarded closely. O f the pair of growling lions, the lioness looking to the left survives in a colored chalk drawing made by Rubens (fig. 101) in preparation for the huge Daniel in the Lions' Den, where she appears life-size on the right with her male companion. In Rubens's drawing, the lower part of the animal's back left leg is elongated, and this area was corrected when it was painted

196 BRUEGHEL

in the Daniel. Brueghel, however, repeated the drawn form of the leg in both the Rome and Los Angles landscapes. While Daniel in the Lions' Den could have been started as early as 1612, it is more often dated between 1613 and 1615. It either remained in Rubens's studio or was, as he said, "repurchased" by him before it was given, along with eleven other paintings, including Prometheus Bound (cat. no. 22) to Sir Dudley Carleton, British ambassador to The Hague, in exchange for his collection of antique marble sculpture. Although Brueghel almost certainly knew Rubens's drawing, he could, over some years, also have seen the painting in Rubens's studio. Brueghel's lion does not replicate the white highlighting used in the drawing and has a smoother, less textured appearance, similar to that of the large painted animal. While Brueghel may have studied and copied preparatory materials for the leopards, any such copies have not survived. Rubens lists a "Leopards" among the paintings he offered Carleton in March 1 6 1 7 . The original compo sition appears to have been lost, but is represented by a later copy after Rubens (see fig. 131) and a print by CharlesNicolas Varin ( 1 7 4 1 - 1 8 1 2 ) based on a design by Antoine Borel (1743-ca. 1 8 1 0 ) . 19

2 1

F I G U R E 1 0 1 Peter

P a u l R u b e n s , Lioness,

Seen from the Rear, Turning

Left, ca. 1613.

Black chalk w i t h touches o f yellow, heightened w i t h white o i l or b o d y color, some gray 5

w a s h , 39.6 x 2 9 . 6 c m ( i 5 / s x n / s i n . ) . L o n d o n , B r i t i s h M u s e u m , i n v . 1994.5.14.46 © T r u s t e e s o f the B r i t i s h M u s e u m

FIGURE

102 J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r ,

Ostrich,

ca. 1594. P e n a n d b r o w n i n k a n d g o u a c h e a n d w a t e r c o l o r o n c r e a m p a p e r , 20.5 x 14.2 c m (8V8 x 5 % i n . ) . P r i v a t e c o l l e c t i o n

Although Rubens may have based the lioness on a Renaissance bronze sculpture from Padua, he stated in his letter to Carleton that both the lions and the leopards were "done from life." As court painters, both Rubens and Brueghel had access to the menagerie kept by the archdukes Albert and Isabella at their court in Brussels. Brueghel's familiarity with the attitudes and coloring of different apes (see cat. no. 28) attests to his firsthand observation of these favorite companions of the archduchess, and he notes in a letter of 1621 that the birds and animals in a (garland with a) "beautiful Madonna" he was making with Rubens were "made from life from some of the Infanta's." The rulers of the Netherlands had long kept exotic animals, including lions and tigers, in the park of the Brussels palace (an early account [ 1 4 4 6 ] records payment for a half-mutton to feed the lion each day). Rubens, however, may have studied two lions, named Flandria and Brabantia, in Ghent. A n eighteenth-century biographer recounts a scene in Rubens's studio in which a lion was tickled in order to encourage it to open its mouth in a suitably fierce fashion. Rubens painted several large hunt scenes involving wild animals between 1613 and 1618, and his interest in lions and leopards 22

in the period around 1612 may have been part of his prepara tion for those subjects. The gray horse commanding the foreground of the Entry affirms Brueghel's partnership with Rubens, who was cele brated for his ideal portraits of this animal. Brueghel had appropriated and emphasized the element of the horse in his early paradise scenes (see, for example, fig. 75), where it was an important though not completely successful figure, and incorporated a similar regal light-colored horse from Rubens's oeuvre in The Rxturnfrom War (cat. no. 2) of 1 6 1 0 - 1 2 . However, the prancing dappled horse in the Entry descends from Rubens's 1603 Equestrian Portrait of the Duke ofLerma (see fig. 22). The frontal pose used by Brueghel in the Entry can be seen in one of three equestrian studies by Rubens, known from a copy, The Riding School ( 1 6 0 9 - 1 3 ; formerly Berlin, Staatliche Museen, Gemaldegalerie) and in a lost equestrian portrait of Archduke Albert, visible in the foreground of the Allegory of Sight (see fig. 5 4 ) . Brueghel's animated handling of the mane captures the energy of the muscular Spanish/Arabian stallion, a breed associated with royalty (Arabians with dappled coats were rare, which further underscored their kingly lineage). Contemporary 28

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197

accounts refer to the heroic "Spanish horse" that saved the life of Archduke Albert in 1 6 0 0 at the battle of Nieuport and Ostend by absorbing a musket ball to the neck. The skin of the horse was preserved, along with that of a horse believed to have belonged to Archduchess Isabella. The inclusion of this type of horse in their paintings confirmed Brueghel and Rubens's relationship to the arch ducal court. Many of the other animals and birds in the Entry attest to BrueghePs study from life of a diverse array of creatures. The subtle variations in texture and particularly in the color ing of fur and feathers, even on the relatively small scale of the creatures in the present painting, reflect his meticulous preparation. The royal menagerie and collections of birds were a rich source for both mundane and unusual creatures. Jean Ernst, duke of Saxony, visited the park at the Brussels court in 1 6 1 3 - 1 4 and recalled seeing wood pigeons, pea cocks, sparrow hawks, pheasants, and parakeets fly free in a small valley. The seemingly exotic ostriches, originally from Africa, were also part of the collection and were a long-standing element in Brueghel's oeuvre. They appear in one of the earliest works of this type, the 1594 Paradise (see fig. 75). Ostriches had been depicted in the sixteenth century, although their flightless nature was not always understood (see fig. 9 9 , where they hover in the air, along with turkeys, eagles, and insects). A drawing by Brueghel of two views of an ostrich, formerly dated to 1613, but perhaps executed earlier, includes color notations for reference (fig. 102). Brueghel's friend Frans Snyders recorded the bird's wideeyed gaze in his drawing of an ostrich. Similar details appear on a sheet of studies, notably on the figure of the eagle (see fig. 114). A 1507 account of the Brussels court mentions camels and ostriches being introduced for the plea sure of the duke of Burgundy. Camels remained a fixture of the archducal collection and appeared in the Ommeganck, a yearly procession held to celebrate the Virgin Mary. Even creatures which had arrived in Europe from the New World and Africa were already familiar elements by 1613. The splendid male turkey, somewhat timidly described in the 1594 Paradise, figures prominently in Brueghel's Allegory ofAir (ca. 1611; Rome, Galleria Doria Pamphilj), and in the 1612 Paradise and 1613 Entry.35 The wonderfully precise delineation of the monkeys scaling the tree full of birds on the left leaves no doubt that Brueghel had seen a Cercohimself.3 6 While guinea pigs figured even in the early Garden of Eden with the Fall ofMan (cat. no. 16) 30

198

B R U E G H E L

and the 1594 Paradise, their forms were generalized. It seems, however, that Brueghel closely studied a particular pair of guinea pigs with distinctive markings (one with a black head and shoulders and a white spot on the nose and another that was predominantly pale with a horizontal dark band across the back) after 1 6 0 0 , when a different closely observed pair were painted in the Venus and Cupid on which he collaborated with Hendrick van Balen. The pair in the Entry appear in several compositions, including The Return from War: Mars Disarmed by Venus (cat. no. 2) and The Garden of Eden with the Fall ofMan (cat. no. 4 ) . Perhaps they were not members of the royal menagerie but familiar pets. Around 1 6 0 0 the interest in examining and describing the natural world was intense and diverse. Brueghel mas tered the challenge of depicting a tremendous variety of birds and beasts by separating them according to type, placing waterfowl, for example, in their appropriate marshy and aqueous setting. As Kolb has shown, this taxonomic approach was a novel mode of visual cataloguing that paralleled con temporary encyclopedic publications on the natural w o r l d . Although the sixteenth-century naturalists Conrad Gesner and Ulisse Aldrovani had published seminal treatises on species, their illustrations were highly schematic and were not the main sources for Brueghel's animals. In 1613 Rubens began to acquire a number of Aldrovani's treatises, perhaps as a result of his own desire to understand the characteristics of animals in advance of allegories and hunt scenes. The printed illustrations for specialized treatises, such as Adriaen Collaert's series of birds for Avium vivae icones (1580), an early attempt to show birds in a naturalistic setting, likewise remain stiff and posed. A t about the same time, Joris Hoefnagel ( 1 5 4 2 - 1 6 0 1 ) , working for the court of the H o l y Roman Emperor Rudolf II, created some of the most delightful and novel images of minutely rendered animals and insects. To these traditions, Brueghel brought a calli graphic, painterly technique that served his compositional integration of the separate spheres of different types of quadrupeds, birds with webbed feet, animals with hooves, and so on. While these types are distinctly portrayed in the Entry, they are not separate from one another. Among the most delightful aspects of the assembly of creatures moving toward the ark are the encounters between groups: cats climbing the tree full of resplendent macaws and two doleful owls; dogs barking at waterfowl; the bull, its hide beautifully modulated with liquid strokes of gray, olive, 37

and pink confronting the reclining leopard; the ram chal lenging the boar. The complicated composition integrating large and small animal figures as well as human figures necessitated careful planning, and Brueghel's preparation for The Entry of the Animals into Noah's Ark was characteristic of his pro duction. H e selected a large radial-cut panel of Baltic oak, prepared by an Antwerp panelmaker known only as " R B " from his initials in ligature burned into the back of the panel. As Gifford demonstrated, the Entry was prepared according to a process used by sixteenth-century Flemish landscape painters. The main landscape features and figures were first underdrawn on the prepared panel. This prepara tion was not extremely meticulous, and there is no evidence, for example, that the animals after Rubens were transferred from another source. Brueghel later largely followed the underdrawn preparation but, notably, moved the ears of the gray stallion to an inward, pricked position. The com position was then laid in by zone, using broad areas of color, leaving reserve areas for the foreground figures. Some ani mals, such as the spotted hound, were painted directly over the green grass. In the final stage, Brueghel worked from the background to the foreground, a process that naturally led to the overlapping of figures and helped to create the effect of spatial recession. This process furthermore allowed Brueghel to emphasize certain animals: the light-colored small heads of the ostriches were placed against the dark forms of the buffalo and therefore become much more legi ble. The monkey on the tree trunk is more visible for its placement against the lighter form of the ark, which is itself dramatically backlit by the luminous glow of the sky. Such juxtapositions also underscored the unique nature of certain animals, and it cannot be accidental that the wild stallion stands directly in front of Noah's humble donkey. Brueghel also repeated several pairs of animals from the 1612 Garden of Eden (see fig. 4 3 ) , where the two lions and the horse appear together, the bull and leopards are in proximity, and the pair of swans paddle in the stream. Although there is no clear physical evidence for the manner in which Brueghel reused animals such as the lions, leopards, and horse, it is not hard to imagine that he was technically capable of repeating these figures without the aid of transfer measures just as he was able to repeat still-life items in the forge scenes, even enlarg ing those same items in The Return from War (cat. no. 2 ) . 43

paradise landscapes were highly coveted by collectors. Rubens possessed several works by Jan Brueghel the Elder, including a "Paradise by Brugel" that was listed in the Specificatie following his death. Rubens's interest in the natural world, as shown by his ad vivum animal studies and growing library of encyclopedic resources, testifies to his own engagement in capturing the exact characteristics of animals, a process he shared with Brueghel. The Old Testa ment subject of the Entry, however, was far from an idle vehicle for description but was integral to the meaning of the image as a revelation of God's creation. The artistic exchange between Brueghel and Rubens about 1613 naturally led to their joint authorship in The Garden of Eden with the Fall of Man (cat. no. 4 ) , although there, too, Brueghel firmly established his role as the originator of "paradise." A T W 47

NOTES

1. O b s e r v e d a n d d e c i p h e r e d b y Y v o n n e S z a f r a n , associate c o n s e r v a t o r , P a i n t i n g s C o n s e r v a t i o n , J. P a u l G e t t y M u s e u m ; i d e n t i f i e d b y J o r g e n W a d u m as a n u n k n o w n A n t w e r p p a n e l m a k e r " R B , " w h o s t a m p e d h i s C

panels w i t h a b r a n d made u p o f a "large ' R ' w i t h a smaller letter B ' b e t w e e n the l e g s " ( c o r r e s p o n d e n c e o f O c t o b e r 1999). F o r o t h e r p a n e l s f r o m R u b e n s a n d B r u e g h e l ' s c i r c l e b e a r i n g t h e s t a m p o f R B , see B r o o s

Precisely painted, inventive, allusive, and associated with revered earlier traditions of landscape painting, Brueghel's

a n d W a d u m 1993 a n d W a d u m 1993. 2. P a i n t e d i n b l a c k , i n a v e r t i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n , t h i s n u m b e r appears t o be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e F o r c h o n d t firm o f art dealers, a c t i v e i n A n t w e r p d u r i n g the s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y . 3. N o . 23 o n the p a c k i n g l i s t o f p a i n t i n g s s h i p p e d b y S t i e r t o A m e r i c a , 1794,

a n d seen i n S t i e r ' s R i v e r d a l e m a n s i o n , R i v e r s d a l e H o u s e ,

i n 1812; i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m t h e G e t t y P r o v e n a n c e I n d e x a n d B u r t o n F r e d e r i c k s e n (correspondence i n G e t t y M u s e u m p a i n t i n g s depart ment

file).

4. P r o b a b l y t h e d e a l e r W i l l i a m S m a r t ( d . 1828); i n f o r m a t i o n p r o v i d e d b y B u r t o n Fredericksen (correspondence in Getty M u s e u m paintings department

file).

5. A t least 106 p a r a d i s e c o m p o s i t i o n s are a t t r i b u t e d t o h i m ; see E r t z 1979, p . 236. 6. It is n o t clear w h e t h e r B r u e g h e l s i g n e d R u b e n s ' s n a m e o r R u b e n s s i g n e d h i s o w n n a m e at t h e s a m e t i m e u s i n g t h e s a m e p a l e t t e , see cat. n o . 4 . A l t h o u g h R u b e n s r a r e l y s i g n e d h i s p a i n t i n g s , he p r i n t e d h i s n a m e i n R o m a n c a p i t a l s o n a s m a l l g r o u p o f p a i n t i n g s f r o m 1613-14, i n c l u d i n g Jupiter

and Callisto

(Kassel, G e m a l d e g a l e r i e , inv. G K 8 6 ) ,

w h i c h is s i g n e d P - P - R V B E N S - F - I 6 I 3 . 7. A n a u t o g r a p h v a r i a n t d a t e d 1615 i n is the W e l l i n g t o n M u s e u m , A p s l e y H o u s e , L o n d o n (inv. 1637); see E r t z 1979, p . 6 0 5 , n o . 287. V a r i a n t s b y B r u e g h e l a n d c o p i e s b y o t h e r artists i n c l u d e : f o l l o w e r o f J a n B r u e g h e l

B R U E G H E L

199

t h e E l d e r , B a l t i m o r e , the W a l t e r s A r t G a l l e r y , i n v . 37.1988 ( E r t z 1979,

16.

p. 6 0 3 , u n d e r n o . 273); w o r k s h o p o f J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r , D e s s a u , G e m a l d e g a l e r i e , i n v . 2 6 6 ( E r t z 1979, p . 6 0 3 , u n d e r n o . 273); w o r k s h o p o f J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r , M a d r i d , M u s e o N a c i o n a l d e l P r a d o , inv.

1407 ( D i a z P a d r o n 1995, v o l . 1, p p . 3 0 6 - 7 , n o . 1407, i l l . (as J a n

F o r The Flood with Noah's Ark,

see E r t z 1979, p . 570, n o . 7 9 ; a n d

E s s e n - V i e n n a 1 9 9 7 - 9 8 , p p . 1 5 4 - 5 6 , cat. n o . 32. 17.

K o l b 2 0 0 5 , p . 47.

18.

J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r , Daniel

in the Lions'Den

(1610, o i l o n c o p p e r ,

B r u e g h e l the Y o u n g e r ) ; w o r k s h o p o f Jan B r u e g h e l the E l d e r , M a d r i d ,

28.5 x 38.5 c m ; M i l a n , P i n a c o t e c a A m b r o s i a n a , i n v . 62). B r u e g h e l ' s

L a z a r o C o l l e c t i o n ( E r t z 1979, p . 6 0 3 , u n d e r n o . 273); w o r k s h o p o f J a n

i d i o s y n c r a t i c t r e a t m e n t o f Daniel

B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r , P a u , M u s e e des B e a u x - A r t s , i n v . 39.1.1 ( E r t z 1979,

deserve t h e c r i t i c i s m l e v e l e d b y H e l d 1963; see E r t z 1979, p . 569,

p. 6 0 3 , u n d e r n o . 273); w o r k s h o p o f J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r , U t r e c h t ,

n o . 72; a n d K o l b 2 0 0 5 , p p . 6 8 , 7 0 .

in the Lions' Den s u r e l y d o e s n o t

C e n t r a a l M u s e u m , i n v . 1366 ( E r t z 1979, p- 6 0 3 , u n d e r n o . 273); w o r k s h o p o f J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r , c o l l e c t i o n o f the E a r l o f V e r u l a m ( E r t z

19.

F o r the c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n R u b e n s a n d C a r l e t o n , see R o o s e s a n d R u e l e n s 1 8 8 7 - 1 9 0 9 , p p . 135-83; a n d M a g u r n 1955, p p . 5 9 - 6 8 . See also

i 9 7 9 P- 603 , u n d e r n o . 273); w o r k s h o p o f J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r , 5

cat. n o . 22.

C o l o r a d o , R o c k y M o u n t a i n Conservation Center; and Jan Brueghel t h e Y o u n g e r , C h r i s t i e ' s , M o n a c o , D e c e m b e r 7, 1991, l o t 25 (see also

20.

K o l b 2 0 0 5 , p p . 7 7 - 8 1 , esp. n . 1 9 0 ) ; i m i t a t e d b y the A n t w e r p artist G a s p a r B o u t a t t s ( S o t h e b y ' s , N e w Y o r k , J a n u a r y 14, 1993, l o t . 2 2 ) ;

t h u o m o i n q u e l m e s t i e r e , 9 x 11" ( 6 0 0 f l . L e o p a r d s , t a k e n f r o m life,

Isaak v a n O o s t e n , The Entry

w i t h Satyrs a n d N y m p h s . O r i g i n a l b y m y h a n d , e x c e p t a m o s t b e a u t i

into the Ark,

R e n n e s , M u s e e des B e a u x -

A r t s (see A . B a l i s i n A n t w e r p 1982, p . 8 9 , cat. n o . 2 0 ) ; a n d J a c o b

ful l a n d s c a p e , d o n e b y the h a n d o f a m a s t e r s k i l l f u l i n t h a t d e p a r t m e n t .

S a v e r y , l o c a t i o n u n k n o w n (see J a n B r i e l s , " F l a m i s c h e M a l e r i n

9 x 11 f t ) : R o o s e s a n d R u e l e n s 1 8 8 7 - 1 9 0 9 , p . 137; a n d M a g u r n 1955,

H o l l a n d u m 1 6 0 0 , " i n C o l o g n e - A n t w e r p - V i e n n a 1 9 9 2 - 9 3 , p . 89).

p. 61, letter 2 9 . See also cat. n o . 22. 21.

8. E n g r a v e d b y N i c o l a a s B r u y n ( A n t w e r p , S t e d e l i j k P r e n t e n k a b i n e t , inv.

F o r the c o p y , see R o o s e s 1 8 8 6 - 9 2 , v o l . 3, n o . 661. F o r V a r i n ' s e n g r a v ing,

I / B . 5 6 2 - 5 7 0 , 5 7 2 ) ; see A n t w e r p 1982, cat. n o s . 5 6 - 6 5 .

9. T h e D o r i a P a m p h i l j Paradise

e n t i t l e d Pan and Syrinx,

see V o o r h e l m S c h e e v o o g t 1873, p . 131, n o .

115 ( a t t r i b u t e d t o M a r t e n de V o s ) . T h e p a i n t i n g s e r v e d as t h e s o u r c e is s i g n e d a n d d a t e d at l o w e r r i g h t

for

B R V E G H E L 1594; see K . E r t z i n E s s e n - V i e n n a 1 9 9 7 - 9 8 , p p . 1 6 3 - 6 5 ,

a n e t c h i n g o f ca. 1 6 4 0 b y W e n c e s l a s H o l l a r w i t h o u t the satyr

a n d n y m p h b u t i n s c r i b e d p. p. R U B E N S P I N X I T ; see H e l d 1973, after

cat. n o . 36. 10.

" n o r i n i 6 0 0 — L e o p a r d i cavati dal naturale can satiri e nimfe. O r i g i n a l e de m i a m a n o , e c c e t o u n b e l i s s i m o paesse fatto p e r m a n o d i u n v a l e n -

p. 350; a n d C o r b e i l et a l . 1992.

T h e s e v e n - p a r t t a p e s t r y series o f t h e S t o r y o f the C r e a t i o n w a s s o l d t o

22.

C o s i m o I de ' M e d i c i i n 1551 b y J a n v a n d e r W a l l e , a n A n t w e r p m e r

" f i o r i n i 6 0 0 — D a n i e l fra m o l t i L e o n i c a v a t i d a l n a t u r a l e . O r i g i n a l e t u t t o de m i a m a n o 8 x 12 p i e d i " ( D a n i e l a m o n g m a n y l i o n s t a k e n f r o m

c h a n t ; see G u y D e l m a r c e l i n A n t w e r p 1982, p p . 65, 6 7 ; a n d N e w Y o r k

life. O r i g i n a l e n t i r e l y b y m y h a n d ) : R o o s e s a n d R u e l e n s 1 8 8 7 - 1 9 0 9 ,

2 0 0 2 , p . 276. M i c h i e l C o x c i e ( 1 4 9 9 - 1 5 9 2 ) also d e s i g n e d a n i n e - p i e c e

p. 136. T h e s c u l p t u r e is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the w o r k s h o p o f F r a n c e s c o

series o f tapestries w i t h subjects f r o m G e n e s i s , i n c l u d i n g the s t o r y o f

S u s i n i ; see R o s e n b e r g 1931, p p . 1 0 5 - 6 , as w e l l as K o l b 2 0 0 5 , p . 7 0 .

N o a h , f o r S i g i s m u n d I I A u g u s t u s ; see N e w Y o r k 2 0 0 2 , p p . 219, 2 9 4 ,

11. 12.

397-99.

23.

K o l b 2 0 0 5 , p p . 1, 1 3 - 1 7 ; see cat. n o s . 4 a n d 12.

See cat. n o . 16, n o t e 4 , i n t h i s v o l u m e .

24.

" Q u a n t o i l quadro del Ill.m Cardina del Area d ' N o i , n o n m a schritto:

fatto a d v i v o de a l c u n i d e l l i s e r e n . m a E n f a n t o ( . . . a different p a i n t i n g ,

I l l u s t r i o u s C a r d i n a l ' s p a i n t i n g o f N o a h ' s A r k , I have n o t h i n g to w r i t e .

w h i c h is the m o s t b e a u t i f u l a n d p r e c i o u s I've m a d e f r o m l i f e . A l s o ,

has t h e r e b e e n a r e s p o n s e t o t h e letter. I a w a i t y o u r d i r e c t i o n s . ) :

S i g n o r R u b e n s has m a d e a p a i n t i n g o f the best k i n d i n the c e n t e r

C r i v e l l i 1868, p . 169. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e r e is n o f u r t h e r m e n t i o n o f t h i s

s h o w i n g h i s m e r i t , a l o v e l y M a d o n n a . T h e b i r d s , a n d a n i m a l s are m a d e

w o r k i n h i s c o r r e s p o n d e n c e . F o r the series o f the F o u r E l e m e n t s , see

f r o m life f r o m s o m e o f t h o s e o f the m o s t S e r e n e I n f a n t a " (letter o f

J o n e s 1993, p p . 2 3 7 - 3 8 . 13.

S e p t e m b e r 5, 1621): C r i v e l l i 1868, p . 272.

See E r t z 1979, p p . 2 4 4 , 6 0 5 - 6 , n o . 291, f i g . 314; B e d o n i 1983, p p . 6 8 - 7 2 , f i g . 25; a n d A n t w e r p 2 0 0 4 , p p . 1 9 7 - 9 8 , cat. n o . 39; see

25.

t r a d i t i o n o f c o l l e c t i n g a n i m a l s , see K o l b 2 0 0 5 , p p . 1 3 - 2 0 . of the Animals

into Noah's

Ark

t h e p r i m a r y e x a m p l e o f t h e s i x t h o f s e v e n types he i d e n t i f i e d i n Brueghel's oeuvre. 15.

T h e m a n u r g i n g t h e a n i m a l s a l o n g i n t h e E n t r y r e s e m b l e s the h e r d e r s w i t h l o n g p r o d s i n a d r a w i n g , Peasants,

oxen, geese, a family

in a cart

and various barrel makers ( s t u d y ) ( p e n a n d i n k a n d w a s h , 15.9 x 23.5 c m (6V4

200

x 9 /4 i n . ) ; S o t h e b y ' s , N e w Y o r k , J a n u a r y 27, 1999, l o t 75).

B R U E G H E L

S a i n t e n o y 1932-35, v o l . 1, p . 72. R e f e r e n c e s i n t h e r o y a l a c c o u n t s t o f o o d f o r the l i o n c o n t i n u e i n t o t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y . F o r the r o y a l

also cat. n o . 4 . 14. E r t z (1979, p . 75) c o n s i d e r e d The Entry

A c h o s i g . R u b e n s h a fatta b e n m o s t r a n d e s u a v i r t u i n el q u a d r o

de m e g i o , e s s e n d u n a M a d o n n a b e l l . m a . L i o i t c e l l i , et a n i m a l i s o n

ne a n c o l a l e t r a n o n v a r i s p o s t a : aspettera l ' o r d i n a sua." ( A s far as the

Nor

..,. u n a l t r o q u a d r o , i l p i u b e l l o et rara c o s a c h e h a b b i a fatta i n v i t a

mia.

26.

N e w Y o r k 2 0 0 5 , p . 168.

27.

C a m p o Weyerman 1729-69, pp. 287-89.

28.

P r e s u m e d l o s t i n 1945; see B e r n h a r d 1965, p . 2 0 , fig. 134. F o r The Riding For

School, see L i e d t k e 1989, p . 232; a n d K o l b 2 0 0 5 , p . 68, f i g . 6 6 .

the e q u e s t r i a n p o r t r a i t o f A r c h d u k e A l b e r t , see cat. n o . 9 A .

2 9 . K o l b ( 2 0 0 5 , p p . 63, 65, 6 7 - 6 8 ) i d e n t i f i e d the b r e e d a n d d i s c u s s e d the i m p o r t a n c e o f t h i s t y p e o f h o r s e i n the Entry

a n d at the a r c h d u c a l

court.

tree, i n c l u d i n g cat. n o . 12; see B r o o s a n d W a d u m 1993, W a d u m 1993, a n d W a d u m 1998, p p . 1 7 9 - 8 1 . 4 4 . A l t h o u g h o n e c a n n o t r u l e o u t the p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t B r u e g h e l u s e d w h i t e

30. See F r a n c i s v a n N o t e n , " T h e H o r s e s o f A l b e r t a n d I s a b e l l a : H i s t o r i c a l Background," and Francis Verschooten, "The Horses o f A l b e r t and Isabella: R a d i o g r a p h i c E x a m i n a t i o n , " i n Brussels 1 9 9 8 - 9 9 , pp. 3 4 3 - 4 6 a n d 3 4 7 - 5 7 , r e s p e c t i v e l y . F o r the e p i t a p h c e l e b r a t i n g A l b e r t ' s f a m o u s

c h a l k ( n o t v i s i b l e i n i n f r a r e d r e f l e c t o g r a p h y ) w h e n s k e t c h i n g the c o m p o s i t i o n o n the p a n e l . I o w e t h i s o b s e r v a t i o n t o Y v o n n e S z a f r a n . 45. O b s e r v e d a n d d o c u m e n t e d b y Y v o n n e S z a f r a n ; see the i n f r a r e d r e f l e c t o g r a p h r e p r o d u c e d i n K o l b 2 0 0 5 , fig. 13.

s t e e d , see S a i n t e n o y 1932-35, v o l . 1, p . 123. 31. S a i n t e n o y 1932-35, v o l . 1, p . 76. F o r the best a c c o u n t o f the

occupants

o f t h e a r c h d u c a l aviaries a n d m e n a g e r i e , see K o l b 2 0 0 5 , p p . 1 3 - 2 0 .

4 6 . G i f f o r d 1999, p . 182. 47. It is n o t p o s s i b l e t o i d e n t i f y t h i s p a i n t i n g o n the basis o f t h i s g e n e r a l d e s c r i p t i o n . See M u l l e r 1989, p . 139, n o . 271; a n d A n t w e r p 2 0 0 4 ,

32. B r u e g h e l ' s d r a w i n g a p p e a r e d at S o t h e b y ' s , N e w Y o r k , J a n u a r y 2 0 , 1982, l o t 53. F o r F r a n s S n y d e r s , Ostrich

(pen and b r o w n ink and b r o w n

p p . 1 9 6 - 9 8 , cat. n o . 39.

w a s h , 27.7 x 13.4 c m [ 1 0 % x 5V4 i n . ] ; R o t t e r d a m , M u s e u m B o i j m a n s V a n B e u n i n g e n , i n v . F S I ) , see M a r c V a n d e n v e n i n A n t w e r p 1982, p p . 114, 116, cat. n o . 51. 33. S a i n t e n o y 1932-35, v o l . 1, p . 73. 34. F o u r c a m e l s a p p e a r i n D e n i s v a n A l s l o o t ' s p a i n t i n g o f the

Ommeganck

h e l d o n M a y 31, 1615 ( L o n d o n , V i c t o r i a a n d A l b e r t M u s e u m , i n v . 5928-1859); see L o i s e l 1912, v o l . 2, p . 2 6 ; a n d K o l b 2 0 0 5 , p . 15. 35. A n A m e r i c a n species, t u r k e y s w e r e b r o u g h t t o S p a i n as e a r l y as 1500, a n d later t o Italy, F r a n c e , a n d E n g l a n d , a n d w e r e p r i z e d f o r t h e i r d e l i c i o u s m e a t ; see K i s l i n g 2 0 0 1 , p . 35; a n d K o l b 2 0 0 5 , p p . 2 0 , 2 9 . F o r Allegory

of Air,

p a i n t e d w i t h H e n d r i c k v a n B a l e n , see E r t z 1979, p . 599,

n o . 2 4 9 ; a n d W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 , p . 194, n o . A 143• 36. T h e s a m e m o n k e y , f r o m the P o r t u g u e s e c o l o n y o f B o i k o , A f r i c a , is o n e o f the types r e p r e s e n t e d i n the Studies of Asses, Cats, and (cat. n o . 28) a n d w a s i n c l u d e d i n The Garden Man

Monkeys

of Eden with the Fall of

(cat. n o . 4 ) ; see K o l b 2 0 0 5 , p p . 8, n - 1 2 .

37. H e n d r i c k v a n B a l e n a n d J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r , Venus and

Cupid

( s i g n e d H . v . B A L E N a n d d a t e d 1 6 0 0 , o i l o n canvas, 190 x 148 c m [747/8 x 58*4 i n . ] ; S t . P e t e r s b u r g , H e r m i t a g e State M u s e u m , i n v . 3256); see W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 , v o l . 1, p . 181, n o . A 114; v o l . 2, p . 399. See cat. n o . 2. 38. G u i n e a p i g s a r r i v e d i n E u r o p e f r o m S o u t h A m e r i c a , p e r h a p s v i a W e s t A f r i c a , b e t w e e n a b o u t 1550 a n d 1580; see W e i r 1974 a n d K i s l i n g 2 0 0 1 , p . 3539. C e r t a i n aspects o f B r u e g h e l ' s g r o u p i n g s a n t i c i p a t e later p u b l i s h e d f o r m s o f c l a s s i f i c a t i o n ; see K o l b 2 0 0 5 , p p . 2 1 - 3 1 . 4 0 . F o r the v o l u m e s a c q u i r e d b y R u b e n s a n d the i m p e t u s b e h i n d his a c t i v i t i e s , see Jeffrey M u l l e r , " R u b e n s ' s C o l l e c t i o n i n H i s t o r y , " i n A n t w e r p 2 0 0 4 , p . 334 1 . See K o l b 2 0 0 5 , p . 27. 4 2 . F o r H o e f n a g e l , see p a r t i c u l a r l y H e n d r i x a n d V i g n a u - W i l b e r g 1997. 4 3 . A c c o r d i n g t o s t u d i e s b y J o r g e n W a d u m a n d J a n v a n D a m m e , the A n t w e r p G u i l d o f Saint L u k e o n l y required such brand marks after 1617. A t t h a t t i m e b r a n d s also h a d t o be a c c o m p a n i e d b y the a r m s o f t h e c i t y o f A n t w e r p (a castle w i t h t w o o p e n h a n d s ) . W a d u m has d e t e r m i n e d t h a t o t h e r panels w i t h t h e R B m a r k c a m e f r o m the s a m e

B R U E G H E L

201

27 Jan Brueghel the Elder

Studies of Huntin g Dogs ca. 1615-1 6 O i l o n panel , 3 4 x 55. 5 c m (i3 /s x 2 1 % in. ) 3

V i e n n a , Kunsthistorische s M u s e u m , Gemaldegalerie , inv . 698 8

28 Jan Brueghel the Elder

Studies of Asses , Cats , an d Monkeys ca. 1615-1 6 O i l o n panel , 3 4 . 2 x 55. 5 c m (1 3 V2 x 2 1 % in. ) V i e n n a , Kunsthistorische s M u s e u m , Gemaldegalerie , inv . 698 5

PROVENANCE

G u s t a v v o n B e n d a b e q u e s t , 193 2 LITERATURE

G l i i c k 1912 , p p . 222 , 2 3 0 ; K o l b 2 0 0 5 , p p . 11—1 3

202 B R U E G H E

EXHIBITIONS

V i e n n a 1930 , cat . n o s . 12 4 a n d 125 ; P a r i s 1936 , cat. n o . 16 ; E s s e n - V i e n n a 1 9 9 7 - 9 8 , cat . n o s . 93 a n d 2 0 0 ( w i t h a d d i t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e ) ; A n t w e r p 1998 , cat . n o . 9 2 ; T o k y o - K o b e 2 0 0 4

' H E S E

T W O

P A N E L S

W I T H

A N I M A L

S T U D I E S

A R E

somewhat larger, a capuchin monkey. T h e squirrel monkey,

a m o n g the rare s u r v i v i n g o i l sketches by Jan B r u e g h e l

w h i c h is depicted i n some sketches eating a piece o f fruit, is

the Elder. T h e y are exceptionally spontaneous, lifelike

rendered from various angles, sometimes w i t h o n l y a few

portrayals i n various stages o f c o m p l e t i o n , displaying asses,

strokes o f the brush, sometimes i n color. There is also a little

monkeys, cats, and dogs, seen f r o m various angles. B r u e g h e l

sketch o f its hands alone. T o the right o f the squirrel m o n

not o n l y observed w i t h care the animals' appearance but

key, the capuchin m o n k e y is w o r k e d up completely i n color,

also succeeded i n capturing their characteristic movements.

and next to it is a sketch i n w h i c h o n l y the animal's head

H e d i d not make these o i l sketches w i t h the i n t e n t i o n o f

and shoulders are c o l o r e d i n . T o make use o f the space

selling t h e m ; instead, they were kept i n his studio to serve as

r e m a i n i n g o n the right-hand side o f the panel, B r u e g h e l gave

examples o n w h i c h to base his w o r k . Indeed, he c o p i e d

the plank a quarter t u r n clockwise and recorded his impres

these animals exactly i n his paintings. T h e sketches are most

sions o f a litter o f kittens. T h e wide-eyed cat above t h e m to

comparable to drawings by A l b r e c h t D i i r e r (1471-1528),

the right is perhaps their mother. A s already m e n t i o n e d ,

Jacques de G h e y n (1565-1629), and R o e l a n d t Savery (1576-

Brueghel not o n l y captured the animals' forms and colors but

1639), w h i c h display animals depicted f r o m life, observed

also carefully observed their behavior. T h e mother cat, for

f r o m various angles and sometimes rendered i n c o l o r .

example, is somewhat crouched, its ears turned slightly back,

Since B r u e g h e l executed his studies i n o i l o n panel, they

as it keeps a careful watch o n the m u d d l e o f sleeping kit

are naturally less fragile than preparatory drawings o n

tens. B r u e g h e l depicted the monkeys' n i m b l e nature and was

paper, and this must have been a great advantage i n studio 2

practice. A s far as we k n o w , o n l y four such o i l sketches 3

w i t h animal motifs by B r u e g h e l have s u r v i v e d . O f these, the w o r k s displayed here—generally v i e w e d as pendants

apparently fascinated by their dexterous hands. T h e asses' large ears are especially s t r i k i n g , seeming i n some poses to move forward and i n others backward. O n the other panel are seven dogs, most o f them depicted

o w i n g to their nearly identical measurements—are the most

f r o m various angles. Some o f the dogs are sketchily ren

impressive.

dered, their contours consisting o f o n l y a few lines o f the

O n a l i g h t g r o u n d — o v e r w h i c h a light gray i m p r i m a tura (a t h i n , intermediate layer) was applied w i t h clearly 4

visible, diagonal strokes o f the b r u s h — B r u e g h e l sketched

brush. O f others, o n l y the head is depicted, whereas some are portrayed i n great detail. T h e fact that these are h u n t i n g dogs is stressed by the presence at the l o w e r right o f the

or painted the various animals, filling nearly all the avail

dead boar w i t h its entrails s p i l l i n g out. Several dogs sniff at

able space. Sometimes he painted them w i t h cast shadows,

the boar, a beagle jumps up, and the s w o l l e n nipples o f the

i n order to give t h e m some g r o u n d beneath their feet,

b i t c h o n the left l o o k very lifelike indeed.

so to speak. Brueghel's extraordinarily true-to-life rendering o f animals has often led to the assumption that he painted 5

t h e m f r o m l i f e . It is more likely, however, that he used

Brueghel used these animal motifs whenever his c o m p o sitions required them. F o r example, the squirrel m o n k e y i n the act o f eating—seen frontally f r o m the right—was copied

study drawings to compose o i l sketches such as these

exactly i n The Garden of Eden (cat. no. 4 ) , and the hunting

i n his studio. N o t o n l y was it especially difficult at this time

dogs occur repeatedly i n his paintings. T h e t w o black-and-

—before the i n v e n t i o n o f paint i n tubes—to w o r k i n oils

white dogs at the upper left are recognizable i n Diana's

out o f doors, but these panels actually display c o m p o s i t i o n s

Sleeping Nymphs Observed by Satyrs (cat. no. 1 1 ) , while one o f

that were carefully designed to incorporate as many animals

these t w o animals occurs i n Diana at the Hunt (cat. no. 10).

as possible.

