THE
ATLANTIC
CROSSING GUIDE
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R C C P I L O TA G E F O U N D AT I O N
THE
ATLANTIC
CROSSING GUIDE 7th edition
PREPARATION, PASSAGES AND CRUISING GROUNDS
Jane Russell
R C C P I L O TA G E F O U N D AT I O N
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Adlard Coles Nautical An imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc 50 Bedford Square London WC1B 3DP UK
1385 Broadway New York NY 10018 USA
www.bloomsbury.com www.adlardcoles.com ADLARD COLES, ADLARD COLES NAUTICAL and the Buoy logo are trademarks of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc 7th edition first published 2017 Copyright © RCC Pilotage Foundation 1983, 1988, 1992, 1998, 2003, 2010, 2017 Copyright © photographs as credited This electronic edition published in 2017 by Bloomsbury Publishing Plc First published in Great Britain by Adlard Coles 1983 Reprinted with amendments 1984, 1985 Second edition 1988 Revised reprint 1989 Third edition published by Adlard Coles Nautical 1992 Reprinted with amendments 1994 Reprinted 1996 Fourth edition 1998 Fifth edition 2003 Sixth edition 2010 Seventh edition 2017 Original edition by Philip Allen. Previous editions revised and updated by John Lawson, Anne Hammick and Gavin McLaren. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publishers. No responsibility for loss caused to any individual or organisation acting on or refraining from action as a result of the material in this publication can be accepted by Bloomsbury or the author. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Library of Congress Cataloguing-in-Publication data has been applied for. ISBN: HB: 978-1-4729-4766-6 ePDF: 978-1-4729-4764-2 ePub: 978-1-4729-4765-9
This product has been derived in part from material obtained from the UK Hydrographic Office with the permission of the UK Hydrographic Office, Her Majesty’s Stationery Office. Charts and tidal information © British Crown Copyright, 2017. All rights reserved. THIS PRODUCT IS NOT TO BE USED FOR NAVIGATION. Notice: The UK Hydrographic Office (UKHO) and its licensors make no warranties or representations, express or implied, with respect to this product. The UKHO and its licensors have not verified the information within this product or quality assured it.
CAUTION While the RCC Pilotage Foundation, the author and the publishers have used reasonable endeavours to ensure the accuracy of the content of this book, it contains selected information and thus is not definitive. It does not contain all known information on the subject in hand and should not be relied on alone for navigational use: it should only be used in conjunction with official hydrographical data. This is particularly relevant to the plans, which should not be used for navigation. The RCC Pilotage Foundation, the authors and the publishers believe that the information they have included is a useful aid to prudent navigation, but the safety of a vessel depends ultimately on the judgement of the skipper, who should assess all information, published or unpublished. The information provided in this pilot book may be out of date and may be changed or updated without notice. The RCC Pilotage Foundation cannot accept any liability for any error, omission or failure to update such information. To the extent permitted by law, the RCC Pilotage Foundation, the author and the publishers do not accept liability for any loss and/or damage howsoever caused that may arise from reliance on information contained in this publication. Find out more For a wealth of further information, including updates and correctional supplements, passage planning guides and cruising logs for this area, visit the RCC Pilotage Foundation website at www.rccpf.org.uk. Keeping up to date To help keep our publications up to date, the RCC Pilotage Foundation relies on you, fellow cruising sailors, to send in written, photographic and chart information relating to small vessel pilotage and navigation, including information for remote areas where other sources of information are scarce or non-existent; or if you notice any errors or omissions please let us know. We value your knowledge. Please contact us at info@rccpf.org.uk.
The RCC Pilotage Foundation is very grateful to Navionics for allowing use of their images for many of the port and harbour plans. These images are intended only as illustrations and are not to be used for navigation. Navionics images are © Navionics. To find out more about our authors and books visit www.bloomsbury.com. Here you will find extracts, author interviews, details of forthcoming events and the option to sign up for our newsletters.
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Wind and current plans are based on information from The Atlantic Pilot Atlas. Image on pii: Dream waters, Bermuda. oliver wells
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CONTENTS Foreword to the seventh edition
vii
Acknowledgements
ix
RCC Pilotage Foundation
vii
Map of routes
x
Preface to the seventh edition
viii
Index of plans
xii
Introduction
1
• The transatlantic dream • A choice of routes PART 1 • PREPARATIONS 1 Thinking it through
3
• Asking the right questions • Being self-sufficient • Casting off • Joining a rally • Citizen science 2 Preparing the boat
8
• Which boat? • How sound and watertight is your hull? • Bilge pumps • The rig • Sail plan • Wear on sails • Reefing systems • Anchors and anchoring • Self-steering • Emergency steering • The main engine • Electrical system and electronics • AC power • Alternative power generation • Auxiliary generators • Dinghies and outboard engines • Fendering • Maintenance and spares 3 Creating a home from home
33
• Bunks and sea berths • Stowage • Clothing • Temperature regulation • Insect screens • The galley • Cooking fuel • BBQs • Fridges and freezers • Provisioning • Fishing • Food pests • Water • Alcohol • Waste disposal 4 Navigation and communications
• Laptops • Tablets and smartphones • Ship’s log • Chart accuracy • Electronic charting • Great circle routes • Integrated systems • Echo sounder • Radar • AIS • Eyeball navigation • Coping with mid-ocean electronic failure • GMDSS
• Short range communications • Long range communications • Mobile phones and shore internet • Traditional snail mail 5 A happy ship
• Crew harmony • Seasick crew • Crew recruitment • Crew rendezvous • Keeping watch • Ship’s time • Creating privacy • Children on board 6 Keeping healthy
67
• Seasickness • Diarrhoea • Dangers from the sun • Injuries • Burns • Swimmer’s ear • Insect bites • Insect-borne diseases • Contraception • Medical cabinet 7 Dealing with risk
49
60
72
• Planning for the worst • Man overboard (MOB) • Collisions • Gales and line squalls • Lightning • Fire • Abandoning ship • Liferaft • Grab bags • SARTs • EPIRBs • Flares • Security and firearms • Other risks • The Atlantic hurricane season 8 Protocol and paperwork
82
• Regulations • CITES • Documentation • Entry procedures • Money • Duty-free imports • Insurance • Traffic separation schemes • Scuba diving
v
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CONTENTS
T H E AT L A N T I C C R O S S I N G G U I D E
PART 2 • PASSAGE PLANNING 9 Atlantic weather, currents and route timing
• Winds • Currents • Tropical weather patterns • Route timing • Fog • Ice • Weather forecasts • Port information
87
24 Colón, Panama
Key Ports in the North Atlantic
96
10 The Atlantic coast of Europe
98
1 2 3 4 5 6
102 106 109 113 116 119
Crosshaven, Cork, Ireland Falmouth, United Kingdom Brest, France A Coruña (La Coruña), Spain Baiona (Bayona), Spain Cascais, Lisbon, Portugal
11 Strait of Gibraltar and the Atlantic coast of Morocco to Madeira and The Canaries Harbours in the Strait of Gibraltar 7 Gibraltar 8 La Linea, Spain 9 Ceuta (Spanish enclave on the Moroccan coast) Harbours on the Atlantic coast of Morocco 10 Mohammedia, Morocco 11 Agadir, Morocco Harbours in Madeira 12 Porto Santo, Madeira 13 Marina Quinta do Lorde, Madeira Harbours in the Canaries 14 Puerto de la Luz, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria 15 Marina Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz de Tenerife
12 Cape Verde Islands, Senegal and The Gambia
122 127 127 130 132 134 135 137 139 141 143 145 148 150
153
The Cape Verde Islands 155 16 Porto Grande, Mindelo, São Vicente, Cape Verdes 157 West Africa 159 17 Dakar 159 18 The Gambia 160
13 Atlantic Ocean – Trade Wind Routes 162 14 Landfalls in the Caribbean 19 Port St Charles/Bridgetown, Barbados 20 Chaguaramas Bay, Trinidad 21 Rodney Bay, St Lucia 22 English Harbour/Falmouth Harbour, Antigua 23 British Virgin Islands
15 Routes across the Caribbean and landfall in Panama
166 175 179 182 184 187
16 The Caribbean Islands to Florida 25 Luperón, Dominican Republic 26 Providenciales, Turks and Caicos 27 Georgetown, Great Exuma, Bahamas 28 Marsh Harbour, Abacos, Bahamas 29 Fort Lauderdale, Florida, USA
17 Landfalls on the Atlantic coast of the USA – including entrances into the Intracoastal Waterway 30 Beaufort/Morehead City, North Carolina, USA 31 Norfolk, Virginia, USA 32 Annapolis, Maryland, USA 33 New York, New York, USA 34 Newport, Rhode Island, USA 35 Portland, Maine, USA
191 196
199 202 204 206 208 210
213 224 226 229 232 237 240
18 Passages in the middle latitudes of the North Atlantic – including landfalls in Bermuda and the Azores 243 36 St George’s, Bermuda The Azores Group 37 Porto das Lajes, Flores, Azores 38 Horta, Faial, Azores 39 Ponta Delgada, São Miguel, Azores
249 253 256 258 261
19 Passages and landfalls in the higher latitudes of the North Atlantic 263 40 Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada 41 St John’s, Newfoundland, Canada 42 Stornoway, Isle of Lewis, Scotland, UK
Appendices
269 274 277
281
Appendix A Charts
281
Appendix B Suggestions for further reference
282
Appendix C Glossary of meteorological terms
283
Appendix D French meterological terms used by Météo France
284
Appendix E Metric conversions
285
Appendix F Glossary of British and American terms 286
Index
289
vi
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T H E AT L A N T I C C R O S S I N G G U I D E
As ocean cruising yachts have become increasingly larger and more comfortable, technology has developed in all sorts of ways which has allowed an Atlantic crossing to become both safer and more easily attainable. However, these developments bring with them additional complexity in equipment, systems and information sources and with this comes an ever greater need to prepare the boat and crew thoroughly and comprehensively. The Atlantic Crossing Guide covers all aspects of boat and crew preparation – from communications to safety considerations and health, from provisioning to paperwork – together with passage planning material covering the principal routes in the North Atlantic. Jane Russell, who authors this seventh (her second) edition, is not just an experienced yachtswoman with a number of ocean crossings under her belt but also a skilled editor of cruising guides for the RCC Pilotage Foundation. This background puts Jane in a prime position to author such a comprehensive and authoritative guide to sailing the Atlantic. However, Jane would wish me to emphasise that books such as this are not just the work of
RCC Pilotage Foundation The RCC Pilotage Foundation was formed as an independent charity in 1976, supported by a gift and permanent endowment made to the Royal Cruising Club by Dr Fred Ellis. The Foundation’s charitable objective is ‘to advance the education of the public in the science and practice of navigation’. The Foundation is privileged to have been given the copyright to books written by a number of distinguished authors and yachtsmen and these are kept as up to date as possible. New publications are also produced by the Foundation to cover a range of cruising areas. This is only made possible through the dedicated work of our authors and editors, all of whom are experienced sailors, who depend on a valuable supply of information from around the world by generous-minded yachtsmen and women. Most of the management of the
the author but also the product of the many contributors, past and present, who have made available their advice, expertise and photographs. The RCC Pilotage Foundation is indebted to Jane and the many contributors who have worked with her on this edition. In addition special thanks go to Lance Godefroy and his colleagues at Navionics who have made possible the plans included in this edition. The Atlantic Crossing Guide partnership between the RCC Pilotage Foundation and Adlard Coles Nautical goes back thirty five years. We are grateful to Janet Murphy and Clara Jump and the team at Adlard Coles Nautical (Bloomsbury) for such an excellent presentation of this seventh edition. The RCC Pilotage Foundation’s priority is to maintain the highest level of quality in our publications through accuracy and currency of the information presented. To achieve this, we rely on feedback from our readers and we welcome any and all comments on this publication to info@rccpf.org.uk. We also invite readers to visit our website www.rccpf.org.uk which features the full range of RCC Pilotage Foundation publications and supporting cruising information. Antony Wells Hon Director RCC Pilotage Foundation
FOREWORD TO THE SEVENTH EDITION
Foreword to the seventh edition
Foundation is done on a voluntary basis. In line with its charitable status, the Foundation distributes no profits; any surpluses are used to finance new publications and to subsidise publications covering some of the more remote areas of the world. The Foundation works in close collaboration with three publishers – Imray Laurie Norie & Wilson, Bloomsbury (Adlard Coles Nautical) and On Board Publications. The Foundation also publishes its own name guides and pilot books, including web downloads, for areas where limited demand does not justify large print runs. Several books have been translated into French, Spanish, Italian and German and some books are now available in e-versions. For further details about the RCC Pilotage Foundation and its publications, visit: www.rccpf.org.uk.
