OCR Classical Civilisation A Level Components 31 and 34 by Bloomsbury Publishing

N C PA O R G R N ES E O C T FO TE FO D R R S R D A E IS M V TR IE PL W E IB U TI O N OCR Classical Civilisation A Level

Components 31 and 34

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C o ntents Introduction | vi

How to Use This Book | vii

PART 1

Greek Religion | 1

Introduction to Greek Religion | 2

1.1 The Nature of the Olympian Gods | 4

1.2 Personal Experience of the Divine | 19 1.3 Religion and Society | 33 1.4 Places of Worship | 51

1.5 Rituals and Priests | 75

1.6 Religion and Philosophy | 87

What to Expect in the A Level Exam for Greek Religion | 95

PART 2 Democracy and the Athenians | 103

Introduction to Democracy and the Athenians | 104 2.1 Solon | 106

2.2 Cleisthenes | 119

2.3 5-th Century Developments | 130 2.4 Democracy Idealised | 147 2.5 Democracy Critiqued | 159

2.6 Democracy and Comedy | 174

What to Expect in the A Level Exam for Democracy and the Athenians | 184 Glossary | 190

Sources of Illustrations | 193 Sources of Quotations | 194 Index | 207

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PART 1 GREEK RELIGION

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1.1 The Nature of the Olympian Gods TOPIC OVERVIEW

The Olympian deities and the traditional understanding of their nature anthropomorphism and the scope of their power the reciprocal relationship between gods and mortals the significance of Homer and Hesiod for Greek ideas about the gods

The different roles, contexts and functions of the Olympians as reflected in their common epithets (e.g. Zeus Agoraios, Zeus Phratrios, Zeus Philios and Zeus Herkeios) and the extent to which these were thought of as separate, distinct entities l The role and nature of hero cults l The extent to which worship of the gods and heroes were Panhellenic, localised or personal.

The following prescribed source is covered in this topic: l

Black-figure Panathenaic Amphora (British Museum, 1856,1001.1)

Don’t forget that you will be given credit in the exam if you study extra sources and make relevant use of them in your answers.

This topic explores the way in which the Greeks imagined their gods. By looking at the different roles the Olympian gods were given in a myriad of myths and the powers that were attributed to them, this section establishes the perceived relationships the Greeks had with individual deities and the divine sphere.

THE OLYMPIAN GODS

Polytheism the belief and/or worship of more than one god

Ancient Greek religion was polytheistic, meaning that the Greeks worshipped many gods.

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1.1â&#x20AC;&#x201A; The Nature of the Olympian Gods

There were traditionally twelve Olympian gods, so named because they were believed to have lived on Mount Olympus in northern Greece: Main responsibility

Zeus

Order, justice (king of the gods)

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Name of the god

Hera

Marriage (wife of Zeus)

Poseidon

Sea and horses (brother of Zeus)

Athena

Wisdom, crafts, heroes (daughter of Zeus)

Artemis

Archery, maidens (twin of Apollo, daughter of Zeus)

Apollo

Sun, music, prophecy (twin of Artemis, son of Zeus)

Aphrodite

Beauty, love

Demeter

Agriculture (Sister of Zeus)

Hermes

Messengers, travellers, merchants and thieves (Son of Zeus)

Hephaestus

Blacksmiths (son of Zeus and Hera)

Ares

War (son of Zeus and Hera)

Either Hestia

Hearth (Sister of Zeus)

Or Dionysus

Wine, theatre (son of Zeus)

Hades, god of the Underworld and brother of Zeus and Poseidon, is not included because he did not live in Olympus. Persephone, daughter of Demeter and wife of Hades, is sometimes included because of her role in the Eleusinian Mysteries (see p. 000). For half the year, Persephone lived with Hades in the Underworld. Some sources include Hestia as part of the twelve gods, while others include Dionysus; however, both were key parts of religious life in ancient Greece. Although there were other gods besides these Olympian gods, these are the ones required for this course.

Figure 1.1 Family tree of the Olympian gods.

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Part One Greek Religion

KEY INDIVIDUALS

EXPLORE FURTHER

Homer Date: 8th or 7th century BC

Read Hesiod’s Theogony (lines 116–506) for the creation of the gods. You can then compare this with other creation stories, such as that presented in a Roman text by Ovid (Metamorphoses 1.1-88) or in the Bible (Genesis 1.1-25). How similar are these stories? What might the similarities and differences suggest about the nature of the individual religions?

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He is credited with composing the Iliad and the Odyssey. The Iliad takes place in the last year of the Trojan War and focuses on the anger of the Greek hero Achilles. The Odyssey traces Odysseus’ journey home from Troy to the island of Ithaca. Hesiod Date: c. 700 BC

Also an epic poet, his two main works are the Works and Days and the Theogony. Works and Days teaches farmers how to live good and productive lives. The Theogony describes the gods’ origins and family tree.

THE OLYMPIAN DEITIES AND THE TRADITIONAL UNDERSTANDING OF THEIR NATURE

The significance of Homer and Hesiod for Greek ideas about the gods

Homer and Hesiod’s descriptions set out how the ancient Greeks perceived the gods during the eighth and seventh centuries BC. Their works were a major influence on Greek attitudes to the Olympians. These attitudes did not change in later periods. The 5th-century BC Greek historian Herodotus wrote this about the influence of Homer and Hesiod: But it was – if I may so put it – the day before yesterday that the Greeks came to know the origin and form of the various gods, and whether or not all of them had always existed; for Homer and Hesiod are the poets who composed theogonies and described the gods for the Greeks, giving them their a ppropriate titles, offices, and powers…

Herodotus, Histories 2.53

Herodotus was writing as a researcher and historian, interested in the religious customs of Greeks and other peoples. His references to Homer and Hesiod demonstrate clearly the significance these earlier poets had in teaching future generations about the gods.

