Epistle to the Reader
Dear reader: It might be thought vain to offer a work such as this to humankind in the hope that it will be useful, because the diversity of principles, ideas and tastes among people is very great, as is the fixity of our notions and our reluctance to change. But in truth it would be a greater vanity to offer a work for any other reason. Let the sincerity of the intention, then, be this book’s main commendation. No work of this or any kind can please everyone, whatever its ambition; but this one at least gives satisfaction to its maker, of having aimed sincerely at truth and usefulness, and having done so by following in the paths of the wise. Throughout history the commonwealth of humankind has had master-thinkers whose mighty works are monuments to posterity; it is aspiration enough to be a guide among them, and to take from them resources to promote what is true and good. All who read this book, therefore, if they read with care, may come to be more than they were before. This is not praise of the work itself, but of its attentive readers, for the worth to be found in it will come from their minds. If there is anyone who learns nothing from this book, that will not be attributable to faults in it, but to that reader’s excellence. If readers judge candidly, none among them can be harmed or offended by what it asks them to consider. Yet all who come hungry to these granaries of the harvest made by their fellows and forebears, will find nourishment here. Every art and inquiry, and similarly every action and pursuit, aims at some good; therefore the ultimate good has rightly been described as that at which all things aim. If there is a goal of what we do that we desire for its own sake, everything else being desired for the sake of this, that goal must constitute our chief and highest good. Seeking knowledge of that good cannot fail to have a great influence on life. When archers choose a target to aim at, they are more likely to aim true; shall we not do likewise by having as our target the discovery and doing of what is right? To determine what the good is, and of the best ways to know it, is the most important of all our endeavours, and is truly the master art of living. Here in your hands is just such an endeavour, consisting in distillations of the wisdom and experience of humankind, to the end that reflecting on them might bring profit and comfort. It has been remarked that a person who fishes a stream might find something of advantage to himself there, but he who takes his nets to the ocean might expect greater catches, and from greater depths. In what follows these great catches are brought before us by fishers of wisdom, returned from the storms as well as the calms of their voyages, and from both near and distant shores. Anyone who rises above his daily concerns in hope of finding and following truth, will discover it here. Every moment of the pursuit of truth rewards the pursuer’s pains, when seeking it alongside the great company of those who have trodden the paths of life before us.
These are gifts which they have passed back to us; they have freely given the best of themselves, and their gifts have been freely accepted here. Other such books have been similarly made: writings of many hands, ancient and otherwise, taken, wrought, arranged, edited, supplemented and changed, and offered with a familiar purpose in view. Here the procedure has been the same, but the purpose is different: not to demand acceptance of beliefs or obedience to commands, not to impose obligations and threaten with punishments, but to aid and guide, to suggest, inform, warn and console; and above all to hold up the light of the human mind and heart against the shadows of life. For we live in deeds, not years; in thoughts, not breaths; and our time should be counted in the throbs of our hearts as we love and help, learn and strive, and make from our own talents whatever can increase the stock of the world’s good. To let light in upon ignorance and falsehood is a service to human understanding; a yet greater service is to show the way to an upland where the view of life is clearer. It is certain, therefore, that most readers will find profit in the following pages, if they read with the attention that those pages merit. How can it be otherwise? All times are seasonable to the increase of wisdom, and no time is lost when spent in the kind of company that inhabits here. For this is a good book as well as a book of the good, its words from mighty pens, its thoughts from votaries of the right and true. It is a text made from all times for all times, its aspiration and aim the good for humanity and the good of the world.
THE
GOOD BOOK A HUMANIST BIBLE conceived selected redacted arranged worked and in part written by
A. C. GRAYLING Walker & Company New York
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co n t e n ts Extracts from The Good Book
Genesis Wisdom Parables Concord Lamentations Consolations Sages Songs Histories Proverbs The Lawgiver Acts Epistles The Good
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3 4 6 8 9 10 11 12 14 16 17 19 21 24
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Ge n e s i s Chapter 1 1. In the garden stands a tree. In springtime it bears flowers; in the autumn, fruit. 2. Its fruit is knowledge, teaching the good gardener how to understand the world. 3. From it he learns how the tree grows from seed to sapling, from sapling to maturity, at last ready to offer more life; 4. And from maturity to age and sleep, whence it returns to the elements of things. 5. The elements in turn feed new births; such is nature’s method, and its parallel with the course of humankind. 6. It was the fall of a fruit from such a tree that new inspiration came for inquiry into the nature of things, 7. When Newton sat in his garden, and saw what no-one had seen before: that an apple draws the earth to itself, and the earth the apple, [. . .]
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Chapter 2 1. Those who first set themselves to discover nature’s secrets and designs, fearlessly opposing mankind’s early ignorance, deserve our praise; 2. For they began the quest to measure what once was unmeasurable,
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to discern its laws, and conquer time itself by understanding. New eyes were needed to see what lay hidden in ignorance, new language to express the unknown, New hope that the world would reveal itself to enquiry and investigation. They sought to unfold the world’s primordial sources, asking how nature yields its abundance and fosters it, And where in its course everything goes when it ends, either to change or cease. The first enquirers named nature’s elements atoms, matter, seeds, primal bodies, and understood that they are coeval with the world; They saw that nothing comes from nothing, so that discovering the elements reveals how the things of nature exist and evolve. Fear holds dominion over people when they understand little, and need simple stories and legends to comfort and explain: But legends and the ignorance that give them birth are a house of limitations and darkness. Knowledge is freedom, freedom from ignorance and its offspring fear; [. . .]