R C C P I L O TA G E F O U N D AT I O N
vii
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P R E FA C E T O T H E S E V E N T H E D I T I O N
T H E AT L A N T I C C R O S S I N G G U I D E
Preface to the seventh edition The trade wind route across the Atlantic was my first long ocean passage. Although I subsequently continued on across the Pacific and Indian Oceans, my memories of how it felt to be in that first phase of adventure remain strong. When I set off from Penarth with my husband, the longest passage either of us had been at sea was 48 hours. We were in our late 20s and sailing on a tight budget, determined to cast off before the norms of land life held us in their grip. Not entirely unexpectedly, I spent eight days being seasick as we crossed Biscay, so we were eternally grateful to our two good sailing friends, Dominic Preston and Verity Spence, who came with us to Spain and helped us to get over that first hurdle. We had studied every possible book and magazine article, including the The Atlantic Crossing Guide. We had also loaded ourselves up with a ludicrous amount of provisions, as well as every conceivable piece of spare equipment. Looking back, it is a wonder we didn’t sink under the sheer weight of it all! Despite all the advice and preparation, as we cast off I remember feeling that I was embarking on a personal journey into the unknown. I’m sure that is true for everyone who first sets out to cross an ocean, which is why it still remains a challenge and why the rewards are many and
varied, and sometimes unexpected. Living under a lightpolluted sky, I had no idea how completely out of touch I was with the rhythms of the moon and the stars. To be alone on night watch in the middle of the Atlantic and see the full night sky laid out above me from horizon to horizon, with the occasional shooting star triggering a flash of pure joy, is an experience burned into my soul. So too is the incredible intensity of phosphorescence as a display team of dolphins surfed and raced alongside in the ocean swell. I remember a frequent feeling of surprise – there were so many ‘firsts’ and there was so much to learn about the ocean and about all the places and people I encountered. We are in an era where, even mid-Atlantic, we can remain connected to anywhere in the world. As I write, there is an unmanned test ‘yacht’ attempting to sail itself across the Atlantic, completely reliant on its computermodelled ‘intelligence’ and integrated systems. There is a sense that the whole universe is shrinking and, perhaps, that our human role is becoming ever less significant. To sail a small vessel across an ocean is to be reminded of the wonder of the vastness of it all yet, conversely, to better understand our own human significance through the need for self-reliance. The magic is still there to be savoured – just look up from the screens and shift your gaze to the far horizon. Jane Russell
Towards the far horizon. mungo morris viii
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T H E AT L A N T I C C R O S S I N G G U I D E
I remain indebted to all of those who contributed to the sixth edition, which formed a strong backbone to this edition, notably John and Jenny Franklin (OCC/CCA), whose continuing support and network of connections helps me in a multitude of ways, particularly with introductions to key people for specific information. My husband, David, is my long suffering technical adviser. As well as being an experienced long distance cruising sailor, in his engineering career he has worked on everything from nuclear submarines to superyachts, dinghies to work boats, modern carbon fibre to historic wooden ships. If I have my technical facts straight it is usually down to him. This edition would not have been possible without the help of a number of key contributors: Ed and Megan Clay last season completed an Atlantic circuit on their Contessa 38, Flycatcher of Yar, from the UK via the Atlantic islands and West Africa, the Caribbean, the Intracoastal Waterway (ICW) and US coast northwards to Nova Scotia, Newfoundland and back home via the ice strewn waters of Greenland. At the same time, Mungo Morris and Rosie Spooner, who are both doctors and have cast a professional eye over the medical section, completed a circuit on their 45ft steel cutter, Morvagh, on a similar outbound track but back from New York direct to the Azores. Also heading east last summer was Oliver Wells who was crewing a Swan 57, Equinoccio 3, via Bermuda and the Azores. In more recent months Tim Hagon joined the 2016 ARC fleet on a 46ft Lagoon catamaran, Fenella. Richard Woods has now become a regular ‘snowbird’ to and fro the Bahamas
and Caribbean via the US coast and ICW and the 2016–17 season was no exception, this time on his Skoota powercat. Heading up the South Atlantic to the Caribbean were Tom Partridge and Susie Plume on their Hylas 46, Adina. Andrew and Máire Wilkes have been repeat visitors to Arctic waters on their steel, 44ft gaff yawl, Young Larry. I’m also very grateful to Doug and Dale Bruce (Cruising Club of America) who acted as my American translators and helped with details about New York, Long Island Sound and the Maine coast, as well as encouraging me on aspects of the Preparations text, and to Norman Kean, Hilary Keatinge, Richard Hamer, Donald Kelshall and Anthony Fawcett. Each one of these generous spirited cruising sailors has advised on text updates, sent me numerous photographs and been patient in the face of my repeated requests for more of everything. World Cruising Club has kindly allowed me to use several of their rally photographs. There are many other individuals who have contributed photographs and who are credited with each of their images. I could not have done it without them all and I cannot thank them enough for all of their contributions. Many of the plan images in this edition would not have been possible without the involvement of Lance Godefroy and his colleagues at Navionics. I am very grateful to Lance for his patient advice, encouragement and enthusiasm. Finally, thanks to the RCC Pilotage Foundation and to Janet Murphy at Bloomsbury for having faith in me, and to Clara Jump and all of the Bloomsbury team who have worked so hard to bring this edition to such a high standard of publication. The finished book is the result of team effort at every stage and it is a privilege to be part of such a team.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Acknowledgements
ix
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O V E R V I E W O F T H E N O R T H AT L A N T I C
Greenland
60°
N
50°
Canada Newfoundland
ia
va No
40°
ot Sc
indicates Gt Circle route
USA
Bermuda 30°
20° Mexico
10°
0° 110°
Ch 10 Ch 11 Ch 12 Ch 13 Ch 14 Ch 15 Ch 16 Ch 17 Ch 18 Ch 19
Barbados Colon
Venezuela
Colombia
100°
90°
80°
70°
60°
50°
PLAN 1 An overview of the North Atlantic showing common passage routes and route feeds covered in Part 2.
0.0.1 Overview of North Atlantic - Routes & feeds
x
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O V E R V I E W O F T H E N O R T H AT L A N T I C
Iceland
Greenland
Norway
United Kingdom
Sweden
Germany
France
Portugal
indicates French Canals
Italy Spain
Azores Algeria
Madeira
Tunisia
Morocco Libya
We ste rn Sa ha
ra
Canary Is
Mauritania Cape Verde Is Senegal
Guinea Nigeria Ivory Coast Ghana Cameroon
50°
40°
30°
20°
10°
0°
10°
xi
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INDEX OF PLANS
T H E AT L A N T I C C R O S S I N G G U I D E
Index of plans PLAN 1 Chapter
coverage of routes
x
PLAN 2
North Atlantic currents in December
89
PLAN 3
North Atlantic currents in June
89
PLAN 4
Key ports in the North Atlantic
96
PLAN 5
The Atlantic coast of Europe
98
PLAN 6
Winds and currents off the European coast in August 101
PLAN 7
Cork (Cobn) Harbour, Ireland
103
PLAN 8
Crosshaven, Ireland
105
PLAN 9
Falmouth, UK
107
PLAN 10 Brest, PLAN 11 A
France
110
Coruña (La Coruña), Spain
PLAN 12 Baiona
(Bayona), Spain
PLAN 13 Cascais,
Lisbon, Portugal
of Gibraltar and the Atlantic coast of Morocco to Madeira and the Canary Islands
114 117 120
PLAN 14 Strait PLAN 15 Tidal
charts for the Strait of Gibraltar
PLAN 16 Winds
and currents off the Moroccan coast
PLAN 17 Gibraltar PLAN 18 La
122 125 125
PLAN 46
The Virgin Islands
187
PLAN 47
Road Town, Tortola, BVI
189
PLAN 48 Virgin PLAN 49 The
Gorda Yacht Harbour, Virgin Gorda, BVI
190
Caribbean Sea, showing common transit routes 191
PLAN 50 Winds
and currents in the Caribbean Sea during March
PLAN 51 Colón, PLAN 52 The
Panama
192 197
Caribbean Islands to Florida
199
PLAN 53 Winds
and currents between the Caribbean Islands and Florida during May 200
PLAN 54 Luperón,
Dominican Republic
PLAN 55 Providenciales, Turks PLAN 56 Georgetown, PLAN 57 Marsh
and Caicos
Great Exuma, Bahamas
Harbour, Great Abaco, Bahamas
203 204 207 209
PLAN 58 Fort
Lauderdale, Florida, USA
211
PLAN 59 The
Atlantic coast of the USA
213
PLAN 60
Winds and currents off the Atlantic coast of the USA 214
PLAN 61 Iceberg
limits and the percentage chance of encountering fog off the North American coast in July
128
Linea, Spain
131
PLAN 62 Entrance
to West Palm Beach, Florida, USA
221
133
PLAN 63 Entrance
to Fort Pierce, Florida, USA
222
136
PLAN 64 Entrance
to Charleston, South Carolina, USA
223
138
PLAN 65 Entrance
to Cape Fear River, North Carolina, USA
223
139
PLAN 66 Beaufort/Morehead
142
PLAN 67 Approaches
144
PLAN 68 Norfolk
146
PLAN 69 Annapolis,
PLAN 19 Ceuta,
Spain
PLAN 20 Mohammedia, PLAN 21 Agadir, PLAN 22 The
Morocco
Madeiran archipelago
PLAN 23 Porto
Santo, Madeira
PLAN 24 Marina PLAN 25 The
Morocco
Quinta do Lorde, Madeira
Canary Islands
City, North Carolina, USA
to Norfolk, Virginia, USA
harbor, Virginia, USA
215
225 226 227
Maryland, USA
230
New York, New York, USA
233
PLAN 26 Marina
Lanzarote, Arrecife
147
PLAN 70
PLAN 27 Puerto
de la Luz, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria
149
PLAN 71 New York
to Cape Cod
234
PLAN 28 Marina
Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz de Tenerife
151
PLAN 72 Newport,
Rhode Island, USA
238
153
PLAN 73 Approaches
PLAN 29 Madeira
to the Cape Verdes and West Africa
PLAN 30 Winds
and currents off the coast of West Africa during November
PLAN 31 The
Cape Verde Islands
PLAN 32 Porto
Grande, Mindelo, São Vicente, Cape Verdes
PLAN 33 Dakar, PLAN 34
Senegal
Banjul, The Gambia and currents across the Atlantic during December
154 155 158
to Portland, Maine, USA
routes in the middle latitudes of the North Atlantic
241
PLAN 74 Typical
PLAN 75 Prevailing
244
winds and currents in the North Atlantic
for June
245
159
PLAN 76 Bermuda
249
161
PLAN 77 St
251
PLAN 35 Winds
George’s, Bermuda
PLAN 78 The
ports in the Azores archipelago
253
163
PLAN 79 Winds
PLAN 36 Typical trade wind routes across the Atlantic Ocean
164
PLAN 80 Lajes
PLAN 37 Caribbean
167
PLAN 81 Horta,
Faial, Azores
259
Delgada, São Miguel, Azores
261
island chain
Harbour, Flores, Azores
PLAN 38 Winds
in the East Caribbean during January
171
PLAN 82 Ponta
PLAN 39 Winds
in the East Caribbean during May
171
PLAN 83 The
171
PLAN 84 Winds
PLAN 40 Currents PLAN 41 Port
in the East Caribbean during March
St Charles, Barbados
PLAN 42 Bridgetown, PLAN 43
175
and currents around the Azores for July
higher latitudes of the North Atlantic
and currents across the North Atlantic in the higher latitudes during June
Barbados
177
PLAN 85 Prins
Chaguaramas, Trinidad
180
PLAN 86 Halifax,
Christian Sund, Greenland
255 257
263 264 267
Nova Scotia, Canada
271
John’s, Newfoundland, Canada
275
PLAN 44 Rodney
Bay, St Lucia
183
PLAN 87 St
PLAN 45 English
Harbour/Falmouth Harbour, Antigua
185
PLAN 88 Stornoway,
Isle of Lewis, Scotland, UK
278
xii
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INTRODUCTION The transatlantic dream For so many of us, the dream of crossing the Atlantic Ocean is to cast off, break free, head for the far horizon and live the adventure. We are dreaming of clear turquoise waters, green flash sunsets from tropical lagoons, and nights under the full panoply of stars. Or perhaps we have Viking blood in our veins and yearn to follow Erik the Red and live our own sagas with ice rather than coral filling our thoughts. More than a thousand years of transatlantic voyages have been woven into our history and the stories told have become embedded in our imaginations; tales of exploration and settlement, emigration, colonisation, slavery and trade, as well as those of pure adventure. We are following in the wake of so many who have gone before us. Nevertheless, perhaps for some more than others, the dream may feel daunting. If it ever was, it is certainly no longer a voyage to the edge of the world; but, in a small vessel of any kind, even today, it may well feel as if that is what you are embarking on, and with good reason: the Atlantic Ocean covers one-fifth of the surface of our planet and one-third of its surface area of water. We may refer to it as ‘The Pond’, but it’s still a mighty big pond to cross. The dream remains a challenge.
For everyone who crosses the Atlantic each year, there will be many more for whom the dream never becomes a reality. It used to be said that only one in a hundred actually makes it happen. There are many reasons for this; but the better prepared you are, the greater your chances of being one of the successful few. Part 1 of this guide will help with the process of preparation.
A choice of routes According to Jimmy Cornell’s most recent global yacht survey, over a thousand cruising yachts sail across the Atlantic Ocean every year. Some of them make a single crossing on their way to popular cruising grounds in the Mediterranean or the Caribbean; most make a return crossing and complete a circuit along the classic routes, although increasing numbers now head for the high latitudes. From northern Europe, the majority head south to find the trade winds. The fastest passages loop from the Canaries to the Caribbean but, for those with more time, the coast of West Africa can prove to be a memorable cruising ground before heading west. From either the
For some transatlantic voyagers it is ice, not coral, that fills their dreams. ed clay 1
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INTRODUCTION
Living the dream: Al Shaheen enjoys a romp in the trade winds, a serious ocean cruiser with many sea miles under her keel. www.yachtshotsbvi.com Canaries or West Africa, the Cape Verde Islands are a logical stop-off as they sit on an ocean crossroad within the trade wind belt and are a good departure point for passages westwards or south-west towards Brazil. The classic route out from the eastern shores of the USA is via Bermuda and the Azores. The majority of yachts heading eastwards from the Caribbean used to join this route; however, far fewer of these now make the detour to Bermuda and many choose to head straight to the Azores. A few boats come in through Panama. Many more will leave the circle via Panama as they head for the Pacific. The RCC Pilotage Foundation Pacific Crossing Guide covers preparations and passage planning from Panama throughout the Pacific Ocean.