Homeric Hymns

Figure 1.2 Idealised image of Homer from the Hellenistic Period, in the British Museum.

aetiology the reason or cause for something, often deriving from a historical or mythical explanation

These hymns inform us what Greeks thought about the gods in around 700 BC, focusing on the creation of the gods. Like Hesiod’s Theogony, the Homeric Hymns, written a century or two later, frequently discuss the birth of the gods. Although they are called ‘Homeric’, they were not composed by Homer, but were in the same style and tradition as Homer’s epics. They also explain the cause for the gods’ cults, or their aetiology. Athena is a goddess to whom we will repeatedly return as we study the Panathenaic Festival (see p. 000) and the decoration of the Parthenon (see p. 000), both of which honoured her. Homeric Hymns 11 celebrates her as:

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1.1 The Nature of the Olympian Gods Figures 1.3 & 1.4 Panathenaic Amphora.

PRESCRIBED SOURCE

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Panathenaic Amphora

Date: 333–332 BC Style: Black figure

Obverse: Armed Athena striding forwards Reverse: Three athletes running

Current Location: British Museum

Protectress of cities… that fearsome goddess who cares with Ares for warlike works – The sacking of cities, the scream of battle, the clash of the fray – And also ensures the army’s safe parting and homeward return.

If we compare this description with the iconography of the goddess on the Panathenaic Amphora, we can see that little has changed in her worship. She is depicted armed and striding forwards. She appears as an active goddess who both protects and punishes. Her large size, emphasised by her head extending over the top border, depicts her larger-than-human power. Such descriptions and iconographies of Athena help explain why the Athenians worshipped her with an annual festival. Athena’s birth is also described in Homeric Hymns 28:

Significance: Panathenaic Amphora showing the goddess Athena reveals the goddess’ presence in Athens’ festival and her anthropomorphic depiction.

EXPLORE FURTHER

It was Craft-filled Zeus himself who gave birth From his sacred head to her already in armour of war… Quickly she leaped from his deathless head to stand Before Zeus who bears the aigis.

Museum Number: 1856,1001.1

Homeric Hymns 28.4-5, 7-8

This is likewise described in Hesiod’s Theogony and was probably shown on the east pediment of the Parthenon, with Athena standing fully armed besides a seated Zeus. Very little in the understanding and depiction of Athena has changed since these archaic texts. In fact, much of the later images of Athena may be attributed to these archaic poems; they were after all performed at the Panathenaic Festival (see p. 000).

For more ancient sources on how Athena was honoured by Athens, read Solon fragment 4; Plato’s Menexenus 237c; Aristophanes’ Wasps 1081–1086.

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1.2 Personal Experience of the Divine TOPIC OVERVIEW

Mystery cults, including: the importance of initiation, personal religious choice and individual participation the Eleusinian Mysteries and the Great Eleusinia

The healing cult of Asclepius, including: his characterisation as both god and hero incubation and miracles

The oracle at Dodona, including: the nature of the help and advice sought from the oracle by private individuals

The following prescribed sources are covered in this topic:

Ninnion tablet, red-figure plaque depicting the cult of Eleusis, c. 400–300 BC, in the National Museum in Athens (vase number 231) l Marble relief/anatomical votive from the shrine of Asclepius, in the British Museum (1867,0508.117)

Don’t forget that you will be given credit in the exam if you study extra sources and make relevant use of them in your answers.

This section is dedicated to personal experiences of the divine and the cults and rituals that enabled such encounters. By looking at the evidence from mystery, healing and oracular cults, we will discuss the way in which a person could directly communicate and experience the divine and its intervention in a human’s life.

INDIVIDUAL EXPERIENCE AND THE DIVINE

The Olympian deities were worshipped in various forms and with varying rituals, often depending on local contexts. Similarly, festivals could highlight very different aspects of a deity’s field of responsibility. Demeter and her daughter Kore, for example, were worshipped in Athens at the Thesmophoria. But they were also worshipped in Attica in the mysteries of Eleusis for their roles beyond in the afterlife. This particular event, despite being a stately ceremony, was also customised to serve as a personal experience. It was a unique initiation offered to

KEY EVENT

Thesmophoria an Athenian festival reserved only for female citizens celebrating fertility

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1.3 Religion and Society TOPIC OVERVIEW

Levels of religious participation: household, deme, polis, Panhellenic Religious authority and where it lay, including ideas about ‘impiety’ l The links between politics and religion l The Panathenaia and its significance for Athens l

There are no prescribed sources for this topic, but students are encouraged to draw on other appropriate sources and evidence they have studied in the extended-response exam questions. Here are some suggestions:

Demosthenes 59.73 (Against Neaira) Demosthenes 18.259 (On the Crown) l the Parthenon Frieze, Athens l

This section sets out to establish the role that religion played in Greek society. It will discuss individuals and the way religion was part of a person’s everyday life, as well as the institutions that held religious authority and organised civic festivals such as the Panathenaia to examine the dynamics between religion and society.