T h e l i g h t b r o w n d o g at the far right i n the sketch is also

O n one o f the panels an ass—presumably the same

recognizable i n the latter p a i n t i n g . S u c h b o r r o w i n g s a l l o w

animal i n every case—is seen f r o m the side, f r o m b e h i n d ,

us to date these o i l studies to about 1615-16. I n a series o f

and (obliquely) f r o m the front; sometimes no more than

etchings f r o m 1646, Wenceslas H o l l a r (1607-1677) copied a

the animal's head or hindquarters are s h o w n . Occasionally

n u m b e r o f Brueghel's d o g studies that have not survived

o n l y the contours have been sketched, u s i n g merely a

(see figs. 6 5 - 6 7 ) . T h e prints depict i n reverse a n u m b e r o f

few lines o f the brush or possibly the pen, whereas several

dogs seen i n Brueghel's paintings. T h e recurring appearance

o f the sketches s h o w the animal completely c o l o r e d i n . T w o

o f these a n i m a l s — a n d , for that matter, the same flowers

kinds o f monkeys are also depicted: a squirrel m o n k e y and,

and fruits—shows that B r u e g h e l must have made frequent

BRUEGHEL

203

204

205

FIGURE

103 J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r , Study of

Monkeys,

a Deer, and Other Animals,

1620. O i l o n

p a n e l , 20.1 x 3 0 . 9 c m ( 7 % x 12Vs i n . ) . G h e n t , M u s e u m v o o r Schone K u n s t e n , inv. 1902-c

use of oil sketches and preparatory drawings. After his death in 1625, this material passed into the hands of his son and successor, Jan Brueghel the Younger, whose work displays the same pictorial motifs. Most of the studies in this onceextensive studio stock have been lost. O f the other two surviving panels with animal motifs, one contains various ducks and birds (see fig. 4 4 ) , two of which—the surf scoter and the black-tailed godwit— were used by Brueghel in the Mauritshuis Garden of Eden. The other panel, a Study ofMonkeys, a Deer, and Other Animals, now in the Museum voor Schone Kunsten in Ghent (fig. 1 0 3 ) , displays three motifs—a bird, a squirrel monkey sitting on a melon, and a marmoset with cherries—that are rendered identically in The Holy Family in a Garland of Fruit and Flowers by Brueghel and Pieter van Avont in Munich (see fig. 86). The dead deer and the dead pheasant have identical counterparts in Brueghel's Wooded Landscape with Nymphs, Dogs, and Hunting Spoils in Neuburg an der Donau (see fig. 6 8 ) . In addition to these oil sketches on panel, animal studies on paper have also survived, including a drawing of an ostrich (see fig. 102), on which Brueghel not only gave sev eral color indications but also noted the size of the animal: " 9 feet high" (9 voeten hooghe). Brueghel must have made 7

many more such drawings from life—assuming he made a sketch of every new species he laid eyes on—but nearly all of them have been lost. Exotic animals abound in his depictions of paradise, whereas the ass and the house cat are perfectly ordinary creatures. Owning hunting dogs was a princely prerogative in those days, so it is assumed that Brueghel studied these animals at the court of the archdukes Albert and Isabella (see cat. nos. 10 and 11). South American monkeys, too, were probably found only in the possession of well-to-do collectors. A v S 10

206

B R U E G H E L

NOTES

1. See K o l b 2 0 0 0 , p p . 1 6 - 3 5 . 2. F o r a c o m p a r a b l e o i l s k e t c h b y R u b e n s , see H e l d 1980, n o . 411; see also G r e e n w i c h - C i n c i n n a t i - B e r k e l e y 2 0 0 4 - 0 5 , cat. n o . 7. 3. See n o t e s 7 a n d 8 b e l o w a n d f i g . 103. A Study of the Head of a Roebuck ( N a r b o n n e , M u s e e d ' A r t et d ' H i s t o i r e ) is s o m e t i m e s a t t r i b u t e d t o J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r ; see P a r i s 1 9 7 7 - 7 8 , cat. n o . 18; a n d A . B a l i s i n A n t w e r p 1982, p . 74. H o w e v e r , t h e s o m e w h a t coarse e x e c u t i o n o f t h i s o i l s k e t c h seems t o p o i n t t o J a n B r u e g h e l t h e Y o u n g e r ; c o m p a r e E r t z 1984, n o . 330. A v a r i a n t is a Study of a Roebuck,

sale, S o t h e b y ' s ,

L o n d o n , A p r i l 21, 2 0 0 5 , l o t 12, also b y t h e h a n d o f J a n t h e Y o u n g e r ; see E r t z 1984, n o . 331. A Study of Parrots,

Toucans, and Songbirds

was

p r o b a b l y also p a i n t e d b y J a n the Y o u n g e r ; see E r t z 1984, n o . 337 ( L e g g a t t B r o t h e r s [art d e a l e r ] , L o n d o n , 1963). A p a r r o t a n d a t o u c a n i n t h i s s t u d y h a v e i d e n t i c a l c o u n t e r p a r t s i n The Garden

of Eden b y

B r u e g h e l a n d R u b e n s (cat. n o . 4 ) , m a k i n g i t l i k e l y t h a t t h i s s t u d y is a c o p y after a l o s t o i l s k e t c h b y B r u e g h e l the E l d e r . A Study of an Artichoke,

Asparagus,

Fruit,

and Oak Twigs w a s also a t t r i b u t e d b y E r t z t o

J a n the Y o u n g e r ( E r t z 1984, n o . 334; f o r m e r l y L . B u r c h a r d c o l l e c t i o n , L o n d o n ) , a l t h o u g h it is m o r e l i k e l y t o be the w o r k o f B r u e g h e l the E l d e r ; see also B a l i s i n A n t w e r p 1982, p . 74.

9. S a l e , S o t h e b y ' s , N e w Y o r k , J a n u a r y 2 0 , 1982, l o t 53; see K o l b 2 0 0 5 , p. 10, fig. 16. 10. O t h e r a n i m a l s t u d i e s b y J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r i n c l u d e : Studies of a Rooster ( p e n a n d b r u s h , w a s h , 29.8 x 19.9 c m [11V4 x 7V4 i n . ] ; P a r i s , M u s e e d u L o u v r e , inv. L 2 2 0 7 ) ; Bare Branch

with Birds ( p e n , 9 - 2 x

13 c m [3V8 x $Vs i n . ] ; P a r i s , F o n d a t i o n C u s t o d i a , F r i t s L u g t c o l l e c t i o n , inv. 6 4 0 7 ) ; Trees and Branches

with Fruit

and Parrots

(pen and b r o w n

i n k , w a s h , a n d b l a c k c h a l k , 4 9 x 38.4 c m [19 V4 x 1 5 i n . ] ; M o n t p e l l i e r , M u s e e A t g e r , inv. M A 4 8 7 ) ; Bare Branches

4 . R e g a r d i n g B r u e g h e l ' s use o f an i m p r i m a t u r a , see the essay b y D o h e r t y , L e o n a r d , and W a d u m i n this v o l u m e .

with

Koninklijke M u s e a voor Schone Kunsten, D e Grez collection, [inv.] cat. 1913, n o . 4 7 4 ) ; Studies of Deer in Various Positions

5. See, a m o n g o t h e r s , E r t z 1979, p. 392; A . B a l i s i n A n t w e r p 1982, p . 7 4 ;

Parrots

( p e n a n d b r o w n i n k , w a s h , 14.2 x 19.6 c m [5V8 x 7V4 i n . ] ; B r u s s e l s ,

(Haboldt

[art d e a l e r ] , Paris a n d N e w Y o r k , sales cat. 2 0 0 1 - 0 2 , n o . 8 ) ; see fig. 45.

a n d A . W i e d i n A n t w e r p 1998, p . 282. 6. Z o e g e v o n M a n t e u f f e l 1923. 7. S a l e , P a r i s , G a l l i e r a , N o v e m b e r 23, 1972, l o t 28.

11. W e l z e l 1997, p . 183. 12. T h i s s u g g e s t i o n c a n be t r a c e d t o R o g e r de P i l e s (1677, p . 156); see also M u l l e r H o f s t e d e 1968, p . 205; a n d E r t z 1979, p. 392.

8. See A n t w e r p 1982, cat. n o . 7.

B R U E G H E L

207

29 Peter Paul Rubens

Madonna della Vallicella, Adored by Angels 1608 O i l o n canvas, 87 x 58 c m (34V4 x 2 2 % in.) V i e n n a , A k a d e m i e der B i l d e n d e n K i i n s t e , Gemaldegalerie, inv. G G 629 Exhibited

in The Hague

C o s t a m a g n a 1995, p p . 1 5 0 - 7 3 ; V o n z u r

PROVENANCE

C o u n t A n t o n Lamberg-Sprinzenstein ( 1 7 4 0 - 1 8 2 2 ) c o l l e c t i o n ; b e q u e a t h e d t o the A k a d e m i e der b i l d e n d e n K i i n s t e , G e m a l d e galerie, V i e n n a , 1822

only

M i i h l e n 1996; V o n z u r M i i h l e n 1998 EXHIBITIONS

V i e n n a 1977, cat. n o . 4 ; C o l o g n e 1977,

LITERATURE

I n c i s a d e l l a R o c c h e t t a 1963; M u l l e r H o f s t e d e

cat. n o . 19; L o n d o n - R o m e 2 0 0 1 , cat. n o . 138; B r u s s e l s 2 0 0 2 , cat. n o . 1; L i l l e 2 0 0 4 , cat. n o . 25

1966; W a r n k e 1968; Jaffe 1977, p p . 9 6 - 9 8 ; H e l d 1980, n o . 397; V o n z u r M i i h l e n 1 9 9 0 ;

? ??? ?????? ?? ?? ?? ?????? ??? ???????

sioned to paint an altarpiece for the R o m a n c h u r c h o f Santa M a r i a i n Vallicella, also k n o w n as the Chiesa

N u o v a ( N e w C h u r c h ) o f the Oratorians. It was by far the most prestigious o f the commissions he received d u r i n g his stay i n Italy (ca. 1 6 0 0 - 0 8 ) . T h e order o f the Oratorians —founded i n 1564 by F i l i p p o N e r i , w h o was later canonized— consists o f lay brothers (secular priests) devoted to a c o m m o n life o f prayer and pastoral w o r k . I n the spirit o f the C o u n t e r R e f o r m a t i o n , the Oratorians focused their devotions o n the veneration o f the V i r g i n M a r y . I n 1575 Pope G r e g o r y X I I I gave t h e m the c h u r c h o f Santa M a r i a i n Vallicella i n R o m e , but this c h u r c h s o o n p r o v e d t o o small for their b u r g e o n i n g order. T h e medieval c h u r c h b u i l d i n g was demolished to make way for a n e w church, literally the Chiesa N u o v a . A fourteenth- or fifteenth-century fresco o f M a r y being blessed

208

RUBENS

by the C h r i s t C h i l d , surrounded by angels, was taken f r o m an adjacent house and carefully preserved for the purpose o f placing it o n a side altar i n the n e w church; this Madonna della Vallicella had i n fact been revered as a miraculous i c o n since the sixteenth century, w h e n it had b l e d after b e i n g damaged by a stone t h r o w n by an infidel. O n A u g u s t 2, 1606, the Oratorians decided to move this image o f divine mercy—the church's greatest attraction—to the h i g h altar and to c o m m i s s i o n an altarpiece. Rubens signed the contract for this c o m m i s s i o n o n September 25 o f the same year. It was stipulated that the altarpiece was to contain portrayals o f Saints Gregory, M a u r u s , Papianus, D o m i t i l l a , Nereus, and Achilleus (whose relics were w o r s h i p p e d i n the church) and, above them, the miraculous image o f M a r y . O n December 2, 1606, Rubens wrote a letter to A n n i b a l e C h i e p p i o — t h e agent o f his employer, the duke o f M a n t u a — 2

209

requesting permission to stay in Rome a few months longer in order to paint this altarpiece: "When the finest and most splendid opportunity in all Rome presented itself, my ambition urged me to avail myself of the chance. It is the high altar of the new church of the Priests of the Oratory, called Santa Maria in Vallicella, without doubt the most cele brated and frequented church in Rome today, situated right in the center of the city." Rubens could not have foreseen that this would prove a long and laborious task; in fact., he eventually felt compelled to take back his altarpiece and produce another one, based on a different conception. In 1 6 0 6 - 0 7 , after his patrons had approved his designs, Rubens painted an altarpiece with six saints, transfixed by the miraculous image of the Madonna and Child above them (now in the Musee de Peinture et de Sculpture in Grenoble). This painting was finished sometime during 1607 and placed on the high altar, but light reflecting from it made it difficult to see. Moreover, it seems that the patrons were displeased with the icon's position in the altarpiece, for on January 30, 1608, they accepted Rubens's offer to execute the work again, making adjustments to the upper part. O n April 2 4 , 1608, however, it appeared that Rubens—for whom it was apparently very important to bring this commission to a satisfactory conclusion—had completely altered the design, for he was now granted permission to divide the altarpiece into three separate paintings, one of which would be placed above the high altar and the other two lower down, on the side walls of the choir. To avoid annoying light reflections, the works were to be painted on slate instead of canvas, which meant that Rubens would have to execute them in situ. As was customary, the artist was asked to submit designs, which appear to have been approved quickly, since on May 13, 1608, the patrons authorized pay ment for the slate. In the new ensemble produced for the high altar, which can still be admired in the Chiesa Nuova, all attention is focused—much more so than in the original design—on the miraculous image in the central piece, which is adored by angels and borne heavenward by putti. The six saints are distributed over the two side pieces and placed lower down, outside the heavenly spheres, from which vantage point they may worship the holy image, side by side with the churchgoers. Flying putti hold wreaths above the heads of the early Christian saints with palm branches in their hands, while a putto on the ground holds the tiara of the church father Gregory the Great (ca. 5 4 0 - 6 0 4 ) . In the central 5

FIGURE

1 0 4 P e t e r P a u l R u b e n s , Madonna

della Vallicella,

Adored

Angels,

1608. O i l o n slate, 425 x 250 c m (168 x 98V8 i n . ) . R o m e , C h i e s a N u o v a

RUBENS

211

FIGURE

Putti,

106 P e t e r P a u l R u b e n s , Madonna

M u s e u m , inv. 7098

FIGURE

105 P e t e r P a u l R u b e n s , Madonna

della Vallicella,

Adored

Angels,

1608. P e n a n d b r u s h i n b r o w n i n k , h e i g h t e n e d i n w h i t e , o v e r traces o f g r a p h i t e , 26.8 x 15.2 c m (10V2 x 6 i n ) . V i e n n a , G r a p h i s c h e S a m m l u n g A l b e r t i n a , i n v . 8231

212

RUBENS

della Vallicella, 5

Borne Aloft

1608. R e d c h a l k , 4 4 . 9 x 34.6 c m ( i 7 / 8 x 135/8 i n . ) . M o s c o w , P u s h k i n

depiction, an opening has been cut in the stone for the fresco of the Madonna della Vallicella, which is displayed, on high feast days. The fresco is normally covered by a copper plate, on which Rubens painted a paraphrase of the mirac ulous image. In late October 1 6 0 8 , Rubens departed in haste for Antwerp-—before the unveiling of the tripartite altar ensemble in the Chiesa Nuova—upon receiving news of his mother's deteriorating health. Attempts to sell the rejected Oratorian altarpiece in Italy had failed, so he took it home with him. Learning at his arrival of his mother's death, Rubens had the altarpiece installed by her grave in the Abbey of Saint Michael (Sint-Michielsabdij) at Antwerp. It hung there for nearly two centuries, until it was carried off to France during the Napoleonic era. The painting from the Gemaldegalerie of the Akademie in Vienna is the modello, the design painted in oil, for the central part of the revised altarpiece that Rubens completed in 1 6 0 8 , shortly before his return to Antwerp (fig. 1 0 4 ) . Also preserved are a pen and wash drawing of the same depiction (fig. 105) and a drawing in red chalk of the upper most part, with the putti carrying the image of the Madonna and Child (fig. 1 0 6 ) . These sheets must have preceded the modello. The drawings, for example, show various sug gestions for the frame of the holy image, decorated with such things as scrolls and rectangular protrusions; in the final version of the altarpiece, the Madonna is set in an oval frame. It is also apparent from the poses of the various angels and putti that the Vienna modello comes closest to the finished altarpiece. It was probably the last in a series of designs made for the patrons' approval, although Rubens modified several details of the final altarpiece. For instance, the angels below no longer kneel on clouds, and the arched cloud with angels' heads seen in the modello has disappeared completely from the finished altarpiece.

possess miraculous powers and not true icons like the fresco that is the focal point of the Vallicella altarpiece. A v S

NOTES

1. A f t e r R u b e n s ' s r e t u r n f r o m I t a l y , sketches f o r t h e t h r e e p a i n t i n g s i n the C h i e s a N u o v a w e r e t o be f o u n d i n t h e A b b e y o f S a i n t M i c h a e l

( S i n t - M i c h i e l s a b d i j ) at A n t w e r p ; see D e P i l e s 1677, p . 189. It is p o s s i b l e t h a t these o i l sketches w e r e s t o l e n d u r i n g the N a p o l e o n i c era, as w a s t h e Madonna

della Vallicella,

Adored

by Saints ( G r e n o b l e , M u s d c de

P e i n t u r e et de S c u l p t u r e ) ; see H e l d 1980, p . 542. 2. See V o n z u r M i i h l e n 1998, fig. 4 0 . 3. I n c i s a d e l l a R o c c h e t t a 1963, p. 162, d o c . n o . 1. 4. I n c i s a d e l l a R o c c h e t t a 1963, p p . 1 6 3 - 6 7 , d o c . n o . i v . 5. " O f f e r e n d o s i d u n q u e l a p i u b e l l a e s u p e r b a o c c a s i o n e d i t u t t a R o m a m i s p i n s e a n c o r a z e l o d ' h o n o r e a p r e v a l e r m i d e l l a m i a s o r t e . Q u e s t ' e l'altar m a g g i o r e de l a C h i e s a n u o v a d e l l i P r e t i d e l l ' O r a t o r i o d e t t a S. M a r i a i n v a l l i c e l l a , s e n z a d u b b i o h o g g i d i l a p i u c e l e b r a t a et f r e q u e n t a t a c h i e s a d i R o m a p e r esser s i t u a t a g i u s t o n e l c e n t r e d'essa": Jaffe 1977, p . 119, n . 27; a n d M a g u r n 1955, l e t t e r n o . 14. I n r e a c t i o n t o R u b e n s ' s letter, D u k e V i n c e n z o G o n z a g a gave h i m p e r m i s s i o n t o stay i n R o m e l o n g e r ; six m o n t h s later, o n J u n e 9, 1607, R u b e n s a g a i n asked C h i e p p i o f o r

p e r m i s s i o n t o e x t e n d h i s R o m a n s o j o u r n ; see V o n z u r M i i h l e n 1998, p. 151. 3

6. O i l o n canvas, 477 x 288 c m (i87 /4 x i i 3 / s i n . ) . T h e modello f o r t h i s

The final version of the altarpiece made for the Chiesa Nuova is an impressive ensemble, all parts of which focus on the veneration of the miraculous image at the heart of the composition. As the garlanding of a holy image, it anticipates the garlands with Madonnas that Rubens later painted in Antwerp with Jan Brueghel the Elder (see cat. no. 12 and fig. 6 9 ) . Thus the ambitious Madonna in a Flower Garland in Munich (see fig. 1) can be seen as an elaboration of the upper half of the central part of the Rome altarpiece. In these collaborative works, however, the portrayals of the Madonna and Child are merely depictions of images said to

p a i n t i n g is t o be f o u n d i n t h e S t a a t l i c h e M u s e e n B e r l i n ; see H e l d 1980, n o . 396. 7. M a g u r n 1955, letter n o . 17. 8. I n c i s a d e l l a R o c c h e t t a 1963, p . 169, d o c . n o . v . 9. I n c i s a d e l l a R o c c h e t t a 1963, p . 173, d o c . n o . V I I I . 10. I n c i s a d e l l a R o c c h e t t a 1963, p . 173, d o c . n o . i x . I n m i d - J u n e t h e O r a t o r i a n s p a i d f o r the d e l i v e r y o f t h e c o p p e r p l a t e o n w h i c h R u b e n s p a i n t e d the V i r g i n a n d C h i l d ; see V o n z u r M i i h l e n 1998, p . 153, n . 545. 11. R u b e n s ' s c o m p o s i t i o n w a s i n s p i r e d b y D u r a n t e A l b e r t i , Madonna Vallicella,

Adored

by Angels

della

( R o m e , S S . N e r e o e d A c h i l l e o ) ; see M u l l e r

H o f s t e d e 1966, fig. 16 (as a t t r i b u t e d t o C r i s t o f o r o R o n c a l l i , c a l l e d II P o m a r a n c i o ) a n d fig. 14; a n d also b y F e d e r i c o Z u c c a r o , The Worship of God's Name

( R o m e , II G e s u ) ; see M u l l e r H o f s t e d e 1966, fig. 2 0 .

12. See V o n z u r M i i h l e n 1998, p. 154 a n d n . 548. 13. Jaffe 1977, figs. 329 a n d 328. F o r the d r a w i n g i n the A l b e r t i n a , V i e n n a , see H e l d 1986, n o . 4 2 ; a n d N e w Y o r k 2 0 0 5 , cat. n o . 18. See also a d r a w i n g i n the M u s e e d u L o u v r e , P a r i s , L u g t n o . 1 0 0 8 . P r e p a r a t o r y d r a w i n g s a n d a n o i l s k e t c h f o r b o t h s i d e pieces h a v e also b e e n p r e s e r v e d ; see M u l l e r H o f s t e d e 1966, figs. 9, 10, a n d 8, r e s p e c t i v e l y ; H e l d 1980, n o . 398; a n d V o n z u r M i i h l e n 1998, p p . 1 7 1 - 7 2 , n . 622. 14.

See N e w Y o r k 2 0 0 5 , p . 106.

RUBENS

213

Brueghel and

?????? ?? ???? Technique and the Practice of Collaboration

TIARNA

DOHERTY,

MARK

LEONARD,

AND J0RGEN

WADUM

215

F I G U R E 107 S i g n a t u r e / i n s c r i p t i o n s , The Garden

216

BRUEGHEL

A N D RUBENS

WORK

of Eden with the Fall of Man

(cat. n o . 4 )

? 1598,

H E C O L L A B O R A T I V E

W O R K S

For this e x h i b i t i o n , a n u m b e r o f the collaborative w o r k s

O F J A N B R U E G H E L A N D

Peter Paul Rubens n u m b e r approximately t w o d o z e n

o f Rubens and B r u e g h e l have been studied f r o m a technical

paintings. T h e artists began w o r k i n g together i n about

vantage p o i n t , leading to some general conclusions about

just p r i o r t o Rubens's sojourn i n Italy; their close rela

how

t i o n s h i p c o n t i n u e d u n t i l 1625, the year o f BrueghePs death.

the w o r k s originated and h o w they evolved d u r i n g their

creation. It seems likely that these w o r k s most often o r i g i

W i t h i n the g r o u p o f their k n o w n collaborative w o r k s there is

nated w i t h B r u e g h e l ; i n the majority o f cases, the first stages

a range o f subject matter, size, and quality. T h e latter distinc

o f d r a w i n g and p a i n t i n g began i n Brueghel's studio. I n the

t i o n raises the question o f studio involvement, m a i n l y o n the

instances where B r u e g h e l initiated the c o m p o s i t i o n it seems

part o f R u b e n s , since he is k n o w n to have operated a large

most likely that he was the leading collaborator and chose

w o r k s h o p , a n d it was n o t unusual for his studio assistants to

the subject matter. B r u e g h e l turned to Rubens to paint

play a role i n the execution o f his w o r k s .

the figures, n o t because o f any inability o n his part to paint

Few

documents exist regarding the artists collaborative

process. There are o n l y a few letters that indicate w h o was

the h u m a n f o r m , b u t because the w e a v i n g o f another master's hand i n t o a p a i n t i n g added a rich d i m e n s i o n to the

the leading artist i n a specific w o r k , n o extant drawings that

tapestry o f visual effects and surfaces that was the hallmark o f

s h o w h o w the artists may have gone about p l a n n i n g their

Brueghel's w o r k . S u c h collaborative efforts h i g h l i g h t e d the

c o m p o s i t i o n s , a n d n o records regarding the movement o f the

exceptional skills o f each artist i n v o l v e d , p r o d u c i n g a finished

paintings between the artists' studios. A l t h o u g h frustrating,

w o r k o f art that was more than the s u m o f its i n d i v i d u a l

this underscores the fact that the practice o f c o l l a b o r a t i o n

parts a n d o f greater value to collectors a n d patrons. Some o f the strongest pieces o f evidence s u p p o r t i n g the

was very c o m m o n i n seventeenth-century A n t w e r p and so accepted that it was n o t considered particularly noteworthy. A r t i s t s ' studios were complicated, vibrant environments.

assumption that B r u e g h e l played the leading role i n the development o f the collaborative w o r k s are the occasional

A l t h o u g h overseen by a master, studios d i d n o t necessarily

inscriptions f o u n d o n the paintings. N o t a b l e a m o n g these

produce w o r k s that were exclusively by the master's o w n

rare occurrences is the i n s c r i p t i o n o n The Garden of Eden

hand. M a n y seventeenth-century collectors defined a work's

with the Fall ofMan

desirability n o t b y the degree o f the master's hands-on par

n o t a t i o n I B R V E G H E L F E C . [Brueghel made it] lays claim to

t i c i p a t i o n b u t rather by its being recognizable as b e l o n g i n g

Brueghel's role as o r i g i n a t o r o f the p a i n t i n g . R u b e n s , o n the

to the master's style. T h a t all o f the productions o f an artist's

other hand, is acknowledged as the author o f the figures:

(cat. no. 4 ) . A t the right o f the panel, the

studio were considered to be " o r i g i n a l " is indicated b y the

P E T R I P A V L I . R V B E N S F I G R . (fig. 107). Brueghel's " s i g n i n g "

fact that they often bore the master's signature, regardless o f

for Rubens is n o t surprising, since Rubens rarely signed his

how

own

many studio assistants may have been i n v o l v e d i n the 3

creative process. W i t h i n a studio, w o r k was usually assigned

paintings (see cat. n o . 4 ) . In three o f the pictures f r o m the series o f collaborative

to assistants based u p o n their particular skills o r talents.

works for w h i c h Rubens and B r u e g h e l are best k n o w n — t h e

The

Five Senses at the M u s e o N a c i o n a l del Prado i n M a d r i d —

size o f a w o r k s h o p was often directly related to the scale

and quantity o f the w o r k s p r o d u c e d . B r u e g h e l and Rubens

Brueghel features his o w n name p r o m i n e n t l y , b u t Rubens's

were court painters w h o were exempt f r o m g u i l d regulations

name does n o t even appear. I n the Allegory of Sight (fig. 5 4 ) ,

that w o u l d have required them to record w h o their studio

Brueghel signed and dated one o f the scattered sheets

members were. W e d o k n o w that the prestigious flower

o f paper i n the l o w e r left foreground: B R V E G H E L . F. 1617

painter D a n i e l Seghers (1590-1661) w o r k e d w i t h B r u e g h e l 4

for a short p e r i o d o f t i m e . R u b e n s , to meet the demands

(fig. 108) and i n the Allegory of Taste, his name and the date appear again, i n the l o w e r far right corner: B R V E G H E L . F E .

o f his patrons and their commissions at the height o f his

1618 (fig. 109). As w i t h The Garden of Eden, the use o f a form

career, oversaw an unusually large studio, positions i n w h i c h

of fecit i n b o t h these signatures implies that B r u e g h e l was

were m u c h c o v e t e d .

c o n f i r m i n g his role as the p r i m a r y "maker" o f the paintings.

Since w e cannot rely u p o n documentary evidence alone

A l t h o u g h it may be assumed that many o f the collabora

to understand h o w collaborations between artists may have

tive w o r k s originated w i t h i n Brueghel's studio, the ways i n

w o r k e d , w e must t u r n to the pictures themselves.

w h i c h the two artists w o r k e d together—particularly regarding

BRUEGHEL

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217

(cat. no 3), it has proven nearly impossible to sort through their complex interaction and definitively establish a time line for the process that led to the completed work of art. It is only possible to speculate as to what specific logistical arrangements may have been followed during the creation of a painting. D i d the paintings move back and forth between the studios? Or did the artistic collaborators who worked with Brueghel come to his studio and add their figures there? It is perhaps more likely that the paint ings moved, as artists would certainly have preferred to have their own materials and tools at hand within the familiar comfort of their own studios. The studios in Antwerp were, in fact, in close proximity to one another (see fig. 11). Transportation would have been simplified by the use of handling frames, and evidence of such constructions has been found on some of the collaborative works. 6

M a t e r i a l s and Techniques

In order to understand how Rubens and Brueghel worked together, it will be helpful first to review the painting mate rials and techniques that both artists used in their individual studios as well as in their collaborative productions. SUPPORT

FIGURE

108 S i g n a t u r e / i n s c r i p t i o n , Allegory

of Sight (fig. 54)

FIGURE

109 S i g n a t u r e / i n s c r i p t i o n , Allegory

of Taste (cat. n o . 8)

the sequence of events that led to a finished painting—are not always quite so clear. Their partnership seems to have evolved over time, and they did not always adhere to a con sistent working method. Careful study of some of the paintings, particularly the earlier works such as The Battle of the Amazons (cat. no. 1), from about 1598, or The Return from War: Mars Disarmed by Venus (cat. no. 2 ) , from about 1 6 1 0 12, reveals a logical progression back-and-forth throughout the creation of the painting; each artist's participation can be traced in a fairly straightforward series of steps from start to finish. In other pictures, though, the two artists were extraordinarily adept at integrating their individual contri butions into a seamless whole. In considering some of their most elaborate compositions, such as The Feast ofAchelous

218

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The majority of the collaborative works attributed to Brueghel and Rubens were executed on oak panels. One of the under lying motivations for using this type of support was an aes thetic choice: the smooth, hard surface of the wood allowed for the creation of an enamel-like paint surface—a character istic that was particularly well suited to Brueghel's meticu lous style. For his smaller pictures Brueghel, in fact, favored the use of copper, which produced an even more jewel-like surface (but which was not available in sizes suitable for use as a support in larger compositions). In the seventeenth century, the preparation of artists' panels was a highly developed and regulated professional undertaking. Panelmakers, or tafereelmakers, were registered members of Antwerp's Guild of Saint Luke. The wood used for panel supports was predominantly oak; either imported by timber merchants from the eastern Baltic regions of northern Europe or taken from western European forests and allowed to season for some years. Panels were often constructed of two or more planks of wood that were joined to one another to achieve a finished 8

d i m e n s i o n o f a particular size. Panels were constructed to the purchaser's specifications or i n one o f a series o f standard 10

sizes w h i c h c o u l d then be sold " o f f the shelf." T h e planks were relatively t h i n : most c o m m o n l y a r o u n d A i n c h ( 0 . 8 l

to 1.5 cm) i n thickness. T h e planks w o u l d be aligned parallel to one another, and the s m o o t h edges o f the planks w o u l d be j o i n e d along their longest d i m e n s i o n w i t h animal glue (a type o f construction c o m m o n l y referred to as a butt j o i n ) .

For most panels, p r i o r to g l u i n g , dowels were inserted i n t o pre-drilled holes i n the edges o f b o t h planks i n the center of the j o i n i n order to facilitate the alignment o f the planks d u r i n g hardening o f the glue. S u c h dowels are seen i n the X-radiographs taken o f the large panel support for The Return

from War: Mars Disarmed by Venus (fig. n o ) ; i n this case, three dowels were spaced along the length o f each panel j o i n . S i m i l a r internal dowels are f o u n d i n the G l a s g o w

Fruit Garland with Nature Adorned by the Graces (fig. 8 3 ) . The

panelmaker w o u l d then plane the panel so that

it was s m o o t h o n the side to w h i c h the g r o u n d layer and subsequently the paint were to be applied. M a n y panelmakers were also witters (literally, whiteners), w h o also applied the w h i t i s h g r o u n d , made up o f chalk and glue, that p r o v i d e d a s m o o t h surface for p a i n t i n g .

In 1617 the A n t w e r p g u i l d introduced strict new guidelines for the p r o d u c t i o n o f panels.

O n c e panels were approved

for sale by the dean o f the g u i l d , or one o f the keurmeesters (inspectors), they were branded o n the back w i t h the city's coat o f arms: t w o severed hands and the A n t w e r p citadel.

F I G U R E 110 D e t a i l f r o m The Return from War: Mars Disarmed

A b r a n d i n g i r o n i n the shape o f a hand—clearly an allusion

(cat. n o . 2) s h o w n i n n o r m a l l i g h t ( t o p ) a n d i n an X - r a d i o g r a p h s h o w i n g

to this coat o f arms—is portrayed by B r u e g h e l i n the forge

o n e o f the d o w e l s u s e d t o j o i n the p a n e l s ( b o t t o m )

by Venus

of the Allegory of Touch (fig. i n ) . After approval and b r a n d i n g of the panels, the panelmaker w o u l d stamp his o w n personal mark i n t o the w o o d .

1 5

O f the paintings exhibited here, The Garden of Eden with the Fall ofMan (cat. no. 4 ) and Flora and Zephyr (cat. no. 6) are the o n l y t w o panels f r o m Rubens and Brueghel's col laborative w o r k s where, thus far, evidence o f a panelmaker's mark has been f o u n d .

T h i s is, i n part, because the A n t w e r p

b r a n d and the associated makers' marks were not routinely used before 1617. B u t it is also perhaps due to the fact that the backs o f m a n y panels have been t h i n n e d or planed d u r i n g subsequent conservation treatments, r e m o v i n g or obliterat ing any marks i n the process. The

outside edges o f a panel were sometimes planed

d o w n to create a groove that w o u l d fit i n t o a temporary aux

F I G U R E 111 D e t a i l horn Allegory

iliary frame that made the panel portable, a l l o w i n g for easier

b r a n d i n g i r o n at r i g h t

of Touch (fig. 56), s h o w i n g h a n d - s h a p e d

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F I G U R E 112 R e m b r a n d t v a n R i j n ( 1 6 0 6 - 1 6 6 9 ) , The Painter

in His Studio,

c a . 1628. O i l o n

p a n e l , 2 4 . 8 x 31.7 c m (9V4 x 12V2 i n . ) . B o s t o n , M u s e u m o f F i n e A r t s , i n v . 38.1838

h a n d l i n g i n the studio a n d possibly facilitating transport

m o l d i n g s have n o t been p r i m e d . H o w e v e r , at some p o i n t

between studios. S u c h a temporary framework can be seen i n

d u r i n g the p a i n t i n g process the strips o f w o o d o f the tempo

Rembrandt's famous p a i n t i n g o f The Painter in His Studio

rary frame were r e m o v e d a n d some final details—most

(fig. 112), where a panel p a i n t i n g is seen, f r o m the reverse,

likely added b y B r u e g h e l — w e r e c o n t i n u e d o u t to the edges

sitting o n an easel. I n this case, the panel has been fitted w i t h

o f the panel.

w o o d e n braces at the t o p a n d b o t t o m edges. T w o o f R u b e n s a n d Brueghel's collaborative w o r k s , The

G R O U N D

Return from War (cat. n o . 2) and The Garden of Eden with the

After construction o f the panel was complete, i t was

Fall ofMan (cat. n o . 4) are o n panels that appear to have

prepared for p a i n t i n g b y the application o f sizing layers a n d

been fitted w i t h similar auxiliary frameworks. I n b o t h cases,

one o r more layers o f g r o u n d . A sizing layer o f animal glue

grooves were channelled a l o n g the reverse side o f the right

was applied to seal the w o o d panel, so that i t w o u l d n o t

and left vertical edges. O n the surface o f The Return from

absorb the b i n d i n g media o f the g r o u n d o r the paint layers.