Part 2 focuses on routes and ports in the North Atlantic. For those who plan to head southwards to Brazil and beyond, or who are heading up the South Atlantic, further information can be found in the following:
FURTHER READING RCC Pilotage Foundation titles: Brazil (Pete Hill) A Cruising Guide to French Guiana, Suriname and Guyana (Martin Dixon-Tyrer) Argentina (Andy O’Grady and Pete Hill) Cape Horn and Antarctic Waters (Paul Heiney) Chile (Andy O’Grady) South Atlantic Circuit (Tom Morgan) Havens and Anchorages (Tom Morgan) South West Africa (Pete Hill) South Atlantic Islands (Pete Hill) Supplement to Falkland Island Shores (Pete and Annie Hill) For information about these and more, visit the RCC Pilotage Foundation website at www.rccpf.org.uk.
A NOTE ABOUT WEBSITES
Morvagh enjoying the early days of her Atlantic circuit. charles
There is now a great wealth of information available via the internet as well as from more traditional sources. Reference to useful websites is made in the appropriate sections of the text. Some of the websites may not remain live for the lifetime of this edition, but in most cases it should be possible to use a search engine to find the current address for a particular website.
darwall
2
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P ART
1
PRE PARAT I ONS
THINKING IT THROUGH
The dream of sailing across the Atlantic Ocean is shared by people from a diverse range of backgrounds and age groups. You may be a retired couple who have been planning it for most of your lives. Perhaps you are grabbing the chance of a year out from work or studies. You may be a youngster who has to do it on a tiny boat and a tiny budget. It could be your first ocean crossing, but some of you will be approaching the Atlantic having already experienced other ocean passages. Whoever you are, your approach to it will be specific to you. Even if you plan to join a rally, your preparations and route plans should reflect your own ideas and aspirations. There is seldom only one way to prepare, but the more you have thought it through, the more likely you are to get it right for you.
Asking the right questions If you are at an early phase of planning your Atlantic crossing, it may be useful to ask yourself the following questions: What is the budget? If you are retired from a well-paid career, your decisions will be very different to those of a 20-year-old who is doing it on a shoestring. Think through your budget for each phase:
• • •
Buying the boat and equipment Ongoing running costs Your daily needs and extras like trips ashore and emergency situations
In the preparations phase for an extended cruise, it is easy to get carried away with all the ‘must have’ items. For some, this will mean a folding bicycle and kite surf equipment, whereas for others it will mean a washing machine and a dive compressor. Whatever it is, think through how often it will be used and what the added cost will be in terms
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of space on board or ongoing maintenance. As you sink lower and lower on your lines, you may need to reassess: is it really a necessary luxury, or might it turn out to be an unnecessary complication? On a low budget you will have fewer options, but not necessarily poorer ones. Simplicity on board can often equate to greater freedoms. The more complex and extensive the fit-out, the bigger the burden of monitoring and maintenance. You will need to find a balance that suits you and your crew. (See Chapter 2, pages 26–28, to think through the balance of power requirements.) What is the timescale? The necessity of a tight schedule will lead to solutions that differ from those who are happy to drift for as long as it takes. Even if you have time available, it is all too easy to retain the constant rush from A to B that we all tend towards on land. Yet surely the biggest luxury for any of us is time. If you choose to go as fast as you can, switching on the engine as soon as the speed drops below 5 knots, you risk missing out on much of the magic. Mid-ocean, blowing in the wind, drifting on the current, taking as long as it takes, is one of the few opportunities to truly disconnect from all the things that usually clamour for your attention; it is a chance to reconnect with your own thoughts and with the rhythms of the sea and the sky, a chance to reconnect all of your senses to enjoying the sailing for its own sake. Who will I go with? Unless you are planning to be a single-handed sailor, you will need to consider all the many aspects of sharing a boat with other people. Whether you plan to sail as a couple, be fully crewed, or are intending to take children, you should plan accordingly. For many couples, this can involve some difficult decisions. It is very common that the blue-water dream is not shared equally. Often this arises when there is a disparity in levels of experience and confidence. But this doesn’t have to be a barrier. Everyone will be on a learning curve and the 3
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T H E AT L A N T I C C R O S S I N G G U I D E important thing is to try to be open and honest with each other about your hopes, fears and expectations, then work through these together, as a team, from early on in the planning stage (see Chapter 5). What route will I follow? Are you heading for the trade winds, with no intention of cruising higher latitudes? Or are you hoping to test yourself in colder waters? Part 2 will help to inform you about the various possibilities. Why do I want to do it? Perhaps this should be the first question on the list, but your answer may well change over time. Nevertheless, if you know what you are trying to achieve, your planning will be simplified. For example, if your dream is to slow down and escape as far as possible from the life you have had on land, your choices may differ markedly from someone who wants all the modern conveniences on board. And if a transatlantic passage is one of your bucket-list experiences, you will have very different expectations to someone who is hoping to continue on an open-ended live-aboard retirement cruise.
Being self-sufficient Sailors who are used to coastal cruising in home waters have a tendency to assume that there will always be help on hand if problems arise. Even in an era of satellite communications and EPIRBs, and when sailing on a rally, there can be times, mid-ocean, when the nearest practical help is many hours, if not days, away. It does not matter whether your vessel is a 6.7m (22ft) plywood home-build or a state-of-the-art superyacht. What is most important is that the combined vessel and crew is a self-sufficient unit. The crew need a vessel that is properly seaworthy. They need to know how to maintain that seaworthiness, and how best to look after themselves. This requires adopting a self-sufficient way of thinking. In the preparation phase, a useful way of testing your level of self-sufficiency is to use constructive pessimism to find solutions to imagined worst-case scenarios by repeatedly asking the question ‘What if…?’ For example: ‘What if the steering cables part?’ or ‘What if the furling gear jams?’ or ‘What if there is a man overboard?’ or ‘What if the watermaker fails?’ or ‘What if one of us gets appendicitis?’ The same ‘What if?’ question could and should be asked about all aspects of the boat, its equipment and its crew. Some of the questions will seem small and easy to answer, others will seem catastrophic and nightmarish. But if you have imagined those scenarios, and if you have thought through a response, two things will be true: first, you should have equipped yourself with whatever is necessary to solve the problem; and second, you will be mentally prepared to get on and do whatever is needed. A headin-the-sand ‘It worries me so I’m trying not to think about
it’ or an overly optimistic ‘Don’t worry, it’ll never happen’ will leave you unprepared to deal with even minor issues; whereas ‘I’ve thought about it and I know exactly what I would do’ leads to a good degree of self-sufficiency. If you think there could be problems with something, don’t ignore that instinct. One more headache before you go is nothing compared with the pain of problems while on passage. Whether you have owned your boat for years or just taken delivery of a brand-new yacht, it is important that you really know the boat inside and out. Investigate all the systems; practise servicing all the mechanical parts and have a comprehensive set of spares (see page 31). If you know how everything fits together you will be less daunted about trying to fix things when they go wrong. Living on board for a period before you set off can be a good way of ensuring that you really know your boat.
Casting off The flip side of preparing for every eventuality is that it may sometimes feel as if you are never going to finish the list of jobs and get away. Most people find it useful to set a date for departure. Then, even if you haven’t completed your preparations, you can start with a short passage to make the first break from your land-based life. Try to keep a perspective about the things that are not essential to seaworthiness and survival. Don’t delay your departure for the sake of niceties. Once you are cruising, you will probably find that you have a lot more time to potter about and improve on the basics. One of the hardest aspects of casting off is all the goodbyes. Those you leave behind may feel as if they are losing you for ever, and you may well feel the same when it comes to it. But it is now possible to stay in touch on a regular basis, even if it is just by text via a Yellow Brick (see Chapter 4). A regular blog or vlog is a great way of keeping everyone at home in touch with your adventures. However, upsets do arise when those back home come to expect regular contact. There are a number of reasons why you might not be able to make contact at a particular time or on a particular day. It is much better to cultivate a feeling that no news is good news and that it may be several days before you are next able to be in touch.
Joining a rally Joining a rally is an increasingly popular choice. Around 300 boats with over 1,500 crew now take part in the ARC (Atlantic Rally for Cruisers) from the Canaries to the Caribbean and ARC+ via the Cape Verdes. Coming the other way, ARC Europe is for boats heading from the Caribbean or the USA to Europe, the two fleets joining together in Bermuda before continuing to the Azores. There are other
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The 2016 ARC start from Las Palmas, Gran Canaria. james m more, world cruising club transatlantic rallies, which are smaller and take different routes; for example, Rallye Des Iles du Soleil leaves from Lanzarote and crosses to Marie-Galante on Guadeloupe. The Cornell Sailing Odyssey rallies allow a choice of routes and timings. The European coast plays host to numerous rallies every year, including World Cruising Club feeders to the main ARC such as ARC Portugal. From the USA there are several rallies such as the ARC Carib 1500, which runs from Chesapeake Bay to the British Virgin Islands, with a return ARC USA. If the rally itself is your goal, there will be no question in your mind as to any pros and cons. The ARC or the Carib 1500 have certainly become iconic events in their own right. But if you consider a rally simply to be a means to achieving your voyage you will need to consider whether or not that is really the right decision for you. Joining a rally is not a guarantee of safety. There are several incidents each year where rally yachts help each other in mid-ocean, and rallies clearly offer a considerable level of organisational backup, but assistance can never be guaranteed and organisers of rallies are the first to recognise the need for proper preparation and thorough self-reliance. To this end, they will provide you with a vast array of information, advice and practical training to guide you through and they may insist that you fulfil certain requirements for length of vessel, types of equipment carried on board and levels of training. These are usually sensible prerequisites for anyone intending to undertake an extended cruise for the first time, although some of the requirements may be beyond those on a small boat or a tight budget. A popular reason for choosing to rally is that it forces you into setting a departure date and dictates the pace of your
WEBSITES The ARC rallies: www.worldcruising.com French ‘Le RIDS’ rally organisers: www.rallye-ilesdusoleil.com Noonsite rallies: www.noonsite.com/General/Rallies Odysseys: cornellsailing.com
cruising. A downside of this is that you are then obliged to stick to that date and that pace, whatever the weather pattern and however your plans may have changed since leaving home waters. If you want to dictate your own pace and itinerary and don’t think a rally is for you, you won’t find yourself alone. Cruising yachts travelling similar paths do evolve naturally into their own cruising communities. These smaller groups usually keep in touch at sea and help each other in various ways, and they certainly get together to celebrate when they make landfall. It would be wrong to assume that if you don’t join a rally you will remain isolated from other cruisers. However, probably the biggest draw of a rally is the inbuilt social aspect, part of which is to offer some competition on passage, even outside the racing divisions. Training courses are an invaluable confidence boost, not least because they are occasions when lasting friendships form, generating plenty of mutual encouragement through the months of preparation pre-departure. Then there are numerous gatherings and celebrations along the way with like-minded people of all ages. 5
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T H E AT L A N T I C C R O S S I N G G U I D E
Citizen science The world’s oceans remain the great unknown compared with our knowledge of land and sky. When you cross an ocean in a small sailing vessel, you are still a human pioneer in this habitat. It is highly likely that you will observe dolphins and whales on several occasions while on passage. Likewise, you will probably snorkel or dive on many different reef systems. There may be things that strike a chord with you – sightings of seabirds, a strange fish caught, or unusual patches of bioluminescence. Recording your observations and passing them on to the relevant scientists may help to advance our understanding. The problem, for most of us, is in knowing what to note down. But if in doubt, record it. There are numerous websites that may be of interest, particularly if you are cruising with children. Some encourage active feedback of information and are an ideal way to become more involved. It is useful to have a range of books or apps to help identify what you see. See Appendix B for further reading suggestions.
The Secchi Disk Foundation The University of Plymouth, UK, runs the world’s biggest citizen science project, which records levels of phytoplankton in the world’s oceans. Phytoplankton levels are an extremely useful indicator of the health of the whole planet. The Secchi Disk is a 30cm-diameter plain white disk, attached to a tape measure and weighted sufficiently from below to make the disk sink vertically. It is one of the oldest and simplest marine scientific tools. You can make a Secchi Disk from any material, such as a white bucket lid. A good material is 3mm or 5mm Foamex as it is easy to cut and you can often obtain remnants from printing/ display companies. Alternatively, you can buy one direct from the project website.
A Secchi Disk is very simple to set up. secchi disk foundation
When a Secchi Disk is lowered vertically into the water, the depth below the surface at which it just disappears from sight is called the Secchi Depth. This measures the clarity of the sea water, which, away from estuaries and coasts, indicates the amount of phytoplankton at the sea surface; so by measuring the Secchi Depth, you help map the ocean’s phytoplankton. You can record Secchi Depths at random on passage or establish a local sampling site and measure repeatedly. The project app helps to keep recordings straightforward. This long-term study began on 22 February 2013 and has no end date or geographic boundaries in the sea. The Plymouth scientists need the help of cruising sailors to add to their data. For more information about how to get involved, start at: www.secchidisk.org
OceansWatch This group undertakes marine conservation projects and offers humanitarian aid to coastal communities in developing countries. It aims to strengthen global links between yachtsmen, divers and marine researchers, teachers and conservationists. Originally based in the Pacific, it now has a North American branch and a UK branch: www.oceanswatch.org
Cetaceans Every encounter with dolphins is an uplifting, joyful experience. Equally, any whale sighting feels like a privilege. Your logged observations may help our understanding of these extraordinary creatures. There are several organisations that collect cetacean sighting data. Try the following to get started: The Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society, UK Download their sightings form from uk.whales.org Orca Network, Washington, USA Report sightings by email or via a web form at www.orcanetwork.org
The sheer joy of it – dolphins riding the bow wave. mungo morris
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A pod of pilot whales. ed clay
OBSERVING CETACEANS Extract from the Marine Code of Conduct for vessels observing cetaceans: • If you sight them within a kilometre, maintain a steady speed of less than 10 knots. • Do not chase them, drive a boat directly towards them, or encircle them. • If they choose to bow-ride, maintain a steady speed and course. • Do not change course in a sudden or erratic manner. • Do not change speed, up or down, in a sudden manner. • Avoid deliberately driving through or between groups. • Avoid close approach to individuals with young. • Do not swim with, touch or feed them. • Do not throw rubbish or food near or around them. • Always allow them an escape route. Avoid boxing them in between vessels. • Refrain from calling other vessels to join you. • Move away slowly if you notice signs of disturbance, such as repeated avoidance behaviour, erratic changes in speed and direction, or lengthy periods underwater. • Remember that many of the sounds made by craft directly overlap the frequencies used by cetaceans and may confuse them.