LEVELS OF RELIGIOUS PARTICIPATION: HOUSEHOLD, deme, polis, Panhellenic

The Olympian gods could be worshipped at a range of different levels, from household to Panhellenic, stretching across a wide spectrum of political and social structures. An individual might sacrifice to a household god at home, then go to a civic festival and make offerings to a polis god and then travel to a Panhellenic site to make a dedication to another god. Each cult was distinguished by the epithet of the god, which could relate to the location of the cult or to the specific area of responsibility that god was particularly associated with.

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1.4 Places of Worship TOPIC OVERVIEW

The layout, significance, role and functions of: ●

the Athenian Acropolis and its civic importance to Athens Delphi and state and private consultation of Delphic oracle ● Olympia and the Olympic Games and their Panhellenic significance ●

The following prescribed sources are covered in this topic: ●

Attic kylix depicting a consultation of the Pythia The Athenian Acropolis including the Parthenon and the Erechtheion ● Delphi, including the Temple of Apollo, the Theatre, the Sacred Way and the stadium ● Olympia, including the Temple of Zeus and Pheidias’ statue, the ash altar of Olympian Zeus, the treasuries, the Echo Stoa and the stadium ●

Don’t forget that you will be given credit in the exam if you study extra sources and make relevant use of them in your answers.

This section is designed to shed light on the most important places where the Greeks worshipped their gods. By focussing on art and archaeological evidence, we will discuss the various ways and locations in which the Greeks honoured their gods be it with artefacts, temples or games.

THE ATHENIAN ACROPOLIS AND ITS CIVIC IMPORTANCE TO ATHENS

The Acropolis was the religious heart of Athens. The natural outcrop in the city made it the easiest place to defend, and it had been occupied since the late Bronze Age in the 16th to the 12th centuries BC. In the 6th century it was filled with votive offerings made by individuals, mainly to the patron goddess Athena. These offerings, which marked either offerings of thanks or hope for protection and goodwill, show the religious nature of the space. The Acropolis also housed a temple. It was this pre-Parthenon which the Persians destroyed in 480 BC when they invaded Attica. Following this destruction, the

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Part One Greek Religion Figure 1.27 The Parthenon.

PRESCRIBED SOURCE

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The Athenian Acropolis

Date: Rebuilt during the mid to late 5th century BC Significance: Key religious site in Attica and important for the whole of Greece Festivals: Panathenaia; Plynteˉria

Rebuilding commissioned by: Pericles, after the sack of Athens by the Persians in 480 BC Key buildings to learn: Parthenon and Erechtheion

pediment the triangular space at the top of the eastern and western sides of the temple, which could be sculpted

Doric frieze identified by alternating triglyphs, which were three horizontal lines engraved in the marble, and metopes, a rectangular space that could be sculpted Ionic frieze identified by a continuous area, which could be sculpted

Athenians reportedly swore the oath of Plataea, promising not to rebuild the Acropolis so that it acted as an eternal reminder of barbaric impiety. It was only under Pericles in the second half of the 5th century that building works began. The Parthenon, Propylaia, temple of Athena Nike and Erechtheion all date to this period. Each one served a primarily religious purpose, integrating the Acropolis within the life of the city.

The Parthenon

The Parthenon was built between 447 BC and 432. It was made entirely out of marble and housed an overwhelming number of sculptures. It significantly out-did the amount of architectural sculpture of any other Greek temple, as both pediments, all four sides of the Doric frieze (metopes) and an added Ionic frieze were sculpted. Inside, the Parthenon housed Pheidias’ chryselephantine statue of Athena. The myths chosen to decorate the Parthenon relate to each other. The Doric friezes are sculpted with four mythical battles: mache means ‘battle’ as for example in gigantomachy, below: Name of the mythical battle

Civilised

Barbaric

Gigantomachy

Gods

Giants (Titans)

Centauromachy

Lapiths (men from Thessaly)

Centaurs (half

man-half horse)

Amazonomachy

Men

Amazonian women

Trojan War

Greeks (Achaians)

Trojans

The statue of Athena Parthenos inside the Parthenon likewise depicted these myths: the outer side of her shield portrayed the Amazonomachy, the inside the Gigantomachy, and the Centauromachy was sculpted on her golden sandals. The east pediment showed

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Part One Greek Religion

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Figure 1.34â&#x20AC;&#x201A; Drawing of the sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi.

Moreover, this Spartan victory monument comprised of a group of thirty-eight statues in two rows, three times the size of the Athenian dedication. Spartan supremacy was hereby not only celebrated and credited to the god Apollo but also visually dominated the area and, most significantly, the Athenian monument opposite. There are, however, other monuments that reflect unity and alliance, as is perhaps more expected in a Panhellenic sanctuary. The Serpent Column is the best example of this, set up beside the altar in front of the Temple of Apollo. During the 5th century BC, when mainland Greece was threatened and subsequently invaded by Xerxesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Persian army, a number of Greek city-states joined forces to fight this common enemy. After the final land battle, the Battle of Plataea in 479 BC, when the Greeks finally won the war, this alliance set up a Serpent Column at Delphi thanking Apollo for his guidance and for their success. This 9-metre high monument consisted of three bronze serpents coiled