War, there is evidence that the frame was i n place d u r i n g the

A c c o r d i n g t o p e r i o d recipes for m a k i n g glue, such materials

course o f p a i n t i n g , as the o r i g i n a l painted surface does n o t

as calf skin a n d leather glove clippings were a m o n g the

continue t o the far edges, a n d a ridge o f paint (or barb) was

most c o m m o n i n g r e d i e n t s .

created several centimeters i n f r o m b o t h edges as a result o f the paint h a v i n g been brushed u p against the edge o f the temporary f r a m e .

T h e simplest g r o u n d layers were typically made from chalk (calcium carbonate) b o u n d i n animal g l u e .

G r o u n d layers

i n a n u m b e r o f i n d i v i d u a l w o r k s b y B r u e g h e l a n d Boibens

T h e Garden of Eden has comparable grooves along the

share a basic similarity i n that they are all w h i t e t o off-white

vertical edges (see fig. 126). I n this case, the frame must have

i n c o l o r a n d p r o v i d e d a s m o o t h , hard surface for p a i n t i n g .

been i n place even p r i o r t o application o f the g r o u n d layer, as the p o r t i o n s o f the panel that were protected b y the frame

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T h e preparation layer o n a panel w o u l d have been applied by the panelmaker, a witter, o r i n the artist's studio. G r o u n d

layers could be applied with a brush (as was commonly done for wood panels) or priming knife (for canvas supports) and, if necessary, could be smoothed down mechanically with a tool such as a reed or drawknife. 21

IMPRIMATURA

Both Brueghel and Rubens favored the use of an additional preparatory layer—commonly referred to today as an imprimatura (stemming from the Italian, imprima, meaning "first" or "before all"). The imprimatura was a semitranslucent pigmented preparation applied in a thin layer on top of the ground. It served a variety of roles: as an isolating layer, it could protect the highly absorbent chalk-based ground from soaking up too much oil medium from the paint layers; as a preliminary layer, it toned down the bright white of the ground; and as a paint layer of sorts, it had an aesthetic impact due to the fact that it often remained visible in local areas on the finished surface of the painting. The imprimatura was applied thinly with a broad, flat brush, and in a medium which left a streaky texture that added an additional dimension to the ground layers. The origins of this type of imprimatura can be traced back to Flemish paintings of the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries, notably those of Pieter Bruegel the Elder (Jan Brueghel the Elder's father) and Hieronymus Bosch 22

(ca. 1 4 5 0 - 1 5 1 6 ) .

2 3

In order for an imprimatura layer to retain the streaky texture imparted by the flat-brush application, it is speculated to have been executed in a medium that would have dried quickly rather than in a slower-drying medium that might have flowed and relaxed into a more uniform, flat surface. The usual assumption is that a water-based medium—such as egg tempera or glue tempera—was used. Unfortunately, this point remains speculative, as no recipes have been found and specific identification of the binding media of impri matura layers by modern analytical techniques has proven to be quite challenging. When taking a sample of such a thin layer it is nearly impossible to avoid contamination, either from the underlying ground layer or the overlying paint layers. The imprimatura layers used by Rubens, for example, have been variously identified by different sources as oilbased, water-based, or an emulsion. The colors favored by Brueghel and Rubens for the imprimatura layer in their collaborative works range from cool grays to warm browns. The imprimatura in The Garden of Eden with the Fall ofMan, for example, contains primarily 24

lead white and carbon black, resulting in a thin, semitransparent gray layer. Conversely, in The Return from War, lead white, carbon black, and a red-brown umber combined to form a warm brown layer. This warmer-colored prepara tion is the type of imprimatura that has been found in the majority of the collaborative works. Brueghel took full advantage of the warm-colored imprimaturas in the details of many of his landscape paintings. He would paint the contours of large tree trunks, for example, directly over the imprimatura, followed by an economic application of highlights and shadows, but leaving the pre paratory layer visible as a middle tone, thus creating a heightened sense of depth and volume. In a similar fashion, the imprimatura layer also imparted a sense of depth to the foliage of treetops, where the warm color was incorporated into the deepest clusters of leaves. Perhaps the clearest example of Brueghel's use of the imprimatura layer can be seen in two panels of animal studies in Vienna (cat. nos. 27 and 28). Executed from life and kept by the artist as references for later paintings, these two pan els functioned much like sketchbook pages and most of the streaky, warm brown imprimatura layer remains visible. The imprimatura plays a role as a middle tone in the modeling of the animals; highlights and shadows were added in more opaque paint to heighten the illusion of form and texture. Rubens, perhaps more than any other artist, made the most elaborate use of the streaky, semitransparent imprima tura in his paintings: it moderated the austerity of the white ground layer in his oil sketches and played an equally important role as a middle tone both in the sketches and in his highly finished paintings. In Rubens's Meeting of King Ferdinand of Hungary and the Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand of Spain at Nordlingen (fig. 113), the warm brown imprimatura serves as the middle ground, and the artist has simply added occasional highlights or shadows to create the illusion of three-dimensional forms on the hard panel surface. 26

UNDERDRAWING

During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, a traditional final step in preparation for painting often involved applying a full-scale drawing of the subject to the prepared panel or canvas in order to lay out the basic framework for the composition. This underdrawing was done in varying degrees of detail and finish and is a much-studied phenomenon. Northern European painters of the early Renaissance typi cally used exceptionally detailed drawings, and while both 27

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WORK

221

FIGURE 113????? ???? ??????? ??????? ?? ???? ????????? ?? ??????? ??? ??? ???????????????? ?????????

?? ????? ????????????? ????? ??? ?? ?????? ???? ?? ? ???? ?? ?????? ? ?? ?? ????? ??? ???????? ?? ???? G e t t y M u s e u m , 87.PB.15 FIGURE

114 J a n B r u e g h e l , Sheet with Animals

and Garlands,

1 6 0 4 . P e n a n d b r o w n i n k , 19.3 x 30.7 c m

(7 /8 x 12V8 i n . ) . L o n d o n , B r i t i s h M u s e u m , i n v . S L 52 © T r u s t e e s o f the B r i t i s h M u s e u m 5

??? ???????? ??? ?????? ?? ????

Brueghel and Rubens emerged from this historic tradition, neither artist followed this approach. Their underdrawings were much looser, and often the boundaries between the drawing and painting stages were blurred, as preparatory linear indications were executed directly in paint rather than with traditional drawing materials such as chalk, ink, or metal point. Underdrawing in chalk and ink is occasionally visible to the naked eye: in some cases, a paint layer may not entirely cover the underdrawing; in other cases, oil paint layers may have become somewhat transparent over time. Generally, however, an infrared-sensitive camera is the standard tool used to reveal and study underdrawings. Both Brueghel and Rubens were master draftsmen in their own right, and both left behind drawings—a large body of drawings in Rubens's case—which have been studied in great detail. Brueghel also made drawings that he used as references for his paintings. One example, Sheet with Animals and Garlands (fig. 114), shows that he included color nota tions that would serve him in the painting process. Brueghel appears to have made many such drawings and painted sketches. Often these were quickly executed studies made from live animals. In the collaborative works, preparatory drawings on the painting support—when they exist—tend to be sketchy and generalized indications of outlines and rough placements of objects and figures, most of which were radically refined and altered during the actual painting of the work of art. Only occasionally is there an underdrawing that serves as a general indication of the composition. This scant indication of compositional design—particularly in their mature collaborations—as no doubt due at least in part to the fact that both artists were exceptionally adept at handling paint and did not need to rely upon a detailed underdrawing. It could also be argued that they used their first stages of painting as a kind of fluid underdrawing. It should be noted that the lack of an identifiable underdrawing is no guarantee that none was employed, only that current analytical tech nology is not able to make it readable. Perhaps not surprisingly, the only Rubens/Brueghel col laborative work where a fairly extensive use of underdrawing has been found is their earliest coproduction, The Battle of the Amazons (cat. no. 1). Infrared renectography has revealed that all of the figures and horses in the foreground were extensively underdrawn. The underdrawing appears to be executed in a fluid medium either alone or over chalk. The 28

young—and comparatively inexperienced—Rubens would have used this underdrawing to establish the complicated interaction and foreshortened perspective of the tight figural group. In some instances it is possible to see the dark under drawing with the naked eye, such as in the fallen soldier in the foreground (fig. 115). Underdrawings in the subsequent collaborative works were found to be little more than occasional lines indicating placement of a few forms or landscape elements. Most of these indications appear to be from Brueghel's hand; Rubens seems to have moved directly to the use of brown paint to outline his figures. A n interesting phenomenon that results from the relation ship between the underdrawing and the imprimatura layer can be found in The Garden of Eden, where Brueghel sketched in rough outlines of the landscape composition in black chalk over the imprimatura. Infrared reflectography studies reveal that the underdrawn lines appear to skip over the ridges of the streaky imprimatura, producing a series of small dots (fig. 116). This observation has been confirmed in a cross section taken from an area of the underdrawing where the black chalk is seen to lay on top of the imprimatura layer. 29

P I G M E N T S

A N D

B I N D E R S

Paint, in its simplest form, is composed of two basic mate rials: dry pigment and a binder (or medium). In Antwerp in the early 1 6 0 0 s , these materials were supplied by apothe caries and regulated, along with drugs and other medicinal materials, by the Mercers (meerseniers) G u i l d . The actual mixing of the pigments with the binder was most likely car ried out by an assistant in the studio. The pigments that were available to seventeenth-century artists included natural minerals as well as manufactured pigments. Within both categories of pigments there would often be large differences in pigment color. Prices of pigments varied widely and depended on purity, the scarcity of a par ticular mineral and/or the cost of production. Both Rubens and Brueghel characteristically used pigments of very high purity, which ensured good tinting strength, thus imparting saturated color to a paint film. Such a paint film had excel lent hiding power and therefore an opaque layer could be created with very little paint. The earth pigments, including umbers, ochers, and sien nas, were the most common and least expensive pigments and came in a wide range of yellows, reds, and browns. Cassel or Cologne earth and hematite were rich brown pig32

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223

FIGURE

115 D e t a i l ( t o p left) f r o m The Battle of the Amazons

(cat. n o . 1).

T h e u n d e r d r a w i n g is v i s i b l e i n n o r m a l l i g h t ( b o t t o m ) as w e l l as i n the infrared reflectogram (top right).

??? ???????? ??? ?????? ?? ????

F I G U R E 116 I n f r a r e d r e f l e c t o g r a m (left) f r o m The Garden

of Eden with the Tall of Man

(cat. n o . 4 ) . T h e d e t a i l ( r i g h t ) s h o w s the lines o f the u n d e r d r a w i n g

" s k i p p i n g o v e r " the streaky i m p r i m a t u r a .

merits that were particularly favored by Rubens for out

great intensity but are very translucent i n nature, are often

l i n i n g and for g l a z i n g i n shadows, creating a sense o f depth

found i n glazes. T o make a pigment suitable for p a i n t i n g

and heightening the strength o f his figural f o r m s .

C o m m o n synthetic pigments made by simple chemical

from an organic dyestuff, the colored dye has to be deposited o n t o a solid substrate and then m i x e d w i t h a binder such

reactions i n c l u d e d lead w h i t e , lead-tin yellow, and the blue-

as linseed o i l . T h e resulting pigments are c o m m o n l y called

green verditers, synthesized from copper carbonate. L e a d

"lakes" and range i n c o l o r f r o m deep purple, to brilliant

w h i t e was the p r e d o m i n a n t white pigment because o f its

red, to intense yellow. A m o n g the red lakes used by Rubens

significant t i n t i n g strength. L e a d - t i n y e l l o w was available

are cochineal, derived from insect droppings, and madder,

i n a n u m b e r o f different shades. W h e n m i x e d w i t h o i l , b o t h

derived from the roots o f the madder plant.

o f these lead-based pigments formed a textured impasto, often used to create highlights. The more expensive pigments i n c l u d e d v e r m i l i o n , a bright red pigment f o u n d i n b o t h natural and synthetic

B y the b e g i n n i n g o f the seventeenth century, the most c o m m o n l y used binders were d r y i n g oils, such as linseed o i l and walnut o i l , w h i c h have the unique ability to f o r m a s o l i d film u p o n p r o l o n g e d exposure to air. These oils imparted

forms, and the naturally o c c u r r i n g blue pigments ultramarine

a rich, l u m i n o u s character to the pigment that made them

and azurite. U l t r a m a r i n e , the rarer o f the t w o blues, was

very attractive as paint media.

significantly more expensive, but its superior optical proper

Scientific analysis o f various paint media used by Rubens

ties meant that it was preferred for use i n expanses o f blue

has identified b o t h linseed and walnut oils, either found

sky. Artists w o u l d often m i x these high-quality pigments

alone or i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h resinous materials.

w i t h less expensive colors or else w o u l d use them as t h i n ,

resinous materials may be residues f r o m the Venice turpen

The

final layers over underpaints made w i t h less costly materials,

tine that Rubens used to dilute the thick o i l paint. Rubens

such as smalt, a blue pigment made from cobalt-colored glass.

was k n o w n to have been very concerned w i t h the potential

A n o t h e r category o f pigments—perhaps more appro

discoloration o f o i l paints, and Venice t u r p e n t i n e — a pure,

priately called colorants—were those made f r o m natural dye-

clear f o r m o f turpentine distilled from sap o f the E u r o p e a n

stuffs d r a w n f r o m plant or animal sources, such as the deep

larch tree—was said to guard against future y e l l o w i n g o f

blue p i g m e n t i n d i g o . N a t u r a l dyestuff colorants, w h i c h have

the p a i n t .

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Rubens often chose to use walnut oil as a medium when painting light-colored flesh tones, particularly those that contained large amounts of lead white, because he was sen sitive to the fact that this particular medium would yellow less over time than linseed oil. P A I N T I N G

T E C H N I Q U E S

The types of pigments and media used by Rubens and Brueghel were entirely in keeping with established standards and practices of the day, and the painting materials used by each artist in their individual works were very similar. What distinguished the two masters were the stylistic aspects of how the paint was applied. In general, Brueghel's han dling of paint could be characterized as more opaque, which suited the graphic, straightforward, and detailed qualities of his style, whereas Rubens tended to favor a more translucent handling, relying upon multiple layers of glazes and scumbles to create the illusion of form through more smoothly blended effects of modeling. Brueghel's painting method has been characterized as deliberately slow in order to achieve the high degree of finish and detail in his painting. H e was known to take many months to finish some commissions, a time frame that is not surprising given the meticulous quality and character of his finished surfaces. It is also possible that he worked on several paintings at once, allowing the works to dry at various stages and then returning to them in order to main tain a crisp appearance by avoiding the risk of applying paint on top of a layer that was still wet and malleable. In his letters, Brueghel describes the time limitations in painting flower pieces from life since he often had to wait for flowers to be in season or have access to them. When painting a landscape Brueghel would first lay down solid areas of color to differentiate space, such as light green in the foreground and blue hues for the far distance (as well as for the expanses of sky). H e would also take advantage of the colored imprimatura whenever possible. In The Vision of Saint Hubert (cat. no. 7), for example, the illusion of a large tree trunk just to the left of center was created by allowing the brown-colored imprimatura to stand as middle ground in between the outlined high lights and the shadows of the form. The foliage of the tree was clearly painted over the imprimatura (at the central portion) and overlaps the paint of the sky only at the edges. Brueghel often painted animals in a similar way. In The Return from War (cat no. 2), the guinea pigs in the fore 36

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ground were painted directly over the imprimatura in a manner that made full use of the warm, brown preparatory layer as the middle tone for the fur (fig. 117). Brueghel often repeated animals in his paintings and therefore was probably so adept at painting them that he didn't need to create a preliminary drawing. Some of the dogs that appear in the Studies of Hunting Dogs (cat. no. 27) also appear in the Saint Hubert and the Diana at the Hunt paintings (cat. nos. 10 and n). Alternatively, Brueghel would sometimes paint his ani mals directly over the first green layer of the foreground and then carefully work additional details of foliage and grass up to and around the completed animals. This laborious way of painting, also seen in his crowded Garden of Eden (cat. no. 4), resulted in a seamless insertion of even the smallest details of leaves, grass, and flowers in between the animals and other larger elements of the composition. Brueghel occasionally used the end of his brush or a similar tool to refine his details while painting. In order to render the detailed wooden inlay on the crossbow in the foreground of The Return from War, for example, he scratched delicate patterns into the paint film, presumably with a small stick or the end of a paint brush (fig. 118). Rubens's working method was somewhat different. His complicated figural compositions were commonly developed through a series of preparatory drawings and were then further refined and elaborated by the execution of painted sketches, or bozetti. These oil sketches were used by Rubens throughout his career. They reflect his technical facility for working out his compositions directly on a prepared painting surface, as they were painted without elaborate prepar ations—such as detailed underdrawings—and often contain numerous changes and reworkings. For some commissions, and for particularly large-scale works, he painted a second, more finished painted sketch, or modello, that was suitable for presentation to a patron and could also function as a guide for the studio assistants during painting of the fullscale finished work. In both the painted sketches and in his highly finished works, Rubens used his brush to outline forms and to make subsequent adjustments to contours. Most often this was done with a warm, brown-colored paint. After the initial laying in of the contours, the work would continue with the addition of middle tones, highlights, and shadows; in many cases the imprimatura was allowed to remain visible, most commonly as a means of creating cool shadows in the flesh tones. 38

FIGURE

117 D e t a i l f r o m The Return from War: Mars Disarmed

by Venus

FIGURE

n 8 D e t a i l f r o m The Return from War: Mars Disarmed

by Venus

(cat. n o . 2)

Rubens would sometimes leave a small gap between dif ferent areas of paint—rather than having a slight overlap— thus emphasizing a shape and creating an enhanced sense of depth in his paintings. Rubens's masterful use of glazes (transparent layers of darker paint applied over lighter, opaque underpaints) and scumbles (semitransparent layers of lighter paint applied over darker underlying layers) is most clearly seen in his handling of flesh tones. The opalescent qualities of the flesh of the figure of Venus in The Return from War, for example, were created by subtle mixing of colors, ranging from pinks to yellows to blues, in overlapping layers of smoothly blended paint. Rubens varied the degree of warmth in flesh tones within a painting, most often preferring cool, pale tones for female figures and more saturated, warmer hues for male figures. In The Feast ofAcheious (cat. no. 3 ) , for example, the variety of flesh tones in the multifigure scene encourages the viewer's eye to move throughout the complicated composition. H e also favored the use of a red lake paint to accentuate the contours of shadowed flesh tones, thus heightening the sense of form and imparting a warmth and vitality to the figures. Oftentimes, he would use the contrast between the flesh tones of the male and female figures as a subtle psychological tool; such is the case in Fan and Syrinx (cat. no. 5 ) and The

Return from War, where the obvious differences in tonality between the male and female figures underscore their com plex relationships. Rubens also used glazes to create the illusion of depth and heighten the seductively vibrant appearance of shadowed areas in his depiction of draperies and other materials. A beautiful example of this is seen in the red drapery around Mars in The Return from War. O n the left side of the fabric, lead white was mixed into the red paint (a mixture of ver milion and red earth) to create a strong, opaque appearance. O n the right side of the painting, where the fabric is seen in shadow between the two figures, red lake glazes were applied on top of this red, opaque base color, creating the illusion of deep, rich shadows in the folds of the fabric. V A R N I S H

Varnish is a clear, resinous material that serves to provide depth and luminosity to the paint layers, as well as providing a protective surface. A varnish coating fills in the tiny gaps and spaces in the upper layer of a paint film, providing a uni form surface for the reflection of light, with the result that the pigments become deeper, or more saturated, in appearance. Traditional varnish materials used in the seventeenth century included a variety of soft natural resins, often combined with any number of harder drying oils and other materials. 39

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227

It is often difficult to determine whether or not particular artists varnished their finished paintings. O i l paintings require an extended period of time to dry properly, and in many cases the work would have already left the studio before this process was complete, precluding the application of varnish by the artist himself or a member of his workshop. Although there have been numerous studies of earlyseventeenth-century varnishes, and some discussion in par ticular about Rubens's use of varnish, nothing is known about the use of varnish in the collaborative works. In light of the fact that all of these paintings have been subsequently varnished, cleaned, restored, and revarnished—often many times—throughout the centuries, there is very little evidence remaining of what may or may not have been used. In the absence of any documentary evidence, any theories as to what might have been applied—and, perhaps more interest ingly, which of the two artists might have applied the varnish—would be pure speculation. 40

The W o r k i n g Process

One clue leading to the assumption that Brueghel and Rubens must have worked together very closely during the planning process for their collaborative works is the exis tence in these paintings of surprisingly few major pentimenti (with several notable exceptions, such as those found in The Return from War: Mars Disarmed by Venus [cat. no. 2] and the large Madonna in a Flower Garland in Munich [fig. 1]). The fact that very few changes were made during the painting process suggests that the artists had a clear pre liminary understanding of the compositions of their collab orative paintings. This is quite remarkable considering that neither preparatory drawings nor painted sketches are known for these works. Furthermore, surprisingly little underdraw ing has been detected in these paintings. In order to understand the process of collaboration between these two artists it has been helpful to try to estab lish a chronology of the painting process in each of the works. For some of the paintings, doing this proved to be quite straightforward, but in others, despite the stylistic differences between Rubens and Brueghel, their methods of applying paint were so well integrated on a single plane that it was a challenge to decipher who began painting first. In some cases, signs of process, such as overlapping layers of paint, are clearly visible. In other instances, it was necessary

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to use infrared reflectography or near-infrared imaging to reveal underdrawing or differentiate where paint layers over lap. X-radiographs and stereomicroscopic studies of the paint surfaces also helped to determine the order of painting by revealing overlapping areas of paint. THE BATTLE OF THE AMAZONS

The first known collaborative painting by Brueghel and Rubens is The Battle of the Amazons (cat. no. 1). It dates to about 1598 and stands apart from the other collaborative works because it is the only one executed before Rubens left Antwerp for an eight-year sojourn in Italy. In 1598 Rubens emerged from his apprenticeships and became a "free master" of painting. But it is important to note that at this point Brueghel was the senior—and more famous—artist. H e was renowned as a specialist in painting flowers, still life, and, most importantly, landscape. Brueghel's invitation to Rubens to collaborate with him in executing such a painting as The Battle of the Amazons would have given the younger artist an opportunity to demonstrate his virtuosity in the creation of a large, compli cated figural composition. The division of labor is clear in this early collaborative work. The picture appears to have been simply divided into two horizontal sections, with Brueghel painting the upper background landscape and Rubens painting the muitifigure group in the lower portion of the composition. Although the result is a powerfully atmospheric and emotionally charged scene, the contributions from the two individual artists are arguably not yet quite as successfully integrated as they would be in their future collaborations. Unlike his practice in later figural contributions, Rubens made use of an extensive underdrawing (in what appears to be black chalk or a similar material) for this composition, which was no doubt of prime importance in the planning and execution of the highly complex arrangement. The underdrawing is readily visible with the aid of infrared reflectography (fig. 119). The numerous, tightly packed and often dramatically foreshortened figures and horses in The Battle of the Amazons were carefully positioned with a detailed series of contours and outlines during execution of the underdrawing. A n interesting detail in The Battle of the Amazons is found in the use of gilding on some areas of the surface. G o l d details were applied to heighten the illusion of some of the metallic surfaces—notably the armor, shields, and horse 41

bridles. This use of gilt details stems from an earlier Flemish tradition and can be linked to the practices of Rubens's teacher, Otto van Veen (ca. 1 5 5 6 - 1 6 2 9 ) . 4 5

0 0 0 0

Following Rubens's return to Antwerp from Italy in 1608, Brueghel and Rubens produced a number of complex and highly finished works of exceptional quality. These include: The Return from War: Mars Disarmed by Venus (ca. 1 6 1 0 - 1 2 ) , The Garden of Eden with the Fall ofMan (ca. 1617), and The Feast ofAcheious (ca. 1 6 1 4 - 1 5 ) (cat. nos. 2 - 4 ) . Two of

these pictures, The Return from War and The Garden of Eden, have been the subject of much study during their recent conservation treatments, which provided an opportunity for some closer examinations. THE RETURN FROM WAR: MARS DISARMED

BY VENUS

One of Brueghel's and Rubens's larger collaborative works, The Return From War: Mars Disarmed by Venus (cat. no. 2) is also among the most interesting because of the extensive changes it underwent during its creation. The complicated genesis of the picture underscores the fact that the two artists must have had a close working relationship and is a masterful demonstration of the success of their collabor ative efforts. The painting's support, despite its generous size, is a fairly thin oak panel, composed of five planks of wood, joined horizontally. Grooves in the reverse of the panel at the left and right edges, which correspond to two vertical areas on the surface of the painting that are primed but unpainted, suggest that the picture was held in a temporary frame work while the two artists were at work on the composition. The picture must have originated in Brueghel's studio. One unusual piece of evidence for this is the existence of a number of small "doodles" applied to the surface after the white ground was applied. These are visible with the aid of infrared reflectography—and can only be read properly when the painting is turned upside down (fig. 120). Just to the left of Mars's tunic is a rocky landscape, a shepherd (holding a staff), a few sheep, and a small cart. These sketchy nota tions are clearly in Brueghel's hand and may represent some preliminary thoughts for a different composition or a bit of illustration corresponding to a discussion in the studio. Further infrared study suggested that the original plan for the entire composition—including the architectural

FIGURE

119 D e t a i l f r o m The Battle of the Amazons

(cat. n o . 1) s h o w n i n

n o r m a l l i g h t ( t o p ) a n d i n an i n f r a r e d r e f l e c t o g r a m ( b o t t o m )

B R U E G H E L

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229

FIGURE

120 D e t a i l s ( u p s i d e d o w n ) f r o m The Return from War: Mars Disarmed

setting, extensive still life, and initial placement of the figure group—was designed by Brueghel. Brueghel's under drawing—sparse, roughly sketched outlines in black chalk— indicated a different preliminary plan for the position of the two main figures: a male figure, facing to the left, with his proper left arm positioned in a vertical, curved embracing gesture, was planned for the area where Venus's torso is now found (fig. 121). It is not possible to see a preparatory sketch for the female figure (assuming that the subject was the same at this early stage) because the dark pigments in the painted figure of Mars prevent transmission of the infrared image. It should be noted that the scale of this first figure was considerably smaller than those which Rubens eventually painted. Interestingly, Brueghel executed a number of collaborative works, with Rubens and others, centered on the theme of the forge. In some of these collaborative works (for example, in the Allegory of Touch from the Five Senses series [fig. 5 6 ] painted with Rubens and in the Allegory of Tire, painted with Hendrick van Balen [cat. no. 17]), the

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by Venus (cat. n o . 2) as s h o w n i n i n f r a r e d r e f l e c t o g r a m s

figures of Mars and Venus were included in a similar posi tion yet comparatively smaller scale. The posture of the underdrawn figure is also reminiscent of a similar male figure presenting a shield to Venus found in one of Brueghel's later collaborations with Van Balen, Venus in the Forge of Vulcan (fig. 122). After applying the sketchy underdrawing, Brueghel painted in the architectural setting and all of the still-life ele ments, leaving the original area of the figure plan "in reserve," meaning that the selected area was left unpainted, although everything surrounding it was brought to a nearly finished state by Brueghel. This use of a reserve for the figures recurs in some of the other collaborative works as well. Brueghel completed a detailed and complex array of objects in the lower right corner (underneath the area where Venus's legs and the putti holding Mars's shield now appear), including a three-legged stool, a variety of items laid on top of a table or shelf, and a long bench at the far right. A l l of these items are revealed by infrared reflectography as well as

F I G U R E 12 1 D e t a i l f r o m The Return from War: Mars Disarmed by

Venus, a s

s h o w n i n a n infrare d reflectogra m

F I G U R E 12 2 J a n B r u e g h e l th e E l d e r a n d H e n d r i c k v a n B a l e n , Venus in Forge of Vulcan, 1623 . O i l on c o p p e r , 39. 4 x 34- 3 c m (1 5 V2 x 131/ 2 i n . ) . Private collectio n

w i t h X - r a d i o g r a p h y (fig . 123) . T h e X-ra y image s revea l

Rubens als o departe d f r o m Brueghel' s practic e b y paint -

additionally tha t thes e still-lif e element s ha d bee n brough t

ing th e figur e o f Venus i n walnu t o i l , rather tha n th e mor e

to a h i g h degre e o f finish , a s the y no t o n l y appea r full y

c o m m o n linsee d o i l , w h i ch B r u e g h e l ha d use d fo r hi s c o n t r i -

realized bu t als o includ e th e small , lea d whit e highlight s tha t

butions t o th e picture . T h i s wa s n o d o u b t a consciou s choic e

Brueghel w o u l d hav e applie d o n l y d u r i n g th e fina l stage s

on Rubens' s part , a s walnu t o i l was les s pron e t o discol -

of p a i n t i n g .

o r a t i o n , thu s ensurin g th e futur e o f th e figure' s pale , pearl y

After c o m p l e t i o n o f th e firs t r o u n d o f p a i n t i n g , th e pane l

flesh tone s an d g u a r d i n g agains t th e threa t o f y e l l o w i n g

was mos t likel y sen t t o Rubens' s studio , wher e th e c o m p o -

that w o u l d hav e c o m p r o m i s e d th e subtl e variation s o f c o l o r

s i t i o n wa s radicall y revised. I n a somewha t shockin g m o v e

he use d t o creat e suc h a stron g sens e o f f o r m .

4 6

that m i g h t hav e deepl y d i v i d e d t wo artist s w i t h a les s i n t i -

Less surprisin g wer e th e type s o f pigment s use d b y b o t h

m a t e — a n d t r u s t i n g — w o r k i n g relationship , Ruben s painte d

artists. P i g m e n t identification s wer e carrie d ou t o n a n u m b e r

out mos t o f th e l o w e r right-han d corne r an d portion s o f

of section s o f th e p i c t u r e — a n d al l of th e identification s wer e

the l o w e r cente r w i t h a gra y overpaint , t o a l l o w for th e

consistent w i t h pigment s c o m m o n l y f o u n d i n work s f r o m th e

enlargement an d r e p o s i t i o n i n g o f th e figure s int o thei r cur -

period, i n c l u d i n g lead white , v e r m i l i o n , i r o n earths , azurite ,

rent configuration .

copper greens , an d lead-ti n y e l l o w .

R u b e n s the n wen t abou t p a i n t i n g th e figura l group , mak ing cleve r us e o f th e gra y "overpaint " a s a n "underpaint "

After Ruben s complete d hi s w o r k o n th e figures , th e pane l was p r o b a b l y returne d t o Brueghel' s studio , wher e man y o f

for hi s o w n w o r k : i t serve d a s a f o u n d a t i o n fo r th e creatio n

the still-lif e element s tha t ha d bee n painte d ove r wer e place d

o f th e c o o l shadow s i n th e flesh tone s o f Venus.

in thei r curren t positions . F o r example , th e leg s o f Venus n o w

BRUEGHEL AN D RUBEN S A T WOR K

231

FIGURE

123 D e t a i l f r o m The Return from War: Mars Disarmed

X-radiograph (bottom right)

??? ???????? ??? ?????? ?? ????

by Venus s h o w n i n n o r m a l l i g h t ( t o p ) , a n i n f r a r e d r e f l e c t o g r a m ( b o t t o m left), a n d a n

F I G U R E 124 D e t a i l f r o m The Return from War: Mars Disarmed and

by Venus s h o w n i n n o r m a l l i g h t (left)

i n an infrared reflectogram (right)

F I G U R E 125 D e t a i l f r o m The Return Mars Disarmed

from

War:

by Venus

cover a b o w l o f grapes originally painted just above the

g r o u p , such as the large covered pot just to the right o f

three-legged stool. T h e new fruit b o w l was reinserted at the

Mars's proper right hand, were painted i n a somewhat

far right side o f the c o m p o s i t i o n . A n u m b e r o f other still-life

different, looser style, w i t h a more l i m i t e d palette o f gray

elements were rescattered o n the g r o u n d a r o u n d the figural

and green (fig. 125). It is possible that one o f Brueghel's

g r o u p or r e w o r k e d slightly i n order to visually integrate

studio assistants c o u l d have c o n t r i b u t e d these final details.

the t w o p o r t i o n s o f the p a i n t i n g — a n d to mask the border o f gray overpaint. T h e stone w a l l at the right side o f the p a i n t i n g was also

??? ?????? ?? ???? ???? ??? ???? ?? ???

The Garden of Eden with the Fall ofMan

(cat. no. 4) demon

r e w o r k e d . B r u e g h e l had initially painted i n a large, r o u n d

strates that Rubens and B r u e g h e l had a clear appreciation o f

shape (possibly a shield, or perhaps a platter) o n the wall at

each other's skills and specialties. Painted i n the most labor-

the right-hand side o f the p a i n t i n g , along w i t h a n u m b e r

intensive manner possible, w i t h w o r k proceeding m e t h o d i

o f b o w l s and other r o u n d objects just b e l o w it. I n response,

cally f r o m the foreground to the b a c k g r o u n d , this w o r k

perhaps, to the r o u n d e d figure o f V e n u s , the w a l l just to

was most likely a c o m m i s s i o n for a client seeking exactly this

her right was r e w o r k e d , c o v e r i n g over the r o u n d objects and

k i n d o f exquisite tour de force.

replacing t h e m w i t h such strong vertical accents as horses' bridles and a pair o f stirrups (fig. 124). A l t h o u g h all o f these reworkings were executed w i t h the

The Garden of Eden with the Fall ofMan

is signed i n t w o

places: at the l o w e r left is the i n s c r i p t i o n P E T R I P A V L I R V B E N S F I G R . and at the l o w e r right, i n somewhat smaller

same quality and attention to detail as Brueghel's o r i g i n a l

letters, I B R V E G H E L F E C . (see fig. 107). Despite the signa

w o r k , a n u m b e r o f elements at the left side o f the figural

tures' difference i n scale, they are b o t h thought to have been

BRUEGHEL

AND RUBENS

WORK

233

FIGURE

126 F r o n t e d g e (left) a n d reverse e d g e ( r i g h t ) o f p a n e l , The Garden of Eden with the Fall ofMan

made by Brueghel. This is remarkable, because in all of the other paintings that Brueghel executed jointly with other artists nothing is found other than his own name. The painting was executed on a single horizontal oak panel of western European origin. The narrow remains of a beveling may be observed at top and bottom. As was the case with the much larger The Return from War: Mars Disarmed by Venus (cat. no. 2), a groove was planed into the reverse at both vertical ends to facilitate the mounting of a temporary working frame (fig. 126). The auxiliary battens distinguish this panel from those produced in standard sizes and suggest that it was ordered in a format specifically tailored to the composition. O n the reverse of the panel is the house mark of the pan elmaker Guilliam Gabron (active 1 6 0 9 - 1 6 6 2 + )—the letters GG interlinked with a floral motive (fig. 127). This mark was made using Gabron's early punch, in use between 1614 and 1626. There is no branding mark, probably due to the panel's early dating, about 1616, just prior to the regulation of standardized branding in 1 6 1 7 . Another explanation for the lack of a branding mark might be that because it was ordered to size the panel fell outside the so-called dozensizes that had to be assessed by the dean. The present panel is also an exception to the rule that standard-size panels were usually prepared with a ground layer before a painter acquired them. The supplementary side frames were mounted before the panel was grounded with 48

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WORK

(cat. n o . 4 )

chalk and glue. Their later removal left 3 - 4 mm (about Vs inch) of the panel along the vertical edges ungrounded. A thin grayish, streaky, and translucent imprimatura was applied primarily in horizontal strokes but also in criss cross and vertical directions. The cool tonality of the impri matura is the result of the use of lead white and ivory black pigments, and its presence plays a visual role in the thinly painted figures of Adam and Eve. Over the imprimatura, an underdrawing in a dry medium, possibly either charcoal or graphite, can be detected with infrared imaging. Sketchy lines, similar to those found in other paintings by Brueghel, and thus confirming that he laid out this underdrawing, suggest the various planes in the landscape, the trees, and the little stream in the fore ground. Slightly more detailed underdrawing is found for the two dogs (fig. 128). Although there is an even thinner, more detailed drawing indicating the legs and contours of the peacock and the purple gallinules, these lines were not always followed in the painting process. A reason for the sketch iness of the underdrawing may be found in the fact that the landscape is similar to his earlier Garden of Eden 50

????? ??????