Green turtles, Tobago Cays. Many turtles are endangered and recorded observations could help to ensure their survival. mungo morris
www.seawatchfoundation.org.uk
Coral reefs Reef Check Worldwide is an organisation that depends on citizen science volunteers to help to monitor reefs, including those in the Caribbean: www.reefcheck.org REEF is another site that encourages you to submit data and also has quizzes for crew of all ages to test their knowledge of reef fish, invertebrates and algae: www.reef.org
Observations of coral reefs are fundamental to our understanding of how the oceans are changing over time. ed clay
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PREPARING THE BOAT Which boat? Which is the perfect boat for you? The answer to this is probably the one that you already know. In an era when the Atlantic Ocean is regularly crossed in rowing boats or even on wind-surfers, there is little point in being too narrowminded about what design of sailing boat constitutes the right sort of ocean-going vessel. However, there are certain characteristics that are critically important for any vessel to be safe on an ocean voyage and these are discussed in the following sections. The average size of Atlantic cruising yachts has increased steadily over the past 20 years to more than 15m (50ft). There is a tendency to think that bigger must be better, more comfortable, more dependable, but it’s not necessarily a straightforward equation. If you are a cruising couple, you need to consider how comfortably you will be able to manage a big boat on your own. As size increases above 12m (40ft), the sails, running rigging and anchors quickly become too big to manhandle routinely and you have to commit to electric winches and other powered devices; all the on-board systems become much more complicated and power-hungry.
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Monohull or multihull? There are pros and cons to the various designs and build materials. The majority of cruising yachts crossing the Atlantic are monohulls, but the number of catamarans has been increasing steadily. Whatever the design, the ability to hold a steady track is a vital quality because it reduces the work of the self-steering systems. A boat that tracks well will have a happier, less tired crew.
Monohull A critical consideration in any monohull is stability and keel integrity. A design that has been categorised as suitable for offshore sailing may, nonetheless, not be designed with an adequate margin of safety to withstand the constant wear and tear of long passages across an ocean. A keel that is encapsulated in the hull is a stronger construction than a bolted-on keel. Most modern monohull yachts have bolted-on keels, but if you are planning to head offshore you need to be absolutely certain of the strength and integrity of the hull construction, keel plate and bolts. Be aware that a fin keel is vulnerable to any underwater collision, after which the structural matrix around the
Well-proven Atlantic cruising yachts come in all shapes and sizes and with a wide range of equipment. jane russell 8
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Multihull Worldwide there is a growing enthusiasm for cruising multihulls, predominantly catamarans. A major advantage is more space for a given length. However, you should resist the temptation to fill that space. The forces on the rig of a multihull are potentially much greater than on a monohull rig because the multihull does not heel to the wind. Instead, multihulls need to be able to accelerate, so
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keel plate can become weakened. This is often difficult to detect and may deteriorate over time. Keel bolts do corrode and may fatigue. Once one keel bolt or a part of the surrounding matrix begins to fail, the remaining parts are placed under increased stress and catastrophic failure is therefore more likely. Tell-tale signs may include cracking, either inside or out, and around the back of the fin where it joins the hull and/or matrix, and weeping of water from (or opening of ) the hull to keel joint when hanging in slings. If in doubt, seek expert advice from a qualified surveyor. Centreboard or lift keel yacht designs are now well established and the best examples provide an alternative solution to the compromises between stability, draught, manoeuvrability and speed. Consider the design of the system, including the raising and lowering mechanism. How accessible are they for inspection and maintenance? Think through the worst-case scenarios: of a capsize with the centreboard up and with the centreboard down; of a jammed or broken lifting or lowering mechanism midpassage. Will the yacht remain stable and seaworthy in such situations? Inspect pivot pins and other bearing surfaces for wear before an ocean crossing.
The tragic result of keel loss mid-ocean. united states coast guard
See Marine Accident Investigation Branch report into the Cheeki Raffiki keel loss at www.gov.uk/maib-reports/ keel-detatchment-and-capsize-of-sailing-yachtcheeki-rafiki-with-loss-of-4-lives
they are built light and should remain as light as possible. The lighter the build, the more vulnerable they are in a collision and the less able to withstand the rigours of longterm cruising. The relatively greater speed of a multihull may appeal. However, if you are cruising as a couple you may sometimes need to restrict that speed. Very fast sailing can be exhausting and dangerous.
One advantage of a catamaran is that it gives the helm a relatively high view which helps eyeball navigation. richard woods 9
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T H E AT L A N T I C C R O S S I N G G U I D E The inherently buoyant characteristic of a multihull is a positive safety factor. Concern used to focus on the fact that a capsized multihull will not re-right. However, cruising multihull capsizes are now reported much less frequently than monohulls losing their bolt-on keels. Even upside down, a properly designed and built cruising multihull remains a life-preserving raft; its watertight bulkheads and lack of ballast mean that even if it is badly holed it should not sink.
WEBSITE Woods Designs advice on multihulls at www.sailingcatamarans.com/index.php/articles/29general/197-why-sail-a-catamaran
How sound and watertight is your hull? Fundamental to seaworthiness is a sound hull. If you are uncertain about the state of the hull or deck it may pay to have a survey and/or strip away the paint layers and thoroughly investigate any corrosion, rot or chronic osmosis. But try to retain a sense of perspective. For example, many fibreglass boats cruise for years with some degree of osmosis. But knowing the real condition of your hull and deck allows you to remedy any areas of potential weakness. This will remove a great deal of nagging anxiety, and probably save you time and money in the long run. Once you are confident about the hull, you need to think about all hull and deck fittings and openings. This
is as true for a new boat as an old one. Imagine the boat upright in the water and consider all the skin fittings below the waterline. Then imagine the boat in a knock-down position and consider hatches, lockers, companionways, vents, stove pipes, toilets and so on. How watertight would you be? Then take that thought even further and imagine the extreme situation of being rolled over. Again, think about where water could get in. No one, and especially not multihull sailors, will want to consider any scenario other than remaining upright. But although it is extremely unlikely that you will ever be rolled over or even knocked down, it is quite possible that you will experience waves breaking over the deck and filling the cockpit. It is far better to feel confident that you are a corked bottle bobbing about on the water than to be at all doubtful about your seaworthiness.
Skin fittings Every hole in the hull below the waterline, or just above the waterline, should be protected by a seacock. There are many different types of seacock and the type you use may depend, in part, on the material of your hull. Some seacocks are more corrosion resistant than others. A major benefit of the traditional, lever-operated types is that it is immediately obvious whether they are open or shut by looking at (or feeling for) the lever position. Gate valves with turn handles, such as are used for domestic plumbing, are not suitable for use on ocean-going boats. They will disintegrate or seize in the marine environment and should be replaced at the first opportunity. Tapered cone seacocks should regularly be stripped and examined, cleaned and greased, or renewed if suspect. Aim to check them each time you apply antifouling. Most seacocks are now ball valves, which may not be so easy to strip and examine, but these should also be greased and inspected on an annual basis. If there is discolouration (pinking) or pitting, consider replacing them. Hose connections should be secured with two all-stainless-steel clips. Reinforced plastic hoses should be renewed if they have hardened. Ideally, each skin fitting should have a conical softwood bung attached on a lanyard, ready for use if the skin fitting fails. Failing that, keep an appropriate range of bungs on board that are easily accessible.
Stern glands, propeller shafts and cutless bearings
In conditions such as this, it is good to feel confident in the seaworthiness of your boat. mungo morris
Understand your stern gland! Traditional stuffing boxes or packing glands rely on an appropriate thickness of greased packing material wrapped around the propeller shaft. They are designed to allow a small but steady leak of sea water to cool the gland. Too little packing or lack of grease will cause significant leakage, but too much packing material can create friction and cause overheating and wear on the shaft. Once the shaft is worn it becomes impossible to pack or grease effectively and needs to be replaced.
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Sail drives Most production yachts less than 15m (50ft) long are fitted with a sail drive. These are generally cheaper and more straightforward to install than more traditional propeller shaft systems. The most significant downside is that any damage to the main seal around the drive leg could allow a catastrophic ingress of water. Regular inspection of the main seal and oil seals should be routine and occasional
replacement will be necessary. Drive legs protrude perpendicularly from the underside of the hull and may be vulnerable to impact damage and entanglement. Choice of a suitable propeller and rope cutter is relatively limited. The drive leg has to sit in a sealed well in the hull, which often makes it difficult to position it sufficiently close to the rudder for efficient steering at slow speeds (because of the reduced prop wash passing the rudder).
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Always carry spare packing and the correct grease and remember to turn the greaser regularly (one turn every eight hours) when motoring. Packing material should be replaced every year because it is liable to harden over time. Modern versions do not require a greaser but do have a water injection point fed from the engine cooling system. The more modern designs of stern gland are drip free. There are two distinct varieties. The first incorporates a ‘mechanical’ seal, which depends upon two perfectly smooth discs – usually of ceramic or carbon materials – pressing against each other to maintain a seal. One disc revolves with the shaft, while the other, connected to the hull, remains stationary. The second variety is a ‘lip’ seal. This is composed of a sleeve around the shaft log (stern tube) with one or more rubber seals embedded within it. Most of these types now have at least two seals, which need be kept wet. If there is no water injection system, the gland will need ‘burping’ to allow trapped air to escape on relaunching. These seals are usually maintenancefree over a long period of time, but eventually they may deteriorate and have to be replaced. This requires partial withdrawal of the propeller shaft in order to remove the shaft coupling. In the meantime, if failure has occurred, there may be a flood of incoming water. If the gap between the propeller shaft and the stern tube is too wide, the inflow may be greater than a bilge pump would cope with. Replace your seals if you have any doubts about their longevity. Boat engines are usually on flexible mounts and the stern gland has to accommodate this movement. It is common to use a length of hose to attach the stuffing box to the stern tube. Failure of this hose would result in a rapid inflow of water. The hose should be examined for any signs of deterioration and should be replaced if necessary. It should be fixed in position with two all-stainless-steel hose clamps at each end. Because the stern gland is an integral part of the motorised drive system of the boat, it shouldn’t be dealt with in isolation. There is little point in carefully renewing your stern gland while failing to check the condition of other parts of the system. Do not renew your stern gland without also checking the state of the engine mounts. Similarly, a worn cutless bearing will cause excessive shaft movement, which will stress the stern gland seals. If you are removing the shaft to service one part of the system, check the condition of the other component parts.
Marine toilets Many boat toilets are below the waterline. They are susceptible to siphoning water into the toilet. This has been known to sink boats if left undiscovered. To prevent this, an anti-siphon loop should be fitted above the line of water at all normal angles of heel and as high as possible. These should be fitted on both inlet and discharge hoses. It is worth considering a composting toilet (see page 48).
A watertight deck Hatches, cockpit lockers, the companionway, deck fittings, windlass navel pipe, dorade vents and mast collar are all potential points of water ingress. Drip leaks through deteriorating decks or poorly sealed fittings may not appear to threaten the seaworthiness of your boat but they can make the difference between a happy, effective crew and a miserable, over-tired one. All hatchways and lockers should be looked at with the thought of a knock-down or a large wave breaking across the deck. The amount of water that might enter the boat in such circumstances could be catastrophic, so check their basic strength, hinges and seals. Make sure your decks can be as watertight as your hull. In the event of the cockpit filling with water, the cockpit lockers should be well secured and sealed. The cockpit drains should be of a large enough diameter to allow rapid drainage. Make sure they do not get bunged up with debris. Water should not be able to run from a full cockpit into the boat through the companionway. If the companionway entrance is at a lower level than the cockpit seats (or coaming), it may be wise to seal in a lower washboard up to this level when on passage. It is important that you can seal the companionway from both the outside and the inside. Attach removable washboards to lanyards so they cannot be lost.
Bilge pumps Inevitably, a little water will occasionally find its way below. With this in mind, at least two high-capacity bilge pumps are essential. One should be manual and operable from the cockpit, preferably within reach of the helmsman. It is important that you can use this pump without needing to keep a cockpit locker open. Spare parts for all pumps should be carried. 11
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T H E AT L A N T I C C R O S S I N G G U I D E No manual or electric bilge pump will be able to cope with the flow from even a minor below-water leak for very long. A fit man can pump about 90 litres (20 gallons) of water a minute, but only for a short period of time. A large yacht, or one with a weak crew, should consider fitting a large-capacity pump driven directly from the main engine via a clutch, or from an auxiliary generator; this is the only type of pump that has the slightest chance of coping for any length of time with the incoming water caused by significant underwater damage. Bilge pump outlets above the waterline have been known to back-siphon when boats are heeled over for a long period of time or when they have sunk down on their lines for any reason. There should be an anti-siphon loop between the pump and the outlet and a seacock on the outlet.