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1.4 Places of Worship

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together into a column, with a golden tripod on top. The serpents recall Pytho, whom Apollo slew and the tripod corresponds with the tripod the Pythia sat on. The names of the thirty-one Greek cities that were involved in the fight against Persia were inscribed on this monument, a real display of unity and common worship. On the other hand, the monument also exposed and shamed the Greek poleis that had not joined in the resistance against the Persians, many of whom were part of the Amphiktyonic League. The Sacred Way was also surrounded by treasuries. The foundations of thirty treasuries are still visible today. The Treasury of the Siphnians, for example, was located on the left side of the pathway as one walked up towards the Temple. This treasury was made entirely of marble and was decorated with elaborate sculptures and caryatids on the façade. This impressive appearance, as well as the location of the treasury directly beside the Sacred Way, was doubtless an excellent way to promote the Aegean island in this Panhellenic setting. It is noteworthy that the majority of these treasuries were erected by faraway poleis, who required greater efforts to show their inclusion in the Hellenic sphere. The Treasury of the Athenians was likewise eye-catching. Located at the sharp turning of the Sacred Way, where most worshippers were likely to pass or perhaps take a rest before the next ascent, its marble and heavily sculpted exterior would have stood out in the sanctuary. In front of it also stood a stoa, set up by the Athenians, which was on the plateau directly below the Temple of Apollo. This prime location meant that worshippers waiting to consult the oracle would have waited here for their turn. This practical building was another excellent way for Athenian self-promotion. The Sacred Way was therefore surrounded by buildings and monuments that celebrated both individual city-states and alliances. In each case, the distinction between politics and religion is impossible; victory monuments and treasuries were just as much about self-promotion as they were about expressing gratitude to the gods.

EXPLORE FURTHER Read about the Siphnians’ wealth in Herodotus 3.57.

Figure 1.35 Drawing of the Siphnian Treasury.

Figure 1.36 Treasury of the Athenians

Study questions

1 How politically neutral was the sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi? 2 Was Delphi popular for purely religious reasons?

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Part One Greek Religion

The sanctuary: The Theatre

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temenos a piece of land marked off for specific religious usage

The theatre north-west of the Temple of Apollo reflects the presence of Dionysus, the god of theatre, at Delphi. It is the only competition space within the temenos, as the stadium is just outside of it. It originally had thirty-five rows of seats and catered to an audience of 5,000. The theatre was originally built in the 4th century BC, so it is worth remembering that until this time, when the sanctuary’s fame and reliability had already been firmly established, the theatre likely did not exist – it could have been made of wood and was later replaced by stone but there is no archaeological evidence to support this. Originally there was a Pythian festival held every eight years, where a single contest was held; it was the singing of a hymn to Apollo accompanied by the kithara, a stringed musical instrument, similar to the lyre. This festival was replaced by the Pythian Games, which are first recorded in 582 BC. The musical contests, which would have taken place in the theatre once it was built, consisted in singing to the cithara, cithara-playing and flute-playing.

Figure 1.37 Theatre at Delphi.

S & C

Not only were all genres of plays performed in this theatre, as well as musical and rhapsodic contests, but Delphi appears in a series of Greek tragedies as well. You can explore this further by looking at Aeschylus’ Eumenides (especially lines 1–96) and Euripides’ Ion (lines 1–232).

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1.4 Places of Worship

The sanctuary: The stadium

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The stadium is located north-west of the sanctuary of Apollo, just outside the temenos wall. The stadium was originally built in the 5th century BC, but restored in the 2nd century AD. The track was 177.5 metres long and in its final phase had stone tiers of seating for 6,500 spectators on both sides of the track. We should not think that athletic contests were distinct from religious practice. One inscription, for example, which is still in place today, forbids the removal of sacrificial wine out of the stadium. It was here that the majority of the athletic contests of the Pythian Games took place. These would have been the same events that also took place in the other Panhellenic sanctuaries, such as running races, and field events, such as javelin and discus. The equestrian competitions were held in the hippodrome, which was below Delphi, in the plain of Crisa, though it has not been excavated. Combat events took place in the palaestra, an exercise ground, in the lower sanctuary.

Figure 1.38 The stadium at Delphi.

ACTIVITY

Study the diagram of the sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi (Fig 1.34) and label all the buildings mentioned so far. This will give you a visual oversight of the area, as well as an understanding of the relationships between the buildings and monuments. You can then begin to envisage what a worshipper’s journey might have been like.

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1.5 Rituals and Priests

TOPIC OVERVIEW

● ●

Ideas about why ritual was performed Priests and priestesses, including:

the role of the priest in conducting rituals the connection between aristocratic families and priesthoods role of women in religious rituals

●

The purpose, process and significance of blood sacrifices The role of libations in both state and private contexts ● The role of votive offerings in both state and private contexts ●

The following prescribed source is covered in this topic: ●

Attic red-figure stamnos from the British Museum depicting sacrifice (vase number 213648), 450–430 BC

Don’t forget that you will be given credit in the exam if you study extra sources and make relevant use of them in your answers.

In this section, we will introduce the rituals of worship and the agents of Greek religion. By looking at the procedures with which the Greeks honoured their gods and the individuals in charge of rituals such as blood sacrifice and other forms of offerings determined for the gods, we will try to reconstruct and understand the system of communications between mortals and the divine that the ancient Greeks had established.