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Wi s d o m Chapter 3 1. A human life is less than a thousand months long. The wise are those who multiply their months by endeavour, living many lives in the fullness of one life. 2. For we are everywhere under sentence, but with an indefinite reprieve: we have an interval, and then our place knows us no more. 3. Some spend this interval in listlessness, some in high passions, the wisest in art and song. 4. The wise see that our great chance lies in expanding that interval, in getting as much as possible into the given time. 5. Passion may offer a quickened sense of life, may give the ecstasy and the sorrow of love: 6. The wise say, let us only be sure that it yields the fruit of a true and multiplied consciousness. 7. Of such wisdom the poetic passion, the desire of beauty, the love of art, 8. The desire of knowledge for its own sake and the sake of the human good, has most. 9. To burn always with this hard, gemlike flame, to maintain this ecstasy, is success in life. 10. The wise say that our failure is to form habits: for habit is the mark of a stereotyped world,
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11. And it is only the roughness of the eye that makes any two things seem alike. 12. And the wise say: while all melts away under our feet, let us grasp at the exquisite passion, 13. Let us use the knowledge that by a lifted horizon sets the heart free; 14. Or that does so by the stirring of the senses, by colours, perfumes, the work of the artist’s hand, the face of a friend; 15. Not to recognise, every moment, some passionate attitude in those about us, and in the brilliancy of their gifts some tragic dividing of their ways, 16. Is, in life’s short day of frost and sun, to sleep before evening. 17. With this sense of the splendour of experience and its awful brevity, 18. Gathering all we are into one profound effort to see, to love, to achieve, to understand, we shall have time enough to live. 19. Let us ever curiously test new ideas and court new impressions, never acquiescing in a facile orthodoxy. 20. Philosophy may help us gather up what might otherwise pass unregarded, for philosophy is the microscope of thought; 21. But theory which requires the sac-
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Wisdom
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rifice of any part of this experience, in consideration of some interest we cannot enter, has no claim upon us. It is life itself that has the first and last claim, and it is the fresh light and clear air that wisdom brings to life that answers it, For to love and to strive, to seek to know, to attend to the best that has been thought, said and done in the world, and to learn from it, is wisdom: And wisdom is life. The question to be asked at the end of each day is, ‘How long will you delay to be wise?’
Chapter 4 1. Who or what is the best counsellor, to counsel us to be wise? Nothing less than life itself. 2. The beginning of wisdom is the question, the end of wisdom is acceptance; 3. But in the interval, it is not enough to be wise only with the wisdom of one’s day, for wisdom is of all time. 4. To be wise is to know when to act, and when to leave alone. 5. To be wise is to know when to speak, and when to be silent. 6. To be wise is to know that amity and peace do not come from nothing, nor do they sustain themselves without help, but require wisdom for their birth and continuance. 7. The gaining of knowledge is accumulation; the acquisition of wisdom is simplification.
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8. Wisdom is the recognition of consequences, a respect for causality and the profit in foresight. 9. Wisdom lies in bringing the past to serve the future, and in opening one’s ears to hear the voices of the past. 10. Learning may be had without wisdom, and wisdom without learning; but nothing can overthrow their combination. 11. No one came to be wise who did not sometimes fail, 12. No one came to be wise who did not know how to revise an opinion. 13. The wise change their minds when facts and experience so demand. The fool either does not hear or does not heed. 14. But the wise man knows that even a fool can speak truth. 15. Wisdom belongs to everyone, and is possible everywhere: none need lack it who will only allow experience to teach them. 16. Happy are those who encounter someone wise: he reveals treasure when he reproves and guides. 17. He will teach that as a rock is not shaken by the wind, so the wise are steadfast through both blame and praise. 18. As a deep lake remains peaceful in all seasons, so are the wise when they reflect on good teaching. 19. The question to be asked at the end of each day is, ‘How long will you delay to be wise?’