A close study of the X-radiograph of The Garden of Eden confirms that Rubens was the first to start the actual painting process (fig. 129). H e may have started out directly on the pre pared panel or used drawn lines in a medium that cannot be detected. As in other of Rubens's paintings thin, light brown

F I G U R E 127 M a r k o f p a n e l m a k e r G u i l l i a m G a b r o n o n reverse o f p a n e l , The Garden

of Eden with the Tall of

F I G U R E 128 D e t a i l f r o m The Garden

Man

of Eden with the Tall of Man

s h o w n i n n o r m a l l i g h t (left) a n d i n a n i n f r a r e d r e f l e c t o g r a m

BRUEGHEL

(right)

AND RUBENS

AT W O R K

235

FIGURE

129 D e t a i l f r o m The Garden

of Eden with the Fall ofMan

s h o w n i n n o r m a l l i g h t (left) a n d i n a n X - r a d i o g r a p h ( r i g h t )

lines indicate various contours, some of which were probably applied later in order to strengthen or correct contours. A n examination of the figures and the horse behind them shows that the buildup and brush handling is comparable: a quick, thin, quite sketchy paint application. The modulation of the musculature in the figures and the horse was, in large part, carried out using hatching, something characteristic of Rubens's technique. Analogous hatching can be found on the thigh of Adam and on his cheek, although it was applied with a finer brush (fig. 130). When Rubens painted the figure of Adam, he took into account the shadow that would be cast by the horse. The subdued tonality of the figure's upper torso was created by the so-called turbid medium effect (meaning that a thin layer of flesh color was applied over the local dark grayish undermodeling). The Tree of Wisdom, in the immediate background behind Adam and Eve, reveals a technique comparable to

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that of the figures, yet one entirely different from the rest of the landscape. Thinly applied, the tree stands out in sketchy brown hues reminiscent of an undermodeling. Rubens painted the patchy brown branches of the tree as wxll as the Serpent, seen on a small twig, passing down an apple to Eve, although it could also be argued on stylistic grounds that the head of the Serpent was painted by Brueghel. Brueghel, in a second stage and in his characteristic meticulous and often more opaque technique, applied addi tional branches to the tree and added easily recognizable small dabs of color to the trunk and stems to indicate light reflections in the bark, thus integrating Rubens's tree into his own landscape. The painted reflections must have been applied after the return of the panel to Brueghel's studio, since they relate to the completed figural group, including the mound on which Adam is seated, the large tree trunk with the Serpent, and the brown horse at the left.

FIGURE

130 D e t a i l , The Garden of Eden with the

Fall of

Man

When Brueghel took over the painting, the first step was to apply semitransparent layers of paint describing the different planes of the landscape. In the area of the sky, he applied a light ultramarine blue mixed with lead white, incorporating reserves for the trees and other landscape elements still to come. A light green wash formed the midtone and basis for the landscape. The loose underdrawing of the composition was not followed closely in the paint layers, and the solid drawing below the two dogs in the middle ground was not used in the final version. N o t only did Brueghel displace the dogs toward the left, he also used a different pose for one of them.

It is not clear, however, why it is not possible to detect any underdrawing in those animals that Brueghel borrowed from Rubens. Most prominent of the quotes from his friend is the lion in the middle foreground. The two leopards to the right also derive from Rubens's oeuvre and are known from a copy after Rubens's The Leopards (fig. 131). Does this indicate that Brueghel worked directly from an inter mediate drawing made after Rubens's sketches? O r did Brueghel use a transfer technique that cannot be detected? The large animals were applied over the green wash of the mid-tone of the landscape and finished in all details; execution of the picture continued from the foreground 53

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237

FIGURE

131 A t t r i b u t e d t o t h e w o r k s h o p o f P e t e r

P a u l R u b e n s , The Leopards,

late

seventeenth-

e a r l y e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y . O i l o n canvas, 3

205 x 317 c m ( 8 0 / 4 x 1231/4 i n . ) . M o n t r e a l , M u s e u m o f Fine Arts, Special Replacement F u n d , i n v . 1975.15 FIGURE

132 D e t a i l f r o m The Garden

the Fall of FIGURE

of Eden

with

of Eden

with

Man

133 D e t a i l f r o m The Garden

the Fall of Man

s h o w i n g Eve's hair

toward the background. Working in this way, Brueghel avoided the situation where variations in the hues below them would influence the color of the animals. One example where Brueghel contradicted this procedure can be seen in the ostrich. The only large animal painted over the land scape, perhaps as an afterthought, the color of the bird's neck changes where the horizon of the landscape passes beneath it (fig. 132). After the large animals in the foreground were complete, Brueghel finished the landscape around them. Individual leaves and reeds were painted between the legs of the large

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animals in a laborious and time-consuming process that took care to maintain their form and three-dimensionality. The sky was added in a subsequent layer. The tree trunks were created by spreading green-brown paint with a broad bristle brush, wet into wet, into the thin, dark green layer that was later to become the background for the leaves. After this, the delicate foliage, which is seen to overlap tree trunks and sky alike, was added. Finally, the small animals and birds were painted over the already dry landscape, which indicates that some time elapsed between these stages. 54

Overlapping paint layers can be seen along the contours of the forms, clearly indicating where Rubens's paint appli cation finishes and that of Brueghel begins. Bright greenish paint follows the contour of the small white rabbit in the foreground, separating it from the more subdued green paint first applied by Rubens for the mound on which Adam is seated. The convincing integration of Rubens's small com position of figures, horse, tree trunk, and serpent into the larger composition was accomplished courtesy of Brueghel. A n exquisite example of this integration is visible where Eve's hair blows over the wings of the passing duck (fig. 133). That this effect was added by Brueghel is confirmed by the fact that the paint did not adhere well and formed small droplets that are indicative of their secondary nature. THE FEAST OF

FIGURE

134 D e t a i l f r o m The Feast ofAchelous (cat. n o . 3)

ACHELOUS

One of the most complex examples of the collaborative works is The Feast ofAchelous (cat. no. 3), dating to about 1 6 1 4 - 1 5 . By this point in time, Rubens and Brueghel had become exceptionally adept at integrating their individual contributions. Although it seems likely, given the extreme complexity of the narrative (which is taken from Ovid's Metamorphoses) and the prominence of the large figural group, that Rubens played the leading role in the develop ment of the work's overall composition, even a close study of the picture does not reveal with incontestable certainty which artist painted first. It is equally unclear whether or not the concept—or commission, if there was one—for the picture originated in Brueghel's or in Rubens's studio. It is probable that the complicated figural group would have been laid in by Rubens at a very early stage in the development of the composition. Whether or not the figures were then left in reserve, to be filled in later after Brueghel had taken his contributions to the background grotto and table to a certain level of finish, remains unclear. There are some areas where reserves may exist. For example, a close look at the plate at the far right side of the table reveals that it was painted, by Brueghel, in two sections, around the figure's arm. This could be for one of two reasons: an out lined reserve existed for the arm or the majority of the arm was painted first. It is clear that the final application of paint on the surface of the panel was a dark flesh color, which emphasizes the contours of the arm, and that these strokes overlap the painted plate (fig. 134). However, at the left side of the picture, in the group of women holding the cornucopia, the hands grasping the cornucopia were in place before the cornucopia itself was 5 5

painted, suggesting that Rubens painted these figures before Brueghel's contribution of this particular still-life detail (fig. 135). To complicate matters further, the index finger of the proper left hand of the figure at the far left was a final correction, as it rests on top of the completed cornucopia. This part of the composition is iconographically significant, so it is not surprising that it was treated with so much care and attention. A l l of this suggests that this picture did not follow a simple two-step path to completion but underwent a lot of back-and-forth between the artists—and perhaps between their studios. Some of the draperies appear to be by Rubens (such as the smooth, gray drapery of the male figure at the right forefront of the figure group), as do some of the other elements, such as the rocks supporting the main figures of the central group. Other areas of drapery have a more "crinkly" appearance (such as the draperies on the two women with the cornucopia) and may have been painted either by Brueghel or a member of one of the artists' studios. Brueghel also seems to have added some final details to the figures, such as the long tendrils of hair on the kneeling female figure in the lower left corner. A further complication to sorting out the various hands at work on this picture is found in the figures at the far right, which, although Rubensian in appearance, do not have the strength of the rest of the group, suggesting that they may have been added by one of Rubens's studio assistants. The skillful interweaving of each artist's contributions makes this one of the most successful and intricate of the collaborative works. 57

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239

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240

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B R U E G H E L A N D

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RUBENS

WORK

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THE

FIGURE

137 M a r k o f p a n e l m a k e r G u i l l i a m A e r t s s e n o n reverse o f p a n e l ,

Flora and Zephyr

(cat. n o . 6 ) , seen i n n a t u r a l l i g h t (left) a n d i n a n e n h a n c e d

v i e w w i t h the mark reinforced (right)

VISION OF SAINT

The Vision of Saint Hubert (cat. no. 7) is one of the more highly finished collaborative works. Brueghel appears to have been first to draw on the panel, indicating the general placement of trees in the landscape. H e then began paint ing the landscape, leaving an area of reserve for the figure of Saint Hubert. In this case, the reserve seems not to have been initially outlined by Rubens; the reserved area was somewhat larger than the finished figure, as shown by the exposed areas of streaky imprimatura that remain around the completed figure. In the foreground, Brueghel laid in a thin, light green underpaint for the grass, painting up to the edges of the deer. The sky was apparently painted in after completion of the deer, as the light blue brushstrokes were applied around the animal's head. The horse was painted by Brueghel and seems to have been completed before the addition of the figure of the saint. After Rubens finished the figure of Saint Hubert, the picture was returned to Brueghel, who painted the dogs around the figure and added the saint's hat, which hangs around his neck and bridges the negative space between Saint Hubert and the horse (fig. 136). Saint Hubert's sword and horn are probably also final additions by Brueghel. FLORA

FIGURE

138 D e t a i l f r o m Flora and Zephyr

HUBERT

AND

ZEPHYR

The panel support for Flora and Zephyr (cat. no. 6 ) is composed of five thin planks of wood joined vertically. O n the back of the panel, in the middle of the second plank from the right (as seen from the reverse), the written monogram of the panelmaker Guilliam Aertssen can still be seen (fig. 137). This is quite exceptional, as the mark, a stylized monogram showing the letter G over the letter y l , was written in red chalk, and it is rare for this type of monogram to survive. Guilliam Aertssen became a master of the Guild of Saint Luke in 1612. By 1616/17 he had his atelier in Breestraat, where colleagues and painters also lived. From 1627 on ward, he worked steadily for the Antwerp art dealer Gaspar Antheunis and may have continued to be active up to 1638. The variety of Aertssen's monogram written in red chalk is found mostly on panels dating prior to 1617 (which confirms the stylistic dating of Flora and Zephyr to about 1617)5 the year the Antwerp guild decided on a regulation that required all panelmakers to identify standard-size panels with their respective monogram or house mark. 58

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FIGURE

139 D e t a i l f r o m Flora and

Zephyr

FIGURE

140 D e t a i l of Allegory

of Sight (fig. 54) s h o w n i n a n i n f r a r e d

reflectogram

The back-and-forth nature of Rubens and Brueghel's col laborative efforts continued during the execution of Flora and Zephyr. It is quite clear that once the panel had been prepared with a white ground and the typical streaky impri matura layer (which can be clearly seen in infrared images), Rubens used a brown paint to outline the placement of the figures of Zephyr, Flora, and the putti. This outline indi cated areas for Brueghel to leave in reserve while he laid in the surrounding landscape. Such reserves seem to have played an increasingly important role in the collaborative process throughout the remainder of the time that the two artists worked together. When Rubens returned to the painting, he departed from the reserve in several places, extending parts of the figures over Brueghel's landscape. This can be seen as the paint layers are very thin and have become more transparent over time (fig. 138). After completion of the figures, Brueghel returned to the painting to add such final details as the flowers that overlap the red cloth held by Flora and those in the hand of the putto kneeling by her feet (fig. 139). T H E

F I V E

S E N S E S

Perhaps the most well known of the collaborative works is the popular series known as the Five Senses (cat. no. 8 and figs. 5 4 - 5 7 ) , painted about 1 6 1 7 - 1 8 . These paintings, rendered to a high degree of finish, are the result of a tight

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collaboration between Rubens and Brueghel. Their scale is smaller than most of the works discussed thus far, but the working methods used by the two artists appear to have remained consistent. It is interesting that all five of the panel supports for paintings in the series were poorly chosen. Several of the paintings were executed on panels made from planks with curving grains; this has led to uneven expansion and shrinkage over time, which caused dramatic warping and structural damage. This uncharacteristic choice of poorquality wood supports suggests that the pictures were produced without the benefit of a commission (and thus the artists were reluctant to invest in a more expensive and better-made set of panels). The process of collaboration in the Five Senses followed the artists' earlier models. After the panels were prepared for painting, a few lines of underdrawing were applied, most likely by Brueghel, as indications of compositional place ments, such as for architectural settings. Rubens then laid in preliminary outlines for the main figures. Brueghel next began painting, leaving a reserve for the figures based on Rubens's contours. Finally, Rubens painted the figures, occasionally overlapping Brueghel's work. In some pictures from this series, Brueghel returned to the painting to add final details.

FIGURE

141 D e t a i l f r o m Allegory

of Sight s h o w n i n n o r m a l l i g h t (left) a n d i n an i n f r a r e d r e f l e c t o g r a m ( r i g h t )

In some of the works, Brueghel executed the smaller, secondary figures. For example, in the Allegory of Taste the background figure in the kitchen was executed by Brueghel; in the Allegory of Touch the figures in the forge are either by Brueghel or his studio. There is some evidence of underdrawing in the Allegory of Sight, where Brueghel indicated contours for the group of paintings that is seen in the right foreground (fig. 1 4 0 ) . The underdrawing, executed in a carbon-containing medium, was detected with the use of infrared reflectography. In this same work, Brueghel made subtle shifts during the process of laying in the complicated setting and myriad objects—notably in the background vista at the left center, where what had originally been a multitiered tall fountain was reduced to a simpler, lower form, perhaps to avoid interfering with the cityscape beyond and to open the land scape space as much as possible. In the Allegory of Sight, a reserved area was left for the female figure and the putto. Brueghel then painted around 59

and up to the contours of the reserve. Brueghel appears to have painted the telescope in the foreground before Rubens painted the figure: the texture of the flesh-colored paint of the leg shows that Rubens's brushwork had to move around the black telescope handle (fig. 141 [left]). When Rubens painted the allegorical figure of Sight, he made a number of small changes. H e reduced the size of the figure (infrared images reveal that the reserve for the head was initially placed higher), painted beyond the reserve for the figure's left leg, and overlapped Brueghel's elaborate table covering (fig. 141 [right]). This is particularly evident in the hand of the figure. The original reserve did not allow for the long fingers which overlap the frame of the picture that is the focus of Sight's gesture. In the Allegory of Smell, the female figure and putto are clearly painted over the imprimatura on reserved areas. Again, Rubens painted outside the reserve in some areas, covering Brueghel's already existing landscape. Rubens apparently anticipated that Brueghel would return to the

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FIGURE

142 D e t a i l f r o m Allegory

of Smell (fig. 5 7 )

FIGURE

143 D e t a i l f r o m Allegory

of Taste (cat. n o . 8)

picture to paint the flowers held by the putto. Painted directly over the imprimatura, the flowers overlap the arm of the putto. Similar flowers are held by the figure of Smell and adorn her hair (fig. 142). Rubens again followed Brueghel in the painting process for the Allegory of Taste. Studying the picture with infrared reflectography has revealed that Brueghel used loosely sketched contours to indicate the placement of architectural elements such as the column. That Rubens made a point of being sensitive to Brueghel's details and use of color is evident in the shadow of the satyr's torso. To give a sense of depth to

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the satyr's flesh tones, Rubens chose shades of green and blue—colors which also echo and reflect the still-life elements Brueghel had executed on the table near the figure (fig. 143). The existence of a pentimento where the white tablecloth follows the contour of the female figure's leg suggests the artists' order of painting—Brueghel painting the tablecloth first, around a planned reserve for the figure. Late in the process, the tablecloth was adjusted to compensate for the final placement of the figure's leg, which was painted on a smaller scale than the rest of the reserve. The handling of paint in this change is not consistent with the lower layers of the original tablecloth, suggesting that someone other than Brueghel made the adjustment (fig. 1 4 4 ) . In the Allegory of Hearing, the transparency of the paint films as well as the slightly worn surface of the picture makes it possible to confirm Rubens's use of a brown, painted contour for the figure. Executed in thin paint, this contour is visible in the left hand of the female figure and in the lute she is playing (fig. 145). Whether the Allegory of Touch departed from the collabo rative method described for the other Five Senses pictures cannot be determined since the figure is painted so opaquely that it is difficult to see what lies beneath it. However, it appears that the figure's feet, where they rest on the carpet, were painted directly over the imprimatura. What is particularly noteworthy about the Allegory of Touch is the reuse of numerous details and devices from other works. For example, the crossbow and shoulder armor found at the lower center and the bowl of fruit found just below the two figures are nearly identical in appearance—although completely different in scale—to the same details in The Return from War: Mars Disarmed by Venus (cat. no. 2). This reuse of details—almost as i f they were theatrical props—is common throughout Brueghel's own work as well as his collaborative work with Rubens and others. Some of the same details continued to be used in works by Jan Brueghel the Younger, suggesting that the studio models were handed down to the next generation. There is no technical evidence that shows how the repeti tions were done, but it is most likely that the artist's studio housed painted models, drawings, or prints that were used as points of reference so that such details would not have to be constantly reinvented. Brueghel's captivating Studies of Hunting Dogs (cat. no. 27) may represent just such a group of models; the large dog in the upper left-hand corner of the study, for example, appears in an identical pose in Brueghel

F I G U R E 144 D e t a i l f r o m Allegory

of Taste

s h o w n i n n o r m a l l i g h t ( t o p left) a n d i n a n infrared reflectogram (top right) F I G U R E 145 D e t a i l f r o m Allegory

Hearing

(%• 55)

and Rubens's Diana's Sleeping Nymphs Observed by Satyrs (cat. no.

and his studio—are those p i c t u r i n g either a M a d o n n a and C h i l d or a m y t h o l o g i c a l figure g r o u p framed w i t h i n an

11).

elaborate garland. T h i s m o t i f s h o u l d p r o b a b l y be credited to G A R L A N D

P I C T U R E S

A m o n g Rubens and Brueghel's most successful collabora t i o n s — a n d apparently a m o n g the most appealing, as they inspired many later copies by Jan B r u e g h e l the Younger

Jan Brueghel the E l d e r : it first appears i n his oeuvre i n a collaborative w o r k w i t h H e n d r i c k van Balen i n 1 6 0 8 .

The Madonna in a Flower Garland (fig. 1 ) is Rubens and Brueghel's largest collaborative w o r k (measuring nearly six

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feet by seven feet [185 by 210 cm]). The painting was exe cuted on a large panel support made up of seven vertically joined planks, which was enlarged during the painting process by the addition of another plank on each vertical edge, making a total of nine planks. (The original seven planks were prepared in the typical fashion with a ground layer, fol lowed by a streaky imprimatura layer.) The seven planks that make up the panel on which Rubens started painting are reinforced with four internal pegs along each panel j o i n . Where the two additional pieces of wood were joined to the original support there are no such pegs. The back of this seven-plank central portion of the support has one-centimeter-wide ( /s-inch) grooves along the top and bottom horizontal edges; these probably indi cate the use of a working frame. Such a dramatic change in the size of a work was not unusual for Rubens, who routinely enlarged his panel paintings during the painting process, which suggests that Rubens may have taken the lead role in the execution of this particular painting. The fact that the composition is pri marily a tour de force of large figures interacting on a grand scale also tends to indicate that the conception originated with Rubens. Rubens's process appears to have been as follows: first, he applied a gray paint layer over the prepared panel as a background color, outlining the form of the garland, the image of the Madonna and Child, and the putti. In so doing, he created reserves where the warm color of the imprimatura would be left clear for the painting of the figure's flesh tones. Both the X-radiograph and infrared image of the paint ing suggest that initially Rubens planned for four putti around the garland. It appears that Rubens created reserves for these four figures and then, before painting the putti, decided to change the composition to include a total of eleven putti, thus necessitating the enlargement of the panel. The paint layer buildup on the added panels imitates that of the original panel: the panels are grounded and there is an imprimatura layer. A gray paint was also used in the background around the edges of the putti. In the corners of the painting the warm brown imprimatura remains visible. Rubens may have completed his work on the panel before passing it to Brueghel. Brueghel was certainly the artist who finished the painting, as evidenced by the fact that the branches of flowers extending into the bottom left and right corners are painted directly over the putti (fig. 146). 62

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In executing the garland, Brueghel applied a green underpaint layer to selected areas. This green layer covered the light-colored imprimatura, creating a sense of depth in the leaves. Areas where Brueghel anticipated painting lightcolored flowers were left bare, allowing the imprimatura to stand alone. The garland itself is a pastiche of flowers and floral groupings used in other garland paintings, such as the Madonna and Child in a Garland of Flowers in the Musee du Louvre (fig. 6 9 ) . The Munich Madonna in a Flower Garland is distin guished by the fact that the technical examination points to Rubens playing the lead role in determining the composi tion of the work. Another collaborative garland picture, Madonna and Child in a Garland of Fruit and Flowers (cat. no. 12), dates to about 1620 and is a clear example of how collaborative works were passed back and forth between the artists during the painting process. Infrared examination of the painting makes clear that Brueghel initially sketched an oval form for the medallion in the painting but later changed the outlines to indicate an octagonal shape. What seems probable is that Brueghel painted the major ity of his portion of the work—the landscape background and floral garlands—after indicating the octagonal shape of the panel (which he left in reserve for Rubens). Rubens then painted the Madonna and Child and left another small reserve just above the Virgin's head for a floral wreath to be added by Brueghel. Brueghel then returned to the painting to add his flowers directly over the imprimatura. A t this final stage, Brueghel painted the gold border of the medallion and also made small adjustments to the leaves that overlap the upper edge of the Madonna and Child. It is also possible that Rubens painted his figural group first, and Brueghel then finished the painting, completing the landscape, adding the floral garland in the reserve left by Rubens, and accomplishing the transition between the land scape and Rubens's figural group by adding a gold border to the medallion. Another collaborative painting, the Fruit Garland with Nature Adorned by the Graces in Glasgow (fig. 83), follows the classic form of garland paintings, with Brueghel's elaborate assembly of fruits and vegetables framing a trompe l'oeil image painted by Rubens. The composition of this painting relates very closely to that of Garland of Fruit around a Depiction of Ceres Receiving Gifts from the Four Seasons, a col64

FIGURE

146 D e t a i l f r o m Madonna

in a Flower Garland

(fig. 1)

FIGURE

( %

laboration between Brueghel and Hendrick van Balen that exists in two versions, one in the collection of the Mauritshuis, the other held by Dexia Bank in Antwerp (cat. nos. 2 0 and 21). What makes the Fruit Garland with Nature Adorned by the Graces interesting is the evidence that initially the artist planned for an oval shape within the garland. When the painting is viewed at an angle, three incised lines in the shape of an oval can be seen in the center of the painting. This pattern of three parallel lines corresponds to the oval shape commonly seen in BrueghePs collaborative garland paintings. Typically, this oval shape is accented by a painted border, or an imitation frame, as in the Munich Madonna in a Flower Garland. The size of the oval created by the

147 D e t a i l f r o m Fruit

Garland

with Nature

Adorned

by the Graces

83)

incised lines found on the Fruit Garland relates it most closely to the oval in the Brueghel/Van Balen painting. Rubens appears to have been the first artist to paint on the panel for the Fruit Garland. H e used a rather painterly, opaque technique as opposed to allowing the imprimatura layer to show through in the shadow areas. There are no brown painted contour lines for the figures nor any reserves. Infrared reflectography reveals that the dark passages that surround the figures come up just to their edges, indicating that the garland was painted after they were finished. Another indication of the order of painting can be found in the lower register, where the cabbage is painted around the satyr's fingers (fig. 147). The tiger and the wolf in the foreground appear to have been painted by Rubens. 65

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It is interesting that when Brueghel painted his garlands, he painted the vegetables or flowers directly over the impri matura. Sometimes the imprimatura is allowed to show through, such as in bunches of wheat. This approach is made very clear in the infrared reflectograms of the paintings, where the passages of dark, opaque paint that surround the garlands mask the underlying details, whereas the area of the garland appears transparent, indicating a reserved area of imprimatura over which the garland was painted.

The collaboration between Brueghel and Rubens started just before Rubens went to Rome and resumed upon Rubens's return to Antwerp. The collaboration continued until Brueghel's death, after which, his son, Jan Brueghel the Younger, assumed control of the studio and continued to collaborate with Rubens and his assistants. These later works imitate the style and repeat many of the still-life elements and compositional designs initially developed by Jan Brueghel the Elder and Rubens. That numerous versions of these collaborative works still appear frequently on the art market testifies to their enduring appeal.

Conclusion

The collaboration between Brueghel and Rubens was distin guished not only by the prestige of these two court painters but also by their distinctly individual styles. The two masters were good friends, and it is clear from the technical examina tion of their works that they had an intimate working rela tionship. The collaborative works were painted when both artists were living in the city of Antwerp, making it entirely plausible that they could walk to one another's studios. However, given the evidence of traveling frames, and the likelihood that artists would prefer to work within their own studios, it may be more likely that the paintings were trans ported back and forth. The fact that there is very little overlap of the artists' paint films in these works, and very few pentimenti, indicates that the artists must have begun with a joint understanding of the compositional plan. Technical examinations make clear that the placement of the figures in the compositions was established before any painting began. N o known preparatory drawings or painted sketches have been identified for the collaborative works. We do know, however, that both artists were keenly adept at start ing the painting process directly on their chosen support without a detailed underdrawing, beyond the occasional use of a few, loose lines. Often they began painting after having made sketches of the subject matter elsewhere, and they most certainly relied on studio models for many of the repeated motifs. What little sketchy underdrawing has been found on the works themselves appears to have been done by Brueghel. This, as well as the fact that the few inscriptions on the sur faces of the pictures are also in Brueghel's hand, suggests that many of the collaborative works originated in his studio.

??? ???????? ??? ?????? ?? ????

N O T E S

1. K l a u s E r t z , " S o m e T h o u g h t s o n t h e P a i n t i n g s o f J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r , " i n L o n d o n 1979, p . n . 2. R e s o u r c e s t h a t d o e xist i n c l u d e t h e p u b l i s h e d r e c o r d b o o k s o f J a n B r u e g h e l the Y o u n g e r , w h o operated a large s t u d i o , a n d Jan B r u e g h e l the E l d e r ' s correspondence w i t h C a r d i n a l B o r r o m e o , specifically h i s letters o f F e b r u a r y 11, 1622, A p r i l 1, 1622, a n d J u l y 8, 1622: C r i v e l l i 1868, p p . 223, 2 8 7 - 8 8 , 2 9 6 - 9 7 . F o r o n e p a i n t i n g , C a r d i n a l B o r r o m e o c o m m i s s i o n e d B r u e g h e l t o h a v e a n o t h e r artist c o n t r i b u t e a l a n d s c a p e (see also cat. n o . 19). 3. I n a letter o f A p r i l 28, 1618, t o t h e d i s c e r n i n g c o l l e c t o r S i r D u d l e y C a r l e t o n , R u b e n s was o b l i g e d to indicate the level o f his i n v o l v e m e n t . I n a l i s t o f p a i n t i n g s t h a t are f o r sale, h e specifies t h o s e t h a t are " d o n e entirely by m y h a n d " ; " . . . d o n e b y the h a n d o f a master skillful i n t h a t d e p a r t m e n t " ; " . . . b u t t h i s o n e n o t b e i n g f i n i s h e d , w o u l d be e n t i r e l y r e t o u c h e d b y m y o w n h a n d , a n d b y t h i s m e a n s w o u l d pass as o r i g i n a l " ; "done b y one o f m y pupils, but the w h o l e retouched by m y h a n d " ( t r a n s l a t e d f r o m t h e I t a l i a n ) : M a g u r n 1955, p p . 6 0 - 6 1 . I n a l e t t e r t o W i l l i a m T r u m b e l l , d a t e d S e p t e m b e r 13, 1621, R u b e n s states, " S i r : I a m q u i t e w i l l i n g t h a t t h e p i c t u r e s d o n e f o r m y L o r d A m b a s s a d o r C a r l e t o n be r e t u r n e d t o m e a n d t h a t I p a i n t a n o t h e r H u n t less t e r r i b l e t h a n t h a t o f the l i o n s , w i t h a rebate o n t h e p r i c e , as is r e a s o n a b l e , f o r t h e a m o u n t a l r e a d y p a i d ; a n d a l l t o b e d o n e b y m y o w n h a n d , w i t h o u t a s i n g l e a d m i x t u r e o f a n y o n e else's w o r k . T h i s I w i l l m a i n t a i n o n m y w o r d as a g e n t l e m a n . " ( t r a n s l a t e d f r o m the F r e n c h ) : M a g u r n 1955, p . 77. 4 . D a n i e l S e g h e r s is d o c u m e n t e d as t h e p u p i l o f J a n B r u e g h e l i n 1611. See R o m b o u t s a n d v a n L e r i u s 1 8 6 4 - 7 6 , p . 4775. I n a letter t o t h e artist J a c o b d e B i e , d a t e d M a y 11, 1611, R u b e n s m a k e s i t v e r y clear t h a t h e receives m a n y requests f r o m artists t o w o r k i n his s t u d i o . " I c a n t e l l y o u t r u l y , w i t h o u t e x a g g e r a t i o n , t h a t I h a v e h a v e [had] t o refuse o v e r o n e h u n d r e d , e v e n s o m e o f m y o w n r e l a t i v e s o r m y w i f e ' s , a n d n o t w i t h o u t c a u s i n g great d i s p l e a s u r e a m o n g m a n y o f m y best f r i e n d s . " ( t r a n s l a t e d f r o m t h e D u t c h ) : M a g u r n 1955, p . 55.

6. W e k n o w t h a t p a i n t i n g s d i d t r a v e l g r e a t distances b e t w e e n artists w h o

1958. W a d u m (1993, n . 134) e x p a n d s o n t h i s treatise: "de M a y e r n e i n

w e r e w o r k i n g i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n . O n e o f B r u e g h e l ' s earliest c o l l a b o r a t o r s

fact says, t h a t the g r o u n d i n g o f w o o d d o e s n o t have t o be d o n e w i t h

w a s H a n s R o t t e n h a m m e r , w i t h w h o m he w o r k e d w h e n l i v i n g i n Italy.

chalk and glue-water but o n l y w i t h a weak glue and then a strong o i l

" J a n p a i n t e d the l a n d s c a p e i n A n t w e r p , H a n s R o t t e n h a m m e r

g r o u n d o n t o p . H o w e v e r , earlier i n h i s m a n u s c r i p t the c o n t r a r y is

added

the p u t t i i n M i l a n ; the s m a l l p a n e l w a s t h e n sent b a c k t o A n t w e r p so

s t a t e d . H e r e he first advises t o a p p l y a g r o u n d o f c h a l k w i t h g l u e ,

t h a t J a n c o u l d a d d the

u s i n g 1/4 g l u e i n t w o p o t s o f water. ' W h e n i t a l l is d i l u t e d a d d e n o u g h

flowers.":

E r t z ( n o t e i a b o v e ) , p . 2 4 . See also

c h a l k t o g i v e a g o o d c o n s i s t e n c y b e f o r e a p p l y i n g it s m o o t h l y a n d

cat. n o s . 14 a n d 15.

e v e n l y w i t h a k n i f e . A f t e r t h i s a p p l y ceruse a n d u m b e r g r o u n d e d i n o i l . 7. T h e panels f o u n d t o have n o t c h e s d e s i g n e d t o a c c o m m o d a t e t r a v e l i n g frames i n c l u d e the p a i n t i n g s f r o m the G e t t y M u s e u m (cat. n o . 2), the M a u r i t s h u i s (cat. n o . 4 ) , M u n i c h (fig. 1), a n d m o s t l i k e l y G l a s g o w

ditions and not under a microscope).

of Infanta

of priming

[Imprimer]

before

painting).

F u r t h e r o n i n h i s m a n u a l , he tells us first t o p r i m e the p a n e l w i t h c a l f o r g o a t s k i n g l u e m i x e d w i t h c h a l k . W h e n it is d r y o n e s h o u l d

8. O n l y t w o o f the c o l l a b o r a t i v e w o r k s , the Portrait a n d the Portrait

de G r a a f 1958, p . 138, n o 4 : The manner to prepare wood on which one wants to paint and the preparation

(fig. 83) (the last was v i e w e d i n the g a l l e r y u n d e r n o r m a l v i e w i n g c o n

Austria

L e t i t dry.' ( M S . S l o a n e 2052, p . 9 9 ; B e r g e r 1901, p. 277, n o 214; V a n

Isabella

of Archduke

Clara

Eugenia

Albert

(cat. n o s .

scrape a n d p l a n e i t w i t h the k n i f e , a n d t h e n finally g i v e i t a t h i n layer c o n s i s t i n g o f l e a d w h i t e a n d u m b e r . H e a d d s t h a t terre d'ombre

9a a n d 9 b ) are p a i n t e d o n canvas. B r u e g h e l ' s c o l l a b o r a t i o n s w i t h o t h e r

s p o i l s the c o l o u r s so o n e s h o u l d use the B r a u n r o t [?] y e l l o w o r r e d

artists w e r e m o s t o f t e n p a i n t e d o n p a n e l o r c o p p e r

o c h r e , l e a d w h i t e a n d c a r b o n b l a c k ( M S . S l o a n e 2052, p . 9 0 V ;

supports.

B e r g e r 1 8 9 7 - 1 9 0 9 , p . 261, n o . 194c; V a n de G r a a f 1958, p . 135, n o . 2: 9. K i r b y 1999 a n d W a d u m 1998a. See also K l e i n 1998 a n d M a r e t t e 1961. 10. W a d u m 1998a.

Imprimeure

sur

Bois)T

21. A p r i m i n g k n i f e , m e a s u r i n g a b o u t t h i r t y c e n t i m e t e r s (12 i n c h e s ) , is

11. P u b l i s h e d details o f p a n e l c o n s t r u c t i o n i n R u b e n s ' s o e u v r e i n c l u d e : P o l l - F r o m m e l , R e n g e r , a n d S c h m i d t 1993; G o e t g h e b e u r 1 9 9 0 ; B r o w n 1996; a n d M a d r i d 1998.

r e p r o d u c e d i n D e M a y e r n e ' s treatise ( V a n de G r a a f 1958, p . 138, n o . 6) and i n V a n H o u t 2 0 0 0 , pp. 279-88. 22. T h i s t e r m was n o t u s e d i n s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y A n t w e r p b u t is i n

12. T h e i n t e r n a l d o w e l s o f t h i s p a i n t i n g are n o w v i s i b l e s i n c e a past r e s t o r a t i o n t h i n n e d the p a n e l t o h a l f the o r i g i n a l t h i c k n e s s a n d t h e n a d d e d w o o d e n battens for support.

c o m m o n usage t o d a y . 23. V a n M a n d e r d e s c r i b e s the p r a c t i c e o f J a n d e n H o l l a n d e r (ca. 1 5 0 0 ca. 1542) t h u s , " H e also h a d the h a b i t o f p a i n t i n g i n a z i g - z a g g i n g m o v e m e n t a n d a l l o w i n g the p r e p a r a t i o n o n the panels o r canvases p l a y

13. W a d u m 1993.

a p a r t — w h i c h Brueghel very idiosyncratically imitated." (Veel had hy

14. V a n D a m m e 1 9 9 0 .

o o c k de m a n i e r v a n a l s w a d d e r e n d e o p de p e n n e e l e n oft d o e c k e n de g r o n d e n m e d e te l a t e n s p e l e n , het w e l c h B r u e g h e l seer e x g h c n t l y c k n a c

15. V a n D a m m e 1990 a n d W a d u m 1993.

v o l g h d e ) : V a n M a n d e r / M i e d e m a 1 9 9 4 - 9 9 , v o l . 1, p . 118; v o l . 3, p . 34. 16. T h e v e r s o o f the f o l l o w i n g p a n e l s have b e e n e x a m i n e d : The from War: Mars Disarmed Man;

by Venus; The Garden

Flora and Zephyr; Diana

Observed by Satyrs; Madonna Flowers; Madonna Garland

at the Hunt;

Diana's

Sleeping

Nymphs

and Child in a Garland

of Fruit

and

in a Flower Garland;

of Flowers; a n d Fruit

Return

of Eden with the Fall of

Garland

Madonna

and Child in a

with Nature

Adorned

2 4 . I n The Descent from the Cross, ca. 1611-15, the g r a y - c o l o r e d i m p r i m a t u r a has b e e n i d e n t i f i e d as b e i n g i n an " a q u e o u s m e d i u m " ; see C o r e m a n s a n d T h i s s e n 1962. N o details o f the analysis are g i v e n i n t h i s t e c h n i c a l examination and conservation and restoration

report.

by the Graces In An Autumn

(cat. n o s . 2, 4 , 6, 10, n , a n d 12; fig . n o s . 1, 6 9 , a n d 83).