IDEAS ABOUT WHY RITUALS WERE PERFORMED

Greek religious rituals followed a very precise procedure. Any deviance from the procedure could provoke the anger of the gods. Hence, priests and priestesses had to be practised in their services. They fulfilled the important role of invoking the goodwill of the gods on behalf of the entire community. And yet there was no such thing as a school for priests to go to. Indeed, in theory, anyone could become a priest or priestess in the Greek world. What distinguishes the ‘priest’ in the ancient world from modern priests is that their tasks were very different, and their position and expertise varied depending

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Part One Greek Religion

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on where they practised. They sometimes had to be seers, dream-interpreters, doctors, butchers, accountants and much more. It all depended on the deity in question and the local peculiarities of the deity’s cult in which they served. In other words, despite not receiving specific training, Greek priests had to have many skills. They did not form an overall ‘caste’ or association as in some other cultures. They kept their individuality and provided assistance as required at the sanctuaries to which they were appointed.

PRIESTS AND PRIESTESSES

The main task of priests and priestesses in ancient Greece was the performance of the ritual sacrifice and other religious services. A civic priest always stood under the responsibility of the local authorities. In fact, politicians did not need priests to perform religious activities but priests were often dependent on a civic representative to perform a public sacrifice.

MODERN SCHOLARSHIP

‘[M]agistrates sometimes conducted religious activities without the assistance of priests, it was less common for a public priest to perform rituals without the presence of secular authorities’ (Chaniotis 2008). In other words, religious authority lay in the hands of the state and the state alone. This means that it is nearly impossible to separate religious personnel from political personnel as their jobs often included both political and religious tasks (see the example of the archo¯n basileus below).

Often, priests were merely employed by the city, performing rituals at specific civic occasions and assisting the magistrates. If they were special oracular priests, they would be interpreting a deity’s oracles when the city sought a god’s advice, but did not have actual direct political significance. In Athens, the archōn basileus, the ‘king-archōn’, was in charge of all religious matters but individual priests and priestesses were employed for each deity. Why, then, should anyone wish to become a priest? Being a priest was usually not a way of life. It was often an unpaid post or only a part-time occupation. One could probably not feed a family from the salary. But priests had many privileges in ancient Greece, similar to those of politicians. For example, front row seats in the theatre of Dionysus at the slope of the Acropolis were reserved for particular priesthoods. The best cuts of the sacrificial meat were kept by the priests. What is more, priests were generally well regarded in society and becoming a priest was a goal to aspire to as it brought with it prestige. So how could one become a priest or priestess in ancient Greece?

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1.6 Religion and Philosophy TOPIC OVERVIEW

The rise of philosophical thinking and how this was viewed within Greek society, including the extent to which these ideas were truly ‘new’ l The critique of the ‘gods of Homer’ and their anthropomorphism, as voiced by Xenophanes l Socrates and accusations of ‘impiety’, including: Socrates’ ideas on the divine, justice and why he may have disagreed with the Homeric/Hesiodic idea of the gods the extent to which his ideas were radical or controversial There are no prescribed sources for this topic, but students are encouraged to draw on other appropriate sources and evidence they have studied in the extended-response exam questions. Here are some suggestions:

Herodotus II. 53 Marble figurine of Socrates depicted as a classical philosopher, 3rd century BC, now in the British Museum l Xenophon, Apology 11 l

In this section, we will analyse the ways in which Greek philosophers viewed the gods. Looking at the examples of Xenophanes and Socrates, their works and their lives, we will discuss how these philosophers questioned the traditional attitudes towards the Greek gods held by most of their contemporaries and in how far their views were controversial or the norm.

THE RISE OF PHILOSOPHICAL THINKING AND HOW IT WAS VIEWED WITHIN GREEK SOCIETY, INCLUDING THE EXTENT TO WHICH THESE IDEAS WERE TRULY ‘NEW’

As seen throughout the textbook, religion was part of every aspect of life and culture in ancient Greece. Similarly, religion and philosophy were closely linked and should be viewed as such: philosophical theology and more generally ‘thinking’ about the gods becomes evident not only in philosophical treatises but equally in historical texts such as

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2.1 Solon TOPIC OVERVIEW

Reforms of Solon seisachtheia property classes, their rights and obligations possible introduction of a Council of 400 archoˉnship Areopagus assembly changes to Draco’s law code

Responses to and consequences of his reforms and their relationship to the development of democracy

There are no prescribed sources for this topic, but students are encouraged to draw on any other appropriate sources and evidence they have studied in the extended-response exam questions. Here are some suggestions: l Herodotus,

Histories 1.29-33 Constitution of Athens, chapters 5–19 l Plutarch, Life of Solon, 14–26

l Aristotle,

This topic will examine the reforms which Solon made to the Athenian political system in the early 6th century BC as represented in Solon’s poetry as well as in later sources such as Aristotle and Plutarch. It will start by examining how these authors reconstruct the social and political conditions in Athens in 600 BC to give context to his reforms. It will then move on to look at the nature of the reforms themselves and how their outcomes influenced the later development of a democratic system at Athens.

EXPLORE FURTHER

There are three main ancient sources which tell us about Solon, all of which are important for the understanding of what the ancients believed about him. The earliest account comes from the historian Herodotus, for whom Solon is an important character during an early episode of his Histories (1.29-33). His account of Solon, as one of the wisest of the Greeks, is interesting and entertaining, but we learn little about Solon’s reforms from it.

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Further Reading

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Victor Ehrenberg, From Solon to Socrates (Routledge, 2010) part 3. John David Lewis, Early Greek Lawgivers (BCP, 2007) chapter 6. Paul Cartledge Democracy: A Life (OUP, 2016) chapter 3. J. Blok and P. M. H. Lardinois, Solon of Athens: New Historical and Philological Approaches (Leiden: Brill, 2004). Jonathan Hall, A History of the Archaic Greek World (Wiley Blackwell, 2014) chapters 4, 6, 8.