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Pa r a b l e s Chapter 1 1. A rich king named Plousios had planted a forest for his sport, and made an edict forbidding anyone to trespass in it. 2. Out hunting one day he came across a hut that a beggar named Penicros had built there, in violation of the edict. 3. In anger Plousios ordered Penicros to be hanged, and his hut destroyed; but Penicros said, ‘If you hang me before you hear my wisdom, you will always regret it.’ 4. ‘What makes you think you are wise?’ asked Plousios, and Penicros answered, ‘because I have built my lodging in Plousios’ forest, 5. ‘And in consequence have met him; which I wished to do, as having counsel to offer him.’ 6. Amused by the temerity of this answer, Plousios ordered Penicros to be placed on a donkey and brought back with them to the city; and on the way questioned him. 7. ‘Tell me the difference between a good man and a bad man,’ said Plousios. 8. Penicros answered, ‘A bad man quarrelled with a good man, saying ‘For every word of abuse I hear from you, I will retort ten.’ 9. The good man replied, ‘For every
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ten words of abuse I hear from you, I will not retort one.’ ‘That is the difference between a bad man and a good; and between a foolish man and a wise.’ Impressed by this answer, Plousios asked, ‘Is it true that in both man and nature all things grow with time?’ And Penicros answered, ‘There is one thing that does not; and that is grief.’ Plousios said, ‘We are told to take care who we send with our messages. Why is that so?’ Penicros answered, ‘Because the character of the sent tells the character of the sender.’ Plousios asked, ‘Each animal has its colour, its spots or stripes, to conceal itself in the forest. What is the best method of concealment for man?’ Penicros answered, ‘Speech.’ Plousios asked, ‘What kind of man is the worst among men?’ Penicros answered, ‘He who is good in his own esteem.’ Plousios asked, ‘ Would it not be sweet if a king’s reign lasted forever?’ Penicros answered, ‘If that had been the lot of your father, where would you be now?’ Plousios said, ‘Levellers say there is
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Parables
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no difference between nobles and commoners. Is that true?’ And Penicros answered, ‘There was once a nobleman who spoke contemptuously to a poor scholar, who replied in courteous terms. ‘After this had continued for some time, the scholar at last remarked, ‘It seems that your noble line ends with you, while mine might be beginning with me. ‘And again: a man of high birth spoke abusively to a wise man of lowly birth. ‘You say that my lineage is a blot on me,’ said the sage, ‘but you are a blot on yours.’ And Penicros said, ‘Death is the dread of the rich and the hope of the poor. A story shows us a deeper truth about the difference between noble and commoner, rich and poor: ‘One like Plousios and one like Penicros were once travelling together, and were set upon by thieves. ‘Woe is me,’ said he who was like Plousios, ‘if they recognize me.’ ‘Woe is me,’ said he who was like Penicros, ‘if they do not recognize me.’ ‘And again: The heir of a wealthy man squandered his money, and a poor sage saw him eating bread and salted olives. ‘He said to the impoverished heir, ‘Had you thought that this might be your food, this would not be your food.’ ‘Such are the differences. As man
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and man, woman and woman, there is – neither ought there to be – any difference between any two people in the eyes of a king or judge, for there is no difference between them in nature.’ Plousios asked, ‘Why do we die?’ And Penicros answered, ‘Because we live.’ Plousios asked Penicros about enemies and friends, and Penicros answered, ‘Rather a wise enemy than a foolish friend.’ Plousios asked, ‘Is it ever right to tell a lie?’ And Penicros answered,’ In three cases lying is permissible: in war, in reconciling man to man, and in appeasing one’s spouse.’ ‘And more generally, it has been well said that it does an injury to tell an untimely truth.’ Plousios said, ‘You are not a beggar but a wise man.’ And Penicros answered, ‘Indeed; for it is you who have been the beggar, asking wisdom from me. ‘In life reason is the pilot, law is the light it steers by, wisdom is knowing that the law comes from nature; and reason is nature’s gift to man. ‘Man has neither claws to fight with nor a furred pelt to abide the winter, but may rule the clawed and furred if he will.’ Plousios said, ‘For what you have taught me today, tell me what you would have as a reward.’
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C o n co rd Chapter 1 1. Fannius said to Laelius, Since you have mentioned the word friendship, and we are at leisure, 2. You would be doing us a great kindness, Laelius, if you would tell us what you mean by it, for you are famous for your friendships, 3. And before now have spoken so eloquently about their importance to us and to the possibility of good lives. 4. Laelius replied: I should certainly have no objection if I felt confidence in myself, Fannius, 5. For the theme of friendship is a noble one, and we are indeed at leisure; 6. But who am I to speak of this? What ability do I have? What you propose is a task for philosophers; 7. For a set discourse on friendship, and an analysis of its meaning, you must go to them. 8. To which Fannius said, But you have much practical experience in friendship, and are accounted the best of friends by your friends; 9. Surely this is the best qualification to speak of so important a relationship? 10. Not least, Laelius, is the fact that your great friendship with Scipio is the subject almost of legend; and
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from its example we all wish to learn. Well, replied Laelius, all I can do is to urge you to regard friendship as indeed the greatest thing in the world, For there is nothing which so fits human nature, or is so exactly what we both desire and need, whether in prosperity or adversity. But I must at the very beginning lay down this principle: that true friendship can only exist between good people. I do not, however, press this too closely, like those who give their definitions a pedantic accuracy. There is no practical use in doing that: we must concern ourselves with the facts of everyday life as we find it, not imaginary and ideal perfections. Let us mean by ‘good people’ those whose actions and lives leave no question as to their honour, sense of justice, and generosity both of hand and heart; Who have the courage to stand by their principles, and who are free from greed, intemperance and violence.