The rig Your rig is your power house. On a cruising boat, the spars and sails will be in almost constant use and they need to be up to the job. The majority of modern boats are Bermudan sloops or cutters, but all the more traditional rigs, including junk rigs, have also proved their worth. Gaff rigs are enthusiastically recommended by many seasoned transatlantic cruisers. Modern materials have produced
aero-rigs and the unstayed mast and wishbone rig adopted by the Freedom class, both of which have successfully crossed the Atlantic. It doesn’t really matter what type of rig you have, as long as it is capable of working hard for you.
Mast and spars Both keel-stepped and deck-stepped masts have their own advantages and drawbacks, and both have been well proven at sea. Both types require considerable reinforcement of the hull and deck to prevent distortion. This is usually achieved with a correctly positioned main bulkhead. A deck-stepped mast should also have a compression post to transfer its loading down to the keel. A keel-stepped mast may cause some leakage around the deck collar, but because it is supported at deck level, any break will probably occur high enough to furnish at least the beginnings of a jury rig. A mast stepped on deck is dependent on the rigging for its support, and any failure there is likely to result in the loss of the whole rig. Check your mast for any corrosion or wear. This may involve removing fittings, particularly on an older aluminium mast. Aluminium spars are vulnerable to corrosion around steel fittings or at the heel, especially if stepped onto steel. There should always be a layer of insulating material between the dissimilar metals. It is possible for the aluminium to degrade unnoticed, until either the fitting pulls out under strain or the spar suddenly collapses. But there is usually some sign of corrosion, chalkiness or powder on the surface, which should prompt you to take remedial action. Unless you are fully confident of your own expertise, it is worthwhile to have a professional check over any inmast or in-boom furling systems. Ask them to show you what signs of wear and tear to look out for and how to minimise them. Inspect the mainsail track and check for any protrusions that could cause the cars to jam. It is a good idea to spray the track with a Teflon spray to help the cars to run smoothly.
Standing rigging
Fitting shroud or mast steps makes rig checks easier as well as aiding eyeball navigation. mungo morris
Before setting off on any long passage or extended cruise, it is really important to ensure that all standing rigging is in good order, as failure on an ocean passage may lead to disaster. Unless you have an unstayed rig, the shrouds and stays are what you depend on to keep the rig in one piece. Despite this, all too often these vital parts of the boat are not given the attention they need. Faults in metalwork are often invisible so, even if there are no apparent problems, unless you are certain of the history of your rig, you might want to consider replacing the standing rigging. The life of stainless steel wire is generally considered to be about ten years. Stainless steel wire is vulnerable to repeated bending stresses and it is essential that the load lies straight along the axis of the wire and its fittings. All rigs move a little in relation to the hull, so toggles are designed to accommodate this
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Modern garage tang. Welded tang. Through bolted conventional tang. T terminal. Correctly matched T terminal and backing shell. Mismatched T terminal and backing shell. richard hamer, fox’s rigging movement and maintain the axial loading on the wires. Toggles should be fitted between the bottlescrew and chain plate of all shrouds and stays. Headsail stays are subject to extra bending forces, as a glance up the luff of a headsail will show. It is essential that these wires are fitted with toggles at the mast and at the deck. Despite these measures there will be weak points, usually where the wire enters a terminal. Examine all your terminals, whether swaged or swageless, including those at the top of the mast. The fracture of a single strand of wire or distortion of the terminal indicates that something is seriously wrong, and the shroud or stay should be replaced as soon as possible. Because the condition of swaged joints is often hard to assess, swageless terminals (Norseman or Sta-Lok) may be preferable. These terminals can be fitted in a few minutes with no special tools, and they can be dismantled periodically to inspect the condition of the wire inside. They may also be reusable when the wire has reached the end of its life. Swageless terminals cannot be used with galvanised wire.
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Remember that, either aloft or at deck level, the rigging is only as strong as its weakest point. The fittings to which the shrouds and stays are attached, top and bottom, are as important as the wires. On larger modern rigs, welded tangs and garage tangs have replaced through-mast, conventional tangs. With improvements in design and production, T terminals are also now in standard use. It is important that the geometry of the T terminal is matched to its backing shell to avoid stress fractures around the fitting as well as bending stresses on the wire. This is unlikely to be a problem with a new mast but is an important consideration if renewing the standing rigging. All the eyebolts and chain plates, including those for forestays and backstays, should regularly be examined. Any component that has been damaged or seems suspect should be replaced. Eyebolts eventually wear through. Chain plates are sometimes difficult to access, but it is important that you satisfy yourself that they are strong enough in themselves, and that their anchorage to the hull or deck, and the way in which the loads are spread, is adequate. Check your spreaders and think about upgrading your spreader fittings if necessary. The old advice used to be to upsize the rigging if you are heading across an ocean. But with modern stainless rigging this is not necessarily the case. The rigging wire is an integral part of the whole rig, which is designed to be in balance with the hull. By upsizing one or more of your rigging wires you might create destructive loads in another part of the boat. Many modern cruising yachts carry considerable weight and windage up the mast. Inmast furlers, mast steps and radar will all increase the loads and should be taken into consideration when assessing the rig’s integrity. If in doubt seek expert advice. In case of emergency, it is always wise to carry at least one spare length of rigging wire capable of replacing your longest, thickest shroud or stay and appropriate swageless terminals. In addition, you could carry low-stretch rope suitable for rigging, such as Colligo Dux, and have the knowledge and means with which to splice and tension it. You should also consider what action you might take if the worst happens and you lose the rig entirely. Do you have the means on board to cut the rig away? Standard bolt cutters, though frequently recommended for such situations, may be completely ineffectual on thicker gauges of wire. The best tool for the job is a batterypowered angle grinder with cutting disk.
WEBSITES Wire rig: www.stalok.com Dyneema standing rigging: www.colligomarine.com/fundamentals/
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Setting up the rig It is very important that the mast, when stepped, is ‘in column’. This means no S bends and no bend to either side or forwards. Check that the mast is straight by sighting up the mainsail track. However, most rigs are designed to have a degree of both pre-bend and rake aft. If you need to take your mast down and specialist riggers are unlikely to be available, it is a good idea to mark the positions of the bottlescrew threads before you start undoing anything. Use marker pen or tape. You could also measure your pre-bend and mast rake. These will all give you good reference points when re-stepping the mast. To check your rig tension, when close-hauled in moderate conditions the leeward cap shrouds should not begin to slacken until about 20 degrees of heel.
WEBSITE Seldén Masts produce a very good guide available as a ‘Hints and Advice’ download from their website at www.seldenmast.com/en/technical_info/rigging_ instructions.html Going aloft at sea is usually a nightmare to be avoided whenever possible. Fit a spare halyard in case one fails. rosie spooner
Running rigging Most cruising boats are equipped with modern synthetic ropes. Although these are much stronger and more durable than traditional ropes, they are still susceptible to chafe and UV damage. Don’t expect any ropes to turn an angle under load without a turning block – they will chafe through in a matter of hours. And it is important to ensure that all such turning blocks, sheaves and jammers are in line with the direction of load, are in good condition, and are large enough for the ropes used. Use clip-on barber haulers to minimise chafe where sheets feed through guard wires or past stanchions. The modern tendency is for running rigging to be led aft from the mast to the cockpit. This has the advantage of reducing the need to leave the cockpit but, even with the best hardware, friction will be increased and ropes will be subject to additional
wear and UV exposure. Examining all halyards, furler lines and sheets for any sign of chafe should become part of a regular routine, daily on ocean passage. End-for-ending will increase their lifetime. Going aloft at sea is usually a nightmare to be avoided whenever possible. On a catamaran, the motion at the top of the mast can be particularly violent and erratic. Fit a spare halyard in case one fails. An oversize topping lift will double up as a halyard for the main or mizzen, and a spinnaker halyard for the genoa. The fittings at the masthead must be appropriate for these secondary purposes because the spare halyard may be in emergency use for days on end. If you do need to go up the mast of a catamaran at sea, the best solution is to leave the sails up, hove to and stop; don’t forereach. This should help to stabilise everything sufficiently.
KEEPING THE PEACE There is often a symphony of sound on board, which can be a pleasure. However, there is nothing worse than being subjected to the cacophony of intermittent twanging, tapping and thrumming of unruly rigging, particularly if you are trying to sleep. Have several short lengths of hook-ended shock cord or similar ties with which you can tame any unemployed halyards, reefing lines and so on. Use the ties in harbour or at anchor even when you are not on board, so as not to annoy the neighbours. This sort of chafe can set in very quickly. End-for-ending can extend the lifetime of running rigging. mungo morris 14
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Some boats have crossed the Atlantic quite successfully with only a roller furling genoa and a roller furling mainsail. Traditionally rigged or racing yachts tend towards the other extreme and have hanked-on sails of every description. Most cruisers fall somewhere in the middle, minimising the need for constant sail changes but with a variety of sails to allow some flexibility of the sail plan. A typical sail inventory for a Bermudan sloop might be:
• Mainsail • Roller furling genoa • Second headsail • Storm jib • Storm trysail • Spinnaker and/or cruising chute or other lightweight sail
It is the second headsail that may require the most thought. Is it carried as a spare and therefore made to fit up the same foil as the genoa – either as a replacement or to form a double headsail rig – or should it be designed to hank onto a new, but temporary, snap-tensioned inner forestay as an entirely separate sail? Is the standing rigging designed to withstand the new loading? If the second headsail is a No 2 and designed for heavy weather, should a lightweight headsail be carried? And if so, should it be free flying, designed for the foil, or hanked? Decisions about the rig will largely depend on your existing boat and your wish to have the most efficient sail plan available to you to cope with all conditions. They will also depend upon your willingness to operate on the foredeck to make best use of that sail plan. Crew strength may dictate that the rig is kept very simple – and anyway, unnecessary complications should always be avoided – but, unless you are prepared to run the engine (with all the fuel and maintenance issues that implies), whatever you decide you must have confidence that your chosen rig is suitable for extensive, chafe-free downwind sailing as well as the more varied conditions found in more northern waters.
risks of a crash gybe. Another block and tackle between the centre of the boom and the lee rail will prevent the boom, and therefore the sail, from chafing up and down against the lee rigging. Rarer nowadays, though worthy of a comeback, the true twin headsail rig, high cut and with twin poles stowed up and down the mast, was for many years the hallmark of the ocean cruiser. The rig evolved not so much for its efficiency as for its self-steering attributes. Before the advent of reliable vane gears or autopilots, twin headsail rig was the only way that most yachts could be persuaded to steer themselves before the wind. It remains the easiest rig on the helm, whether human, mechanical or electrical. Other advantages are that it is remarkably free from chafe; wear and tear on the mainsail is avoided and there is no danger of an accidental gybe. Drawbacks are that some yachts roll with no fore-and-aft canvas to steady them and, once the gear is rigged, manoeuvrability is considerably reduced, though this is not normally an issue mid-ocean. Setting a storm trysail and sheeting it hard amidships may ease the rolling. It will gybe repeatedly, but will come to no harm. A common twin arrangement is for one sail to be the normal roller-furling genoa, and the other to be a spare headsail hanked to a temporary stay. The size and weight of the second headsail can be suited to the prevailing conditions. An alternative is to have two identical or similar sails, each set in one of the twin grooves of the roller gear. These sails can be furled and unfurled together as the wind strength varies. Those who have used this arrangement are enthusiastic about it, but the loads on
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Sail plan
Downwind rig The simplest downwind rig is mainsail and boomed-out genoa. The main is set to leeward, and the genoa poled out to windward, the pole being secured with topping lift, guy and foreguy. The advantage of this rig is that no special gear or sails are needed. More significantly, the yacht is much more manoeuvrable and can be brought onto the wind very quickly if required. However, the drawbacks are more wear and tear on the mainsail and more work on the helm. You may need to reef the main to improve the balance and reduce weight on the helm. Wear on the sail can be minimised by using a tightly set-up foreguy, which, if correctly sized, will also act as a preventer, reducing the
With main and genoa downwind, you may need to reef the main to improve the balance and reduce weight on the helm. megan clay
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T H E AT L A N T I C C R O S S I N G G U I D E pole leaping about uncontrollably. The foreguy will also prevent the pole being driven aft into the shrouds should the end dip into the sea. Ropes do chafe where they pass through the pole ends and you may need to remedy this – chandlers sell pairs of lightweight leather patches, which can be sewn to sheets to save them from chafe.
Sails for light airs
This classic twinned-out arrangement reduces wear on the mainsail and lightens the load on the helm while trade wind sailing. sebastian koziura the furling gear will be larger than normal and it must be man enough for the job. With a cutter or slutter rig, the two headsails can be twinned out very easily, but in light winds it is likely that more sail area will be needed. Double headsails need at least one pole, and preferably two. With two poles on board, you have some redundancy built into your systems should a pole or pole fittings fail. If only one pole is available, the main boom will serve as the other, supported by the topping lift and with a foreguy holding it as far forward as the shrouds will allow. The headsail sheet is run through a block at the boom end. Poles attached to a track forward of the mast also need to be controlled by a topping lift, together with a guy led to the quarter and a foreguy led to the foredeck. This enables the sail to be reefed without the problem of the spinnaker
If the budget allows, it is a good idea to consider carrying some form of lightweight sail for broad reaching or running downwind in lighter winds – for example, a symmetrical spinnaker or asymmetric. Think through whether the crew will be capable of reducing such a sail should the wind strength increase rapidly, and think twice about using a light wind sail at night, particularly if short-handed. A symmetrical spinnaker provides better performance, allowing you to run deeper downwind, but requires more gear and more hands to run effectively. If you have two spinnaker poles, it is possible to set the spinnaker using both poles. This is a stable setup for sailing dead downwind in light airs. Many cruisers opt for an asymmetric, also called a cruising chute or gennaker, which is basically a cross between a large lightweight genoa and a spinnaker. These are very effective for broad reaching, require less gear, and when designed to be furled or used with a snuffer or sock are easier for a couple to handle. Another downwind option is the Parasailor with its distinctive slot and horizontal wing. These are becoming popular with cruisers seeking performance as they can be used to sail deeper downwind angles and are easier to handle than a traditional symmetrical spinnaker. The slot and wing provides stability, reducing the rolling associated with downwind sailing, and also helps absorb gusts or knocks, reducing stress on the rigging. The Parasailor is typically flown without the mainsail and comes with a snuffer to allow for easier hoisting or dropping. It can be flown with or without a spinnaker pole, instead using a ‘tacker’, a plastic collar that simply sits around the forestay and to which the tack of the sail is attached.