PRACTICE QUESTIONS

Solon’s reforms included significant changes both to the legal system and to the economic system in Attica. [2] [10]

1. List two ways in which Solon’s new legal system enabled every citizen to be involved in it. 2. Explain how a poor citizen of Athens might have benefited from Solon’s economic reforms.

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2.2 Cleisthenes TOPIC OVERVIEW

Reforms of Cleisthenes demes tribes Council of 500 (Boule¯) sortition possible introduction of ostracism subsequent introduction of strategoi (generals)

Responses to and consequences of his reforms The extent to which these reforms redefined how Athenians viewed themselves in relation to each other and to the state

Histories 5.66, 69-78 Constitution of Athens, chapters 20–22

This topic examines the reforms of Cleisthenes as the Athenians remembered them. It then moves on to look at the outcomes of these reforms and how it changed the way in which Athenian citizens viewed their relationship to the state.

EXPLORE FURTHER

It will be helpful for you to read the two key passages in ancient authors which describe these reforms and their consequences. The earliest account comes in Herodotus, Histories 5.66, 69-78, during his survey of the state of Athens at the start of the 5th century BC. A second account comes in Aristotle’s Constitution of Athens, 20–22. Read both sources – to what extent do they correspond to each other?

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Figure 2.7 Many ostraka have been found by archaeologists in Athens.

Study questions

1 Could a form of ostracism be used today? If so, which political figures do you think would be candidates for ostracism and why? 2 Are any quorums required in our political system for decisions to be valid? Do you think that they are a good idea?

ACTIVITY

In your class, choose a number of modern political figures who you would like to put up for ostracism. Stage a debate about which one should be ostracised and then hold a vote to decide.

the discovery of 190 ostraka in a well on the north slope of the Acropolis, all of them showing the name ‘Themistocles’ and written by only a few hands, suggesting that they were prepared in advance by the opponents of Themistocles, who was ostracised in about 470.

MODERN SCHOLARSHIP

There is no clear agreement as to whether Cleisthenes really did introduce ostracism as part of his reforms. If he did, it seems strange that it was not used for twenty years until 488/7, but then regularly in the years thereafter. To find out more about this debate, read the following: S. Forsdyke (2005), Exile, Ostracism, and Democracy: The Politics of Expulsion in Ancient Greece, Princeton. P. Kosmin (2015), ‘A Phenomenology of Democracy: Ostracism as Political Ritual’, Classical Antiquity. 34: 121–162.

The Ten Generals

As we have seen, Cleisthenes disappears from the historical record after introducing his reforms in 508/7. However, according to Aristotle, in 501/0 another important innovation was introduced which clearly had its origins in Cleisthenes’ reforms. This was

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2.3 5th-Century Developments TOPIC OVERVIEW

Selection of archoˉ ns by lot The role of the Athenian Empire in the development of democracy l The reforms of Ephialtes and Pericles and their consequences: change in powers of the Areopagus payment for office citizenship laws l

The organs of democracy the assembly: organisation of meetings and importance of public speaking skills the Boule¯: function and powers; the prytany system the law courts: function and powers qualification and accountability of magistrates l demagogues and their influence, including exploitation of the law courts

Constitution of Athens, chapters 23–28 Life of Pericles, 7–9

EXPLORE FURTHER

The key reading for the development of the Athenian democratic system in the first half of the 5th century is Aristotle’s Constitution of Athens, chapters 22 to 28.

This topic will examine how the Athenian democratic system came to its fullest form by the middle of the 5th century through the reforms of Ephialtes and Pericles. It will then move on to examine how it functioned during the following decades, focusing in particular on the key organs of government.

ˉ NS BY LOT THE SELECTION OF ARCHO

The opening two decades of the 5th century were defined in the Greek world by the Persian Wars. The conflict began with the Ionian Revolt, which broke out in 499. At this juncture, the Athenians contributed twenty ships to the cause, but they soon changed their minds after an initial disaster and remained out of the fray thereafter. However, in 490, the Persian King Darius set about invading Greece with Athens targeted out of revenge

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2.3 5th-Century Developments

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Figure 2.8 The funeral mound built for the Athenian dead at Marathon. This was the first time the Athenians built a burial monument on a battlefield.

for their involvement. The invasion was defeated by a remarkable victory of the Athenian troops (aided by some allies from the city of Plataea) at Marathon in 490. Aristotle links this victory to the growth in confidence of the Athenian people and their democratic system – since the Athenian victory had been won by the hoplites and with the support of light-armed troops, it was the common people of the city who had secured the triumph. Aristotle reflects on the changes after Marathon in chapter 22 of his Constitution of Athens. In 488/7 the first ostracism was held, suggesting that the common people were more comfortable in dispensing with any overconfident leader. In addition, a major change was also introduced in 487/6, after which the archōns were selected by lot from the top two property classes rather than being elected. This had two significant consequences:

● The generals effectively became the most powerful politicians in the city, since they were elected for their abilities. Moreover, the office of Polemarch ceased to have any military role and instead became judicial in nature. ● This changed the nature of the membership of the Council of the Areopagus over time. Until now, it had been full of men who had been elected archōns and were therefore probably aristocrats. The ex-archōns after 487/6 could be drawn from any section of society, and the council must have lost some prestige as a result.