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La me n tat i o n s Chapter 1 1. When I was without comfort, and sorrowing; when the grief of life was present to me, and afflictions common to man were upon me, then I lamented, and said: 2. We are born to suffer and die, and the days of our laughter are few in the land. 3. Every joy we foresee has its cost in the loss that must follow, for nothing survives its hour, and the first to fade is the season of pleasantness. 4. To love is to contract for sorrow, since one of two must depart first, and affections diminish and vanish. 5. To love what is made of nature is to love what changes and passes; and yet we must love, and so we must suffer. 6. Likewise to strive is to fail; even the taste of victory grows rank in the mouth, and success is fleeting; 7. And yet we must strive, for what is man if he does not strive; and so we must suffer. 8. To make and hold anything of value is to give hostages to the thieves of time, who owe us nothing in return but the promise to steal us too. 9. At the road’s side lie possibilities of accident, disaster and disease;
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10. At the road’s end lie certainties of age and death; even from our first setting out we are beset. 11. What is the life of man and woman, but labour and vexation, and an ever-uncertain future? 12. What is the truth that accompanies life, other than that we must endure if we make no end before the end? 13. By hope we live, and by reliefs: best in the conversation of a friend, worst in a pot of liquor; but only the ultimate relief of death relieves all. 14. What is hope, but the illusion of possible good: for hope prolongs torments, yet offers itself as their only medicine. 15. No-one would be sick, or captive, bereft or bereaved, unloved or a failure, a victim or a scapegoat, lonely or afraid: 16. Yet how rare is he who is not one or more of these at some time, passing as mankind must between the millstones of the months and years? 17. It is vain to comfort the grieving, for grief must have its fill; 18. Like the ashes of roses, or the roses’ shadows, that alone remain when their petals have blown, and litter the path behind.
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C o n s o l at i o n s Chapter 5 1. If I did not know, Marcia, that you are as far removed from weakness of mind as from all other vices, 2. I should not dare to assail your grief – the grief that we are all prone to nurse and brood upon; 3. Nor should I have hoped to be able to comfort you with philosophy in this trial. 4. But your strength of mind has been already so tested, and your courage, after such a tragic loss, so approved, 5. That this gives me confidence to try. How you bore yourself in relation to your father is common knowledge; 6. For you loved him as dearly as you love your children, save only that you did not wish him to outlive you. 7. And yet I am not sure that you did not wish even that; for great affection sometimes ventures to break the natural law. 8. You delayed your father from taking his own life as long as you could; 9. After it became clear that, surrounded as he was by his enemies sent by Sejanus, he had no other way of escape from servitude, 10. So though you did not favour his plan, you acknowledged defeat, and
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you routed your tears in public and choked down your sobs, Yet in spite of your composed face you did not conceal them – and these things in an age when the supremely filial was simply not to be unfilial! When, however, changed times gave you an opportunity, you recovered for the benefit of men that genius of your father which had brought him to his end, And thus saved him from the only real death, which is oblivion; And the books which that brave hero had written with his own blood you restored to their place among the memorials of the nation. You have done a great service to scholarship, for a large part of his writings had been burned; You have done a great service to posterity, for history will come to them as an uncorrupted record whose honesty cost its author dear; And you have done a great service to the man himself, whose memory now lives and will ever live so long as it shall be worthwhile to learn the facts of Roman history,
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Sages Chapter 1 1. The master said: to learn and to practise what is learned time and again is a great pleasure, is it not? 2. To have friends come from afar is happiness, is it not? 3. To be unperturbed when not appreciated by others is noble, is it not? 4. Each day I examine myself on three counts: 5. Whether I am loyal to those on whose behalf I act; 6. Whether I am trustworthy towards my friends; 7. Whether I practise what I teach. 8. In leading a state of a thousand chariots, respect the office and be worthy of trust. 9. Use resources wisely, love the people, do what is timely. 10. At home let the young behave with courtesy; in the world let them behave with brotherly love. 11. Let the young be prudent and trustworthy, loving the people and drawing close to those who are benevolent. 12. Without steadfastness, one cannot command respect, and one’s learning will not be sound. 13. If a person advocates loyalty and trustworthiness, he will always have friends who are his equal.
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14. How does the master learn? By being gentle, kind, courteous, modest and patient. Such enquiry is different from all others. 15. What is a good person? One who does not seek to be satiated in eating, one who is quick in dealings, prudent in speech, correct in action. 16. The master said: ‘Like bone cut, like horn polished, like jade carved, like stone ground.’ 17. Does this not tell us that ‘poor but happy’ is better than ‘poor but not servile’, 18. And ‘rich but benevolent’ is better than ‘rich but humble? 19. Do not be concerned about others not appreciating you. Be concerned about not appreciating others. 20. At fifteen, I aspired to learning. 21. At thirty, I established my stand. 22. At forty, I had no illusions. 23. At fifty, I knew my destiny. 24. At sixty, I recognised truth when it came. 25. At seventy, I could follow my heart’s wishes without wrongdoing.
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Songs 1. The moon cannot equal the radiance of your face, Nor the rose your beauty; My desire’s habitation is the curve of your eyebrow, No king has quarters such as that. What will the sighs of my heart do, If like breath on a mirror it clouds your face? I fear the narcissus: that your blackhearted eyes Will gaze on no-one but yourself, unashamed. Bring me a heavy pitcher of wine; I cannot speak for those who have not crossed this threshold, Who have not washed their sleeves in their heart’s blood, And suffered this transgression of love. 2. Thick grow the green rush leaves, The dewfall on them turns to frost: My love is somewhere on this stream – I went up-river to seek him, But the way was hard and long. I went down-river to seek him, And there in mid-water he was: Even he! Close grow the green rush leaves,
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Their white dew not yet dry. My love is at the water’s side – Upstream I sought him, But the way was long and hard, Downstream I sought him, And there on a mid-water ledge I saw him: Even he! 3. Hear the deer call, Nibbling the black southernwood of the fields. A lucky guest has visited me: Let me play my zither, blow my reedorgan, Take up the basket of gifts and offerings. Here is one who loves me, And will teach me the way of the land. Hear the deer call, Nibbling the white southernwood of the fields. I have a lucky guest, whose name is bright: He is a pattern to the people. Take up the good wine and the bread: Let us feast our guest to comfort him, And gladden his heart with music. Hear the deer call, Nibbling the wild garlic of the fields.