Landscape

with a View of Het Steen ( L o n d o n , N a t i o n a l

G a l l e r y , i n v . 6 6 ) , the b r o w n - c o l o r e d i m p r i m a t u r a has b e e n i d e n t i f i e d 17. F o r e x a m p l e , the L o u v r e Madonna

of Flowers

as b e i n g b o u n d i n l i n s e e d o i l a n d p i n e r e s i n , a n d a s a m p l e o f p a i n t

(fig. 6 9 ) was t r a n s f e r r e d f r o m p a n e l t o canvas. T h i s p r o c e s s i n v o l v e s

and Child in a Garland

f r o m a b r o w n tree b r a n c h a n d a s a m p l e o f p a l e g r e e n grass as b e i n g

r e m o v i n g a l l traces o f the p a n e l s u p p o r t a n d a d h e r i n g a canvas b a c k i n g

b o u n d i n l i n s e e d o i l a n d p i n e r e s i n ; see B r o w n , R e e v e , a n d W y l d

t o the g r o u n d layer o f the p a i n t i n g .

1982, p . 28.

18. A later r e s t o r a t i o n a d d e d r e p a i n t s t o these u n p a i n t e d s t r i p s o n The Return from War: Mars Disarmed

by Venus, i n o r d e r t o c o n t i n u e the

i m a g e t o the e d g e o f the p a n e l .

A n i m p r i m a t u r a o n a s k e t c h , Thetis Dipping

Achilles

in the Styx, has

b e e n i d e n t i f i e d as b e i n g an e m u l s i o n o f e g g w h i t e a n d o i l ; see Lammertse and Vergara 2003.

19. M . W i t l o x , u n p u b l i s h e d P h . D . research ( U n i v e r s i t y o f A m s t e r d a m ,

25. See W a d u m 2 0 0 2 .

2005). 26. G e t t y C o n s e r v a t i o n I n s t i t u t e r e p o r t s o n The Return from War: 2 0 . A c o n t e m p o r a r y s o u r c e f o r i n f o r m a t i o n o n g r o u n d layers is T h . T . D e M a y e r n e , Pictoria,

Sculptoria

& quae sub alternarum

X-ray

f l u o r e s c e n c e analysis c a r r i e d o u t b y S a t o k o T a n i m o t o a n d D a v i d S c o t t atrium,

( M u s e u m Research L a b o r a t o r y R e p o r t #2O67-P-OI, N o v e m b e r 2001);

1620 ( M S . S l o a n e 2052, B r i t i s h M u s e u m ) . D e M a y e r n e ' s treatise has

cross s e c t i o n a n d p o l a r i z e d l i g h t m i c r o s c o p y c a r r i e d o u t b y A n n a

b e e n p u b l i s h e d i n at least t w o v e r s i o n s : B e r g e r 1901 a n d V a n de G r a a f

Schoenemann; Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy carried out by

B R U E G H E L

A N D

RUBENS

WORK

249

A . S c h o e n e m a n n w i t h t h e assistance o f H e r a n t K h a n j i a n ; E S E M - E D S

q u a l i t a i n d e t t o q u a d r o . " (letter d a t e d J a n u a r y 27, 1 6 0 6 ) : C r i v e l l i 1868,

analysis carried o u t b y D a v i d C a r s o n ( C o n s e r v a t i o n F i l e R e p o r t ,

p. 62.

M a r c h 2004).

" . . . u n a M a s s a de v a r i o f i o r i g l i q u a l i r e u c e r a n i m o l t o b e l l o : t a n t a

27. A f e w references, a m o n g m a n y , i n t h i s r e g a r d i n c l u d e : B o m f o r d 2 0 0 2 ; L a m m e r t s e a n d V e r g a r a 2 0 0 3 , p . 6 9 ; a n d G i f f o r d 1999, p . 181.

i n q u e s t a p a r t o a l c u n i i n c o n i t a et n o n p e i u u i s t o : p e r q u e l l a i o s o n stata a B r u s s e l l a p e r r i t r a r e a l c u n i f i o r i d e l n a t u r a l , c h e n o n s i t r o v a

28. F o r a m o r e d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n o f i n f r a r e d r e f l e c t o g r a p h y u s e d t o

i n A n u e r s a . " (letter d a t e d A p r i l 14, 1 6 0 6 ) : C r i v e l l i 1868, p . 63.

i m a g e u n d e r d r a w i n g s see B o m f o r d 2 0 0 2 , p p . 2 6 - 3 7 .

" G l i f i o r i b e s o i g n i fare alle p r i m a , sensa d e s s e i g n i o b o i t s s a t u r o : t u t t i

2 9 . T h e u n d e r d r a w i n g f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g p a i n t i n g s was e x a m i n e d : The Battle

of the Amazons,

The Garden

The Return

from War: Mars Disarmed

of Eden with the Fall of Man;

fiori

by Venus;

The Vision of Saint Hubert;

the

???? ?????????? ???? ??? ???? ?????? ??????? ????? ?? ??? ????? ??????? Sleeping Nymphs Observed by Satyrs; Madonna

p e r l a n a t u r a l l e z a c o m e a n c o d e l l e b e l l e z z a e r a r i t a de v a r i o f i o r i

and Child in a Garland

v e n g e n o i n q u a t r a m e s i , et sense i n u e n c i o n i b e s o i g n i g i u n g e r e

s e i m e c o n g r a n d i s c r e t c i o n . R e c e u t o s u a l e t r a fece t a i g l i a r e u n r a m a , p a r e t c i a t o u n a n o fa, et i l m e d e s m a g i o r n o c o m m i c o : p e r i l c a l d o g l i f i o r i n a s c e n o f o i r e i l s t a g i o n o , p e r tale n o n se p o p e r d e r i l t e m p o d A p r i l l i . " (letter d a t e d A p r i l 22, 1611): C r i v e l l i 1868, p . 168.

????? ??? ???????? ??????? ?? ? ?????? ???????? ??? ????? ??????? with Nature

Adorned

by the Graces (cat. n o s . 1, 2, 4 , 7, 8, 10, n , a n d 12;

38. I n Still Life with Flowers ( C a m b r i d g e , F i t z w i l l i a m M u s e u m ) , w h i c h is e x e c u t e d i n o i l o n p a n e l , t h e r e is a t h i n , w h i t e g r o u n d l a y e r a n d a y e l

fig. n o s . 1, 54-57, a n d 83).

l o w , o c h e r - c o l o r e d i m p r i m a t u r a . B r u e g h e l is d e s c r i b e d as " w o r k i n g

30. W a d u m 2 0 0 2 .

alia p r i m a w i t h use o f e n d o f b r u s h t o i n s c r i b e p a t t e r n s i n f l o w e r s . " ;

31. T h e s e d o t s c o u l d be m i s i n t e r p r e t e d as h a v i n g b e e n t h e r e s u l t o f p o u n c i n g — a technique o f transferring a d r a w i n g f r o m a piece o f paper to

r e f l e c t o g r a p h y s h o w e d v a r y i n g states o f c o m p l e t i o n i n the u n d e r d r a w

t h e p a i n t i n g b y m e a n s o f d u s t i n g p o u n c e (a fine p o w d e r o f c h a r c o a l

i n g o f the flowers.

o r s i m i l a r dark substance) t h r o u g h holes p r i c k e d a l o n g the under

39. W i t l o x 2 0 0 1 . See also V a n de G r a a f 1958, n o s . 124, 130, 136, 137, 147,

d r a w i n g l i n e s . A s i m i l a r p h e n o m e n o n c a n be s e e n — i n t h e e x t r e m e —

151, 154, a n d 162, w h e r e t h e r e are references t o a m b e r , sandarac, m a s t i c ,

i n B r u e g h e l ' s A Road with a Ford in a Wood, o f 1608 ( N e w Y o r k , M e t r o p o l i t a n M u s e u m o f A r t , i n v . 2001.216.1); see B r o o s a n d W a d u m 1993, p p . 1 3 - 1 6 .

a n d d r i e r s ( m e t a l l i c ) ; s p i r i t v a r n i s h e s ; " v e r n i s delicats," w h i c h e x c l u d e d r y i n g o i l s a n d are t h e r e f o r e l i g h t e r a n d m o r e b r i t t l e ; resins d i s s o l v e d i n v o l a t i l e essential o i l s , e.g., sandarac i n t u r p e n t i n e , m a s t i c i n o i l o f s p i k e , vernis dHtalia i n t u r p e n t i n e , a n d r e s i n a n d sandarac.

32. See L e v y - v a n H a l m 1998 a n d K i r b y 1999, p . 35. 33. K i r b y 1 9 9 9 , p . 38. A r e d - b r o w n e a r t h p i g m e n t u s e d b y R u b e n s t o p a i n t

4 0 . See P l e s t e r s 1983, p . 4 1 . " R u b e n s a v o i d e d p a i n t i n g i n s u c h a w a y t h a t

o u t l i n e s f o r f o r m s o n h i s A c h i l l e s series sketches has b e e n i d e n t i f i e d as

the c o l o r sank i n . T h e l u m i n o u s c l a r i t y o f h i s w o r k w a s p r o o f o f t h e

h e m a t i t e ; see L a m m e r t s e a n d V e r g a r a 2 0 0 3 , p . 1 0 0 .

excellence o f his technique. H e p a i n t e d w i t h resin varnish a n d thick

34. T h e b r o w n i m p r i m a t u r a i n An Autumn

Landscape

with a View

e n e d o i l a n d w i t h V e n i c e t u r p e n t i n e , so t h a t h i s c o l o r s h a d so m u c h

ofHet

brilliance and b i n d i n g m e d i u m w i t h i n themselves that, like V a n Eyck's

Steen ( L o n d o n , N a t i o n a l G a l l e r y , i n v . 6 6 ) w a s i d e n t i f i e d b y R a y m o n d

p i c t u r e s , t h e y h a d a g l o s s w i t h o u t n e e d i n g t o be v a r n i s h e d . " : D o e r n e r

W h i t e as c o n t a i n i n g l i n s e e d o i l a n d p i n e r e s i n ( N a t i o n a l G a l l e r y files,

1962, p . 186.

2 0 0 2 ) b y gas c h r o m a t o g r a p h y - m a s s s p e c t r o m e t r y a n d F o u r i e r trans f o r m i n f r a r e d r e f l e c t o g r a p h y . T h e b r o w n tree b r a n c h a n d p a l e g r e e n

41. P r e v i o u s t o 1598 R u b e n s a p p r e n t i c e d i n A n t w e r p t o T o b i a s V e r h a e c h t

grass also s h o w l i n s e e d o i l a n d p i n e r e s i n .

(1561-1631) a n d t h e h i s t o r y p a i n t e r s A d a m v a n N o o r t (1562-1641)

H e a t - b o d i e d l i n s e e d o i l a n d p i n e r e s i n h a v e b e e n i d e n t i f i e d i n Family Jan Brueghel

the Elder ( f r o n t i s p i e c e ) b y R a y m o n d W h i t e ( C o u r t a u l d

O i l a n d r e s i n also o c c u r i n t h e p a i n t layers o f Samson and

Delilah

(fig. 23); see P l e s t e r s 1983.

g r o u n d q u i c k l y w o r k i n g w i t h t u r p e n t i n e , w h i c h w a s b e t t e r a n d less fierce t h a n o i l o f s p i k e l a v e n d e r ( t h i s w o u l d be t h e p r e l i m i n a r y g r i n d i n g , b e f o r e g r i n d i n g w i t h t h e o i l m e d i u m ) . H e also r e c o m m e n d e d d i p p i n g the b r u s h i n t u r p e n t i n e o c c a s i o n a l l y before b l e n d i n g the c o l o u r s o n t h e p a l e t t e so t h a t t h e p a i n t w a s m o r e e a s i l y w o r k e d a n d t h e c o l o u r s d i d n o t ' d i e ' o r s i n k . " : K i r b y 1999, p . 15.

37. " . . . m a n o n a v e n d o a n c o r a p o t u t o a d e m p i r e l a m i a b u o n a v o l u n t a p e r f i n i r o l ' o p e r a g i a c o m i n c i a t a , fra t a n t o n a s c e n o i t e l l i f i o r i che s e r a n o i n

RUBENS

R u b e n s ' s p o r t r a i t s are s e p a r a t e d f r o m the s u r r o u n d i n g l a n d s c a p e b y B r u e g h e l ( o r B r u e g h e l ' s s t u d i o ) . T h i s m a y p e r h a p s be a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e

clear d i v i s i o n o f l a b o r . 4 3 . A l t h o u g h t h e r e is s o m e c o n s e n s u s a m o n g s c h o l a r s a b o u t t h e p r e s e n c e o f o v e r p a i n t e d fabrics o n s o m e o f t h e figures i n t h e p a i n t i n g , n o t e c h n i c a l analysis has b e e n c a r r i e d o u t . See Jaffe i n L o n d o n 2 0 0 5 - 0 6 , P- 4 4 4 4 . T h e s o m e w h a t stiff e x e c u t i o n o f t h e u n d e r d r a w i n g has p r o m p t e d s o m e s c h o l a r s t o a t t r i b u t e i t t o O t t o v a n V e e n . See cat. n o . 1.

36. E r t z ( n o t e 1 a b o v e ) , p . 8.

A N D

4 2 . A s i m i l a r clear d i v i s i o n o f l a b o r c a n be o b s e r v e d i n t h e p o r t r a i t s o f

fact t h a t t h e e x e c u t i o n o f a p o r t r a i t c o m m i s s i o n a l l o w e d f o r a v e r y

35. " R u b e n s , f o r e x a m p l e , t o l d de M a y e r n e t h a t p i g m e n t s s h o u l d be

B R U E G H E L

a n d O t t o v a n V e e n (1556-1629); see B o s t o n - T o l e d o 1 9 9 3 - 9 4 , p . 2 0 .

A l b e r t a n d I s a b e l l a o f c a . 1 6 1 8 - 2 0 (cat. n o s . 9 a a n d 9 b ) , w h e r e

I n s t i t u t e o f A r t c o n s e r v a t i o n file).

250

see M u r r a y a n d G r o e n 1994, p p . 7 - 2 0 . A n e x a m i n a t i o n u s i n g i n f r a r e d

W O R K

45. A s i m i l a r use o f g i l t details is f o u n d i n O t t o v a n V e e n ' s Portrait Alessandro

Farnese (1586; L o s A n g e l e s C o u n t y M u s e u m o f A r t ,

inv. M . 2003.69).

4-6. T h e analysis o f The Return from War was c a r r i e d o u t u s i n g gas chromatography-mass

spectrometry by Joy M a z u r e k and M i c h a e l

Schilling (Getty Conservation Institute Report, Paintings C o n s e r v a t i o n D e p a r t m e n t files, F e b r u a r y 2 0 0 2 ) . 47. X - r a y f l u o r e s c e n c e analysis was c a r r i e d o u t b y S a t o k o T a n i m o t o a n d D a v i d S c o t t at the G e t t y C o n s e r v a t i o n I n s t i t u t e ( M u s e u m R e s e a r c h L a b o r a t o r y R e p o r t #2O67-P-OI, N o v e m b e r 2001). 3

4 8 . T h e s i n g l e p l a n k is b e t w e e n 10 a n d 11 m m ( /8 a n d V2 i n . ) t h i c k a n d ???????? ???? ? ????? ?? ?????? ? ?? ????? ?????? ????????????? l o g i c a l analysis o f the p a n e l b y D r . Peter K l e i n o f the U n i v e r s i t a t H a m b u r g i n d i c a t e s a p o s s i b l e e x e c u t i o n date r a n g i n g f r o m as e a r l y as 1612 t o 1622 o r later. ( M a u r i t s h u i s files, r e p o r t d a t e d A p r i l 2 9 , 2 0 0 5 ) .

53. T h e l i o n s a p p e a r i n a l a r g e r scale i n R u b e n s ' s Daniel Den (ca. 1613/15, o i l o n canvas, 224.3

in the

Lions'

330.4 c m [88 V4 x 130 i n . ] ;

W a s h i n g t o n , D . C , N a t i o n a l G a l l e r y o f A r t , i n v . 1965.13.1). 54. T h i s t e c h n i q u e is e x t e n s i v e l y d e s c r i b e d i n W a d u m 1987 a n d G i f T o r d I99955. T h e w o o d e n s u p p o r t is c o m p o s e d o f six p l a n k s o f w o o d , w h i c h h a v e b e e n j o i n e d h o r i z o n t a l l y . A t y p i c a l l i g h t g r a y i m p r i m a t u r a was a p p l i e d a n d c a n be easily seen i n m a n y areas t h r o u g h o u t the c o m p o s i t i o n . 56. H e l d (1982, p p . 25-31) argues t h a t R u b e n s is the i n v e n t o r o f the c o m p o s i t i o n f o r t h i s p a i n t i n g . L i e d t k e (1984, pp- 1 9 4 - 9 8 ) agrees w i t h h i m . 57. See H e l d 1982. 58. See W a d u m 1988; W a d u m 1993; W a d u m 1998a; W a d u m 1998b; a n d

4 9 . W a d u m 1993, p p . 9 6 - 1 0 0 . 50. T h e o r i g i n a l i n f r a r e d e x a m i n a t i o n o f the p a i n t i n g was c a r r i e d o u t i n October 2000 by Margreet Wolters (Rijksbureau voor Kunsthis-

V a n D a m m e 1990, pp. 193-236. 59. T h e r e m a y be f u r t h e r u n d e r d r a w i n g f o r t h i s p a i n t i n g e x e c u t e d i n

t o r i s c h e D o c u m e n t a t i e ) a n d J o r g e n W a d u m , u s i n g infrared e q u i p m e n t

a m a t e r i a l t h a t c a n n o t be d e t e c t e d w i t h the eye n o r w i t h i n f r a r e d

b e l o n g i n g t o the R i j k s b u r e a u ( H a m a m a t s u c 2 4 0 0 w i t h a N 2 6 0 6 - 0 6

reflectography.

Select V i s i c o n , a N i k o n M a c r o - N i k k o r i:2.8/55-mm lens, K o d a k W r a t t e n 8 7 c filter, w i t h a L u c i u s a n d B a e r V M 1710 m o n i t o r

60. B o s t o n - T o l e d o 1993-94, pp. 36-37. 61. T h e a u t h o r s o f t h i s essay are i n d e b t e d t o J a n S c h m i d t f o r the t e c h n i c a l

[625 l i n e s ] ) . T h e i m a g e s p u b l i s h e d i n t h i s essay w e r e d o c u m e n t e d b y S a b r i n a M e l o n i o f the M a u r i t h u i s i n M a r c h 2 0 0 5 , u s i n g an A r t i s t c a m e r a ( A r t I n n o v a t i o n , H e n g e l o ) m o u n t e d w i t h a C C D p r o g r e s s i v e scan i m a g e s e n s o r (1360 x 1036 p i x e l s ) a n d a S c h n e i d e r K r e u z n a c h X e n o p l a n

findings

o n the M u n i c h p i c t u r e : J a n S c h m i d t , C o n f e r e n c e M a n u s c r i p t ,

C o l l o q u i u m B r a u n s c h w e i g , F e b r u a r y 10, 2 0 0 4 . 62. T h e d o w e l s are m a d e v i s i b l e i n the X - r a d i o g r a p h o f the panels ( i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m J. S c h m i d t , A l t e P i n a k o t h e k , M u n i c h ) .

1.4/23 m m C C T V - I e n s i n N12 w i t h a 1 0 0 0 n m l o n g - w a v e pass filter. T h e i m a g e s w e r e c a p t u r e d w i t h A r t i s t S o f t w a r e (release 1.2) a n d s t i t c h e d t o g e t h e r w i t h a c o m b i n a t i o n o f A d o b e P h o t o s h o p CS2 a n d P a n a V u e

63. I n f o r m a t i o n f r o m J. S c h m i d t . 64- I n f o r m a t i o n f r o m J. S c h m i d t .

ImageAssembler. 65. T h e i n c i s e d l i n e s o f the G l a s g o w p a i n t i n g m e a s u r e : i n n e r o v a l : 51. I n Nymphs Filling

the Cornucopia,

ca. 1615 (cat. n o . 13), a c o m p a r a b l e

4 0 x 30.2 c m (i5 /4 x 12 i n . ) ; m i d d l e o v a l : 41.2 x 31.4 c m (16V4 x 12V8 3

i m p r i m a t u r a a n d u n d e r d r a w i n g have b e e n d e t e c t e d . H e r e the l a n d

i n . ) ; a n d o u t e r o v a l : 41.5 x 31.9 c m ( i 6 / 8 x 12V2 i n . ) ; t h e r e arc t w o

scape is b y B r u e g h e l a n d the figures are b y o n e o f R u b e n s ' s s t u d i o

p i n h o l e s w i t h i n the o v a l area, l y i n g o n e a b o v e the o t h e r a l o n g a c e n

assistants; see W a d u m 1993, p p . 9 7 - 1 0 0 ; a n d B r o o s a n d W a d u m 1993,

t r a l v e r t i c a l axis, w h i c h suggests a c o m p a s s was u s e d t o d r a w the

p p . 1 3 - 1 6 . T h e figures i n t h i s p a i n t i n g a p p e a r t o have b e e n r e t o u c h e d

shapes, w h i c h w e r e m a d e i n the g r o u n d layer ( c o r r e s p o n d e n c e

b y R u b e n s ' s o w n h a n d . T h e r e t o u c h e s w e r e d o n e after the u n d e r d r a w

R o b e r t W e n l e y , c u r a t o r o f E u r o p e a n art, a n d P o l l y S m i t h , c o n s e r v a t o r ,

from

i n g f o r the f i g u r e was c a r r i e d o u t , c o r r e c t i n g the l i n e s o f the s k e t c h .

G l a s g o w M u s e u m s , 2 0 0 5 ) . T h e o v a l s o f the M a u r i t s h u i s p a i n t i n g

T h e r e t o u c h e s a r o u n d the f i g u r e are n o w c o v e r e d b y the p a i n t o f the

m e a s u r e : i n n e r o v a l : 4 2 . 7 x 31 c m ( i 6 / 4 x 12V4 i n . ) ; a n d o u t e r o v a l :

b a c k g r o u n d scenery.

43.6 x 32 c m (17Vs x i 2 / 8 i n . ) ; t h e r e is j u s t o n e p i n h o l e i n the m i d d l e

o f the m e d a l l i o n . C o m p a r e a l s o v 4 Road with a Ford in a Wood (1608, o i l o n c o p p e r , 3 4 . 4 x 4 9 . 4 c m [13V2 x 191/2 i n . ] ; L o n d o n , C o l l e c t i o n o f E . a n d S. S p e e l m a n [ o n l o a n t o the N a t i o n a l G a l l e r y o f A r t , W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . ] ; p a n e l m a k e r ' s s t a m p , Peeter S t a s ) : W a d u m 1998b. T h e p a i n t i n g was e x a m i n e d a n d d o c u m e n t e d b y M . W o l t e r s ; see n o t e 50 a b o v e for e q u i p m e n t details. A f e w o f B r u e g h e l ' s d r a w i n g s o n p a p e r a n d i n p a r t i c u l a r the freely d r a w n River Landscape

with a Village

(1610-15, p e n i n b r o w n ,

18.5 x 17.8 c m [ 7 V 4 x 7 i n . ] . P a r i s , M u s e e d u L o u v r e , C a b i n e t des D e s s i n s , i n v . R . F . 00.653) have n u m e r o u s e l e m e n t s c o m p a r a b l e t o t h e u n d e r d r a w i n g i n the M a u r i t s h u i s p i c t u r e . See also the e n t r y b y T. G e r s z i i n E s s e n - V i e n n a 1 9 9 7 - 9 8 , p . 4 6 2 , cat. n o . 165. 52. See W a d u m 2 0 0 2 .

B R U E G H E L

A N D

RUBENS

WORK

251

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Kônigliche Musee n zu Berlin. Die Gemaldegalerie des Kaiser-Friedrich-Museums. Vollstandiger beschreibender Katalog mit Abbildungen sdmtlicher Gemalde. Edited b y H. Poss e (Berlin , 1911). B E R L I N 2OO2-O 3

Marx, Harald, ed. Meisterwerke de r Dresdener Gemaldegalerie i n Berlin: nach der Flut. Exh. cat . (Berlin, Altes Museen, 2002) . B E R L I N - A M S T I E R D A M - L O N D O N 1991-9 2

Rembrandt: the Master and His Workshop / Rembrandt: De Meester en zijn Werkplaats. Exh cat . 2 vols. (Berlin , Staatliche Musee n Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Genia l degalerie; Amsterdam, Rijksmuseum ; an d London, National Gallery, 1991-92) . B E R N H A R D 196 5

Bernhard, M. Verlorene Werke de r Malerei; i n Deutschland in der Zeit von 1939 bis 1945 zerstorte und verschollene Gemalde aus Museen und Galérien (Munich, 1965) . B I K K E R 200 4 Bikker, Jonathan. "Lucian's Prometheus as a source for Jordaens and va n Baburen." Simiolus 26 (2004) , pp . 46-53 .

BOK 1977 Bok-van Kammen , W. "Stradanus an d th e Hunt. " (Ph.D. diss., Johns Hopkin s University , 1977). BOL 198 9 Bol, Lauren s J. Adriaen Pietersz. van d e Venne: Painter and Draughtsman (Doornspijk , 1989). B O M F O R D 2OO 2

Bomford, D., ed. Art i n the Making: Underdrawings i n Renaissance Paintings (London , 2002). B O R R O M E O / R A V A S I 199 7

Borromeo, Federico. Musaeum Bibliothecae Ambrosianae. Edited b y Ravasi, G., an d P . Cigada (Milan, 1625 . Reprint , Milan, 1997) . B O S T O N - T O L E D O 1993~9 4

Sutton, Peter C. , e t al . The Age o f Rubens. Exh . cat. (Boston , Museu m of Fine Arts, an d Toledo [Ohio] Museum o f Art, 1993-94) . B O T T I N E A U 195 8

Bottineau, Y. "L'Alcázar de Madrid et l'Inventair e de 1686 . Aspects de l a Cour d'Espagn e a u XVII c Siècle " Bulletin Hispanique 6 0 (1958) , pp. 30-61 , 145-79, 289-326, 450-83 . V A N D E N B R A N D E N 188 3

Branden, F . Jos va n den . Geschiedenis der Antwerpsche Schilderschool (Antwerp , 1883) . B R A U N S C H W E I G 2OO 4

Buttner, Nils, and Ulric h Heinen. Peter Paul Rubens. Barocke Leidenschaften. Exh . cat. (Braunschweig, Herzog Anton Ulrich-Muséum, 2004). B R E N N I N K M E Y E R - D E R O O I J 199 O

Brenninkmeyer-de Rooij, B . "Zeldzame blocmc n 'Fatta tutt i de l naturel' door Ja n Brueghel I." Oud Holland 19 4 (1990) , pp. 218-55 . B R E N N I N K M E Y E R - D E R O O I J 199 6

Brenninkmeyer-de Rooij, B . Roots o f SeventeenthCentury Flower Painting (Leiden , 1996) . B R O O S 199 3 Broos, Ben . Intimacies and Intrigues: History Paintings in the Mauritshuis (Th e Hague an d Ghent, 1993) .

LITERATURE

253

B R O O S 1 9 95

B R U S S E L S 1997-9 8

C A N B E R R A - M E L B O U R N E 199 2

Broos, Ben. "Jan va n Beuningen: A Gentleman of Standing i n the Art World." Mauritshuis in Focus 8 , no. 2 (1995), pp. 20-26 .

Balis, Arnout, an d Piet Coessens , eds . Kunst in de bank—Een keuze van Rubens totMagritte. Exh. cat. (Brussels , Paleis voor Schon e Kunsten, 1997-98).

Rowan, D. , et al. Rubens and the Italian Renaissance. Exh. cat. (Canberra , Australian National Gallery , and Melbourne, Nationa l Gallery of Victoria, 1992) .

BRUSSELS 1998-9 9

C L E V E L A N D 1 9 56

Thomas, Werner , and Luc Duerloo, eds . Albert & Isabella, 1598-1621. Exh. cat. 2 vols. (Brussels, Musées royaux d'art et d'histoire, an d Leuven, Katholieke Universiteit, 1998-99).

The Venetian Tradition. Exh . cat. (Cleveland Museum o f Art, 1956) .

B R O O S A N D W A D U M 1 9 93

Broos, Ben, and J0rgen Wadum . "Vier panele n uit éé n boom (Fou r Panel s from On e Tree)." Mauritshuis i n Focus 6, no. i (1993) , pp. 13-16 . BROSENS1998

Brosens, K. '"Wintergezicht" (1911) e n 'Lentegezicht' (1612 ) doo r Denijs van Alsloot en Hendrick d e Clerck. Een stilistische e n icono grafische analyse. " Jaarboek va n bet Koninklijk Museum voor Schone Kunsten Antwerp en (1998) , pp. 293-308.

B R U S S E L S 200 2

Rubens, een Europees schilder—Tentoonstelling van de werken van de Gemaldegalerie derAkademie der Bildenden Kunste in Wien. Exh. cat. (Brussels, Stadhuis, 2002).

B R O W N 1979

B R U S S E L S - R O M E 199 5

Brown, Christopher . "Ja n Brueghel the Elder. " Connoisseur 201 (1979), pp. 174-77 .

Fiamminghi a Roma, 1508-1608: artistes des PaysBas et de la principauté de Liège à Rome à la Renaissance. Exh. cat. (Brussels , Palais des Beaux-Arts, and Rome, Palazz o délie Esposizione, 1995) .

BROWN 199 6 Brown, C . Rubens^ Landscapes (London , 1996) . B R O W N , R E E V E , A N D W Y L D 198 2

Brown, C. , A. Reeve, an d M. Wyld. "Rubens ' The Waterin g Place.'" National Gallery Technical Bulletin (London ) 6 (1982), pp. 27-39 . B R U G E S 200 2

Borchert, Till-Holger, ed. The Age of Va n Eyck: The Mediterranean World and Early Netherlandish Painting, 1430-1530. Exh. cat. (Bruges, Groeningemuseum, 2002) . B R U S S E L S 1 9 65

De eeuw van Rubens. Exh. cat. (Brussels, Koninklijke Musea voor Schon e Kunsten , 1965) . B R U S S E L S 197 5 Maîtres flamand s d u dix-septième siècle. Exh. cat. (Brussels, Musées Royau x de s Beaux-Arts de Belgique, 1975) . B R U S S E L S 198 0

Bruegel—une dynastie d e peintres (Dutc h edition : Bruegel—Een dynastie va n schilders). Exh . cat. (Brussels, Palais des Beaux-Arts, 1980). B R U S S E L S 198 5 Splendeurs d 3Espagne et les villes belges 1500-1700. Exh. cat . (Brussels , Palais des Beaux-Arts, 1985). B R U S S E L S 199 4 Keizer Karel. Wandtapijten en wapenrustingen uit de Spaanse Koninklijke Verzamelingen. Exh . cat. (Brussels, Musées Royau x d'Art e t d'Histoire, 1994).

254

LITERATURE

B R U S S E L S - S C H A L L A B U R G 199 1

Van der Stock , Jan, ed. Stad i n Vlaanderen: cultuur en maatschappij, 1477-1787. Exh. cat. (Brussels, Galerij van het Gemeentekrediet , 1991). C A M P B E L L 1 9 81

Campbell, Lome. "The Earl y Netherlandish Painters and Their Workshops. " I n Le Dessin sous-jacent dans la peinture, Colloque III, 6-7-8 septembre 1979, Le Problème Maître de Flémalle-van der Weyden. Edite d b y D. Hollanders Favar t and R. van Schoute . Université Catholiqu e d e Louvain, Institu t supérieur d'archéologi e e t d'histoire d e l'art , Document d e travail no. n (Louvain-la-Neuve , 1981), pp. 43-61. C A M P B E L L 199 0

Campbell, Lorne . Renaissance Portraits. European Portrait-Painting in thé I4th, isth and i6th Centuries (Ne w Haven an d London, 1990) . C A M P B E L L 199 8

Campbell, Lorne . Th e Fifteenth-Century Netherlandish Schools. National Gallery Catalogues (London , 1998). CAMPO W E Y E R M A N 1729-6 9

Campo Weyerman, Jacob. De levens-beschryvingen der Nederlandsche konst-schilders en konstschilderessen, met een uytbreyding over de schilderkonst der ouden. 4 vols. (Th e Hague an d Dordrecht, 1729-69) .

C O L O G N E 197 7 Miiller Hofstede, Justus . Peter Paul Rubens, 1577-1640.1: Rubens in Italien: Gemalde, Ôlskizzen, Zeichnungen. Exh. cat. (Cologne , Wallraf Richartz-Museum, 1977). C O L O G N E - A N T W E R P - V I E N N A 1992-93

Mai, Ekkehard, and Hans Vlieghe , eds . Von Bruegel bis Rubens. Das goldene Jahrhundert der flamischenMalerei. Exh. cat. (Cologne , Wallraf Richartz-Museum; Antwerp, Koninklijk Museum voor Schon e Kunsten ; and Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum, 1992-93) , C O R B E I L E T A L . 199 2

Corbeil, Marie-Claude , et al. "The 'Leopards ' in Montreal: A n Attribution t o Rubens Disproved. " The Burlington Magazine 13 4 (1992), p. 724. C O R E M A N S A N D T H I S S E N 196 2

Coremans, P. , and J. Thissen, "Compositio n et structure de s couches originale. " Bulletin, Institut royal du patrimoine artistique/Koninklijk Instituut voor het Kunstpatrimonium (Brussels ) 5 (1962), pp. 119-27 . C O S T A M A G N A 199 5

Costamagna, Alba. "'La più bell a et superba occasione di tutta Roma'—Ruben s per Paitar maggiore d i Santa Maria in Vallicella." In La Regola e la Fama. San Filippo Neri e lArte, pp. 150-7 3 (Rome , Muse o Nazional e di Palazzo Venezia, 1995) . C O S T A R A S 1994 Costaras, N. " A Contrast i n Styles: The Descent into Limbo by Jan Brueghel the Elder an d Han s Rottenhammer." Mauritshuis in Focus 7, no. i (1994), pp. 18-22. C R I V E L L I 186 8 Crivelli, G . Giovanni Brueghel, pittor fiammingo. Sue lettere e quadretti esistenti pressa l'Ambrosiana (Milan, 1868) . C R U Z A D A V I L L A A M I L 187 4

Cruzada Villaamil, G. Rubens, diplomático español; sus viajes á España y noticia de sus cuadros, según los inventarios de las casas reales de Austria y de Borbon (Madrid, 1874) .

C U T L E R 2OO 3

Cutler, L . C. "Virtue an d Diligence—Ja n Brueghel I and Federico Borromeo. " Nederlands Kunsthistorisch Jaarboek 5 4 (2003), pp- 203-27 . D A L Y 1 9 85

Daly, Peter M. , éd., with Virginia W . Callaban. Andreas Alciatus. 2 vols. (Toront o an d Buffalo , 1985). V A N D A M M E 199 0

Damme, J . van. "De Antwerpse tafereelmakers en hun merken : Identificati e e n betekenis." Jaarboek voor het Koninklijk Museum voor Schone Kunsten Antwerpen (1990) , pp. 193-236 . DAUER 198 8 Dauer, H. Staatliches Museum Schloss Mosigkau Katalog der Gemdlde Alter Bestand (Dessau, 1988) . D A V I E S 1906-0 7

Davies, R . "An Inventory o f the Duk e of Buckingham's Picture s at York House in 1635. " The Burlington Magazine 1 0 (1906-1907) , pp. 376-82 . D E M A R C H I A N D V A N M I E G R O E T 199 4

De March!, Neil, and Hans J. Van Miegroet. "Art, Value, and Market Practices in th e Netherlands i n the Seventeent h Century. " Art Bulletin 76 (1994), pp. 451-64. DE M A R C H I AN D VA N M I E G R O E T 199 8

De Marchi, Neil , and Hans J. Van Miegroet. "Novelty an d Fashion Circuit s in the Mid Seventeenth-Century Antwerp-Paris Ar t Trade. " Journal o f Medieval an d Early Modern Studies 28, no. i (1998) , pp. 201-46. D E M E E S T E R 198 1

Demeester, J. "Le domaine de Mariemont sou s Albert e t Isabell e 1598-1621."Annales du Cercle Archéologique deMons 7 1 (1978-81), pp. 181-282 . D E M P S E Y 196 7 Dempsey, C . "Euanthes Redivivus: Rubens' s Prometheus Bound? Journal of the Warburg and CourtauldInstitutes 3 0 (1967), pp. 420-25 . DEN BOSCH-LEUVE N 2OO2-O 3

De vier jaargetijden in de kunst van de Nederlanden 1500-1750. Exh. cat . (De n Bosch , Noordbrabant s Museum, an d Leuven, Stedelij k Museum Vander Kelen-Mertens, 2002-03) . D E N U C É 193 1 Denucé, J. Kunstuitvoer in de i?e Eeuw te Antwerpen d e firma Forchoudt (Th e Hague , 1931).