WEBSITES Parasailor: www.parasailor.com How to set a cruising chute: www.kempsails.com/ technical-data/11-using-a-cruising-chute.html
The Parasailor, with its distinctive slot and wing, is growing in popularity. vincent chirie
With any form of spinnaker you will need to focus on minimising sheet chafe, especially if using a spinnaker pole, and it is advisable to add chafe protection in key places. Halyards running through a mast head sheave are very prone to chafe and should be raised or lowered slightly every few hours to avoid the worst excesses of chafe at the mast head. Alternatively, a separate spinnaker halyard can
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be rigged outside the mast with a swivelling block at the mast head. This dedicated spinnaker halyard will be less prone to chafe and doubles up as a spare halyard.
Storm sails Regardless of what other headsails are aboard, you should carry a small, heavy storm jib, set on a wire luff, and fitted with shackles to pass around the stay at head and foot for extra security. If using roller furling, either a permanent or temporary inner forestay is essential for hoisting the storm jib. This forestay may need extra support, from either running backstays or additional lower shrouds swept well aft, and the deck fittings must be substantial. If you are planning to head for the tropics and stay there, you may never release the storm sails from their bags. However, most long-term cruisers do carry storm sails because if you are caught out in bad weather you will be glad of them, and because they are a backup in case of damage to your other sails. If you do carry storm sails it is very important that you understand how and where you will set them. For example, do you have a separate trysail track? You will only ever use storm sails in the worst of conditions, so your system for setting them must be foolproof and able to withstand storm loads. Practise before you really need them.
FURTHER READING Heavy Weather Sailing by Peter Bruce RYA Sail Trim Handbook for Cruisers by Rob Gibson
Wear on sails Sails are really put to the test when you are sailing 24 hours a day, for days or weeks at a time. The two main enemies are sun damage and chafe.
Sun damage The damaging effects of UV will quickly reduce the longevity of your sails. A stack-pack cover that is integral with a lazyjack system will protect the mainsail as soon as it is lowered. This system has the added benefit of a more controlled sail when slab reefing, although if the positioning of the lazyjacks is not correct they can sometimes foul up with the batten pockets. Roller-furling headsails should either have a cover or, more commonly, UV resistant strips on the leech and foot. Similar protection is needed on the clew of in-mast furled sails and the head of in-boom furled sails. Sails that have to stay on deck when in harbour should always be stored in UV-resistant bags. All sails will last longer if they are triple stitched with UV-resistant thread.
Flying a spinnaker on a catamaran is a relatively stress-free exercise with no need for a pole. tim hagon
Chafe Careful attention should be paid at all times to ways of avoiding chafe. The most likely place for this to occur is where a mainsail touches the shrouds when running downwind and this is one of the reasons why using two headsails is often favoured on long passages, allowing the main to remain stowed. It is worthwhile positioning reinforcing patches on any potential chafe points. A fully battened mainsail is very vulnerable to chafe where the battens press against the shrouds and at the luff; some extra protection will be needed here. Increased leech tension may also help. Some in-mast furling systems allow you to choose which direction to furl (clockwise or anticlockwise). Furl such that the lead edge of the sail is pulled to the windward side of the internal mandrel, which reduces chafe against the leeward back edge of the mast. Set sail with the mainsail very slightly furled to windward to help to remind you and to hold the leeward side of the sail off the back of the mast. If your system will only furl in one direction, you may need to head slightly into the wind to prevent the sail being pulled through a tight, chafing turn around the slot edge at the back of the mast. Let the wind pressure out of the sail by easing away the clew outhaul line before furling. Another area to watch out for is along the foot of the genoa, where it can chafe against the guardrails and the top of the pulpit. Constant vibration or flapping of the leech of any sail will weaken the cloth very quickly. Check your sheeting 17
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Even leather may chafe through where the sheets run through the pole ends. simon van hagen angles. Adjust the sheet cars on the track. A clip block on a couple of metres of rope makes a useful barber-hauler, which is very simple to deploy wherever it is needed. Effective leech lines are essential, especially for a reefed mainsail or partly rolled-up headsail. Most sailmakers will recommend a heavier cloth for cruising compared with racing. But unless those already on board are showing signs of wear and tear, there may be no need for new sails. If you choose not to replace existing sails, give them a very thorough inspection, get a sailmaker to put in new stitching or chafe patches where necessary and equip yourself with the means for on-board repair. Many cruisers end up with sail repairs on passage at some stage. After long periods of downwind sailing it is easy to become complacent about your sails. But as soon as you have to head up into the wind any weakness will be revealed, sometimes quite dramatically.
Reefing systems Learn to love your reefing system! Whether at the mast or fed back to the cockpit, make sure that all your reefing systems are straightforward but effective. You will frequently need to reef at night, by definition in worsening conditions. Any system that causes you to delay making the decision to put in a reef could endanger the boat and yourselves. Electric furling systems should have manual back-ups. All cruising mainsails should have three reefs. Traditionally a storm trysail would be set in place of a third reef, but for many cruisers a deep third reef is often simpler, quicker and therefore more useful. With the trend towards larger cruising yachts, in-mast or in-boom mainsail furling systems have become increasingly popular. This is because the sail becomes too big to manhandle routinely. However, there is always a possibility of system failure and you should think through what action you would take in what are likely to be worsening conditions with high winds and rough seas. There are pros and cons to the various furling systems. Any in-mast system should be designed in such a way that it is
Jammed furling gear can prove a real headache when you are mid-Atlantic. richard woods impossible to jam. See section on chafe (page 17) for advice about in-mast furling. In-boom furlers could be reverted to traditional slab reefs if necessary, but only if that alternative has been prepared for. Roller-furling headsails are now the norm rather than the exception, although many cutters retain a hanked-on staysail. If reputable furling gear is chosen and correctly fitted, the likelihood of problems is low, but the gear will need to be well maintained and should anyway be dismantled periodically so that the condition of the forestay can be checked. If a jam does occur with the sail reefed, it will be impossible to lower it. The best way to furl the sail in this situation is to motor in circles, passing the sheets around the sail. The alternative is to use a spare halyard to frap around the sail. As a backup, it is advisable to carry at least one reserve headsail (No 2 genoa or working jib size). This will need a spare stay, halyard and sheet leads. There are some systems on the market that rely on attaching the second genoa onto sheaves around the furled main genoa. Over time, these will chafe and damage the main genoa.
Anchors and anchoring Many a cruising conversation among seasoned yachtsmen revolves around the subject of anchors and anchoring. Trustworthy ground tackle is your most fundamental
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Tie anchors off (and isolate windlass) when heading to sea to prevent accidental deployment underway.
When cruising yachts tended to be of relatively heavy displacement, it used to be recommended to carry a really heavy anchor for use in extreme conditions. However, many lighter cruisers now baulk at carrying such weight. Most would prefer to adopt mooring techniques for extreme conditions that use two or more smaller anchors to provide holding power greater than that provided by
one big anchor. A Bahamian moor, backing the anchor or setting a forked moor are examples of such techniques (see page 20). Setting and retrieval is more complicated than with just one anchor, but you will finesse the techniques over time. The small amount of extra effort is usually worth it, but don’t leave the decision too late; once conditions have deteriorated it becomes increasingly difficult and dangerous to lay a second anchor.
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insurance. Unlike many home waters where a cosy harbour may be within reach, on an extended cruise there will be many occasions when there is no alternative but to ride out bad weather at anchor, sometimes in indifferent holding or poor shelter, and possibly with rocks or coral heads astern. At these times, the safety of the yacht and crew will depend entirely on the ground tackle and the skill with which this is deployed. It is not possible to overemphasise the importance of this equipment and the knowledge that must go with it. It is not unheard of for a yacht to set out on an extended Atlantic cruise having only ever moored up alongside, either on a pontoon or against a harbour wall. But one of the greatest differences between cruising in home waters and cruising long distance will be the amount of time you spend swinging to your anchor. Even in port, once you are away from northern Europe and the major American yachting centres, it is normal to spend time at anchor. This may be because alongside berths are simply not available, but even when there is a marina, considerations of privacy and security, not to mention expenditure, often make the anchorage preferable. Other advantages in the tropics are that there will be less trouble from insects and other pests, and the cooling breeze tends to be more prevalent in an anchorage. And anyway, who would want to be moored up in an overcrowded harbour or marina when you could be anchored in a tranquil paradise? There are several different types of anchor, and the pros and cons of each are frequently reviewed in the yachting press. It is likely that you already have at least one anchor on board. But every cruising yacht should carry at least three anchors, preferably of different types suitable for use on differing seabeds. For example, a traditional combination might have been a CQR on the bow roller plus a Danforth and a Fisherman’s anchor. Modern combinations might include a SPADE, a Rocna, a Manson Supreme and a lightweight aluminium Fortress. If you are buying a new anchor it is wise to choose anchors that are one level heavier than those recommended for your tonnage. Anchor manufacturers and cruising reference books provide tables giving recommended weights for various types of anchor.
WEBSITES SPADE: www.spade-anchor.co.uk/ Fortress: fortressanchors.com/ Manson anchors: www.manson-marine.co.nz/ Rocna anchors: rocna.com/
Windlass The combined weights of anchor and chain on yachts over about 9m (30ft) make a manual windlass an extremely welcome addition to the foredeck. Above around 11m (36ft), a power-operated windlass becomes increasingly attractive, particularly for a short-handed crew. Although the current it draws is high, it is only used for brief periods, so overall power consumption is not excessive and, anyway, most cruisers opt to have the engine running during anchoring procedures. In crowded anchorages, it seems prudent to have the engine running, even only as a backup, in which case the power draw from the windlass is less of an issue. Although windlasses are a wonderful aid on board, they do occasionally break down or seize. Is the crew physically able to pull up the chain and anchor by hand? Depth is an important consideration here. Most fit adults could lift an anchor and 3–4m (10–12ft) of chain hanging down to the seabed. Fewer would be capable of lifting the combined weight in 10m (30ft) or deeper without assistance. In such a situation, it is possible to lead the chain to a mast or cockpit winch, but there is a possibility that you will damage the winch, particularly if the lead to the winch is not fair. Block and tackle systems may help – or a pair of chain hooks on rope, which may be led to a winch and used in sequence to speedily recover the anchor. Whatever you rely on as a backup, you should aim to keep your windlass in good condition. You will then be more confident about anchoring with a good amount of scope, re-anchoring if necessary, and sometimes anchoring deeper than you would otherwise be able to. Self-stowing from the windlass will be improved if the chain falls straight down from the chain gypsy (wildcat) into a deep locker. The windlass, navel pipe and locker may have to be moved aft to get the necessary fall for reliable self-stowing. 19
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THE FORKED MOOR
A)
This is an excellent technique for situations when the wind direction is relatively constant and currents do not create repeated turning. It is possible to lay out the second anchor in deteriorating conditions. Holding power is increased, swinging area is reduced and yawing is dampened. Even if one anchor drags or one cable parts, the yacht should remain anchored, thereby allowing the crew the time to take further action if necessary. • Lay the main anchor.
B)
• Lay the second anchor either: A) under motor (You may have to lay out extra cable on the main anchor in order to reach the desired dropping point for the second anchor.) or B) from the tender (This is usually reasonably straightforward although the weight of the paid-out cable tends to make manoeuvering difficult.) • A 60° fork is simple to achieve by creating an equal-sided (isosceles) triangle between the bow of the yacht and the two anchors. Drop the second anchor the same distance from the main anchor as the length of the main scope. Drop back on the second anchor until the scope is the same as that on the main anchor. It is then straightforward to lay out more cable on both anchors so that the angle of the fork decreases to less than 45° and an equal load on the anchors is maintained. Weighing anchor is usually possible without needing to use the tender. Shorten the scope on the second anchor and break it out, fall back onto the main scope and then weigh the main anchor as usual.
The angle of the fork should be less than 45° in strong winds.
BAHAMIAN MOOR
Fore-and-aft kedge, boat free to swing
BACKED ANCHORS
This arrangement produces the greatest holding power from the anchors used but it is difficult to lay retrospectively once conditions have begun to deteriorate. Swinging and yawing are not reduced and the system is entirely reliant on the integrity of the main cable and all the component shackles.
Wind
Tide/current
Weighing the anchors can be difficult because of the increased weight, although this is not a problem if anchoring depths are less than the length of the attachment chain.
Attach anchors with 5–6m (15–20ft) of chain. Mouse the shackles to prevent them from working loose.
FIG 1 Techniques for increasing holding power: backed
anchors and a forked moor. Adapted from Anchoring and Mooring: Techniques Illustrated by Alain Grée.