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Genesis I bring good wine and bread To comfort my guest who brings such fortune; I play my zither, and blow the reedorgan, To delight his heart with music. 4. We plucked the bracken while the shoots were soft: Oh to go back, to go back! Our hearts are sad, our sad hearts burn: And no news comes from home. What splendid thing is that? It is the flower of the cherry-tree: It is the plume on the chariot of the chief, The war-chariot ready yoked With its four eager steeds. We long to go back, to go back, But the campaign is not over, And no news comes from home. We yoke the teams of four, We ready the ivory bow-ends, The fish-skin quivers: The enemy is swift and strong; How should we dare to tarry? Long ago, when we started, The willows spread their shade. Now as we go on The snowflakes fly. Our march is long, we thirst, we hunger: Our hearts are stricken with sorrow: But no-one listens when we cry ‘To go back, to go back! Our hearts burn with sadness.’
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And no news comes from home. 5. I wake, and hasten to the window, Expecting to see the first green buds of spring; But find that the rains of autumn have already begun. When did the years pass, That I did not notice? When did spring become autumn, Whose rain falls at my window, When I rose with hope to see The first green buds of spring? 6. My friend is lodging high in the Eastern Hills, Loving the beauty of valleys and treeclad slopes. In summer he lies in the empty woods, And is still asleep when the sun pours warmth on them. A pine-tree wind dusts his sleeves and coat; A pebbled stream cleans his heart and thoughts. I envy you, who far from strife and talk Are high-propped on a pillow of blue cloud. [. . .]
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Hi s to r i e s Chapter 1 1. These are the records of the historian, offered to preserve remembrance of what mankind has experienced; 2. And to give account of the great war between East and West, on which the hinge of history turned; 3. Of how the West defended its birth from the assault of the East, 4. For the East, in its power and sway, and its indifference to liberty, would by victory have turned the course of the world into different paths. 5. Whereas the free hearts of the fathers of the West, smaller in number, weaker in power, 6. Yet stronger in resolve and greater in genius, kept the infant civilisation free. 7. Experience is our first guide; how much better we fare when we recall examples of our ancestors and their deeds, 8. Not least those that instruct and illuminate our way, placing our steps in the path of understanding; 9. Nor should we forget our beginnings, nor those few to whom we, who are now as multitudinous as stars, owe so much.
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Chapter 72 1. The Greeks at Thermopylae received the first warning of the destruction which dawn was bringing them, 2. From deserters who brought news that the Persians were marching round by the hills: it was still night when these men arrived. 3. Last of all, scouts came running down from the heights, and brought the same account, when the day was just beginning to break. 4. Then the Greeks held a council to consider what they should do. Opinions were divided: some were strong against quitting their post, while others argued the opposite. 5. So when the council had broken up, part of the troops departed and went home to their several states; 6. Part however resolved to remain, and to stand by Leonidas to the last. 7. It is said that Leonidas himself sent away the troops who departed, because he tendered their safety, 8. But thought it unseemly that either he or his Spartans should quit the post they had been especially sent to guard. 9. It is likely that Leonidas gave the order because he perceived the allies
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Histories
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to be out of heart and unwilling to encounter the danger to which his own mind was made up. He therefore commanded them to retreat, but said that he himself could not retreat with honour; knowing that, if he stayed, glory awaited him and the Spartans. So the allies, when Leonidas ordered them to retire, obeyed him and departed. Only the Thespians and the Thebans remained; and of these the Thebans were kept back by Leonidas as hostages, very much against their will. The Thespians, on the contrary, stayed willingly, refusing to retreat, and declaring that they would not forsake Leonidas and his followers. So they stayed with the Spartans, and died with them. Their leader was Demophilus, the son of Diadromes. At sunrise Xerxes made his preparations, then waited until the time of morning when it is usual for city forums to fill, before beginning his advance. Ephialtes had advised this because the descent of the mountain is much quicker, and the distance much shorter, than the way round the hills. So the barbarians under Xerxes began to approach; and the Greeks under Leonidas, as they now went out determined to die, Advanced much further than on previous days, until they reached
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the more open portion of the pass. Hitherto they had held their station within the wall, and from this had sallied out to fight at the point where the pass was narrowest. Now they joined battle beyond the defile, and made great slaughter among the barbarians, who fell in heaps. Behind them the captains of the Persian squadrons, armed with whips, urged their men forward with continual blows. Many were thrust into the sea, and there perished; a still greater number were trampled to death by their own soldiers; No one heeded the dying. For the Greeks, reckless of their own safety and desperate, Since they knew that, as the mountain had been crossed, their destruction was at hand, Exerted themselves with the most furious valour against the barbarians. By this time the spears of most of the Greeks were shivered, so with their swords they cut down the ranks of the Persians; And here, as they strove, Leonidas fell fighting bravely, together with many other famous Spartans, whose names are imperishable on account of their great worthiness, all three hundred of them. There fell too at the same time many famous Persians: among them, two sons of Darius, Abrocomes and Hyperanthes, his chil-
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The Good Book dren by Phratagune, the daughter of Artanes. And now there arose a fierce struggle between the Persians and the Lacedaemonians over the body of Leonidas, in which the Greeks four times drove back the enemy, and at last by their bravery succeeded in carrying away the body. This combat was scarcely ended when the Persians with Ephialtes approached; and the Greeks, informed that the Persian elite troops were closing in behind them, made a change in the manner of their fighting. Drawing back into the narrowest part of the pass, and retreating even behind the cross wall, they posted themselves on a hillock, Where they stood drawn up together in one close body, except only the Thebans. This hillock is at the entrance of the pass, where the stone lion now stands which was set up in honour of Leonidas. Here the Greeks defended themselves to the last, such as still had swords using them, and the others resisting with their hands and teeth; Till the barbarians, who in part had pulled down the wall and attacked them in front, in part had gone round and now encircled them on every side, Overwhelmed the remnant beneath showers of missiles.