DENUCÉ 193 2 Denucé, J . De Antwerpsche "Konstkamers" — Inventarissen van kunstverzamelingen te Antwerpen in de i6e en ije eeuwen. Bronnen voor de geschiedenis van d e Vlaamsche Kunst 2 (The Hague, 1932) . D E N U C É 193 4 Denucé, J . Brieven en documenten betreffend Ja n Brueghel I e n II. Bronne n voo r d e geschiedeni s van d e Vlaamse Kunst 3 (Antwerp and Th e Hague, 1934) . D E N U C É 1949 Denucé, Jan . No, Peter Pauwel Rubens. Documenten uit den Kunsthandel te Antwerpen in de XVIIe Eeuw van Matthijs Musson. Bronnen voor d e Geschiedeni s van d e Vlaamse Kunst 5 (Antwerp and The Hague, 1949). DE P I L E S 167 7

De Piles , Roger . Conversations sur la connaissance de la peinture et sur le jugement qu'on doit faire des Tableaux (Où par occasion il est parlé de la vie de Rubens} & de quelques-uns de ses plus beaux ouvrages) (Paris , 1677). DE P I L E S l68 l

De Piles , Roger . Dissertation sur les ouvrages des plus fameux peintres (Paris , 1681). D E S S A U 200 3 Oranienbaum—Huis va n Oranje. Exh. cat. (Dessau, Oranienbaum, 2003) . D E T R O I T 193 6 Sixty Paintings and Some Drawings by Peter Paul Rubens. Exh. cat. (Detroi t Institut e o f Arts, 1936). D Í A Z P A D R Ó N 1 9 75

Díaz Padrón, Matías . Museo de l Prado, Catálogo de pinturas. Escuela Flamenca. Siglo XVII. 2 vols. (Madrid, 1975). . D Í A Z P A D R Ó N 1 9 95

Díaz Padrón, Matías . El siglo de Rubens en Museo del Prado. Catálogo razonado de pintura flamenca de siglo XVII. 3 vols. (Barcelona , 1995). D I E M E R 198 0

Diemer, Peter . "Materialie n zu Entstehung und Ausbau der Kammergalerie Maximilians I. Von Bayern." In Quellen und Studien zur Kunstpolitik der Wittelsbacher vom 16. bis zum 18. Jahrhundert^ edited b y Hubert Glaser, pp. 129-74 (Munich and Zurich , 1980) .

D I L I S 192 3

Dilis, E. M. "L a Confrérie des Romanistes." Annales de l'Académie Royale d'Archéologie de Belgique 7 0 (1922) , pp. 416-8 8 [Antwerp , 1923] . D O E R N E R 1962

Doerner, M. Th e Materials of the Artist (Ne w York, 1962) . D O G A E R 197 1 Dogaer, G . "De inventari s der schilderije n van Diego Duarte."/##r¿w& Koninklijk Museum voor Schone Kunsten Antwerpen (1971) , pp. 195-221 . D O H E R T Y 200 5

Doherty, Tiarna. "Collaboration Unveile d in the Study and Treatment o f 'Mars Disarmed b y Venus' by Peter Pau l Rubens an d Jan Brueghel I and Recent Finding s i n the Stud y o f the Collaborative Works of Rubens an d Jan Brueghel I , with contribution s b y Mark Leonard an d J0rgen Wadum." Beitrage zur Erhaltung vo n Kunst- und Kulturgut i (2005) , pp. 13-20 . DOLCE 191 3 Dolce, L . Dialogo dei colorí A i Ludovico Dolci (Lanciano, 1913) . D O R D R E C H T 195 5

Bloem} bloem., plant. Exh. cat. (Dordrecht s Museum, 1955) . DORDRECHT 2OOO-O 1

Grieksegoden e n helden. Exh. cat . (Dordrecht s Museum, 2000-01) . D R E S D E N 199 2

Gemdldegalerie Dresden. Alte Meister. Katalog der ausgestellten Werke (Leipzig , 1992) . DROSSAERS AN D LUNSING H SCHEURLEE R 1974-76

Drossaers, S. W. A., and Th. H. Lunsing h Scheurleer. Inventarissen van d e inboedels i n de verblijven van de Oranjes en daarmede gelijk te stellen stukken 1567-1795. 3 vols. (Th e Hague , 1974-76). D U E R L O O 199 7

Duerloo, L . "Pietas Albertina. Dynastiekc vroomheid e n herbouw van het vorstelij k gezag. " Bijdragen en Mededelingen tot de Geschiedenis van de Nederlanden 11 2 (1997) , pp. 1-18 . D U N B A R 197 9

Dunbar, Burton. "Th e Questio n of Cornelis Massys' Landscape Collaboration wit h Quinte n and Ja n Mzssy s " Jaarboek va n het Koninklijk Museum voor Schone Kunsten Antwerpen (1979) , pp. 125-41 .

LITERATURE

255

D U S S E L D O R F 2OO 3

E S S E N - V I E N N A 1997-9 8

F R E E D B E R G 1991

Der erste Pfalzgrafam Niederrhein. Wolfgang Wilhelm von Pfalz-Neuburg (1578-1653) und Dusseldorf in der ersten Halfte des 17. Jahrhunderts. Exh. cat. (Dusseldorf , Stadtmuseum , 2003).

Ertz, Klaus , ed. Breughel-Brueghel: Pieter Breughel derjungere 1565-1637/8-) ran Brueghel der Altere 1568-1625, Flamische Malerei um 1600. Tradition und Fortschritt. Exh. cat. (Essen , Villa Hiigel, and Vienna, Kunsthistorische s Museum, 1997-98) .

Freedberg, D . "Science, Commerce , an d Art: Neglected Topic s at the Junction o f History and Art History." In Art i n History, History i n Art: Studies in iTth-Century Dutch Culture. Edited b y D. Freedberg an d J. de Vries, pp. 376-42 8 (Sant a Monica, Calif , 1991) .

D U V E R G E R 1984 -

Duverger, Erik . Antwerpse kunstinventarissen uit d e zeventiende eeuw. 1 3 vols. Fonte s Historia e Artis Neerlandicae (Brussels , 1984-). D U V I V I E R i86 0

Duvivier, C . "Documents concernant l e peintre Jean Breughel." Revue d'Histoire e t d'Archéologie 2 (1860), pp. 329-35 , 439-61. E C K A R D T 198 0

Eckardt, G . Die Gemalde in der Bildergalerie von Sanssouci (Potsda m an d Sanssouci , 1980). E D I N B U R G H - N O T T I N G H A M 2OO 2

Wood, Jeremy. Rubens: Drawing on Italy. Exh . cat. (Edinburgh , Nationa l Galler y of Scotland , and Nottingham, Djanogl y Gallery, 2002). E E M A N S 1964 Eemans, M . Brueghel de Velours (Brussels , 1964).

E S S E N - V I E N NA 2 O O 3

Die Flamische Landschaft 1520-1700. Exh cat . (Essen, Villa Hiigel, and Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum , 2003) . E S T E R H Á Z Y 190 1

F R I E D L Á N D E R 1967-7 6

Esterházy, J. Die Familie Esterházy (Budapest , 1901).

Friedlànder, Ma x J. Early Netherlandish Painting. 14 vols, in 16 . Translated by Heinz Norden . Comments an d notes b y Nicole VeronéeVerhaegen (Ne w York, 1967-76).

E V E R S 194 2 Evers, H. G . Peter Paul Rubens (Munich, 1942) . E V E R S 1944 Evers, H. G . Rubens und sein Werk (Brussels , 1944). F A I R F A X 175 8

Fairfax, B . Catalogue of the Curious Collection of George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham (London , 1758).

E I S L E R 196 7

F A L C H E T T I 196 9

Eisler, Colin . "Rubens ' Uses o f the Norther n Past: The Michiels Triptych an d Its Sources. " Bulletin des Musées Royaux des Beaux-Ans de Belgique 1 6 (1967) , pp. 43~77 -

Falchetti, A. La Pinacoteca Ambrosiana (Venice, 1969).

E I S L E R 199 0

Eisler, Colin . Paintings in the Hermitage (Ne w York, 1990). E L I A S 193 1 Elias, H. J . Kerk e n Staat in de Zuidelijke Nederlanden onder de regeering der aartshertogen Albrecht en Isabella (Leuven , 1931) . ENGEL 193 9 Engel, H. "Alphabetica l Lis t of Dutch Zoologica l Cabinets an d Menageries. " Bijdragen to t de Dierkunde 27 (1939), pp. 247-346 . E R T Z 197 9

Ertz, Klaus . Jan Brueghel der Altere 1568-1625: Die Gemalde mit kritischem Oeuvrekatalog (Cologne, 1979).

F R I E D L A E N D E R 195 5

Friedlaender, Walter . Caravaggio Studies (Princeton, 1955) .

F E R I N O - P A G D E N 199 1

Ferino-Pagden, Sylvia, et al . Die Gemaldegaleñe des Kunsthistorisches Museums in Wien (Vienna , 1991).

F U C I K O V Á A N D K O N E C N Y 198 3

Fuciková, Eliska, and Lubomir Konecny. "Einige Bemerkungen zur 'Gesichts-Allegorie 5 von Paol o Fiammingo un d z u seinen Auftràgen fur di e Fugger." Ane Véneta 3 7 (1983), pp. 67-76 . G A B R I E L I 1933-34

Gabrieli, G. "Federico Borrome o a Roma. " Archivio délia Società Romana di Storia Patria 56-57 (1933-34) , pp. 157-217 G A L E S L O O T 185 4

Galesloot, A . L . La maison de chasse des ducs de Brabant et de l'ancienne cour de Bruxelles (Brussels and Leipzig , 1854) . G A Y O G A R C Í A A N D V E R G A R A 2OO4

Ffoulkes, Charles . " A Craft-Picture by Jan Brueghel." Th e Burlington Magazine 1 9 (April-September 1911) , pp. 41-48.

Gayo García, María Dolores, an d Alejandro Vergara. "Filopómenes reconcido pou r uno s ancianos en Megara, de Rubens y Snyders." Boletín del Museo Nacional de l Prado 22 , no. 4 0 (2004), pp. 26-37 .

F I L I P C Z A K 198 7 Filipczak, Zirka Zarema. Picturing Art i n Antwerp, 1550-1700 (Princeton , 1987) .

Van Gehren, G . "Jan Brueghe l de r À." Weltkunst 49 (i979) , pp. 1760-61.

F R E D E R I C K S E N 198 5

VAN G E L D E R 1950/5 1

Fredericksen, Burton . "Recen t Acquisitions o f Paintings: Th e J . Paul Getty Museum." The Burlington Magazine 12 7 (1985) , p. 261 .

Gelder, J. G. van. "Rubens in Holland in de Zeventiende Eeuw. " Nederlands Kunsthistorisch Jaarboek 3 (1950/51), pp. 103-50 .

F F O U L K E S 191 1

V A N G E H R E N 197 9

Ertz, Klaus . Jan Brueghel der Altere (1568-1625 ) (Cologne, 1981) .

Freedberg, D . "The Origin s an d Rise of the Flemish Madonnas i n Flower Garlands . Decoration and Devotion." Münchner Jahrbuch der bildenden Kunst 3 , no. 3 2 (1981), pp. 115-50 .

G E N O A 1996 Boccardo, Piero , an d Clario D i Fabio. Dipinti Fiamminghi e Olandesi delta Gallería Doria Pamphilj. Exh . cat. (Genoa , Palazz o Ducale , 1996).

ERTZ 198 4 Ertz, Klaus . Jan Breughel derjungere 1601-1678. Die Gemalde mit kritischem Oeuvrekatalog (Frere n and Lucca , 1984) .

F R E E D B E R G 198 4

G E R S O N A N D T E R K U I L E 196 0

Freedberg, D . "Review o f 'Jan Brueghel der Altere' by Klaus Ertz." The Burlington Magazine 126 (1984) , pp. 575-77 -

Gerson, H. , and E. ter Kuile.vlrí and Architecture in Belgium 1600-1800 (Baltimore , 1960) .

E R T Z 198 1

256

LITERATURE

F R E E D B E R G 1 9 81

G H E N T 196 0

G R E E N W I C H - C I N C I N N A T I - B E R K E L E Y 2004-0 5

H A R K S E N 1976

Bloem en tuin in de Vlaamse kunst. Exh. cat. (Ghent, Museu m voo r Schon e Kunsten , 1960) .

Sutton, Peter C, and Marjorie E. Wieseman with Nic o va n Hout. Drawn b y the Brush— Oil Sketches by Peter Paul Rubens. Exh . cat. (Greenwich, Conn. , Bruce Museum o f Arts an d Science; Cincinnat i Art Museum ; an d Berkeley, University of California, Berkeley Art Museu m and Pacifi c Fil m Archive, 2004-05).

Harksen, J. Schloss Mosigkau. Alter Gemdldebestand (Dessau, 1976) .

G R E G O R I 200 1

Hàrting, U . "'Doctrina e s pietas' übcr früh e Galenebilder."/##r£0£& van het Koninklijk Museum voor Schone Kunstcn Antwerpen (1993) , pp. 95-133 -

G I B S O N 1989 Gibson, Walte r S . Mirror o f the Earth: Th e World Landscape in Sixteenth-Century flemish Painting (Princeton, 1989) . G I F F O R D 1999 Gifford, M . "Landscape Paintin g Styl e and Technique: Fidelit y t o th e Sixteenth-century Tradition i n Early Seventeenth-Centur y Landscape Production. " In L a Peinture dans les Pays-Bas au i6e Siècle. Colloque XIIpour l'étude du dessin sous-jacent et de la technologie dans la peinture Septembre 11-13,1997•> edited b y R . va n Schout e and H. Verougstraete . (Louvain-la-Neuve , 1999), pp. 177-88 . G I L L I A R D 196 9

Gilliard, E. T. Birds o f Paradise and Bower Birds (London, 1969). G L A S G O W 196 1 Dutch and Flemish, Netherlandish and German Paintings, Glasgow An Gallery and Museum. 2 vols. Exh . cat. (Glasgow , Art Galler y and Museum, 1961) . G L U C K 191 2 Gluck, G . "Les peintres d'animaux, de fruits et de fleurs. " I n Trésor d e l'art belge a u XVIe siècle. Mémorial de ^exposition d'art ancien à Bruxelles (Brussels an d Paris , 1912) . GLUCK 192 8 Gluck, Gustav . Katalog de r Gemdldegalerie (Vienna, 1928) . G L U C K 193 3 Gluck, Gustav. Rubens, Va n Dyck un d ih r Kreis (Vienna, 1933) . GOETGHEBEUR199O

Goetghebeur, N. "Preliminar y Study and Approach t o th e Cleanin g of 'The Raising of the Cross' by Peter Pau l Ruben s i n Antwer p Cathedral." I n Cleaning, Retouching and Coatings, edited by J. S. Mills an d P . Smith, pp. 1- 5 (London, 1990) . V A N D E G R A A F 195 8

Graaf, J . A. van de . H et De May erne manuscript aïs bron voor de schilderkunst van de barok (Mijdrecht, 1958) .

Gregori, M. "Federico Borrome o e le ghirlande di fiori." l\\ Mélanges en hommage à Pierre Rosenberg: Peintures et dessins en Prance et en Italie XVIIe-XVIIIe siècles, pp. 222-2 7 (Paris , 2001). G R O S S M A N N 197 3

Grossmann, F . Pieter Bruegel: Complète Edition of the Paintings (Ne w York , 1973). THE HAGU E 1997-9 8

Ploeg, P. van der, an d C . Vermeeren et al. Vorstelijk verzameld: de kunstcollectie van Frederik Hendrik en Amalia/Princely Patrons: The Collection of Frederick Henry of Orange and Amalia van Solms. Exh. cat. (Th e Hague, Mauritshuis, 1997-98). THE HAGU E 1988-8 9

Paintings from England—William III and the Royal Collections. Exh. cat . (Th e Hague , Mauritshuis, 1988-89) . H A I R S 195 7 Hairs, Marie-Louise. "Collaboratio n dan s les tableaux de fleur s flamands. " Revue belge d'archéologie et de l'histoire de Van 2 6 (1957) , pp. 149-62. H A I R S 1977

Hairs, Marie-Louise . Dans le Sillage de Rubens. Les Peintres ^Histoire Anversois au XVJIe Siècle (Liège, 1977) . H A L K I N 194 6

Halkin, L. "L'Itinéraire de Belgique d e Dubuisson-Aubenay 1623-1628." Revue belge d'archéologie et d'histoire de Pan 2 6 (1946) , pp. 47-76. H A L L 197 4

Hall, J . Dictionary of Subjects an d Symbols i n A n (London, 1974) . H A M M - M A I N Z 2OO 1

Hàrting, Ursula, et al . Ganen un d Hofe de r Rubenszeit im Spiegel der Malerfamilie Brueghel und de r Künstler um Peter Paul Rubens. Exh. cat. (Hamm, Gustav-Lubcke-Museum , and Mainz, Landesmuseum, 2001).

H À R T I N G 198 9

Hàrting, U . Frans Francken dc r Jüngere (1581-1642): Die Gemdlde mit kritischem Oeuvrekatalog (Freren , 1989). H À R T I N G 199 3

H À R T I N G AN D BORM S 2OO 3

Hàrting, U. , an d K . Borms . Abraham Govaens: der Waldmaler (1589-1626) (Schoten , 2004) . H A S K E L L A N D P E N N Y 198 1

Haskell, E , an d N . Penny . Taste an d the Antique—The Lure of Classical Sculpture 1500-1900 (New Have n an d London , 1981) . H A V E R K A M P - B E G E M A N N 197 1

Haverkamp-Begemann, E. "Purpos e an d Style: Oil Sketche s of Rubens, Jan Brueghel, Rembrandt." Painterly Painting: An News Annual 3 7 (1971), PP- 57~74 . H E I K A M P 196 6

Heikamp, D. "La Medusa de l Caravaggi o e l'armatura dello scia Abbâs di Persia. " Paragonc 199 (1966) , pp. 62-76 . H E I N Z 197 3

Heinz, G . "Geistliches Blumenbil d un d dckoratives Stilleben i n de r Geschicht e de r Kaiserlichen Gemàldesammlungen. " Jahrbuch der Kunsthistorischen Sammlungen in Wicn 6 9 (1973), PP - 1-30 . H E L D 194 1

Held, J. S. "AchelouY Eznquct?" Art Quarterly 4 (1941), pp- 122-33 . H E L D 195 9

Held, J. S. Rubens: Selected Drawings. 2 vols. (London, 1959) . HELD 196 3 Held. J. S. "Prometheus Bound. " Philadelphia Museum o f An Bulletin 5 9 (1963), pp. 17-32 . HELD 197 5 Held, J. S."Rubens's 'Leopards'—A Milestone in the Portraya l of Wild Animals: L a premiere oeuvre d'envergur e d e Rubens a u Canada. " Montreal Museum o f Fine Ans 7 , no. 3 (Winter 1975), PP - 5-14.

LITERATURE

257

H E L D 198 0

HONIG 2OO 5

Held, J. S. The Oi l Sketches o f Peter Paul Rubens. A Critical Catalogue. 2 vols. (Princeton , 1980) .

Honig, Elizabeth. "Paradise Regained : Rubens , Jan Brueghel, and the Sociabilit y of Visual Thought." Nederlands Kunsthistorisch Jaarboek 56 (in press).

HELD 198 2 Held, J. S. Rubens and His Circle: Studies. Edite d by Anne Lowenthal, Davi d Rosand, an d John Walsh, Jr. (Princeton , 1982) . HELD 198 3 Held, J. S. "Thoughts on Rubens ' Beginnings. " In Papers Presented at the International Rubens Symposium, April 14-16,1982, The John and Mabel Ringling Museum of Art, State Art Museum of Florida^ edite d by William H . Wilson , pp. 14-35 (Sarasota, Fla., 1983). HELD 198 7 Held, J. S. Rubens-Studien (Leipzig, 1987 ) (1987) . H E N D R I X 198 4

Hendrix, L. "Joris Hoefnagel an d the Tour Elements.5" (Ph.D. diss. , Princeton, 1984) . H E N D R I X 199 7 Hendrix, Lee, an d Thea Vignau-Wilberg. Nature Illuminated: Flora and Fauna from the Court of Rudolf I I (Lo s Angeles, 1997) . HOET AN D T E R W E S T E N 1752-7 0

Hoet, G., an d P . Terwesten. Catalogus of Naamlystvan Schilderyen, met derzelverpryzen. 3 vols. (Th e Hague, 1752-70). HOFF 197 8 Hoff, Arne . Dutch Firearms. Edited b y Walter Stryker (London , 1978) . HOLLSTEIN 1949 ~

Hollstein, R W. H. Dutch and Flemish Etchings, Engravings and Woodcuts, ca. 1450-1700 (Amsterdam, 1949-).

V A N H O O G S T R A E T E N 167 8

Hoogstraeten, Samue l van. Inleyding to t de hooge schoole der Schilderkonst (Rotterdam , 1678) . H O U B R A K E N 1718-2 1

Houbraken, Arnold. De groóte schouburgh der Nederlantsche konstschilders e n schilderessen. 3 vols. (Amsterdam, 1718-21). VAN HOU T 199 8 Hout, N. van. "Meaning an d Development o f the Ground-layer in Seventeenth Centur y Painting." I n Looking through Paintings: The Study of Painting Techniques and Materials in Support of Art Historical Research, edited b y E. Hermens , pp. 204-5. Leids Kunsthistorisc h Jaarboe k n (Baarn, 1998). VAN HOU T 2OO O

Van Hout, N. "Rubens an d Dead Colouring : Some Remarks on Two Unfinished Paintings " In Vlieghe et al. 2000 (se e below), pp. 279-88 . H Ü B N E R 187 2

Hiibner, Julius. Verzeichniss de r Kóniglichen Gemalde-Gallerie zu Dresden (Dresden , 1872) . H U Y G E N S / H E E S A K K E R S 198 7

Constantijn Huygens —Mijnjeugd. Translate d and with commentar y by C. L. Heesakkers (Amsterdam, 1987). H U Y G H E B A E R T 192 7

Huyghebaert, L . Saint Hubert, Patron des Chasseurs (Antwerp , 1927).

HOLLSTEIN 1993 ~

I N C I S A D E L L A R O C C H E T T A 196 3

Hollstein, R W . H. Th e New Hollstein: Dutch and Flemish Etchings, Engravings, and Woodcuts, 1450-1700. 1 5 vols, to dat e (Roosendaal , Th e Netherlands, 1993) .

Incisa délia Rocchetta, G . "Documenti inediti sui quadri de l Rubens nella Chiesa Nouva."vl£ta délia Pontificia Accademia Romana di Archeologia III. Rendiconti 3 5 (1963), pp. 161-83 .

HONIG 199 5 Honig, Elizabeth. "Th e Beholde r a s Work of Art: A Study in the Location o f Value in Seventeenth-Century Flemish Painting. " Nederlands Kunsthistorisch Jaarboek 4 6 (1995) , pp. 253-97.

J A C K S O N 200 4 The Glory of Baroque Dresden: The State Art Collections Dresden. Exh. cat. (Jackson, Miss., Mississippi Arts Pavilion, 2004).

H O N I G 199 8

Honig, Elizabeth. Painting and the Market in Early Modern Antwerp (Ne w Haven an d London, 1998).

258

LITERATURE

J A F F É 196 3 Jaffé, M . "Peter Paul Rubens and the Oratoria n Fathers." Proporzioni 4 (1963) , pp. 208-42. J A F F É 197 1 Jaffé, M . "Ruben s an d Snyders : A Fruitful Partnership." Apollo 93 (1971), pp. 184-96 .

J A F F É 197 7 Jaffé M . Rubens and Italy (Londo n an d Ithaca , N.Y., 1977) . J A F F É 198 9

Jaffé, M . Rubens: catalogo complete. Translated by Germano Mulazzani (Milan, 1989). J O N C K H E E R E 2004-0 5

Jonckheere, K. '"When the Cabinet from He t Loo was Sold': The Auction o f William Ill's Collection of Paintings, 2 6 July 1713." Simiolus (2004-05), pp . 156-215 . J O N E S 198 8

Jones, Pamela M. "Federic o Borrome o as a Patron o f Landscapes and Still-Lifes. Christia n Optimism i n Italy ca. 1600? Art Bulletin 70 (1988), pp. 260-75 . J O N E S 199 3 Jones, Pamela M. Federico Borromeo and the Ambrosiana: Art Patronage and Reform in Seventeenth-Century Milan (Cambridg e and New York , 1993) . JOST 196 3 Jost, L "Hendrick van Balen d.À. Versuch einer Chronologie der Werken aus den ersten zwe i Jahrzehnten des siebzehnten Jahrhunderts unter besonderer Berucksichtigung der Kabinettbilder." Nederlands Kunsthistorisch Jaarboek 1 4 (1963) , pp. 83-128 . J U S T I 188 6 Justi, Karl . "Altflandrische Bilder in Spanie n und Portugal: i . Joachim Patinier und Quentin Metsys." Zeitschrift fu r Bildende Kunst 2 1 (1886), pp. 93-95 K A R C H E S K I 2OO 1

Karcheski, Walter J. "Rubens's Lost Negrol i Helmet Painted b y Bartholomeus Breenbergh and Others ?Apollo (Januar y 2001), pp. 28-33. K A S S E L - F R A N K F U R T 2OO 4

Lange, Justus, e t al. Pan & Syrinx: Ei n Erotische Jagd. Peter Paul Rubens, Jan Brueghel und ihre Zeitgenossen. Exh. cat. (Kassel, Staatliche Museen, an d Frankfurt, Stàdelsche s Kunstinstitut, 2004) . KAVALER1999

Kavaler, Ethan Matt . Pieter Bruegel: Parables of Order and Enterprise (Cambridge , 1999). K E E R S M A E K E R S 195 7

Keersmaekers, A. "Drie rebus-blazoenen van de Antwerpse cViolieren.'" Verslagen e n Mededelingen van de Koninklijke Vlaamse Académie voor Taal- en Letterkunde (1957) , pp. 343-50 .

K I M B A L L 195 2

Kimball, Fiske. "Rubens' Prometheus" The Burlington Magazine 9 4 (1952) , pp. 67-70. K I R B Y 1999 Kirby, J. "The Painter's Trade in the Seventeent h Century: Theor y and Practice. " National Gallery Technical Bulletin (London ) 2 0 (1999) , pp. 5-49 . K I S L I N G 200 1

Kisling, Vernon N., Jr. , ed. Zoo and Aquarium History: Ancient Animal Collections to Zoological Gardens (Boc a Raton, Fla., 2001). K L E I N 199 8

Klein, P . "Some Aspects of the Utilizatio n o f Different Woo d Specie s in Certain Europea n Workshops." I n Painting Techniques: History, Materials and Studio Practice. Contributions to the IIC iTth International Congress, Dublin, 7-11 September 1998, pp. 112-1 4 (Dublin , 1998). KOLB 1998 Kolb, A. Faber. "Varieties of Repetition: 'Trend ' versus 'Brand' in Landscape Paintings by Joachim Patinir and His Wor k Shop" Journal of Medieval an d Early Modern Studies 28, no. i (Winter 1998) , pp. 167-200 . KOLB 200 0 Kolb, A. Faber. "Cataloguing Natur e i n Art: Jan Brueghe l th e Elder' s Paradis e Landscapes" (Ph.D. diss. , Universit y of Southern California , 2000).

KOSLOW 1996 Koslow, Susan . "Law an d Orde r i n Rubens's Wolf and Fox Hunt''Art Bulletin 78 , no. 4 (Dec. 1996) , pp. 680-706. L A U R E Y S S E N S 196 7

Laureyssens, Willy. "De samenwerkin g van Hendrick de Clerck en Denijs va n Alsloot," Bulletin des Musées Royaux des Beaux-Arts de Belgique (Bulletin Koninklijke Musea van Schone Kunsten van België) 1 6 (1967) , pp. 163-78 . L E V Y - V A N H A L M 1 9 98

Levy-van Halm , K . "Where Di d Vermee r Buy His Paintin g Materials? Theory an d Practice." In Vermeer Studies. Studies i n th e Histor y o f Art 55 (Center for Advanced Stud y i n th e Visual Arts, Symposium Paper s 33). Edited b y I. Gaske l and M. Jonker (Washington , D.C., an d New Haven , 1998). L I E D T K E 1 9 84

Liedtke, Walter . Flemish Paintings in the Metropolitan Museum o f Art. 2 vols. (Ne w York, 1984). L I E D T K E 1 9 89

Liedtke, Walte r A. Royal Horse an d Rider: Painting, Sculpture and Horsemanship, 1500-1800 (New York, 1989). L I L L E 200 4

Rubens. Exh. cat. (Lille , Palais des Beaux-Arts, 2004).

K O L B 200 5

L I N D 194 6

Kolb, A. Faber. Jan Brueghel th e Elder—The Entry of th e Animals into Noah}s Ark (Los Angeles, 2005).

Lind, L . R. "Th e Lati n Lif e o f Peter Paul Ruben s by his Nephew Philip : A Translation."Art Quarterly 9 (1946) , pp. 37~44 -

K O M P A N J E 200 4

Kompanje, E . J . O. "Lepus cornutus: Een haa s me t een gewei. Ee n mythologisch wezen, een grap van d e taxidermist of realiteit?" Straatgras— berichten uit he t natuurmuseum Rotterdam 1 6 (2004), pp . 45-47KOSLOW 1995 3

Koslow, Susan. Frans Snyders: Th e Noble Estate: Seventeenth-century Still-life and Animal Painting in the Southern Netherlands (Antwerp , 1995) . KOSLOW 1995 6 Koslow, Susan . '"How looked th e Gorgon then... ': The Scienc e and Poetics o f The Head of Medusa b y Ruben s an d Snyders. " In Shop Talk. Studies in Honor of Seymour S live, Presented on His Seventy-fifth Birthday. Edited b y Cynthia P. Schneider e t al. , pp. 147-49, 349-5 0 (Cambridge, Mass. , 1995) .

L O I S E L 191 2 Loisel, G . Histoire des ménageries de l'antiquité à nos jours (Paris, 1912). LONDON 185 0 Catalogue of Pictures by Italian, Spanish, Flemish, Dutch, French and English Masters. Exh . cat. (London, Britis h Institution, 1850) . L O N D O N 1 8 67

Catalogue of Pictures by Italian, Spanish, Flemish, Dutch, French and English Masters. Exh. cat . (London, Britis h Institution , 1867) . LONDON 1979 Jan Brueghel the Elder: A Loan Exhibition of Paintings. Exh. cat. (London , Bro d Gallery, 1979).

LONDON 200 3 Masterpieces fro m Dresden. Exh. cat. (London , Royal Academy of Arts, 2003) . LONDON 2003 3 Jaffé, D. , an d A. Bradley . Rubens: The Massacre of the Innocents. Exh. cat. (London, Apollo magazine and Nationa l Gallery , 2003). LONDON 2 0 0 5 - 0 6

Jaffé, David , an d Elizabet h McGrath, et al. Rubens: A Master in the Making. Exh . cat. (London, Nationa l Galler y of Art, 2005-06). L O N D O N - R O M E 2OO 1

Brown, Beverl y Louise, ed . Th e Genius of Rome 1592-1623. Exh. cat. (London , Roya l Academy of Arts, an d Rome , Palazz o Venezia, 2001). LOS A N G E L E S - L O N D O N 2OO3~O 4

Kren, Thomas, an d Scot McKcndrick , with contributions b y Maryan W. Ainsworth e t al. Illuminating the Renaissance: The Triumph of Flemish Manuscript Painting i n Europe. Exh . cat. (Los Angeles, J. Paul Getty Museum , and London, Royal Academy of Arts, 2003-04). L O W E N T H A L 198 6

Lowenthal, A. W.Joachim Wtcwael an d Dutch Mannerism (Doornspijk , 1986) . LUGT 1949 Lugt, Frits . Musée d u Louvre. Inventaire général des dessins des écoles du nord. École flamand e (Paris , 1949). M A A S T R I C H T - B R U S S E L S 2OO1-O 2

Van den Brink , Peter, éd . Brueghel Enterprises. Exh. cat . (Maastricht , Bonnefantenmuseum, an d Brussels, Musées Royau x des Beaux-Arts de Belgique, 2001-02). MADRID 1992 Díaz Padrón , M., and M. Royo-Villanova . David Teniers, Jan Brueghel y los Gabinetes de Pinturas. Exh. cat. (Madrid , Museo Naciona l del Prado, 1992) . M A D R I D 1 9 98

Las Tres Gracias de Rubens. Exh. cat. (Madrid, Museo Naciona l del Prado, 1998) . M A D R I D 1999-200 0

El arte en la corte de los Archiduques Alberto de Austria e Isabel Clara Eugenia, 1598-1633: un reino imaginado. Exh. cat. Introduction b y Alejandro Vergara (Madrid , Sala d e Exposiciones Temporales d e Palacio Real, 1999) .

LITERATURE

259

M A D R I D 2OO 1 - O 2

M A R I J N I S S E N E T AL . 198 8

Scroth, Sarah , Alejandro Vergara, and Thea Vignau-Wilberg. Rubens. Dibujos para el retrato ecuestre del duque de Lerma. Exh. cat. (Madrid , Museo Naciona l del Prado, 2001-02) .

Marijnissen, Roge r H. , et al. Bruegel: Tout l}oeuvre peint et dessiné. Translated by C. Krings , J. Rossbach, and M. Vincent (Antwer p and Paris , 1988).

M A D R I D 200 4

G . M A R T I N 1 9 7O

Vergara, Alejandro. Rubens: The Adoration of th e Magi. Exh . cat. (Madrid , Museo Naciona l del Prado, 2004) .

Martin, Gregory . Th e Flemish School, ca. 1600ca. IODO (London , 1970) .

D E M A E Y E R 1 9 55

De Maeyer , M. Albert en Isabella e n de Schilderkunst. Bijdrage tôt de geschiedenis van de XVTIe—eeuwse schilderkunst in de Zuidelijke Nederlanden. Verhandelingen van de Koninklijke Vlaamse Académie voor Wetenschappen, Letteren en Schone Kunsten van Eelgie'. Klass e der Schon e Kunsten, no. 9 (Brussels, 1955). M A G U R N 195 5

Magurn, R . Saunders , trans , an d éd. The Letters of Peter Paul Rubens (Cambridge, Mass. , 1955) . M A N C H E S T E R 1857

Art Treasures o f the United Kingdom. Exh. cat. (City of Manchester Art Gallery , 1857). V A N M A N D E R 160 4

Van Mander , Karel . Wtlegghingh o p den Metamorphosis Pub. Ouidy Nasonis, Allés streckende tot voordering des vromen en eerlijcken borgherlijcken wandels seer dienstich den schilders, dichters en constbeminders, oock yeghelijck wt leering by eengebracht engheraemt (1604. Reprint, Haarlem , 1969) .

M A R T I N 197 2 Martin, Joh n Rupert . Th e Decorations for the Pompa Introitus Ferdinandi. Corpus Rubenianu m Ludwig Burchard, pt. 1 6 (Brussels , 1972).

Meulen, Marjo n va n der . Rubens} Copies after th e Antique. 3 vols. Corpus Rubenianu m Ludwi g Burchard, pt. 2 3 (London, 1994) .

M A R T I N I 1 9 75

M I R A E U S 1021-2 2

Miraeus, Aubertus. De VitaAlberti Eelgarum Principis commentarius (Antwerp, 1621-22) .

M A U R I T S H U I S 187 4

V O N Z U R M Ü H L E N 199 0

Stuers, Victor de . Notice historique et descriptive des tableaux et des sculptures exposés dans le Musée Royal de l a Haye (Th e Hague, 1874) .

Mutilen, I . von zur. "Nachtridentinische Bildauífassungen: Cesar e Baronio und Rubens ' Gemàlde fur S . Maria in Vallicella in Rom." Münchner Jahrbuch der bildenden Kunst 41 (1990), pp. 23-60.

M A U R I T S H U I S 1935

Martin, W . Musée Royal d e tableaux Mauritshuis à La Haye. Catalogue raisonné des tableaux et sculptures (Th e Hague, 1935) . M A U R I T S H U I S 199 3

Mauritshuis—Illustrated General Catalogue (The Hague, 1993) M A U R I T S H U I S 2OO 4

M A N T U A - M I L A N 197 7

M C G R A T H 199 7

McGrath, Elizabeth . Rubens: Subjects fro m History. Corpu s Rubenianu m Ludwig Burchard, pt. 1 3 (London , 1997) . M E G A N C K 199 8

Meganck, Tine. De kerkelijke architectuur van Wensel Cobergher 1577/61-1634 in het licht van zijn verblijfte Rome. Koninklijke Académie voor Wetenschappen, Letteren en Schone Kunsten van België. Klasse der Schone Kunsten 60, no. 4 (1998).