Obstruction
The boat is free to pivot from the bow. Ideal in a narrow anchorage and reversing current/tide, such as a river. Where wind strength is greater, this method is more secure than the simple method, although still limited by the unfair force on the anchors. yachting monthly
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It is important to remember that holding power is a function not simply of the anchor, but also of the strength, weight and, most importantly, length of the anchor cable or rode. Most seasoned cruisers would agree that the main anchor cable should be made of chain. The chain should be of a size proportional to the size of boat and size of anchor and must fit the windlass; it’s worth double-checking this with a sample length before buying new chain. Multihulls and light displacement yachts may prefer to use rope because it is much lighter. However, because rope is particularly liable to chafe on unseen rock or coral, at least the first 5–10m (15–30ft) of cable should still be chain. A yacht lying to rope moves around its anchor considerably more than a yacht lying to chain, even without any extra scope. This can be a problem in a crowded anchorage. Holding power increases when the pull on the anchor is more horizontal. In mild conditions, chain increases holding power to some extent because the natural catenary results in several metres of chain lying on the seabed, which is a holding element in itself; boats lie to the chain rather than to the anchor. However, in windy conditions, even with chain, the rode will tend to pull taught and any catenary effect is minimised, so the key to a more horizontal pull is a longer scope. Unless space is limited, a scope of 5:1 is usually sufficient. If anchoring space is restricted it can help to use a ‘chummy weight’ to hold the cable more horizontally. However, as the wind increases the scope should be increased. In a blow, aim to lay a scope of 8:1. There are few anchorages along the normal Atlantic route with depths much in excess of 15m (50ft), and most are shallower than this so, for most yachts, somewhere between 70 and 100m (230 to 330ft) should be sufficient as a primary cable. A secondary cable of 15m (50ft) of chain plus 75m (250ft) of multi-plait nylon is ideal: a predominantly rope cable is much more manageable when laying a second anchor from the dinghy and the chain end, without anchor attached, allows for a chaferesistant shore line when mooring to the shore. It is seldom a steady pull that breaks out an anchor. It is usually the veering, snatching and jerking caused by gusts or swell that cause a problem. The effect is worst with chain. The best way of absorbing some of this movement is to use a spring or snubber. Once the anchor has been set and all but the last few metres of scope paid out, attach one end of a 3–4m (10–13ft) length of nylon rope to the chain using a rolling hitch or chain hook. Secure the other end of the rope to a substantial strong point in the bow. Veer out some more chain until the nylon takes the strain, leaving the chain hanging in a bight beneath it. As well as smoothing the ride at anchor, routine use of a snubber reduces the noise transmitted up the chain and it also takes the strain off the windlass. However, always cleat off the chain as usual in case the nylon parts.
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Anchor cable or rode
A collection of the ground tackle used on a 12m (39ft) steel cruising yacht. david russell It is important to have at least one, preferably two or three, good strong points in order to make fast your cable and snubber. A Samson post or substantial cleat bolted through a large backing plate under the deck is ideal for this job. There are times when you may want to hold the yacht stern to the shore or to anchor fore and aft. With this in mind, you also need at least one deck strong point at the stern.
FURTHER READING Anchoring and Mooring: Techniques Illustrated by Alain Grée (dated but still useful)
WEBSITE www.youtube.com/user/flygoodwin for videos of different anchors setting. Scroll through uploads for various tests.
Self-steering Every ocean-going yacht should have some means of self-steering. For most long-term cruisers, the self-steering is not just an extra helmsman but, in fact, the principal helmsman, and can make a real difference to your safety. Needing to hand steer constantly can quickly become exhausting. A yacht with a chronically exhausted crew is a yacht in danger. Even with several crew on board, there are times when it just makes life easier. The self-steering mechanism becomes such a relied-upon member of the crew that it is frequently personalised with a nickname. 21
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T H E AT L A N T I C C R O S S I N G G U I D E Depending on the design of the boat, it is sometimes possible to set the sails in balance with the helm such that the boat will self-steer. However, most modern cruising yachts depend on vane gears or autopilots. Each setup has advantages and disadvantages and many ocean cruising boats are fitted with both. The main disadvantage of an autopilot is the complete dependence on electric power. It is quite possible that the autopilot will be in use all day every day, and you should plan for the increased power consumption (see page 26). If you have a windvane and only use the autopilot in light airs, it is possible to rig a tiller pilot such that it manoeuvres the vane rather than the tiller or wheel itself. Because of the gearing ratios within the vane gear, you then effectively reduce the workload on the tiller pilot and therefore minimise the power consumption. Converting a windvane system by swapping the windvane itself for a small tiller pilot is particularly useful for use under engine or when using a spinnaker – but, as this cuts out the natural give of the vane system, some gear wear may result.
Whatever the method of self-steering, adjust the sails to balance the boat to reduce the workload.
Autopilots Electronic autopilots are probably now the norm and they have become much more reliable than they once were. Even so, there are always stories of crew who have hand steered for hundreds of miles because of autopilot failure. If budget allows, a spare autopilot driver, either electric or hydraulic to suit your system, would be a good backup. For any autopilot, a reliable battery bank and charging system are essential. Autopilots are commonly capable of consuming more than 5–10 amps when at work. The basic components are a compass sensor, an electronic control system and an electric or hydraulic drive to steer the yacht. In smaller sizes, these three components may be combined into a single unit and models are available for either wheel or tiller steering. On larger yachts with hydraulic steering, it is likely that the autopilot driver will link into the main hydraulic system. Drive systems may be mounted in the cockpit and turn the wheel via a belt and wheel drum, or may be mounted below decks and connected into the steering system there. Belowdecks systems are more reliable and benefit from the power unit being out of the weather and less vulnerable to accidental damage, or to theft. The electronic control systems vary in sophistication, with the most advanced models incorporating circuits that automatically adjust the autopilot for weather helm, sea state and steering load, thereby reducing the power draw. Autopilots can also be linked to other instruments – for example, allowing you to
steer to the angle of wind. However, constant use of linked functions will increase power consumption, and anyhow should be used with caution and not at the expense of basic sailing skills and good seamanship. Carry spare hydraulic lines and enough hydraulic oil to repair and refill the whole.
WEBSITE For a good article on the subject go to the free content on: www.morganscloud.com and follow the links through ‘self-steering’ to ‘Windvane or Autopilot’ (Parts 1 and 2)
Vane gears The main advantage of a vane gear is that it is a purely mechanical device and requires no electrical power. It is a self-sufficient system, silently in tune with the wind and the sea. This alone is often enough to outweigh any disadvantages. Vane gears can seem a mysterious beast to the uninitiated, but they are actually quite straightforward and it is well worth getting to grips with them. They steer relative to the apparent wind, so when the wind direction changes, the yacht’s course will change too. All types have a vertical windvane arranged so that when the yacht is on course the vane is in line with the apparent wind. When the yacht veers off course, the vane is blown over or around on its axis, which, in turn, causes the gear to steer the yacht back onto the correct heading. There are three types of system. In the oldest type, a linkage connects the windvane directly to the yacht’s rudder (or to a trim tab on its trailing edge). It is the simplest gear, and the only one that the average owner is likely to be able to build himself; but as it generally lacks power, it is suitable only for smaller yachts. It is now seldom seen. The second type of gear, for example a Hydrovane, is completely self-contained and uses an auxiliary rudder. The windvane turns this rudder, or a trim tab attached to it, when the yacht is off course. The boat’s main rudder is either left free to trail or, more commonly, set in a position that helps to balance the vane gear. This type of gear avoids complicated connections to the wheel or tiller, and has the considerable advantage of providing the yacht with an auxiliary rudder. The third type of vane gear is the servo-pendulum, for example Monitor and Aries. In these systems, movement of the windvane rotates a servo-oar, or blade, in the water. Once this blade has been rotated out of the fore-and-aft line, the changes in pressure from the water flowing past it cause it to swing up to one side or the other. This swinging movement (hence the name servo-pendulum) causes a gear wheel to rotate, which turns the yacht’s rudder via a system of steering lines connected to the wheel or tiller. Servo-pendulum gears are powerful and, as the power
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Emergency steering
A good windvane on a well-balanced boat adds an extra crew member who has unlimited stamina and no power requirement, but note the tow generator also at work. ed clay comes from the flow of water past the servo blade, the faster the yacht is travelling the more powerful they become. However, the converse is also true – in light airs they may steer an erratic course, although this may often be alleviated by using a tall, light windvane. The choice of gear comes down to personal preference, availability and cost, but you should also consider where the gear will be bolted to the boat and whether the extra loading should be compensated for. All vane gears work better on a well-balanced boat. Over time you will be able to interpret the signals from the gear that indicate that it is working too hard. Depending on the conditions you may need to adjust the sails, give it a notch more weather helm, or put a reef in to maintain the balance. A good gear should be capable of steering a yacht however heavy the weather. But this does rely on the crew understanding how to get the best out of the system. This really is worth it, but it can take quite a long time, so some practice before you set off on your extended cruise is highly advisable. It is wise to carry a range of spares for vane gear. The control lines work very hard and are liable to chafe through. Because the blades are an aerofoil section and are very strong but light, they are quite complicated to recreate
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yourself. Both vanes and blades, positioned proud of the stern, are particularly vulnerable in port. They should be removed when not in use. The gears are liable to corrode over time and you should service them periodically. If you are afloat, make sure you have a dinghy positioned underneath to catch all the components!
Steering failure occurs relatively frequently and needs to be considered very seriously. A number of otherwise perfectly functional yachts have been abandoned midAtlantic in recent years because of steering failures. If you have wheel steering, you need to have some sort of emergency steering arrangement should the linkage to the wheel fail. Carry spare steering cables or hydraulic oil, as appropriate to the system, and thoroughly check through all the components (seals, bearings, pulleys, etc) prior to departure. With tiller steering, the point of attachment of a tiller to the rudder may be a weak link and may need strengthening. If transom hung, check the pintles for wear and consider reinforcing their attachment points to the hull. You also need to consider the possibility of damage to or loss of the rudder. A spade rudder is significantly more vulnerable than one that is protected and supported by a skeg. Any spade rudder should be checked and doublechecked for any corrosion or wear. Aluminium stocks are particularly prone to corrosion where the stock meets the blade. This is exacerbated if the aluminium comes into contact with conventional antifouling. Consider scraping off the antifoul from the top of the rudder and renewing it with an aluminium-safe antifoul such as Trilux. Before departure, try out the emergency system and, if possible, adapt it to work with a tiller pilot or windvane. A Hydrovane provides auxiliary steering, so if you have one fitted this is a bonus. If not, think about how you would make and use an emergency rudder.
Failures do occur and are not always easy to fix mid-ocean. richard woods
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T H E AT L A N T I C C R O S S I N G G U I D E There are a number of useful articles on this topic. You could start with these:
• Emergency steering trial: www.yachtingmonthly.com/ sailing-skills/jury-steering-30065 • Oceansteer system: www.oceansteer.co.uk/blog/rudder-loss Reviewed at: www.pbo.co.uk/reviews/safety-devices/oceansteer
The main engine It is now very rare to find a cruising yacht without an auxiliary engine. Manoeuvring under sail has become more difficult in congested anchorages and impossible in some harbours and most marinas. But it is the increasing dependence on electronics and electrical systems on board which has made a well-functioning engine and electrical system an essential requisite for long-term cruising. On many Atlantic cruises an engine is not needed so much for propulsion on passage as for battery charging and harbour work, although, in an increasingly impatient world, crews do resort to using their engine on passage, either to try to find some wind, or to speed up their arrival at their destination. Either way, there are increased demands on yacht engines and electrical systems. Despite this, it remains true that many yachtsmen lack knowledge about engine and electrical maintenance and are heavily reliant on shore services to keep their systems running efficiently. More extended cruises are delayed, curtailed or abandoned as a result of engine, electronic or electrical failure than for any other reason. The irony of this, on a sailing boat, is not lost on seasoned sailors, many of whom go to some lengths to ensure that there are always nonelectrical backups for all the essential systems. Engine problems are usually caused by lack of maintenance or poor installation. Poor access to the engine can be a real disincentive to maintenance, particularly at sea, so it is worth improving your engine access if at all possible. The engine should be given a thorough service before any extended passage-making. If you lack confidence, consider attending an engine maintenance course. If you depend on the services of a mechanic, at least try to be on board while he is working, watch what he does and ask questions about any areas of concern or confusion. Engine mounts should be examined, as should all flexible hoses, belts and impellers. If in doubt about their condition, renew them. If the engine is past the first flush of youth it may be wise to have the alternator and starter motor overhauled and to renew the thermostat. It is also worth checking the accuracy of the thermostat. More than one skipper has spent weeks or months tearing hair out over an apparently overheating engine, only to eventually discover that the temperature gauge was reading high. Injectors and fuel pumps will benefit from being serviced before departure. But there is
little point in renewing the fuel system if the fuel tanks are thick with sludge. If it seems likely that they may be dirty, fuel tanks should be opened up and cleaned (see Fuel, opposite). Corrosion in the exhaust system is particularly common. Check it out and renew any suspect components. Exhausts are normally designed to exit above the waterline but, in a following sea, it is possible for water to back-fill the exhaust and flood the engine, so it is important to loop the exhaust up as high as possible between the transom and the engine. If the outlet is too near the waterline it may become submerged when you provision for long-distance cruising. This will cause potentially damaging back pressure in the exhaust system. Accidental flooding can also occur if the engine cooling water anti-siphon becomes blocked. Valve systems need to be inspected and cleaned routinely. Fresh-water and salt-water cooling systems need descaling periodically. A fresh-water cooling system should contain the correct proportion of antifreeze. Icing is unlikely to be a problem, but antifreeze is also an effective anti-corrosive. It is difficult to hand-crank anything other than the smallest engines, so most cruisers should carry a spare starter.
Routine maintenance Having set off with an engine in good condition, it should be relatively easy to maintain. Follow the manufacturer’s service schedule. Modern, lightweight diesel engines are hard on their lubricating oil and filters, which should be changed at the recommended intervals. If the engine is regularly run on light load, for example to power a fridge or to charge the battery, the oil and filter should be changed more frequently. This is because fuel is not burned efficiently under these conditions so there are higher levels of unburned carbon deposits. Fuel filters should also be changed regularly, and it is good practice to install two primary fuel filters, valved in parallel, so that it is simple to switch to a clean one. The primary filters will remove water and some of the contaminants before the fuel goes on to the secondary filter. Working on the engine is much easier if it, and its compartment, are kept clean. It is then much easier to detect oil leaks.