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Chapter 73 1. Thus nobly did the whole body of Lacedaemonians and Thespians behave; 2. But one man is said to have distinguished himself above the rest, namely, Dieneces the Spartan. 3. A speech he made before the Greeks fought the Persians remains on record. 4. One of the Trachinians told him, ‘Such was the number of the barbarians, that when they shot their arrows the sun would be darkened by their multitude.’ 5. Dieneces, not at all frightened at these words, answered, ‘Our Trachinian friend brings us excellent tidings. 6. ‘If the barbarians darken the sun, we shall have our fight in the shade.’ [. . .]
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Prove r b s Chapter 2 Adversity 1. Adversity is the first path to truth. 2. There is no education like adversity. 3. Though it makes no-one rich, it makes many wise. 4. It has few friends, but proves those it has. 5. Adversity flatters no-one, it tries virtue, and tests courage. 6. Gold is tested by fire, brave men by adversity.
3. Fly the pleasure that bites tomorrow. 4. Follow pleasure and it will flee, flee pleasure and it will follow. 5. For one pleasure a thousand griefs are proved. 6. Pleasure makes hours short. 7. Pleasure is the greatest incentive to vice. 8. Rarity gives zest to pleasure. 9. There is no pleasure unalloyed.
Chapter 117 Philosophy 1. Philosophy is the sweet milk of adversity. 2. Clarity is the sincerity of philosophers. 3. Philosophy is doubt. 4. Let philosophers be wise for themselves. 5. Philosophy does the going, and wisdom is the goal. 6. Philosophy is the mother of the arts. 7. The true medicine of the mind is philosophy. 8. To enjoy freedom, be the slave of philosophy.
Chapter 118 Pleasure 1. If you long for pleasure you must labour to get it. 2. After pleasant scratching comes painful smarting.
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Chapter 119 Politics 1. All politicians die by swallowing their own lies. 2. The honest politician is the one who, when bought, stays bought. 3. Few politicians die, and none resign. 4. Politicians neither love nor hate. 5. Old politicians chew on past wisdom. 6. Party is the madness of the many for the gain of the few. 7. There is no gambling like politics. 8. Vain hope, to make people happy by politics. 9.When great questions end, little parties begin. 10. Office shows the person.
Chapter 141 Truth 1. Truth is often paradoxical.
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Th e L awg i ve r Chapter 1 1. If one listens to the wisdom of those who sat in the councils of kings, and witnessed the government in many lands; 2. One learns that whereas it is possible to rule lives and bodies, it is not so easy to try ruling minds – but nor is it right, 3. For the human mind is a kingdom in itself, and wise rulers know where the borders of their own kingdoms lie. 4. If people’s minds were as easily controlled as their tongues, every king would sit safely on his throne, and government by compulsion would cease; 5. For all subjects would shape their lives according to the intentions of their rulers, 6. And would count a thing true or false, good or evil, just or unjust, in obedience to their dictates. 7. But no-one’s mind can lie wholly at the command of another, 8. For no-one can willingly give away the natural right of free reason and judgment, even if compelled to do so. 9. For this reason government which attempts to control minds is accounted tyrannical, 10. An abuse of sovereignty and a usur-
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pation of the rights of subjects, 11. To seek to prescribe what must be accepted as true, or rejected as false, or what opinions should actuate men. 12. All these questions fall within a person’s natural right, which he cannot abdicate even with consent, 13. And even under the lash of tyranny over body and life. 14. Judgment can be biased in many ways, sometimes to a great degree, 15. So that while exempt from direct external control, it may be so dependent on another person’s words, that it can be said to be ruled by him; 16. That is the way of proselytisers, demagogues, and teachers of the young and credulous, 17. Who use their authority to fill others with beliefs and ideas of their own choosing; 18. But although this influence carries far, it has never gone so far as to invalidate this truth: 19. That every person’s understanding is his or her own, and that minds are as diverse as palates. 20. Demagogues have gained at times such a hold over popular judgment that they were accounted superhuman,
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The Lawgiver 21. And believed to speak and act with special authority; 22. Nevertheless even the most famous of them could not escape murmurs and evil interpretations. 23. How much less then can other monarchs avoid them! 24. Yet such unlimited power, if it exists at all, must belong to a monarch, 25. And least of all to a democracy where the whole or a great part of the people wield authority collectively. 26. However unlimited, therefore, the power of a sovereign may be, it can never prevent people from forming judgments according to their own intellects, or being influenced by their emotions. 27. Since, therefore, no one can abdicate the freedom of judgment and feeling; since all are by indefeasible natural right the owner of their own thoughts, 28. It follows that people thinking in diverse and contradictory fashions, cannot, without disastrous results, be compelled to speak only according to the dictates of the supreme power. 29. Not even the most experienced, to say nothing of the multitude, know how to keep silence. 30. The ultimate aim of government is not to rule, or restrain, by fear, nor to exact obedience, 31. But rather to free all the people from fear, that they may live in security;
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32. Which is to strengthen their natural right to exist and work without injury to themselves or others. 33. So the object of government is not to change people from rational beings into beasts or puppets, 34. But to enable them to develop themselves in security, and to employ their reason unshackled; 35. Neither showing hatred, anger, or deceit, nor watched with the eyes of jealousy and injustice. 36. In short, the true aim of government is liberty.