M A R E T T E 196 1

M E I J E R 197 5

Marette, J. Connaissance des primitifs l'étude du bois (Paris, 1961).

Meijer, Ber t W. "Paolo Fiammingo Reconsidered." Mededelingen va n het Nederlands Instituut t e Rome 37 (1975), pp. 117-30 .

260 L I T E R A T U R

V A N D E R M E U L E N 199 4

Martini, A. I tr e libri delle laudi divine di Federico Borromeo: ricerca storico-stilistica (Padua , 1975).

Buvelot, Q. , éd . Royal Picture Gallery Mauritshuis—A Summary Catalogue (Th e Hague Zwolle, 2004).

Mulazzani, G., et. al . Rubens aMantova. Exh. cat. (Mantua , Palazzo Ducale, 1977) .

M E R R I A M 199 4

Martin, John Rupert . Rubens: The Antwerp Altarpieces (Ne w York, 1969) .

V A N M A N D E R / M I E D E M A 1 9 73

Mander, Karel van. The Lives of the Illustrious Netherlandish and German Painters; Preceded by the lineage circumstances and place of birth, life and works of Karel van Mander, painter and poet, and likewise his death and burial. Edited b y Hesse l Miedema. 6 vols. (Doornspijk , 1996).

M E L I O N 199 1

Melion, W . Shaping th e Netherlandish Canon. Karel van Mander's Schilderboek (Chicago , 1991) . Merriam, Susan. "Collaboration i n Antwerp an d the Workin g Partnership of P. P. Rubens and Ja n Brueghel." (M.A . thesis, Tufts University , 1994).

M A R T I N 196 9

Mander, Karel van. Den Grondt der edel vrij Schilder-const. Published, translated , an d with commentary by Hessel Miedema . 2 vols. (Utrecht, 1973) . VAN MANDER/MIEDEM A 1994~9 9

M E I J E R 198 3 Meijer, Ber t W. "Paolo Fiammingo tr a indigen i e 'foresti a Venezia." Prospettiva 3 2 (1983), pp. 20-32 .

V O N Z U R M Ü H L E N 199 6

Miihlen, I. von zur. "S. Maria in Vallicella: Zur Geschichte des Hauptaltars. " Romisch es Jahrbuch der Bibliotheca Hertziana 3 1 (1996), pp. 247-72 . V O N Z U R M Ü H L E N 199 8

Miihlen, I . vo n zur . Bild un d Vision: Peter Paul Rubens und de r cc Pinsel Gottes" (Frankfurt , 1998) . VAN M U L D E R S 2OO O

Mulders, Christin e van . "Peter Pau l Rubens en Jan Brueghel I: d e drijfveren va n hun same n werking." In Vlieghe et al. 2000 (se e below), pp. 111-26 . VAN M U L D E R S 2OO 3

Mulders, Christin e van. "Een analyse van het creatief procès in het œuvr e van Peter Paul Rubens in samenwerking met Jan Brueghel de Oude e n Jan Brueghel de Jonge." (Ph.D. diss. , Brussels, Vrije Universiteit, 2003). V A N M U L D E R S 2OO 4

Mulders, Christin e van . "Die Zusammenarbei t zwischen Peter Paul Rubens und Ja n Brueghel d.À." In Kassel-Frankfur t 200 4 (se e above), pp. 59-79-

VAN MULDER S 2OO4 3

M U N I C H 198 0

N E W Y O R K 200 2

Mulders, Christin e van . "Jean Brueghe l et les représentations d u Paradi s Terrestre." In Flamische Kunst in Ungarn. Kolloquium in der Ungarischen Nationalgalerie, Budapest, 2000 (Brussels, 2004) .

Um Glauben und Reich, Kurfurst Maximilian I. Wittelsbach undBayern. Exh . cat. 2 vols. Edite d by Hubert Glase r (Munich, Residenz , 1980) .

Campbell, Thomas P . Tapestry i n th e Renaissance: Art an d Magnificence. Exh . cat. (Ne w York, Metropolitan Museu m o f Art, 2002).

VAN MULDER S 2OO 5

Mulders, Christin e van. "De ontwapenin g van Mars doo r Venus, ee n schilderi j va n J. Brueghel de Oude in samenwerking met P.P . Rubens. " In Florissant. Bijdragen tôt de kunstgeschiedenis der Nederlanden isde-iyde eeuw, opgedragen aan Prof. Carl Van d e Velde (Brussels , 2004). M U L L E R 198 9

Muller, J . Rubens: The Artist as Collector (Princeton, 1989) .

M U N I C H 199 3

NEW Y O R K 200 5

Siefert, Helge , éd. Zum Ruhme de s Helden. Historien- und Genremalerei des 17. und 18. Jahrhunderts aus den Bestanden der Alten Pinakothek. Exh. cat. (Munich , Alte Pinakothek,

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P A D U A - R O M E - M I L A N 199 0

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L I T E R A T U R E 20

P A R I S 193 6

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Rubens et son temps. Exh. cat. (Paris, Musée National d e l'Orangerie, 1936) .

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[Le Général Pommereul]. "État des objets d'arts envoyés aux divers musées français, e t conquis par le s armées de la République pendan t la guerre de l a líbrete." In D e l'art de voir dans les Beaux-Arts, traduit de l'italien de Milizia, pp. 275-31 6 (Paris , n.d. [1798]). POP H AM 195 2 Popham, A. E. "A Drawing of Frans Snyders." The Burlington Magazine 9 4 (1952) , pp. 236-37. P O P H A M A N D W I L D E 194 9

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R A G G I O 195 8 Raggio, Olga . "The Myth o f Prometheus. Its Survival and Metamorphoses u p to the Eighteenth Century. " Journalo f the Warburg an d Courtauld Institutes 21 (1958), p. 44-62. RATTI1910 Ratti, A.S . "L'odissea d'un bellissimo BrueghelRubens, gi a nella Pinacoteca Ambrosiana di Milano rRassegna Arte (Januar y 1910). RÉAU 1955-5 9 Réau, Louis . Iconographie d e l'art chrétien. 6 vols. (Paris, 1955-59). DE R E I F F E N B E R G 183 7

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Renger, Konrad, an d Nina Schleif. Staatsgalerie Neuburg an der Donau. Flamische Barockmalerei (Munich and Cologne, 2005) . REZNICEK1977 Reznicek, E. K . J. "Opmerkingen bij Rembrandt." Ou d Holland 91 , nos. 1-2 (1977) , pp. 75-107. R I M E R 2 O O1

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Rittershausen, Joseph Sebastia n von. Die vornehmste Merkwürdigkeiten der Residenzstadt Münchenfür Liebhaber der bildenden Künste (Munich, 1788) .

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R O S E N T H A L 2O0 5

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Rombouts, Ph., an d Th. Van Lerius. De Liberen en andere Historische Archieven der Antwerpsche Sint Lucasgilde (Antwer p an d The Hague, 1864-76. Reprint, Amsterdam , 1961) . R O O S E S 1886-9 2 Rooses, M. UOeuvre de P.P. Rubens; histoire et description d e ses tableaux et dessins. 5 vols. (Antwerp, 1886-92) . R O O S E S 1900 Rooses, M. "L a galerie du Marquis d e Léganès." Rubens-Eulletijn 5 , no. 3 (1900), pp. 164-72 . R O O S E S 190 3 Rooses, M. Rubens } sa vie et ses oeuvres (Amsterdam an d Antwerp, 1903) . ROOSES AN D R U E L E N S 1887-190 9

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Lammertse, Friso, an d Alejandro Vergara. Peter Paul Rubens: The Life o f Achilles. Exh. cat . (Rotterdam, Museu m Boijman s Van Beuningen , and Madrid, Muse o Naciona l de l Prado , 2003-04). R U B Y 199 9

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S C H L E I S S H E I M 190 5

Katalog der Gemaldegalerie, Konigliches Schloss } Schleissheim (Munich , 1905) . S C H L E I S S H E I M 1914

Kataloy der koniglichen Gemaldeg alêne zu Schleissheim (1914) . S C H L I C H T E N M A I E R 1988

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Savelsberg, W. "Das Gemeinschaftswer k Flora und Zephirus von Pete r Pau l Ruben s (1577-1640 ) und Ja n Brueghel d.Á . (1568-1625)—Ei n Glanzlicht de s oranisch-nassauischen Bilderschatzes in Dessau-Wôrlitz." In Dessau 2003 (se e above), pp . 48-59. S C A R P A S O N I N O 199 2

S M O L A R - M E Y N A R T 199 1

Smolar-Meynart, Ariette, e t al . Het Paleis van Brussel. Acht Eeuwen Kunst e n Geschiedenis. Exh. cat. (Brussels , Koninklijk Paleis, 1991) . S O L E R DE L CAMP O 2OO O

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T A M I S 2 O O 1 - O2

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Speth-Holterhoff, S . Les Peintres Flamands de Cabinets d'Amateurs a u XVIIe Siècle (Brussels, 1957).

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S T A R I N G 1 9 58

Staring, A. Jacob d e Wit, 1693-1754- (Amsterdam , 1958). S T E C H O W 196 8

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Stighelen, Katlijn e van der. "Produktiviteit en samenwerking in het Antwerpse kunstenaarsmilieu, 1620-1640." Gemeentekrediet. Driemaandelijks tijdschrift van ket Gemeentekrediet van België 17 2 (1990) , pp. 5-15 .

T A P I É 199 7

Tapié, A. L e sens cachés des fleurs. Symbolique e t botanique dans la peinture du XVIIe siècle (Paris, 1997). T E R L I N D E N 192 2

Terlinden, Vicomte C . "Notes et document s relatifs à la galerie de tableaux conservée au château de Tervuren au XVIIe e t XVIIIe siècles. " Annales de l'académie royale d'archéologie de Belgique^ sixt h ser., io (1922) , pp. 180-98 , 347-406.

TONCI 179 4 Tonci, Salvatore . Descrizione ragionate delta Gallería Doria., preceduta da un breve saggio di pittura (Rome , 1794) . T O R S E L L I 196 9

Torselli, Giorgio. L a Gallería Doria (Rome , 1969). T Ó T H - U B B E N S 196 8

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V A N D E R S T O C K 199 1

T E R L I N D E N 1 9 43

VON UFFENBAC H 1753~5 4

Stock, Ja n van der, scientific coordinator . L a Ville en Flandre: Culture et Société 1477-1787- Exh. cat. (Brussels, Gallery of the Credi t Communal, 1991) .

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T E R L I N D E N 195 2

T E R L I N D E N 196 1

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Thiel, P. J. J. van. Cornelis Cornelisz van Haerlem 1562-1638 (Doornspijk , 1999). T H I J S 199 0

Thijs, A. Va n Geuzenstad tôt katholiek bolwerk., maatschappelijke betekenis van de Kerk in contrareformatorisch Antwerp (Turnhout , 1990) .

TAMIS 2OO O

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Tamis, Dorien. "The Genesis of Albert Cornelis ' Coronation of the Virgin i n Bruges." The Burlington Magazine 14 2 (Novembe r 2000) , pp. 672-80.

Thoré-Burger, W. Musées d e la Hollande. 2 vols. (Paris, 1858-60). T O K Y O 1994 Nakamura, T., éd. Rubens and His Workshop: Th e Flight o f Lot and Hi s Family from Sodom. Exh. cat . (Tokyo, National Museum o f Western Art, 1994).

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Boogert, Bo b van den, and Jacqueline Kerkoff . Maria van Hongerije, 1505-1558. Koningin tussen keizers en kunstenaars. Exh. cat . (Utrecht, Rijksmuseum He t Catharijneconvent , an d 5 s-Hertogenbosch, Noordbrabants Muséum , 1993). VAES 1926-2 7

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Vasari, Giorgio. L £ Vite depiù eccellenti pittori scultori et architettori nelle redazioni del 1550 e 1568. Edited b y Rosanna Bettarin i (Florence, 1966-). V E K E M A N A N D M Ü L L E R H O F S T E D E 198 4

Vekeman, H., an d Justus Muller Hofstede, eds. Wort und Bild in der niederlandischen Kunst und Literatur des 16. undi7.Jh. (Erfstadt , 1984) . V A N D E V E L D E 1975

Van d e Velde, Carl. Frans F loris (1519/20-1570). Leven en Werken. 2 vols. Verhandelingen va n de Koninklijke Académie voor Wetenschappen, Letteren en Schone Kunsten van België. Klasse der Schon e Kunsten, no. 3 0 (1975). V E R G A R A 199 9

Vergara, Alexander [Alejandro] . Rubens and His Spanish Patrons (Cambridge , 1999) .

V E R M E Y L E N 2OO 3

V L I E G H E 199 2

W A D U M 1 9 9O

Vermeylen, Filip . Painting for th e Market: Commercialization of Art in Antwerp^ Golden Age (Turnhout, 2003).

Vlieghe, Hans, éd. De Vlaamse schilderkunst i n Noordamerikaanse musea (Antwerp, 1992) .

Wadum, J0rgen. "i7th C . Flemis h Pane l Makers ' Red Chal k Master Marks." In Qth Triennial Meeting, ICOM Committee for Conservation, Dresden., 26-31 August 1990. Preprints, vol . 2. , edited b y K. Grimstad, pp. 663-6 6 (Lo s Angeles, 1990).

V I E N N A 193 0 Dreijahrhunderte Flamische Kunst 1400-1700. Exh cat . (Vienna , Secession, 1930) . V I E N N A 193 5 Die jüngeren Brueghel und ih r kreis. Exh . cat. (Vienna, P . de Boer , an d Galeri e Sanct Lucas , 1935). V I E N N A 197 7

Prohaska, Wolfgang , an d K . Schutz , et. al. Peter Paul Rubens 1577-1640. Exh. cat . (Vienna , Kunsthistorisches Museum , 1977) . V I E N N A 198 7 Hofmann, Werner , e t al . Zauber der Medusa: Europaische Manierismen. Exh . cat. (Vienna, Kiinstlerhaus, 1987) . V I E N N A 2OO O

Exotica: Portugais Entdeckungen im Spiegel fürstlicher Kunst- und Wunderkammern der Renaissance. Exh. cat. (Vienna , Kunsthistorische s Museum, 2000) . V I E N N A 200 4 Rubens in Wien. DieMeisterwerke. Exh . cat. (Vienna, Liechtenstein Museum , Kunsthistorisches Museum, an d Gemaldegalerie der Akademie der Bildende n Klinste , 2004) . V I E N N A 2004 3 Schroder, Klau s Albrecht, an d Heinz Widauer. Peter Paul Rubens. Exh . cat. (Vienna , Graphische Sammlung Albertina, 2004) . V I E N N A - E S S E N 2OO 2

Das flamischen Stilleben. Exh. cat. (Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum , an d Essen , Villa Hiigel, 2002). D E V I L L E R M O N T 1 9 12

De Villerniont, M. Uinfante Isabelle,gouvernante des Pays-Bas (Tamine s an d Paris , 1912). V L I E G H E 198 0

Vlieghe, Hans . "Review o f M. Día z Padrón , Museo del prado. Catálogo de pinturas. Escuela flamenca siglo XVII" Ar t Bulletin 6 7 (1980), pp. 256-68 . V L I E G H E 198 7

Vlieghe, Hans . Rubens Portraits of Identified Sitters in Antwerp. 2 vols. Corpus Rubenianu m Ludwi g Burchard, pt . 1 9 (Londo n an d Ne w York , 1987).

V L I E G H E 199 3 Vlieghe, Hans . "Ruben s Bac k in Antwerp. Reflections o n th e Chang e i n His Styl e and th e Taste Patter n o f His Public. " In Actes duXXVIIe Congrès International d'Histoire de l'Art (1989) , pp. 49-54 (Strasbourg , 1993) V L I E G H E 199 8 Vlieghe, Hans. Flemish An an d Architecture, 1585-1700 (Ne w Haven, 1998) . V L I E G H E 200 0

Vlieghe, Hans , Arnou t Balis , and Car l van de Velde. Concept., Design., and Execution i n Flemish Painting (1550-1700) (Turnhout , 2000) . V L I E G H E 200 3

Vlieghe, Hans . "Review of'Da s flàmische Stilleben 1550-1680." ' The Burlington Magazine 145 (Februar y 2003), pp. 113-15 . V L I E G H E AN D VA N DE R S T I G H E L E N 2OO5

Vlieghe, Hans , an d Katlijn e Van der Stighelen , eds. Sponsors o f the Past. Flemish Art an d Patronage., 1550-1700. Proceedings of the Symposium Organized at the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, December 14-15, 2001 (Turnhout, 2005) . V O L K 198 0 Volk, M Crawford . "Ne w Ligh t o n a Seventeenth Centur y Collector : Th e Marquis de Lcgznés? Art Bulletin 6 2 (1980), pp. 256-68 . V O O R H E L M S C H E E V O O G T 1 8 73

Voorhelm Schneevoogt , C. G . Catalogue des estampes gravées d }apres P. P. Rubens avec Vindications des collections où se trouvent les tableaux et les gravures (Haarlem , 1873) . w A A G E N 183 0 Waagen, G . Verzeichniss de r Gemalde-Sammlungen des Koniglichen Muséums zu Berlin (Berlin , 1830) . W A D U M 198 7 Wadum, J0rgen. "The Winte r Roo m at Rosenborg Castl e an d the Histor y o f Technolog y of 7 5 Flemish Pane l Paintings." (Master' s thesis , School of Conservation, Roya l Academy of Fine Arts, Copenhagen , 1987) . W A D U M 198 8 Wadum, J0rgen . "The Winte r Roo m at Rosenborg Castle : A Unique Surviva l of Antwerp Mass-Production. " Apollo (Augus t 1988) , pp. 82-87 .

W A D U M 199 3

Wadum, J0rgen . "Recent Discoverie s on Antwerp Pane l Makers' Marks. " Technologia Artis (Prague) 3 (1993), PP - 96-100 . W A D U M 1 9 96

Wadum, Jorgen . "A Preliminary Attempt t o Identify Rubens ' Studi o Practice. " In nt h Triennial Meeting ICOM Committee for Conservation, Edinburgh, 1-6 September 1996. Preprints, edite d b y J. Bridgland, pp . 394-9 5 (London, 1996) . W A D U M 199 8

Wadum, Jorgen . "The Antwer p Bran d on Paintings o n Panels. " In Looking Through Paintings: The Study of Painting Techniques and Materials in Support of An Historical Research, edited b y E. Hermens, pp. 179-98 . Leid s Kunsthistorisch Jaarboe k u (Baarn , 1998) . WADUM 1998 3

Wadum, J0rgen. "Historical Overvie w o f PanelMaking Techniques in the Norther n Countries. " In The Structural Conservation of Panel Paintings. Proceedings of a Symposium at the]. Paul Getty Museum, 24-28 April 1995, edited b y K . Darde s and A. Rothe, pp. 149-7 7 (Lo s Angeles, 1998) . W A D U M 1998 6 Wadum, J0rgen . "Peeter Stas : An Antwerp Coppersmith an d His Marks. " In Painting Techniques History, Materials and Studio Practice. Contributions to the IIC (International Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Worlis) lyth International Congress, Dublin, 7-11 September 1998', edite d b y A. Ro y an d P . Smith, pp. 140-4 4 (London, 1998) . W A D U M 2OO I

Wadum, J0rgen. "Het laatste nieuws ui t het paradijs—The Lates t New s fro m Paradise." Mauritshuis i n Focus i (2001) , pp. 23-30 . W A D U M 200 2

Wadum, J0rgen . "Latest New s fro m Paradise : A Preliminary Attempt t o Identif y Rubcns' s Studio Practice , Part II." I n i$th Triennial Meeting, ICOM Committee for Conservation, Rio de Janeiro, 22-27 September 2002, Preprints^ edite d b y R. Vontobel, pp. 473-48 (Ri o d e Janeiro, 2002).

LITERATURE

265

W A P E N S 199 2

W E L Z E L 2OO 1

W I N N E R 1972

Wakens &Harnassen —Armes &Armures. Koninklijk Museum voor het Léger en vein de Krijgsgeschiedenis (Brussels , 1992).

Welzel, B. "cEuer Ehren môgen glauben , das s ich noch niemals ein derartiges Gemâld e gemach t habe'—Die Blumenbilder von Jan Brueghel d.À." In Meisterwerke derMalerei. Vo n Rogier van der Weyden bi s Andy Warhol. Edite d b y R. Brandt , pp. 69-87 (Leipzig , 2001).

Winner, M. "Neubestimmtes und Unbestimmte s im zeichnerischen Werk von Jan Brueghel d.A." Jahrbuch de r Berliner Museen 1 4 (1972) , pp. 122-60.

W A R N K E 196 8

Warnke, M. "Italienische Bildtabernakel bis zum Fruhbarock." Münchner Jahrbuch de r bildenden Kunst 1 9 (1968) , pp. 61-102 . W A S H I N G T O N , D.C . - C I N C IN N ATI 1 9 8 8 - 8 9

Brown, Beverly Louise, an d Arthur K . Wheelock. Masterworks from Munich. Ex h cat. (Washington, D.C. , Nationa l Galler y of Art, an d Cincinnati Ar t Museum, 1988-89) . W E B B E R 197 2 Webber, Ronald. Th e Village Blacksmith (Newto n Abbot, 1972) . W E H L E 1946 Wehle, H. B . "The Feas t of Acheloüs b y Rubens." Metropolitan Museum o f Art Bulletin 4 (1946) , pp. 179-83 . W E I R 197 4

Weir, Barbara J. "Notes on the Origin o f the Domestic Guine a Pig." I n Biology o f the Hystricomorph Rodents. Edite d b y I. W. Rowlands and Barbara J. Weir. Symposium o f th e Zoological Society of London 3 4 (London , 1974).

W E L Z E L 2OO 2

Welzel, B . "Wettstreit zwischen Kuns t un d Natur. Di e Blumenstilleben von Jan Brueghel d.À al s Triumph de s Bildes." Zeitschrift fur Kunstgeschichte 6 5 (2002), pp. 325-42 . W E L Z E L 2002 3

Welzel, B. "Garten aï s hôfische Sammlungen . Pracht—Representation—Wissenschaft— Kunst." In Garten und Hofe i m spaten Mittelalter. Edited by U. Hàrting and E. Schwinzer , pp. 87-10 6 (Worms , 2002). W E L Z E L 2OO 4

Welzel, B. "Sinnliche Erkenntnis, Wissenschaft und Bildtheorie. Der Fünf-Sinne-Zyklus von Jan Brueghel d.À. und Pete r Paul Rubens für das erzherzogliche Paa r Albrecht und Isabella. " In Vortrage un d Refer ate, geh alten anlasslich des 10. Kongresses Wolfenbutteler Arbeitskreises fur Barockforschung in der Herzog August Bibliothek Wolfenbüttel vo m 5. bis 8. April 2000, pp . 231-4 5 (Wolfenbüttel, 2004) .

W I T L O X 2001 Witlox, M . "Final Varnishes for Oil Paintings in Holland, 1600-1900: Evidence in Written Sources." Zeitschrift für Kunsttechnologie und Konservierung (Gôttingen ) 15 , no. 2 (2001), pp. 241-84. W O E R M A N N 190 5

Woermann, Karl. Katalog der Koniglichen Gemaldegalerie zu Dresden (Dresden , 1905) . W O O L L E T T 200 1

Woollett, Ann e T. "Acquisition o f the Year: Th e Return fro m War : Mars Disarmed b y Venus' by Peter Paul Rubens and Jan Brueghel the Elde r at the J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles ?Apollo (2001), pp. 18-19 . W O O L L E T T 200 4

Woollett, Ann e T. "The Altarpiec e in Antwerp, 1554-1615: Painting an d the Militi a Guilds. " (Ph.D. diss. , Columbi a University, 2004) . Y O K O H A M A - S H I Z U O K A - O S A K A 199 0

Van Dyck } 1599-1641. Exh. cat. (Yokohama , Sogo Museum o f Art; Shizuok a Prefectura! Museum of Art; an d Osaka , Museum o f Art, 1990) .

Welu, James A. Th e Collector's Cabinet: Flemish Paintings from New England Private Collections (Worcester, Mass., 1983).

W E R C H E 200 4 Werche, B. Hendrick va n Balen 1575-1632. Ei n Antwerpener Kabinettbildmaler der Rubenszeit. 2 vols. (Turnhout , 2004) .

Z E U N E R 196 3 Zeuner, Frederic k E. A History o f Domesticated Animals (London , 1963) .

W E L Z E L 199 7

W E R N E R 2OO 4

Z O E G E V O N M A N T E U F F E L 192 3

Welzel, B. Der Hofals Kosmos sinnlicher Erfahrung. Der Fünfsinne-Zyklus von Jan Brueghel dÀ. und Peter Pauol Rubens als Bild der erzherzoglichen Sammlungen Isabellas undAlbrechts (Marburg, 1997) .

Werner, Elke Anna. "Peter Pau l Rubens und de r Mythos de s christlichen Europa." I n Europa i m 17. jahrhundert: ein politischer Mythos und seine Bilder. Edited by Klaus Bussmann and Elke Anna Werner (Stuttgart , 2004) .

Zoege von Manteuifel, K . "Eine verschollene Studienfolge Ja n Brueghels d.À. und ihr e Schicksalc? Berliner Museen 4 4 (1923) , pp. 5-15 .

W E L U 198 3

W E L Z E L 2OO O

W E T H E Y 1969-7 5

Welzel, B. "Kunstvolle Inszenierung vo n Naturlichkeit. Anmerkungen zu den Blumenstilleben vo n Jan Brueghel d.À.." In Künste und Natur in Diskursen der Frühen Neuzeit. Edited by H. Laufhiitte , pp . 549-60. Wolfenbiitteler Arbeiten zu r Barockforschun g 35 (Wiesbaden, 2000) .

Wethey, Harold E. The Paintings of Titian. 3 vols. (London, 1969-75). W H I T E 198 7 White, Christopher . Peter Paul Rubens: Man an d Artist (Ne w Haven an d London, 1987). WIND 195 8 Wind, Edgar . Pagan Mysteries in the Renaissance (London, 1958) . W I N N E R 196 1

Winner, M. "Zeichnungen des Alteren Jan Brueghel ?Jahrbuch de r Berliner Museen, n.s. 3 (1961), pp. 190-241 .

266

LITERATURE

ZURICH E T AL. i947~5 3 Kunstschatze au s Wien. Exh. cat. ( Zurich-ParisStockholm-Copenhagen-London-U.S. A.Oslo-Innsbruck-Vienna, 1947-53). ZWOLLO 2000 Zwollo, An. "Jan Brueghe l a Tervureri " Uarte nella Storia. Contributi di critica e storia deWarte per Gianni Carlo Sciolla. Edited by Valerio Terraroli et al., pp. 449-54 (Milan , 2000).

Index Note: Italic page numbers indicat e illustrations . Parenthetical reference s to Brueghe l refe r to Ja n Brueghel th e Elde r unles s otherwis e noted .

Adam and Eve (Rubens), 4 6 Adam Gives Names t o the Animals (Va n Tieghem an d D e Kempeneer) , 194 The Adoration o f the Magi (Rubens) , 23 , 56-57 Adoration o f the Mystic Lamb (Huber t an d Ja n va n Eyck) . See The Ghent Altarpiece (Adoration of the Mystic Lamb) ( Hubert an d Ja n va n Eyck ) Aertssen, Guilliam , 81 , 241 Albert, Archduke o f Austria (Mulle r afte r Rubens) , ios, 105 Albert (archduk e of Austria), 2 , 4, 5 , $, 9, 15 , 17-19, 29 , 46-47, 56, 70, 80, 82 , 85, 88, 94, 96-98 , 100-107, 102, 104, 105, I2°5 I39 5 Ï54 , 161 , 197-98, 206 Allegory o f Air (Brueghel) , 144 , 198 Allegory o f Fire (Brueghel) , 12 , 140 , 142, 149 Allegory o f Fire (Brueghe l an d Va n Balen) , 55, 140-45, 141, 149 , 195 , 23 0 Allegory o f the Four Elements (Brueghe l an d D e Clerck) , 13 9 Allegory o f Hearing, Taste, an d Touch (afte r Brueghel) , 94-96 , 95, 105 Allegory o f Hearing (Brueghe l an d Rubens) , 90 , 92, 96-97, 105 , 112 , 244, 24 5 Allegory o f Sight (Brueghe l an d Rubens) , 90 , 92, 94, 96 , 101 , 106, 119 , 124 , 197, 217 , 218, 242, 243, 243 Allegory o f Sight an d Smell (afte r Brueghel) , 94-96 , 95 Allegory o f Smell (Brueghe l an d Rubens) , 80 , 03, 94, 97-98 , 109, 243-44, 244 Allegory o f Spring (Brueghe l an d Va n Balen) , 8o, 80, 81, 10 5 Allegory o f Taste (Brueghe l an d Rubens) , viii, 90-99, pi, 104, 156 , 161 , 217 , 218, 243-45, 244 Allegory o f Touch (Brueghe l and Rubens) , 55 , 57, 90-94, 93, 97, 219 , 2.rp, 230, 243-4 4 Alsloot, Denis van , 136 , 13 9 Amorum Emblemata (Va n Veen), 56 , 56 Anna o f Saxony (princes s of Orange), 17-1 8 Antverpia (Hoefnagel) , u Apelles Painting Campaspe (Va n Haecht), 18 The Archduke Albert and the Archduchess Isabella in a Collector's Cabinet (Francken an d workshop with Jan Brueghel th e Younger), 4 , 5 The Archdukes Albert and Isabella before Castle Mariemont (Brueghel) , 10 4 The Archdukes Albert and Isabella Hunting before Castle Mariemont (Brueghel), 104 , 104 The Archdukes at th e Chase (Brueghel) , 88

The Archdukes in th e Garden of Their Palace in Brussels (Ja n Brueghel the Younger) , 88 The Art of Wa r (Gall e after Floris) , 56 , 57 Avont, Piete r van , The Holy Family in a Garland o f Fruit an d Flowers (with Brueghel) , 163, 164, 206 Avril, Jean-Jacques, Mars a u Retour de la Guerre (engraving after Rubens) , 57-58,^

Balen, Hendrick van, 3 , 10-13, 17 , 60 , 62-63 , 75 , 124, 133 , 13 9 Saint John th e Baptist Preaching ,' 149 works wit h other artist s Allegory o f Fire, 55, 140-45, 141 •> 149 , 195 , 23 0 Allegory o f Spring, 80-81 , 80., 10 5 Blazon for th e Rhetorician's Guild C( De Violieren" 31 , 31 Ceres and th e Four Elements ,' 16 0 Concert o f the Muses, 9 7 The Feast ofAcheloüs, 62 , 63 Feast o f th e Gods, 149 , 150 Fruit Garland with Angels, 80 , 152-55 , 153 Garland of Fruit around a Depiction of Ceres Receiving Gifts from the Four Seasons (1617) , 90 , 126 , 156-65 , 158, 246-47 Garland of Fruit around a Depiction of Ceres Receiving Gifts from the Four Seasons (1621-22) , 90 , 126 , 156-65 , 159, 246-47 The Holy Family i n a Garland o f Fruit an d Flowers, 161 , 162 Madonna an d Child i n a Flower Garland, 12 , 152 , 154Pan an d Syrinx, 75 , 76 The Prophesy o f Isaiah, 55 , 146-51, 147, 148 Venus an d Cupid, 19 8 Venus i n th e Forge o f Vulcan, 55 , 230 , 231 Venus Preparing Mars for War, 149 , i$o View of Antwerp, 12 The Wedding ofPeleus an d Thetis, 60 , 62 , 62 Basket o f Fruit (Caravaggio) , 17 7 Bassano, Jacopo , 14 3 The Baths o f Diocletian or the Cluvius Scauri (Brueghel) , 7, 8, 52 Battle ofAnghiari (Leonard o d a Vinci), 47 The Battle o f Constantine against Maxentius (Raphael) , 4 8

267

Battle o f Eighteen Nude Men (Beham) , 4 6 The Battle o f Issus (Brueghel) , 48, so Battle of Nude Men (Rubens) , 4 6 The Battle o f the Amazons (Rubens) , 48-50 , 50 The Battle o f the Amazons (Ruben s an d Brueghel) , 2 , 3 , 9, 19 , 30 , 44-51, 45", 4P, 169 , 218 , 223, 224, 229-30, 229 Battle of the Greeks and Amazons (Rubens) , 4 8 Battle o f Titus Gracchus (Beham) , 4 6 The Battle ofZama (Penn i afte r Romano) , 48 , 48 Battle Scene between the Greeks and Amazons and Studies for Samson (Rubens), 4 8 Baudius, Dominicus , 168-69 Beert, Osias , 2 9 Beham, Barthe l Battle o f Eighteen Nude Men, 4 6 Battle o f Titus Gracchus, 4 6 The Beheading o f Saint John th e Baptist (Rubens) , 16 8 Beuckelaer, Joachim , Th e Miraculous Draft o f Fishes, 189 Bianchi, Ercole , 12 , 17 , 30 , 119-20, 143-44, 15 2 binding media, 223 , 225-26, 23 1 Blazon for th e Rhetorician's Guild "De Violieren" (Va n Balen, Brueghel , Francken, an d Vrancx) , 31 , 31 The Blinding o f Samson (Rembrandt) , 17 2 Borromeo, Federico, 4, 6 , 8 , 12-13, i?, 30 , 34~35 , 69 , 97 , 119-20, 129 , 133-34, 140, 144, 152 , 162 , 168 , 177 , 19 5 Boy with a Basket of Fruit (Caravaggio) , 17 7 Brant, Isabella , 23 , 30 Brant, Jan , n Bril, Paul , 6 , 19 , 29 , 129 , 18 9 Landscape with Psyche an d Jupiter', 27 , 29 The Rest on the Flight into Egypt (wit h Rottenhammer) , 132,13 3 Bruegel, Pieter , the Elder , 5, 6, 30 , 96 , 98 , 133,133 , 186 , 195 , 22 1 Sermon of Saint John th e Baptist, 188-89, 188, 191 Brueghel, Jan , the Elde r collaboration o f Ruben s (Pete r Paul ) and , 32-34 , 217-51 . See also specific paintingert friendship o f Rubens (Pete r Paul ) and , 29-3 1 life of , 5-1 7 painting techniqu e of , 226 , 227 studio of Venus i n th e Smithy o f Vulcan, 144, 144 underdrawings by , 55 , 67, 71 , 85 , 86, 87, 116-17, 223, 224, 225, 229, 230-31, 234, 23J-, 240, 242 , 245•> 24 6 works b y Allegory o f Air, 144 , 19 8 Allegory o f Fire, 12, 140, 142, 149 The Archdukes Albert an d Isabella before Castle Mariemont, 10 4 The Archdukes Albert an d Isabella Hunting before Castle Mariemont, 104 , 104 The Archdukes at th e Chase, 88 The Baths of Diocletian or the Cluvius Scauri, 7, 8, 52 The Battle o f Issus, 48 , s o Calvary, 189 , 190 The Continence ofScipio, 10 , 10, 48 Daniel i n the Lions' Den, 195-9 6

268 I N D E

The Entry o f the Animals into Noah's Ark, 70 , 80 , 87 , 125, 192-201, 193 The Flood with Noah's Ark , 195, 196 Flower Still Life, 80 , 81 The Garden o f Eden with the Fall o f Man, 67-68 , 68, 195-96, 19 9 Harbor Scene with Christ Preaching , 47, 189 , 190 Jonah Emerging from th e Whale, 15 1 Landscape with Ruins and a Hermit, 8 , 9 Landscape with Toung Tobias, 18 9 Orpheus Charming th e Animals with His Music, 9 7 Orpheus Singing before Pluto and Proserpina, 7 Ostrich, 197, 198, 206 The Palace o f Isabella Clara Eugenia at Tervuren, 104, 104 Paradise Landscape with the Creation of Adam, 136, 138 , 138, 194-95, 19 8 Part of a Garland of Fruit an d Flowers, 163 , 164 Port Scene in Venice, 18 9 The Sermon on the Mount, 186-91 , 187 Sheet with Animals an d Garlands, 222, 22 3 Sketches o f Ducks and Birds, 68-69 , d p Studies o f Asses, Cats, and Monkeys, 202-7 , 205 Studies of Deer in Various Positions, 68, 6c Studies o f Hunting Dogs , 88, 202-7, 204, 226, 24 4 Study o f Hunting Requisites, 109-12, 112, 144 Study o f Monkeys, a Deer, and Other Animals, 206, 206 Vase o f Flowers with Jewel, Coins and Shells, 13 , 14 View o f th e Interior o f th e Colosseum, 7, 8, 52, 142 Village Landscape with Self-Portrait, 15 , 16 Wedding Banquet Presided over by the Archdukes, 15, is Wooded Landscape with Nymphs, Dogs, and Hunting Spoils, 114 , 114, 20 6 works with other artist s Allegory o f Fire, 55, 140-45, 141 •> 149 , 195 , 23 0 Allegory o f Hearing, 90 , 92 , 96-97, 105, 112 , 244, 245 " Allegory o f Hearing, Taste, and Touch, 94-96, 95, 105 Allegory o f Sight, 90 , 92 , 94, 96 , 101 , 106, 119 , 124, 197, 217 , 218, 242,