It is likely that the democracy was further strengthened by the outcome of the second Persian invasion of 480/79. In 483/2 the Athenians came across a large windfall of money through the discovery of new seams of silver in the mines at Laurium in the south of Attica. The general Themistocles convinced the people to invest in building a larger navy, something they did so that their armada of triremes – the state-of-the-art warships of the day – numbered 200. Each trireme required 200 men, many of whom were drawn from the thētes. The Athenians led the Greeks in another extraordinary victory in the bay of Salamis in 480, an outcome which gave the thētes a strong sense of their power in the city. Even the highly conservative Old Oligarch (see p. 000) commented that:

trireme the state-ofthe-art warship of the 5th-century Greek world

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2.4 Democracy Idealised TOPIC OVERVIEW

The ways in which the Athenians viewed democracy as giving them a distinct identity What were regarded as the main benefits of democracy to the Athenians l How and why this identity and these benefits were portrayed by 5th century BC sources, including: the portrayal of Athens and its democracy by tragic dramatists Thucydides’ portrayal of Athens under Pericles and the contrast with Athens under his successors. l

The following prescribed sources are covered in this topic:

l Aeschylus,

Eumenides, 674–710 Suppliants, 399–456 l Thucydides, The Peloponnesian War, 2.36–42; 2.65 l Euripides,

Don’t forget that you will be given credit in the exam if you study extra sources and make relevant use of them in your answers.

This topic explores the positive representation of democracy in the ancient world. By looking at a range of texts we can examine what the Athenians considered the key features of democracy, and the benefits and sense of identity that it brought to Athens and her citizens. The reforms of Cleisthenes were followed by a hugely successful period for Athens. We might therefore expect there to be lots of sources from the period discussing the benefits of democracy. In fact those ancient thinkers who do assess the constitution are generally very hostile. When we study the assessments of thinkers like Plato, and the ‘Old Oligarch’, it will be under the heading of ‘Democracy Critiqued’. In order to find other contemporary voices exploring the positives of democracy, it is necessary to look instead at different genres, such as tragedy, history and oratory. It is worth considering briefly why it is the case that the Athenians who examined democracy found much to complain about and little to praise. One important thing to note is when authors were writing. Athens’ fortunes declined sharply towards the end of the 5th century, largely because of the Peloponnesian War, and so some writers at this time were looking to see why things had gone wrong.

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KEY INDIVIDUAL

S & C

Thucydides Date: c. 460–c. 400

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Writer Thucydides was a general in the Peloponnesian War, but after he was unable to prevent Amphipolis from being lost in 424 he was forced to leave Athens. He dedicated much of his time thereafter to writing an account of the Peloponnesian War.

A further interesting source on Athenian democracy is Herodotus, who is often referred to as the ‘Father of History’. His Histories recount the relations and conflicts between the Greeks and the Persians between 546 and 479. Herodotus was writing in the 430s and 420s, and was based in Athens for some of this period, and so in many ways he reflects the views of his day. One particularly famous passage about democracy (3.80-82) is often thought to be the first surviving example of Greek political theory. It is set in Persia in 522, when three Persian nobles debate the relative merits of monarchy, oligarchy and democracy. Few scholars would accept that such a debate took place at that time in Persia, but it offers a fascinating insight into how the three systems may have been viewed in Herodotus’ day.

PRESCRIBED SOURCE

The Peloponnesian War Author: Thucydides Origin: Athenian

Work: The Peloponnesian War Genre: History

Significance: 2.36-42 is the first section of Pericles’ famous funeral speech of 431 in favour of Athenian democracy; 2.65 is a reflection on Pericles’ career.

Prescribed sections: 2.3642; 2.65 Read it here: OCR source booklet

Other thinkers, such as Plato and Thucydides, had more personal reasons for disliking democracy too. Perhaps the most important thing to bear in mind is the sort of person who was likely to have the chance to write a book at all. Even the Old Oligarch, who as we shall see (p. 000) has many criticisms of democracy, concedes that it is in the best interests of the poorer Athenians. We should therefore bear in mind that many of the democracy’s greatest beneficiaries and biggest admirers never got the chance to go on record with their thoughts.

THUCYDIDES AND DEMOCRACY

Pericles’ Funeral Oration (2.36-42)

Although he was not necessarily a great admirer of democracy himself, Thucydides has handed down to us one of the most eloquent speeches in its defence. In 431, early in the Peloponnesian War, at the public funeral for those killed that year, it fell to the general Pericles to give the oration. In order to demonstrate what it was these men had given their lives for, and to inspire those still fighting, the speaker was expected to dwell on the greatness of Athens for much of the speech. Pericles’ speech does precisely this, focusing on what was distinctive about Athens’ democratic system and the advantages this offered relative to other states in Greece. In chapter 36 Pericles explains why it is that he wishes to focus on the nature of Athenian society and politics in his speech. He argues that it will serve both to explain how Athens became great and inspire his audience: ‘I wish to set forth the following: how, and by what efforts we rose to power, and under what governance and which ways of life did our empire become great’. The praise of democracy then begins in earnest in chapter 37 and lasts until chapter 42. The first point that he makes is that Athens is original and does not copy other states in terms of constitution. This is a theme that is picked up again in chapter 41, where he describes Athens as the teacher of Greece. The idea that other states do not practise, or even understand, democracy is clearly a source of pride to them. Compare the way that Xerxes’ mother Atossa in Aeschylus’ Persians (p. 00) is baffled by the Athenian way of ruling, for example. Pericles also