Chapter 2 1. Because it is impossible to preserve peace unless individuals compromise their right of acting entirely on their own judgment, 2. They justly cede the right of free action in appropriate and necessary cases, though not the right of free reason and judgment; 3. For people cannot act against the authorities without danger to the state, though their feelings and judgment may be at variance therewith; 4. They may even speak against them, provided that they do so from rational conviction, 5. Not from fraud, anger, or hatred, and provided that they do not attempt to introduce any change on their private authority. [. . .]
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Acts Chapter 1 1. It has been well said that we should contemplate what the great did in the past, not just out of curiosity but to educate ourselves for the present. 2. Nobility and moral beauty have an active attraction, and invite all who live in later times to nobility again; 3. Not by imitation alone, but by stimulating thought about how to live, out of the bare contemplation of how some of the great once lived. 4. It is said, and rightly: to know what was done, is to know better what to do now. 5. Nothing is more fitted to interest reflective minds than accounts of the variety of circumstance in human affairs, 6. Which, whether prompting admiration for achievement or lamentation for what was suffered, always offers instruction: 7. The untroubled recollection of past endeavours has a charm of its own to those who shared them, 8. While to those who did not share them, but who look upon them with interest and sympathy, there is much to be gained. 9. And yet those of great name are never faultless. Fame either heightens or hides flaws, so that
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memorials of them distort them into paragons or paraiahs. But why can there not be a juster appreciation of the alloy that is man, despite which some rise into the permanent annals of history, Leaving their best achievements as examples to posterity, while we admit the base metal there inmixed? The virtues of the great servw us as a looking-glass, in which we may see how to adjust and adorn our own lives, Their faults and frailties admonishing by example likewise, and the whole made of both serving as a manual of humanity. Contemplating lives can be compared to associating with those we thus contemplate; We receive and entertain in our inquiry each successive guest, view their qualities, and select from their actions all that is noblest to know. By the study of history and the familiarity acquired in writing, we habituate our memories to receive and retain images of the best and worthiest. We are thus enabled to raise thought above what is base to better examples of our forerunners famous for their success,
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Acts 18. Who leave no doubt whether they owe their achievements to luck, or their own character and conduct. 19. Of the many portraits one might paint to this end, only a few are necessary, 20. For from the few one can discern the many.
Chapter 52 1. Should Cato be applauded for this austerity and economy in all things? 2. Certainly it marks an over-rigid temper, for a man to take the work out of his servants as out of brute beasts, 3. Then turn them off and sell them in their old age, thinking there ought to be no further commerce between man and man, than what has some profit by it. 4. We see that kindness or humanity has a larger field than bare justice to exercise itself in; 5. Law and justice we cannot, in the nature of things, employ on others than men; 6. But we may extend our goodness and charity even to irrational creatures; 7. And such acts flow from a gentle nature, as water from an abundant spring. 8. It is doubtless the part of a kindnatured man to keep even wornout horses and dogs, 9. And not only take care of them when they are young, but also when they are old.
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10. The Athenians turned their mules loose to feed freely, which they had done the hardest labor. 11. The graves of Cimon’s horses, which thrice won the Olympian races, are yet to be seen close by his own monument. 12. Old Xanthippus, too, entombed his dog which swam after his galley to Salamis. 13. We are not to use living creatures like old shoes or dishes, and throw them away when they are worn out; 14. but if it were for nothing else, but by way of study and practice in humanity, a man ought always to habituate himself in these things to be kind. 15. As to myself, I would not so much as sell my draught ox on the account of his age, 16. Much less for a small piece of money sell a poor old man, and so chase him from where he has lived a long while, 17. And the manner of living he has been accustomed to; and that more especially when he would be as useless to the buyer as to the seller. 18. Yet Cato, for all this, boasted that he left that very horse in Spain, which he used in the wars when he was consul, 19. Only because he would not put the public to the expense of transporting it home. 20. Whether these acts are to be ascribed to the greatness or pettiness of his mind, let every one argue as they please.