243, 24 3 Allegory o f Sight and Smell, 94-96, 95 Allegory o f Smell, 80, 93, 94, 97-98 , 109, 243-44, 244 Allegory o f Spring, 80 , 80, 81, 10 5 Allegory o f Taste, viii, 90-99, 91, 104, 156 , 161, 217 , 218, 243, 244, 244 , 245 Allegory o f the Four Elements, 139 Allegory o f Touch, 55, 57, 90-94, 93, 97, 219, 219, 230, 243, 24 4 The Battle o f the Amazons, 2 , 3 , 9, 19 , 30 , 44-51, 4J, 49, 169, 218 , 223, 224, 229-30 , 22p Blazon for th e Rhetorician's Guild (( De Violieren" 31 , 31 Ceres and th e Four Elements, 160 The Descent into Limbo, 128-35 , 131 Diana a t the Hunt, 87-88 , 108-15 , no, 124, 203, 226 Diana's Sleeping Nymphs Observed b y Satyrs, 75 , 87-88, 108-15 , in, 177, 203, 24 5 The Feast o f Achetons, xiv, 60-63, 61, 80, 122 , 124, 126, 218 , 227, 229, 239-40, 239, 240 Feast of th e Gods, 149 , 150 Flora and Zephyr, 42 , 78-81, 79, 219, 241-42, 241, 242 Fruit Garland with Angels, 80 , 152-55 , 153 Fruit Garland with Nature Adorned b y the Graces, 119, 124, 126 , 157 , 160, 162, 219, 246-47, 247

The Garden of Eden with th e FM o f Man (wit h D e Clerck) , 136-39 ,

737, 194 , 19 8 The Garden of Eden with th e Fall of Man (wit h Rubens) , iv-v, 2 , 30 , 64-71, 6$, 72, 80 , 87 , 122, 124 , 192 , 198-99, 203 , 216, 217 , 219-21 , 223, 225, 226, 229, 233-39, 234, 235, 236, 237, 23 8 Garland of Fruit around a Depiction of Ceres Receiving Gifts from the Four Seasons (1617) , 90 , 126 , 156-65 , 158, 246-47 Garland of Fruit around a Depiction of Ceres Receiving Gifts from the Four Seasons (1621-22) , 90 , 126 , 156-65 , 159, 246-47 The Holy Family i n a Garland o f Fruit and Flowers (wit h Van Avont), 163, 164, 20 6 The Holy Family i n a Garland o f Fruit an d Flowers (wit h Va n Balen), loi, 162 Madonna an d Child i n a Flower Garland, 12 , 152 , 154 Madonna an d Child i n a Garland o f Flowers, 96 , 116 , 119 , 120, 24 6 Madonna an d Child i n a Garland o f Fruit and Flowers, 4, 116-21 , 117, 775, 154-55 , 163 , 24 6 Madonna i n a Flower Garland, 2 , 3, 155 , 163 , 213 , 228 , 245-47, 247 Music-making Angels with Flowers, 13 3 Nymphs Filling th e Cornucopia, 122-27, 123 Pan an d Syrinx (wit h Va n Balen) , 75, 7 6 Pan an d Syrinx (wit h Rubens) , 72-77 , 73, 74, 227 Portrait o f Archduke Albert o f Austria, 100-107, 702 Portrait o f Infanta Isabella Clara Eugenia, 100-107, 103 The Prophesy o f Isaiah, 55 , 146-51, 747, 148 The Rest on the Flight into Egypt, 128-35 , 130, 132 The Return fro m War: Mars Disarmed b y Venus, 3, 4, 29 , 30 , 35 , 50, 52-59, S3, 54, 80, 87 , 119, 144, 149 , 195 , 197-99 , 2/4, 218-21 , 219, 226-34, 227, 230, 231, 232, 233, 24 4 Venus an d Cupid, 19 8 Venus i n th e Forge o f Vulcan, 55 , 230 , 237 Venus Preparing Mars for War, 149 , 150 The Vision o f Saint Hubert, 82-89 , #3, 84, 86, 109, 120 , 226 , 240, 241 The Wedding ofPeleus an d Thetis (wit h Va n Balen) , 6o , 62 , 62 The Wedding ofPeleus an d Thetis (wit h D e Clerck) , 13 9 Winter Landscape with Angels Scattering Flowers, 13 3 Brueghel, Jan , th e Younger , 10 , 15 , 17 , 30 , 32-33 , 75 , 108, 124 , 157 , 160 , 163, 206, 245 The Archdukes i n th e Garden of Their Palace in Brussels, 88 The Archduke Albert and the Archduchess Isabella in a Collector's Cabinet (with Francken) , s The Feast ofAcheloüs (wit h Van Balen) , 62, 63 Brueghel, Pieter , th e Younger, 5- 6

Calvary (Brueghel) , 189 , 190 Campo Weyerman, Jacob, 6 4 Caravaggio, 1 9 Basket of Fruit, 17 7 Boy with a Basket of Fruit, 17 7 The Medusa Head o n Minerva's Shield, 182 , 7^ 3 Carleton, Dudley, 29 , 34-35 , 166 , 171-72 , 177 , 184 , 196-9 7 Centaur Tormented by Cupid (Rubens) , 16 9 Ceres and th e Four Elements (Brueghe l an d Va n Balen) , 160 Ceres Garlanded b y Angels (Rubens) , 16 2 Clerck, Hendric k de , 3 , 15, 60 , 6 6

Concert o f the Muses (wit h Va n Balen) , 97 works wit h Brueghe l Allegory o f th e Four Elements, 13 9 The Garden of Eden with th e Fall o f Man, 136-39 , 737 , 194 , 19 8 The Wedding ofPeleus an d Thetis, 13 9 Cobergher, Wenceslas , 9 , 85 , 104-5 collaboration, practic e of, 3-4 , 32-35 , 217-1 8 colorants, 225 Concert o f the Muses (Va n Balen and D C Clerck), 9 7 The Continence ofScipio (Brueghel) , 10,10, 48 Cort, Cornelius , Tityus, 169, 169 Croes, J . van, 23 The Crowning o f Virtue (Rubens) , 56 , 57 Cupid Supplicating Jupiter (Rubens) , 17 0

Daniel i n the Lions' Den (Brueghel) , 195-96 Daniel i n th e Lions' Den (Rubens) , 96 , 19 6 The Death ofHippolytus (Rubens) , 16 8 The Delivery of the Keys t o Saint Peter (Rubens), 3 0 Departure for th e Hunt (Va n Orley), 10 6 The Descent into Limbo (engravin g afte r Piete r Bruege l th e Elder) , 133 , 73 3 The Descent into Limbo (Brueghe l and Rottenhammer) , 128-35 , 131 Diana and He r Nymphs Attacked b y Satyrs (Ruben s an d Snyders) , 17 8 Diana and He r Nymphs Hunting Fallow Deer (Ruben s an d Snyders) , 17 8 Diana at th e Hunt (Brueghe l and Rubens) , 87-88 , 108-15 , 770 , 124 , 203 , 226 Diana Returning from the Hunt (Ruben s an d Snyders) , 26, 174-79 , 17$, 17 7 Diana's Sleeping Nymphs Observed b y Satyrs (Brueghe l an d Rubens) , 75 , 87, 88, 108-15 , ni) 177 , 203 , 245 Drunken Silenus (Rubens) , 9 6 Durer, Albrecht, 66 , 203 Saint Eustace, 87, 87 Dyck, Anthony van, 58 Portrait ofFrans Snyders, 26, 26 Portrait of Jan Brueghel the Elder, 6

earth pigments , 223-25 Elsheimer, Adam, 19 , 67 The Stoning o f Saint Stephen, 19 1 The Entry o f the Animals into NoaWs Ark (Brueghel) , 70 , 80 , 87 , 125 , 192-201, 103, 19 5 Equestrian Portrait o f the Duke ofLerma (Rubens) , 20 , 22 , 87, 19 7 Expulsion ofHeliodorus (Raphael) , 16 9 Eyck, Hubert van, 32 , 34 The Ghent Altarpiece (Adoration o f th e Mystic Lamb), 32 , 33, 34 Eyck, Jan van , 32 , 34 The Ghent Altarpiece (Adoration o f th e Mystic Lamb), 32 , 33, 34

Faber, Johann , 21 , 56 The Facade an d Arch ofRubens's House (Harrewy n afte r Va n Croes) , 23 The Fall of the Rebel Angels (Floris) , 184 The Family o f Jan Brueghel th e Elder ( Rubens }, frontispiece , 3 0 The Feast ofAcheloüs (Va n Bale n and Ja n Brueghe l th e Younger) , 62 , 63

INDEX

269

The Feast o f Acheküs (Ruben s an d Brueghel) , xiv, 60-63 , 61, 80, 122 , 124, 126, 218, 227, 229, 239, 239-40, 240 The Feast of the Gods (Brueghe l an d Va n Balen) , 149, i/o Ferdinand (cardinal - infante o f Spain), 9 4 Five Sense s series , 2, 17 , 90-99, 161, 242-45. See also specific paintings The Flood with Noah's Ark (Brueghel) , 195 , 196 Flora and Zephyr (Brueghe l an d Rubens) , 42, 78-81, 79, 219, 241-42, 241, 242

Floris, Frans , 57, 6 0 Fall o f the Rebel Angels, 184 Flower Still Life (Brueghel) , 80 , 81 The Forge o f Vulcan (Paol o Fiammingo) , 8 , 142, 143, 149 Four Female Figures (Rubens) , 75 , 75 Francken, Frans , th e Younger , 4 , 5, 17, 31 , 31, 96, 98 , 10 8 The Archduke Albert and the Archduchess Isabella in a Collector's Cabinet (with worksho p o f Jan Brueghel the Younger), 4, s Frederik Hendri k (princ e of Orange) , 77 , 81, 18 2 Fruit Garland with Angels (Brueghe l an d Va n Balen), 8o, 152-55 , 153 Fruit Garland with Nature Adorned by the Graces (Ruben s an d Brueghel) , 119, 124, 126, 157 , 160, 162, 219, 246-47, 247

Gabron, Guilliam , 66 , 234 , 235 Galle, Cornelis , Th e Virgin in a Niche Adorned by Angels with a Garland, 162, 163 Galle, Filips , Th e Art o f War (engravin g afte r Fran s Floris) , 56 , s? Ganymede (Rubens) , 17 0 The Garden o f Eden with the Fall o f Man (Brueghel) , 67-68 , 68., 195-96, 19 9 The Garden of Eden with the Fall o f Man (Brueghe l an d D e Clerck) , 136-39 , 137) 194 , 198 The Garden of Eden with the Fall o f Man (Brueghe l an d Rubens) , iv~v, 2, 30 , 64-71, 65, 72, 80 , 87 , 122, 124, 192 , 198-99, 203, 216, 217, 219-21, 223, 22S, 226, 229 , 233-39 , 234, 235, 236, 237, 23 8

Harrewyn, Jacob, Th e Facade an d Arch ofRubens }s House (engravin g after J . van Croes) , 23 The Head o f Medusa (Ruben s an d Snyders) , 26 , 35 , 180-85, 181, 183 Herodotus, 13 8 Hoefnagel, Joris , 116 , 198 Antverpia, n Hollar, Wenceslas, 203 Study o f Hunting Dogs, 112, 113 The Holy Family i n a Garland of Fruit an d Flowers (Brueghe l an d Van Avont), 163 , 164, 20 6 The Holy Family i n a Garland of Fruit an d Flowers (Brueghe l an d Van Balen) , 161 , 162 The Horrors o f Wa r (Rubens) , 2 9 Houbraken, Arnold , 6 4 Huygens, Constantijn, 77 , 126, 172 , 182-8 3 imprimatura, 221 , 226, 234, 242, 244, 24 6 infrared reflectograms , 55 , 86, 224-25, 229-33, 235, 242-43, 245 The Interior of the Colosseum (Toeput) , 8 , 9 Isabella, Infanta o f Spain (Mulle r afte r Rubens) , 105 , 105 Isabella Clara Eugenia (archduches s of Austria), 2 , 4, 5 , s, 9 , 15 , 17—18 , 29 , 46, 56 , 70, 80-82 , 85 , 88, 94, 96-98 , 100-107, 103, 104, ios, 109, 114, 120, 154 , 161 , 197-98, 20 6

Janssens, Abraham, 33 Peace and Plenty Binding the Arrows of War, 57 The Union of the Scheldt River and th e City o f Antwerp, 5 6 Jode, Isabell a de , 1 0 Johann Erns t (duk e o f Saxony), 2, 198 Jonah Emerging from the Whale (Brueghel), 15 1 Judith Killing Holofernes (Rubens) , 16 8 Juno and Argus (Rubens) , 168-6 9

Garland of Fruit around a Depiction of Ceres Receiving Gifts from the Four Seasons (Brueghe l an d Va n Balen ) (1617) , 90, 126 , 156-65, 158, 246-47 Garland of Fruit around a Depiction of Ceres Receiving Gifts from the Four Seasons (Brueghe l an d Va n Balen) (1621-22) , 90 , 126 , 156-65, 159,

Kempeneer, Jan de , 194

246-47 Gesner, Conrad , 68, 19 8 The Ghent Altarpiece (Adoration o f the Mystic Lamb) (Huber t an d Ja n van Eyck) , 32, 33, 34 gilding, 228-2 9 Giulio Romano, 19 , 48 Goltzius, Hendrick, 62 , 75 The Wedding o f Cupid an d Psyche., 6 0 Govaerts, Abraham , Wooded Landscape with Gypsy Women^ 12 4 Great Last Judgment (Rubens) , 18 3 Grimmer, Abel , View o f Antwerp (wit h Va n Balen) , 12 , 12 ground layers, 220-21 Guild of Sain t Luke , 9 , 15 , 19 , 31 , 218 , 241

Landscape with Psyche an d Jupiter (Bri l and Rubens) , 27, 29 Landscape with Ruins an d a Hermit (Brueghel) , 8 , 9 Landscape with Young Tobias (Brueghel) , 18 9 Laocoôn, 19 , 47, 16 8 Leonardo d a Vinci, 18 2 Battle ofAnghiari, 4 7 The Leopards (afte r Rubens) , 171 , 196 , 237, 238 Limbourg brothers , Tres Riches Heures, 106 Lioness, Seen fro m th e Rear, Turning Left (Rubens) , 196 , 197 Lucan, 18 3

Madonna an d Child i n a Flower Garland (Brueghel and Va n Balen), 12 ,

Haecht, Willem van , 10 8 Apelles Painting Campaspe, 18 Harbor Scene with Christ Preaching (Brueghel) , 47 , 189 , 190

Madonna an d Child i n a Garland of Flowers (Brueghe l and Rubens) , 96 , 116, 119 , 120, 24 6 Madonna an d Child i n a Garland of Fruit an d Flowers (Brueghe l an d Rubens), 4 , 116-21 , 117, 118, 154-55, 163, 24 6

152, IS 4

270

INDEX

Madonna della Vallicella, Adored b y Angels (Rubens) , 208-13 , 2 09-> 2I °-> 211, 212 Madonna della Vallicella, Borne Aloft b y Putti (Rubens) , 212 , 21 3 Madonna i n a Flower Garland (Ruben s an d Brueghel) , 2 , 3, 155 , 163 , 213 , 228, 245-47 , 247 Mander, Karel van, 6 , 9 , 33-34 , 69, 129 , 18 2 Marienberghe, Catharin a van , 10 , 30 Marino, Giambattista , 18 2 A Market an d Bleaching Fields (D e Momper) , 16, 1 7 Mars a u Retour de la Guerre (Avril after Rubens) , 57-58 , 58 The Martyrdom o f Saint Andrew (Va n Veen), 18 , 19 Maximilian I (electo r o f Bavaria), 149-5 1 The Medusa Head on Minerva's Shield (Caravaggio) , 182 , 183 Meeting of King Ferdinand of Hungary and the Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand of Spain atNbrdlingen (Rubens) , 221 , 222 Metsys, Quinten , 20 , 32 , 34-35 The Temptation of Saint Anthony (wit h Patinir) , 20 , 21 , 34-3 5 Miracles o f Saint Ignatius (Rubens) , 18 3 Miraculous Draft o f Fishes (Beuckelaer) , 189 Moniper, Jóos de , th e Younger , 15 , 1 7 A Market an d Bleaching Fields^ 16, 1 7 Muller, Jan Albert) Archduke o f Austria (engravin g afte r Rubens) , 105 , 105 Isabella, Infanta o f Spain (engravin g afte r Rubens) , 105 , 105 Music-making Angels with Flowers (Brueghe l an d Rottenhammer) , 133 ;

Noort, Adam van , 18 , 4 6 Nymphs Filling th e Cornucopia (Brueghe l an d worksho p o f Rubens) , 122-27, 123

Orley, Bernard van , Departure for th e Hunt,, 10 6 Orpheus Charming th e Animals with His Music (Brueghel) , 9 7 Orpheus Singing before Pluto and Proserpina (Brueghel) , 7 Ostrich (Brueghel) , 107, 198 , 20 6 Ovid, 29 , 60-62, 78 , 169, 174 , 180 , 182-8 3

paint media , 223-2 6 The Painter i n His Studio (Rembrandt) , 220 , 220 The Palace o f Isabella Eugenia a t Tervuren (Brueghel) , 104 , 104 Pan an d Syrinx (Brueghe l an d Va n Balen) , 75 , 7 6 Pan an d Syrinx (Ruben s an d Brueghel) , 72-77, 73, 74, 227 Pan Resting (Rubens) , 75 , 76 Paneels, Willem , Studies of Horses after Jost Amman (drawin g afte r Rubens) , 46,47 panels, oak , 218-2 0 Paolo Fiammingo, 55, 142-43 The Forge o f Vulcan^ 8 , 142 , 143, 149 Paradise Landscape with th e Creation of Adam (Brueghel) , 136 , 138 , 138^

194-95, 19 8

Part o f a Garland o f Fruit an d Flowers (Brueghel) , 163 , 164 Patinir, Joachim , 6 , 20 , 32 , 34-35 The Temptation of Saint Anthony (wit h Metsys) , 20 , 21 , 34 , 35 Peace and Plenty Binding th e Arrows of Wa r (Janssens) , 57

Penni, Giovann i Francesco , Th e Battle ofZama (engravin g afte r Giuli o Romano), 48 , 48 Philip I I (kin g of Spain) , 5, 20, 97 , 101 Philip III (kin g of Spain), 19 , 70 pigments, 223-25 Piles, Roge r de, 108-9 Pliny th e Elder , 68 , 18 4 Plutarch, 4 4 Port Scene in Venice (Brueghel) , 18 9 Portrait of a Man (Rubens) , 19 , 19 Portrait o f Albert and Isabella Clara Eugenia (Va n Veen), 4 , s Portrait o f Archduke Albert o f Austria (Ruben s an d Brueghel) , 100-107, 102 Portrait ofFrans Snyders (Va n Dyck), 26 , 26 Portrait o f Infanta Isabella Clara Eugenia (Ruben s an d Brueghel) , 100-107 ,

103 Portrait o f Jan Brueghel th e Elder (Va n Dyck), 6 preparatory layers , 220-221 Procession in th e Place du Grand Sablón at Brussels (Sallaert) , 10 6 Prometheus Bound (Ruben s an d Snyders) , 26 , 35 , 166-73, 167, 184, 19 6 The Prophesy o f Isaiah (Brueghe l an d Va n Balen) , 55 , 146-51, 147, 148 Putti with a Garland o f Fruit (Rubens , Snyders , an d Wildcns) , 124 , 125

The Raising o f th e Cross (Rubens) , 24, 25 Raphael The Battle o f Constantine against Maxentius, 4 8 Expulsion ofHeliodorus, 16 9 Saint Cecilia , 96 Reclining Male (Rubens) , 170 , 770 The Recognition of Philopoemen (Rubens) , 25 , 26, 168 , 171 , 17 7 The Recognition o f Philopoemen (Ruben s an d Snyders) , 25-26, 25 , 168, 18 4 Rembrandt va n Rij n Blinding o f Samson, 172 The Painter in His Studio, 220, 220 The Rest on the Flight into Egypt (Bn l an d Rottenhammer) , 132 , 133 The Rest on the Flight into Egypt (Brueghe l an d Rottenhammer) , 128-35 , 130, 132 The Return fro m Wa r Mars Disarmed b y Venus (Ruben s an d Brueghel) , 3, 4, 29 , 30 , 35 , 50, 52-59, S3, S4, 80, 87 , 119, 144 , 149 , 195 , 197 , 198-99 , 274, 218-21 , 210, 226-34, 227, 230, 231, 232, 233, 24 4 The Riding School (Rubens) , 19 7 Romanists, Confraternit y of , 9 , 29 Rottenhammer, Hans , 3 , 6, 19 , 46, 6 0 The Rest on the Flight into Egypt (wit h Bnl) , 132 , 133 works wit h Brueghe l The Descent into Limbo, 128-35 , 137 Music-making Angels with Flowers, 13 3 The Rest on the Flight into Egypt, 128-35 , Í30, 132 Winter Landscape with Angels Scattering Flowers, 1 33 Rubens, Jan , 17-18 Rubens, Pete r Pau l collaboration o f Brueghel (Jan , the Elder ) and , 32-34 , 217-5 1 See also specific paintings friendship o f Brueghel (Jan , the Elder ) and , 29-3 1 life of , 17-2 9 painting techniqu e of , 226-2 7

INDEX

271

paint medi a use d by, 225-26 underdrawings by , 47 , 223 , 224, 225, 228, 229 works afte r The Leopards , 171 , 196 , 237, 238 works b y Adam and Eve, 46 The Adoration o f the Magi, 23 , 56-57 Battle o f Nude Men, 4 6 The Battle of the Amazons, 48-50, .so Battle o f the Greeks .andAmazons, 48 Battle Scene between the Greeks and Amazons an d Studies for Samson, 48 •The Beheading of Saint John th e Baptist, 16 8 'Centaur Tormented b y Cupid, 16 9 Ceres Garlanded by Angels, 16 2 The Crowning o f Virtue, 56 , $7 Cupid Supplicating Jupiter, 17 0 Daniel i n the Lions' Den, 96 , 19 6 The Death o f Hippo ly 'tus,168 The Delivery o f th e Keys t o Saint Peter, 30 Drunken Silenus, 96 Equestrian Portrait o f the Duke ofLerma, 20,22, 87-, 197 The Family o f Jan Brueghel th e Elder, frontispiece, 3 0 Four Female Figures, 75, TÍ Ganymede, 17 0 Great Last judgment, 18 3 The Horrors of 'War, 2 9 Judith Killing Holofernes, 16 8 Juno an d Argus, 168, 16 9 Lioness j Seen from the Rear, Turning Left, 196,197 Madonna della Vallicella, Adored by Angels, 208-13 , 209, 210, 211, 212 Madonna della Vallicella, Borne Aloft b y Putti, 212, 213 Meeting of King Ferdinand of Hungary and the Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand o f Spain atNordlingen, 221 , 222 Miracles o f Saint Ignatius, 18 3 Pan Resting, 75 , 76 Portrait of a Man, 19,19 The Raising o f th e Cross, 24, 25 Reclining Male, 170 , 170 The Recognition ofPhilopoemen, 25 , 26, 168 , 171 , 17 7 The Riding School, 19 7 Saint George, 1 6 8, 17 1 The Saint Ildefonso Altarpiece, 28, 29 Samson and Delilah, 23 , 23 Self-Portrait with Friends, 20 Studies o f a Female Nude, 124 , 124 Two Satyrs, 176 , 176 Two Views o f an Eagle, 170 workshop of Rubens Nymphs Filling th e Cornucopia (wit h Brueghel) , 122-27 , 123 works wit h other artist s Allegory o f Hearing, 90 , 92 , 96-97, 105 , 112 , 244, 245 Allegory o f Sight, 90 , 92 , 94, 96 , 101 , 106, 119 , 124 , 197 , 217 , 218, 242, 243, 243

Allegory o f Smell, 80 , 93, 94, 97-98 , 109, 243-44, 244 Allegory o f Taste, viii, 90-99, 91, 104, 156 , 161 , 217 , 218, 243-44, 244, 245

272 I N D E

Allegory o f Touch, 55, 57, 90-94, 93, 97, 219 , 219, 230, 243-44 The Battle o f the Amazons, 2, 3 , 9, 19 , 30 , 44-51, 45, 49, 169 , 218 , 223, 224, 229, 229-30 Diana and He r Nymphs Attacked b y Satyrs, 17 8 Diana and Her Nymphs Hunting Fallow Deer, 17 8 Diana at the Hunt, 87-88 , ,108-15, no, 124 , 203, 226 Diana Returning fro m th e Hunt, 26 , 174-79 , 175, 177 Diana's Sleeping Nymphs Observed b y Satyrs, 75 , 87-88, 108-15, in, 177, 203, 245 The Feast ofAchelous,xiv, 60-6.3 , <fr , 80 , 122 , 124 , 126 , 218 , 227, 229, 239, 239-40, 240 Flora and Zephyr, 42^ .78-8.1^ 7^*219, 241-42, 241, 242 Fruit Garland with Nature Adorned b y the Graces, 119, 124, 126 , 157 , 160, 162, 219 , 246-47, 247 The Garden of Eden with the Fall o f Man, iv-v, 2 , 30, 64-71 , 65, 72, 80 , 87, 122 , 124, 192 , 198-99, 203, 216, 217, 219-21, 223 , 225, 226, 229, 233-39,234, 23J-,23¿,237,. 23S

The Head o f Medusa, 26 , 35 , 180-85 , i8i>> 183 Landscape with Psyche an d Jupiter, 27 , 29 i Madonna an d Child in a Garland o f Flowers, 96, 116 , 119 , 120, 24 6 Madonna an d Child in a Garland o f Fruit an d Flowers, 4, 116-21 , 117, 118, 154-55, 163 , 246 Madonna i n a Flower Garland, 2 , 3, 155 , 163 , 213 , 228 , 245-47, 247 Pan and Syrinx, 72-77 , 73, 74, 227 Portrait of Archduke Albert 'of Austria (an d workshop) , 100-107 , 102 Portrait o f Infanta Isabella Clara Eugenia (an d workshop), 100-107, 103 Prometheus Bound, 26 , 35 , 166-73, ^7, 184, 196 Putti with a Garland o f Fruit, 124, 125 • The Recognition ofPhilopoemen, 25-26 , 25, 1 6 8, 184 The Return from War: Mars Disarmed by Venus, 3, 4, 29-30 , 35 , 50, 52-59, 53, 54, 80, 87 , 119, 144, 149, 195 , 197-99, 2/4, 218-21, 219, 226-34, 227, 230, 231, -232, 233, 24 4 The Vision o f Saint Hubert, 82-89 , #3, 84, 86, 109, 120 , 226, 240, 241 Rudolf II (Hol y Roman- emperor), 13 , 69 , 116 , 139 , 19 8

Saint Cecilia (Raphael) , 9 6 Saint Eustace (Durer), 87 , 87 Saint George (Rubens) , 168 , 17 1 The Saint Ildefonso Altarpiece (Rubens) , 28 , 29 Saint John th e Baptist Preaching (Van Balen), 14 9 Sallaert, Antoine, Procession in th e Place du Grand Sablón at Brussels, 106 Samson and Delilah (Rubens) , 23 , 23 Savery, Roelandt, 13 , 20 3 Seghers, Daniel , 15 , 21 7 Self-Portrait with Friends (Rubens) , 20 Sermon o f Saint John th e Baptist (Piete r Bruege l th e Elder) , 188 , 188, 189, 19 1 The Sermon on the Mount (Brueghel) , 186-91 , 187 Sheet with Animals and Garlands (Brueghel), 222 , 223 signatures, 64 , 66 , 70 , 94 , 134 , 192 , 199 , 233-3 4 Sketches o f Ducks and Birds (Brueghel) , 68-69 , 69 Snyders, Frans , 3 , 17, 25-26 , 29-30 , 35 , 198 Studies o f Four Heads o f Dogs, 178, 178 Study for a n Eagle, 170, 171

works wit h Ruben s Diana and He r Nymphs Attacked b y Satyrs, 17 8 Diana and He r Nymphs Hunting Fallow Deer, 17 8 Diana Returning from the Hunt, 26 , 174-79 , 17^, 777 The Head o f Medusa, 26 , 35 , 180-85, 181, 183 Prometheus Bound, 26 , 35 , 166-73, 1( ^7-> 184 , 19 6 Putti with a Garland o f Fruit (an d Wildens), 124 , 125 The Recognition ofPhilopoemen, 25-26 , 25, 168, 18 4 Sohier, Nicolaas , 182-8 3 Spranger, Bartholomeus, 12 9 Stoning o f Saint Stephen (Elsheimer) , 19 1 Studies of a Female Nude (Rubens) , 124 , 124 Studies o f Asses, Cats, and Monkeys (Brueghel) , 202-7, 205 Studies o f Deer in Various Positions (Brueghel) , 68, 69 Studies o f Four Heads of Dogs (Snyders) , 178 , 178 Studies o f Horses after Jost Amman (Paneel s after Rubens) , 46 , 4 7 Studies of Hunting Dogs (Brueghel) , 88, 202-7, 204, 226, 24 4 Study for a n Eagle (Snyders) , 170 , 171 Study o f Hunting Dogs (Hollar), 112 , 113 Study o f Hunting Requisites (Brueghel), 109-12, 112, 14 4 Study o f Monkeys, a Deer, and Other Animals (Brueghel) , 206 , 206 Suerius, Samuel , 12 6 supports, 218-20

The Temptation of Saint Anthony (Patini r and Metsys) , 20 , 21, 34-35 Tieghem, Jan van , 194. Titian, 19 , 20, 96-97 Tityus, 16 9 Tityus (Cort) , 169, 169 Tityus (Titian) , 16 9 Toeput, Lodewijk, 8 The Interior o f the Colosseum, 8, 9 Torso Belvedere, 19 , 62 , 67 , 75 , 168 Tres Riches Heures (Limbour g brothers) , 10 6 The Trêves (Va n d e Venne) , 57 Two Satyrs (Rubens) , 176 , 176 Two Views o f an Eagle (Rubens), 17 0

varnish, 227-2 8 Vase o f Flowers with Jewel, Coins and Shells (Brueghel) , 13 , 14 Veen, Ott o van , 9, 18-19, 46-47, 105 , 229 Amorum Emblemata, 56 , $6 The Martyrdom o f Saint Andrew, 18 , 19 Portrait o f Albert and Isabella Clara Eugenia, 4 , s Venne, Adriae n van de , Th e Trêves, 57 Venus an d Cupid (Brueghe l an d Va n Balen) , 19 8 Venus i n th e Forge o f Vulcan (Brueghel an d Va n Balen) , 55 , 230, 231 Venus i n th e Smithy o f Vulcan (studio of Brueghel) , 144, 74 4 Venus Preparing Mars for Wa r (Brueghe l an d Va n Balen) , 149 , iso Verhaecht, Tobias , 18 , 4 6 View o f Antique Ruins, 142, 143 View o f Antwerp (Va n Balen an d Grimmer) , 12 View o f the Interior o f th e Colosseum (Brueghel) , 7, 8, 52, 14 2 Village Landscape with Self-Portrait (Brueghel) , 15, 16 Vincenzo I Gonzag a (duk e of Mantua), 19-2 0 Virgil, 140 , 17 4 The Virgin in a Niche Adorned b y Angels with a Garland (Galle) , 162 , 163 The Vision o f Saint Hubert (Brueghe l and Rubens) , 82-89 , 83 , 84, 86, 109, I2O, 226 , 240 , 24 1

Vrancx, Sebastian , 31 , 31, 16 3

Wedding Banquet Presided over by the Archdukes (Brueghel) , 15, is The Wedding o f Cupid an d Psyche (Goltzius) , 6 0 The Wedding ofPeleus an d Thetis (Brueghel an d Va n Balen) , 6o, 62 , 62 The Wedding ofPeleus an d Thetis (Brueghel an d D e Clerck) , 139 Wildens, Jan , 29 , 124 , 125 Willem V (prince o f Orange), 6 4 Winter Landscape with Angels Scattering flowers (Brueghe l and Rottenhammer), 13 3 Wolfgang Wilhel m (duk e o f Pfalz-Ncuburg), 9 4 Wooded Landscape with Gypsy Women (Govaerts) , 124 Wooded Landscape with Nymphs., Dogs, and Hunting Spoils (Brueghel) , 114, 114, 20 6

X-radiographs, 55 , 183, 219, 231, 232, 234, 236, 23 6 underdrawing, 221-23 , 228-30 , 243 , 248. See also under Brueghel and Rubens The Union o f the Scheldt River and th e City o f Antwerp (Janssens) , 56

PHOTOGRAPHY CREDIT S

Alinari/Art Resource , Ne w York : figs. 5, 99; Artothek : cat . no . 16 , figs. 49, 68 ; Art Resource , Ne w York : figs. 7, 15, 23 , 27, 29, 30 , 34 , 35 , 69, 89 , 9 6 (photo: Józsa Denes) , 104 ; Bildarchi v Preufiischer Kulturbesitz/Ar t Resource , New York : figs. 33 (photo: Christop h Irrgang) , 5 1 (photo : Jôr g P . Anders) , 64 (photo : Christoph Irrgang) , 9 3 (photo: Jôrg P. Anders); Kunsthistorische s Museum , Vienna : fig . 95 ; Museo Naciona l de l Prado : figs . 52 , 140, 14 1 (right), 144 (to p right)—infrare d image s courtes y of Ana González Mozo , camera propert y of Laboratorio de Metrologia Ottica per l a Diagnostica de i Beni Culturali, Universit a degle Studi, Milan, an d INOA; Pete r Mae s (photographer) : figs, n, 24, 87; Photo Collection s Rijksburea u voo r Kunsthistorische Documentatie (RKD) , The Hague : figs. 45, 73, 101; Photographi c Survey , Courtauld Institut e o f Art, London : fig . 3 ; Sotheby's, London : fig. 78; Wen Hwa Ts'a o (photographer) : fig. 84

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Abouout the Authors

T I A R N A D O H E R T Y i s associate conservator of paintings a t the J. Paul Getty Museum. Sh e joined the Gett y Museum in 20 01, afte r postgraduat e internship s a t the Opifici o dell e Piètre Dure, Florence; th e Hamilton Kerr Institute, Cambridge; an d the scientifi c departmen t o f the Nationa l Gallery, London. She has an M.S. in art conservation fro m the Winterthur/University of Delaware Program in Art Conservation. Sh e has lectured and published on Rubens and on seventeenth-century collaboration s betwee n painter s as well as between painters and cabinetmakers . She is an assistant coordinato r o f the ICOM Committee fo r Conservatio n Paintings Specialt y Group. M A R K L E O N A R D earne d his undergraduate degre e i n art conservation a t Oberlin Colleg e an d continued hi s studies in both ar t history and conservation a t the Institute o f Fine Arts at New York University. He worke d i n the Painting s Conservation Departmen t a t the Metropolitan Museu m of Art i n New Yor k for five years before joining the staf f of the J. Paul Getty Museum, where he is now hea d of the Department o f Paintings Conservation . I n additio n t o his study an d treatment of paintings a t the Getty Museum , he has worked on a number o f important picture s from a n international arra y of other collections . H e ha s published on a number of different topics , rangin g from studie s of artists5 techniques to the introduction of new materials for use in conservation .

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A R I A N E VA N S U C H T E L EN ha s been curator a t th e Roya l Picture Gallery Mauritshuis since 1995, after having been assistant curator at the Rijksmuseu m i n Amsterdam fro m 1990 to 1995 . She has co-organized divers e exhibitions , including Dawn o f the Golden Age (Rijksmuseum) , Johannes Vermeer^ an d Rembrandt by Himself. He r recen t publications include Holland Frozen in Time—The Dutch Winter Landscape in the Golden Age; Portraits in the Mauritshuis (with Ben Broos); and contributions to Hans Holbein 1497/98-1543 an d Carel Fabritius 1622-1654. J 0 R G E N W A D U M i s a paintings conservator an d a n ar t historian and is currently chief conservator at the Staten s Museum fo r Kunst , Copenhagen. Sinc e 1984 he has specialized in the painting techniques of sixteenth- and seventeenthcentury Dutch an d Flemish artists. He ha s published and lectured internationally o n a multitude o f subjects related t o this and other issue s of importance for the understandin g and conservation of our cultura l heritage. He serve d as chair of the ICOM Committee fo r Conservation from 200 2 to 2005 . A N N E T . W O O L L E T T i s associate curator i n th e Departmen t of Paintings at the J . Paul Getty Museum, specializin g in Northern paintin g before 1700 . She received her Ph.D. fro m Columbia University, with a dissertation on the altarpieces of the Antwerp militia guilds, 1554-1615 . She has lectured an d published on Rubens, late-sixteenth-century Flemish painting, and Rembrandt. Sh e co-organized th e Getty Museum exhibition Making a Renaissance Painting and contributed t o the exhibitio n catalogu e Rembrandt's Late Religious Portraits.