Good engine access encourages routine maintenance, here on a Maple Leaf 48. richard woods
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Any water-cooled engine is liable to be affected by galvanic or electrolytic action. This is a complex subject and, unless you are an expert, you should ask a surveyor who specialises in this field to check your system during your preparations. A salt-water-cooled installation should have sacrificial zincs somewhere in the water jacket, and these will need regular inspection and replacement. Even when fresh-water cooling is used, the heat exchanger is exposed to the corrosive action of hot salt water and an anode may be needed for its protection. Galvanic corrosion is rapid in tropical waters and must be guarded against. Most boats will need at least one external hull anode correctly bonded to the metal fittings. Anodes should be in good condition before departure, and at least one spare carried.
Fuel The quality of fuel can be very variable. Dirty fuel is an increasing problem because of the incorporation of biodiesel, which is more prone to fuel bug growth, particularly if left to sit in tanks for any length of time. If you do not know the history of the tanks, or you have ever had fuel problems, empty the tanks and clean them thoroughly. Try to keep the tanks topped up to minimise condensation inside the tank. Use a biocide each time you refuel and filter the fuel as it goes into the tank. Fuel filters should be changed regularly. It is essential that there are at least two fuel filters between engine and tank. The primary filters (nearest the tank) should incorporate a water trap. If possible, increase the diesel tank capacity on board but try to avoid carrying extra diesel in tanks on deck as they can be a liability in rough conditions and the diesel bug can proliferate in the warmth and light.
FURTHER READING Marine Diesel Engines: Maintenance, Troubleshooting, and Repair by Nigel Calder
Electrical system and electronics The borderline between electrics and electronics has become increasingly blurred. Many items that would in the past have been thought of as part of the electrical system now contain quite complex electronics – for example, alternators, regulators and battery chargers. The yacht’s electrical and electronic systems should therefore be considered together, and if a lot of electronics are to be fitted then the basic electrical installation may need modification. The key to a good electrical system
is balance. Whatever power is consumed must be replaced by recharging. Unlike a shoreside existence, where unlimited electricity is available on demand, once you are away from the land, life on board can become a constant struggle if the balance is ignored. When you are planning the electronic and electrical equipment on board, it is worth considering to what extent you want to be held hostage by the power demands of a hungry system. It may be that you place a high priority on all the modern technology and take for granted the consequent frequency of hours spent recharging. On the other hand, if you want to enjoy a real sense of freedom in your cruising, you might want to prune your on-board electrical and electronic expectations. Passage-making on a small yacht is, after all, a lifestyle decision and perhaps part of this is a realisation that some modern luxuries carry a heavy price in terms of their power consumption. A little sacrifice in luxury could actually enhance your enjoyment of unique cruising experiences. An engine or generator running at sundown in an otherwise perfect, peaceful anchorage may be enough to spoil the moment, both for those on board and also for those anchored nearby.
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Corrosion
System overhaul Even on relatively modestly equipped yachts, the demands placed on electrical systems have increased dramatically in recent years. Unfortunately, the systems themselves have often not developed at the same pace. Deficiencies in the system may not reveal themselves during a homewaters cruise. Such cruises are likely to involve regular use of the engine, and therefore the alternator, and at least the occasional night may be spent connected to shore power, when the battery can get a good charge. But the ocean voyager must be independent of the shore for long periods of time, and electrical demands must be met entirely from on-board resources. It is worth giving your electrical system a thorough review, of both its existing condition and its overall capacity. Open the electrical panel (isolate it first) and check all connections are tight and corrosion free; fires can start from loose electrical connections. Think of your most important equipment (navigation lights, radio, autopilot, etc), and trace through the whole installation looking for any signs of trouble and checking connections. The voltage drop between batteries and instrument is exacerbated by thin or corroded wiring, poor connections and surrounding dust and dirt, so make sure you maintain the system in good condition with periodic checks. Damp, salt-laden air or, worse still, an actual drenching is not a good environment for electronics. Even marine products are not necessarily adequately waterproofed. It is worth taking the trouble to ensure that all electronic equipment on board is kept as dry as possible. If you have any doubts about your electrical system or the condition of any on-board electronics, seek professional advice. 25
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Power usage It is relatively simple to estimate your total daily power usage in terms of amp hours. After a few days of occasional monitoring, these estimates can be honed. Figures are quoted in all instruction books and can be adjusted according to how many hours a day an item will be used. Fridges are slightly more complex as there is a cycle time to consider. A well-insulated fridge should run approximately 50 per cent of the time, freezers slightly more. Lights can be a major consumer. At sea, a tri-colour will typically run for 12 hours near the tropics, and compass lights and instrument lights for a similar time if left on. Use LED bulbs whenever possible to minimise the power usage. Autopilots will be a big draw.
Battery capacity Once you have estimated your energy consumption, you need to consider how you will replace that energy. Because of the characteristics of batteries, every amp hour taken out must be replaced by more than that – usually about one and a quarter amp hours. The battery bank is the fulcrum in this balancing act. Batteries are a subject in their own right and advice should be sought for the best options available within budget and space constraints. The banks should be checked before departure and replaced if necessary. As a rule of thumb, a battery bank should never be discharged more than 50 per cent. So if you require 100 amp hours a day you will need an absolute minimum of a 200 amp-hour bank, even if you recharge every day. And this does not take into account the need to put back more amp hours than you use. In fact, it is better if the domestic battery capacity in amp hours is not less than three times your estimated usage. Electronic equipment may need a comparatively stable supply voltage to run reliably, which can prove difficult to provide. A yacht’s battery voltage might vary from 14.4 volts when being charged by a smart alternator, down to 11.5 volts when a heavy load is being taken from it by, for example, a fridge or autopilot. The bigger the battery, the less the variation in voltage under a given load. So when fitting electronic items, a larger battery bank may be needed – not only to provide the power but also to steady the voltage. Batteries can only be recharged quickly to about 80 per cent of full charge, after which a float charge is required to reach full capacity. Most specialist marine regulators and battery chargers have three- or four-stage charge cycles to achieve full charge. Slower charging devices can achieve 100 per cent as they charge at lower amperage over a long period. The options for recharging are via the main engine alternator, via a generator (diesel or petrol), or via wind, water or solar generators. Alternatives to the main engine are covered in the next section. The rated continuous alternator output in amps from the engine should be around a third of the battery capacity in amp hours. A larger alternator will do no harm, though to gain
full benefit a ‘smart regulator’ should be fitted. These are general guidelines for a system to be maintained with less than two hours of engine or generator running each day. A system that falls significantly outside these parameters will need longer and/or more frequent periods of charging. Battery technology is changing. Wet cell, lead-acid batteries have been the norm but dry cell, lithium ion batteries may be worth thinking about. They are expensive and require complex electronic charge monitoring systems, but they have a longer life expectancy and low self-discharge, they can be discharged to 20 per cent without damage and rapidly recharged to 100 per cent without gassing, and they are relatively small and light.
Dedicated start battery Unless it can be started by hand, the engine should have its own dedicated start battery, kept fully charged. The electrical system should be designed so that this battery cannot inadvertently be used to power the domestic system, while at the same time provision should be made for the domestic batteries to be used to start the engine should its own battery fail. This is usually achieved by either manual switches or blocking diodes. A battery state indicator is also useful, and should be installed in such a way that it can indicate the state of each battery individually.
WEBSITES Mastervolt: www.mastervolt.com Battery University: www.batteryuniversity.com
AC power CAUTION Many yachts now have some form of AC circuit fitted. AC voltages are potentially life-threatening and an inadequately fitted circuit plugged into poorly earthed shore power has been shown to be lethal to anyone in the water nearby. It is extremely important that any AC circuitry is fitted and maintained by someone with sufficient expertise and understanding. An isolation transformer or galvanic isolator should be fitted to the shore supply. The circuits should be protected with the appropriate circuit breakers and residual current devices (RCDs, RCBOs, GFCIs). AC supplies will come from shore power, an inverter or a generator. It is important to ensure that only one supply source is powering the system at any one time, so a selector switch is needed if more than one supply source is fitted.
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Shore power The voltages and frequencies used around the Atlantic vary from 50 to 60Hz and from 110 to 240 volts. Some types of equipment, particularly those with an in-built timer (for example a microwave), are frequency sensitive and will be damaged if they are connected to the incorrect frequency. A large yacht may fit frequency converters and an isolation transformer to cope with the variations. Smaller yachts are unlikely to have the space or resources to do this. Some battery chargers are now dual voltage and are not frequency sensitive, so it is possible to plug the battery charger into shore power and then run an inverter (set to the correct frequency and voltage) from the boat’s batteries. An alternative is a small plug-in transformer, but these only change the voltage, not the frequency. It is usually possible to obtain 220-to-110V transformers, but going the other way may be more difficult. Shore power connections are anyhow likely to vary, so a variety of adaptors may be needed or leads will need to be made up locally. It is a good idea to carry a socket for your shore lead, which can then be made up for local connections to the shore.
Inverters Always remember that any AC power coming through an inverter is still drawing from the on-board batteries. High-load items such as kettles and hairdryers will create a significant drain on the batteries. You can run a laptop from a 12V cigar socket using a laptop car power supply (which acts as a DC/DC converter to take the 12V up to a variety of voltages suitable for many laptops). This is more efficient than going from 12V to 240V then down via a transformer back to the laptop voltage. The saving in current drawn is several amps.
Alternative power generation Additional demands on the electrical system and improvements in alternative technologies mean most yachts now have at least one alternative energy source. There are advantages and disadvantages to each source, which should be weighed against where and when the extra power will be needed. For example, wind generators are less productive on long downwind passages, but come into their own in a trade wind anchorage. Conversely a hydro generator will be great on passage but useless at anchor. Solar panels won’t be doing anything at all overnight. So, consider whether you need extra power to drive your autopilot on passage, or whether you want it to power the fridge for cooling beers in a Caribbean anchorage. When will your power needs be greatest? Whichever solution you choose you will need a regulator to prevent over-charging. It will work hard so it is worth investing in a good one.
D400 wind generator and solar panel on Jimmy Cornell’s Aventura IV. eclectic energy
Wind generators There are several wind generators on the market specifically designed for the yachtsman. They vary from small trickle chargers to machines capable of producing up to 250 watts in a fresh to strong breeze. Older models struggled to generate charge in light winds but some of the latest models have become more efficient at low wind speeds. In most types, an alternator is driven by a propeller with three to six blades, and the unit is mounted aft on a pillar or on the mizzen mast above head height and clear of all rigging. Some have the blade tips protected by a guard, but even with this they can inflict serious injuries. To a greater or lesser extent, all wind generators make a noise. This can be detrimental to the crew as well as to any neighbours and should be taken into account before committing to purchase. Noise levels may be influenced by the type of mounting as well as by the hull resonance. Some combinations can produce a wearing, if not downright terrifying, din even at relatively low wind speeds. Conversely, it is possible to mount a generator such that it is a low-level, background sound even in moderate winds. The increasing or decreasing pitch of the wind generator can act as a useful indicator of changes in wind speed.
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Water-powered generators There are now two main types of hydro generators: the fixed, transom-mounted type and the towed type. The fixed hydro generators are more efficient in terms of both power generated and reduced drag and are now commonly used on offshore racing boats. They are also easier to deploy. Some types are on a fixed leg. The disadvantage of this is that the impeller is constantly changing depth and sometimes coming clear out of the water, reducing its efficiency. The Sail-Gen uses a ‘dive plane’ to control the operating depth of the impeller and to automatically adjust to sea state. The traditional towed generators tend to be cheaper and some will convert to wind generators for use when at anchor. But towed generators are not as efficient, particularly at lower speeds, they do create some drag and they can be quite
a handful to get back on board. It is usually necessary to slow or stop the boat to do so. It is often said that towed generators are attractive to predatory fish, but it would have to be a very big fish. Nevertheless, they are vulnerable to damage from any debris in the water. The stern-mounted generators are more protected by their proximity to the hull, which will tend to deflect any debris.
WEBSITES Eclectic Energy Sail-Gen, Duogen and Wind-gen: sail-gen.com Watt and Sea: www.wattandsea.com/en/cruising-hydrogenerator Marlec: www.marlec.co.uk
Solar panels
A well-proven Watt and Sea hydrogenerator. susie plume
Solar panel technology has improved markedly in recent years and modern panels are considerably more efficient than older ones. Theoretical output is significantly reduced if any part of a panel is in shadow. Ideally the panel should be on a pivoting mount such that it can be positioned at right angles to the sun and adjusted at intervals throughout the day or according to how the boat is lying. Many cruising yachts do not achieve this and output is correspondingly compromised. Wiring should be maintained in good condition. Even with optimal mounting and under tropical skies, solar panels will produce no power at all during the hours of darkness, but on long downwind passages they are a useful contributor to the on-board power bank.
Auxiliary generators
Sail-Gen hydrogenerator in action. eclectic energy
Fitted or portable auxiliary generators are increasingly popular on board as they provide the only sure means of keeping the batteries charged without frequent recourse to the main engine. If your yacht has any significant AC loads, a generator will probably be fitted from new. Diesel generators have the advantage of using the same fuel as the main engine, but small diesel generators tend not to be reliable. Portable petrol generators are reliable and relatively cheap, but require you to carry significant amounts of petrol on board – much more than just a jerrycan for the outboard. The downsides to any auxiliary generator are the noise, the heat and the air pollution, commonly for two hours each day. Even if these factors do not concern you, they may be a repeated annoyance to your neighbours in harbour or in an otherwise idyllic anchorage.
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The essential reference for anyone contemplating sailing the Atlantic.
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