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E pi s t l e s Epistle 1 1. My dear son: you must begin by having a true estimate of our human species, 2. Before you can begin to formulate how you will advance yourself to being one of the better specimens of it. 3. That will be the purpose of these letters to you, as you take your journey among people and places, 4. So that you can combine your experience of them with the experience I offer you. 5. There are those who exalt the human species to the skies, and represent man as a paragon; 6. And there are those who insist on the worst of human nature, and can discover nothing except vanity and folly in man, making him no better than other animals. 7. A delicate sense of morals is apt to give one a disgust of the world, and to make one consider the common course of human affairs with indignation and dislike. 8. For my part I think that those who view mankind favourably and sympathetically do more to promote virtue than those who have a mean opinion of human nature. 9. When a man has a high notion of his moral status, he will naturally endeavour to live up to it, and will
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scorn to do a base or vicious thing, which might sink him below the figure he makes in his own imagination. Accordingly we find that all the best moralists concentrate on the idea that vice is unworthy of us, as well as being odious in itself. In disputes concerning the dignity or meanness of human nature it is right to begin by accepting that there is a natural difference between merit and demerit, virtue and vice, wisdom and folly. Yet is it evident that in assigning approbation or blame, we are commonly more influenced by comparison than by any fixed standard in the nature of things. When we call an animal big or small, we always do so on the basis of comparing that animal and others of the same species; And it is that comparison which regulates our judgment concerning its size. Suppose this dog and that horse are the same size; we will wonder at the dog for being large, the horse for being small. When I hear any dispute I always ask myself whether it is a question of comparison that is at issue.
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17. And if it is, whether the disputants compare the same objects together, or talk of things that are widely different. 18. In forming our notions of human nature we are apt to compare men and animals, the only creatures endowed with thought that fall under our senses. 19. Certainly this comparison is favourable to mankind. In man we see a creature whose thoughts are not limited by narrow bounds of place or time; 20. Who carries his inquiries into the most distant regions of this globe, and beyond this globe, to the stars; 21. Who looks backward to consider the history of the human race; 22. Who casts his eye forward to see the influence of his actions on posterity, 23. And the judgment that will be made of his character a hundred or a thousand years hence; 24. We see a creature who traces causes and effects to a great length and intricacy, 25. Extracts general principles from particular appearances, 26. Improves his discoveries, corrects his mistakes, and makes his errors profitable. 27. On the other side we see an animal -- a being the very reverse of this, limited in its observations and reasonings to a few objects which surround it; 28. Without curiosity, without foresight; blindly conducted by in-
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stinct, and attaining, in a short time, its utmost perfection, beyond which it is unable to advance a single step. Thus we see what a wide difference there is between humans and the other animals! And how exalted a notion must we entertain of the former, in comparison to the latter threfore! Yet there are two means commonly employed to destroy this conclusion: First, by making an unfair representation of the case, and insisting only on the weaknesses of human nature. And secondly, by forming a comparison between man and imagined beings of the most perfect wisdom. Among the other excellencies of man, one is that he can form an idea of perfections much beyond what he has experience of in himself; And therefore he is not limited in his conception of wisdom and virtue, but can imagine both in the greatest degree. He can easily exalt his notions and conceive an extent of knowledge, which, when compared to his own, will make his own appear very contemptible, And will cause the difference between human sagacity and that of animals almost disappear. Given that all the world agree that human understanding falls infinitely short of perfect wisdom,
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Th e G o o d Chapter 8 1. Shall we ask, by what commandments should we live? 2. Or might we better ask, each of ourselves: 3. What kind of person should I be? 4. The first question assumes that there is one right answer. 5. The second assumes that there are many right answers. 6. If we ask how to answer the second question, we are answered in yet other questions: 7. What should you do when you see another suffering, or in need, afraid, or hungry? 8. What causes are worthy, what world do you dream of where your child plays in the street? 9. There are many such questions, some already their own answer, some unanswerable. 10. But when all the answers to all the questions are summed together, noone hears less than this: 11. Harm no others, help the needy, love well, seek the good in all things, think for yourself, take responsibility, respect nature, do your utmost, be informed, be courageous: at least, sincerely try. 12. Add to these ten injunctions, this: O friends, let us always be true to 13. ourselves and to the best in things,
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so that we can always be true to one another.
Chapter 9 1. Seek always for the good that abides. There can be none except as the mind finds it within itself; 2. Wisdom alone affords everlasting and peace-giving joy, for then, even if some obstacle arises, 3. It is only like an intervening cloud, which floats beneath the sun but never prevails against it. 4. When will you attain this joy? It will begin when you think for yourself, 5. When you truly take responsibility for your own life, 6. When you join the fellowship of all who have stood up as free individuals and said, 7. ‘We are of the company of those who seek the true and the right, and live accordingly, ‘In our human world, in the short time we each have, 8. ‘We see our duty to make and find something good for ourselves and our companions in the human condition.’ 9. Let us help one another, therefore; let us build the city together. Where the best future might inhabit, and the true promise of humanity be realized at last.
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