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2.5 Democracy Critiqued TOPIC OVERVIEW

●

The ideas in the set sections of the Old Oligarch’s Constitution of the Athenians Why he feels democracy works for the Athenians and its main beneficiaries Why he disapproves of the Athenian democratic constitution

●

Plato’s criticisms of democracy as illustrated in the set sections of the Republic. The idea of a common good The benefits of philosopher rulers The dangers of rule by the people The dangers of ‘popular’ leaders and Sophists

The following prescribed sources are covered in this topic:

●

Old Oligarch (‘Pseudo-Xenophon’), Constitution of the Athenians, Sections 1.1–1.20; 2.9–2.10; 2.14–3.13 Republic, 6.485–487a; 6.488–489 (Analogy of the ship); 6.493 (Analogy of the animal trainer)

● Plato,

Don’t forget that you will be given credit in the exam if you study extra sources and make relevant use of them in your answers.

This topic explores the criticisms of democracy made by the Old Oligarch and Plato. The Constitution of the Athenians provides an analysis of late 5th-century Athenian democracy and explains why, in the author’s opinion, it is a flawed system. Plato’s Republic sets out a vision for an ideal state, which is ruled by wise philosophers, and in doing so gives reasons why political power should not be in the hands of the people. When will people learn? Democracy doesn’t work.

Homer Simpson, following a referendum on immigration (season 7 episode 23)

In the modern Western world, debates about politics tend to be about which policy a person favours or which political party he or she supports. It is generally taken for granted that people support democracy itself. Interestingly, this changes when there is a referendum, which is the closest that we ever come to the direct democracy of Athens. During the 2016 EU referendum, for example, Facebook and Twitter feeds were full of attacks on the intelligence of the voting public and the lack of integrity of leading politicians. Whether they knew it or not, the people posting these sentiments were often echoing the concerns first raised by ancient Greek thinkers.

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2.6 Democracy and Comedy TOPIC OVERVIEW

The likely or actual reception at the time of performance Aristophanes’ portrayal of political leaders, political issues and the Athenian people l The nature of his comments on the developed democracy and its institutions l The similarities and differences between Aristophanes’ views and those of the other Athenian authors studied l How serious the ideas and points put forward in the selected extracts might have been intended to be l

The following prescribed sources are covered in this topic: l Aristophanes,

Acharnians 1–203 Ecclesiazusae (Assemblywomen) 1–310 l Aristophanes, Knights 147–395 l Aristophanes, Peace 729–760 l Aristophanes, Wasps 471–712, 824–862, 891–994 l Aristophanes, Frogs 685–739 l Aristophanes,

Don’t forget that you will be given credit in the exam if you study extra sources and make relevant use of them in your answers.

This topic explores democracy through the plays of the comic playwright Aristophanes. The humour in these plays is hugely varied, including innuendo, wordplay and, crucially for this topic, satirical references to life and politics in Athens. Aristophanes pokes fun at both important individual politicians and the key structures of Athenian democracy. Little is known of his life, although it seems that he did not play a large role in political life in Athens. He appears in Plato’s dialogue Symposium, where he offers a comic fable on the origin of human love. Aristophanes’ plays represent the only full examples of the genre known as Old Comedy. Although there are bizarre and fantastic elements to the plots, the plays offer us a unique insight into real life in ancient Athens. They contain much pointed criticism of high-profile Athenians, as well as commentary on the nature of Athens’ democracy.

Figure 2.26 Aristophanes.

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2.6 Democracy and Comedy

THE FESTIVAL CONTEXT

Aristophanes Date: c. 446–c. 386 A comic playwright from the deme Cydathenaeum. Aristophanes’ deme is potentially important as Cleon was also a member, leading some to speculate on a personal feud between the two. He was writing during and after the Peloponnesian War, and eleven of his forty plays still survive. Although there are some fragments, there are no full plays from any other comedians from this time.

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Aristophanes’ plays were all performed at festivals: either the City Dionysia (see p. 00) or the Lenaea.

KEY INDIVIDUAL

Looking to win

When Aristophanes wrote a play he was therefore entering a competition, in which the judges would presumably be influenced by the reaction of the audience. This throws up the first of many key questions: to what extent did Aristophanes adapt what he wrote in order to please those watching his plays? Does a desire to please mean that we have no access to Aristophanes’ personal opinions? Some have speculated that Aristophanes’ views are very anti-democratic, but he cannot be too rude about democracy if he wants to please the dēmos. Others have seen Aristophanes as being broadly pro-democratic, but keen to highlight some of the specific failings of Athenian democracy at that particular time. Regardless of what Aristophanes’ own feelings were, it is interesting to see what he chose to highlight in front of a large portion of the Athenian citizen body. Exactly how representative the audience was is another key issue. When, for example, the character Dēmos is mocked in The Knights, are those listening supposed to be reflecting on their own behaviour? Or are they, as some would argue, likely to be the slightly better off citizens who were laughing at those ‘beneath’ them? There was a fund to help those who could not afford the fee to get in, but some historians have emphasised the likelihood that poorest Athenians (especially those living some miles away) were unlikely to have had the time or money to spare for attendance.

It’s only a joke?

The Lenaea

The Lenaea was a festival held in Athens in January. From about 440 onwards there were competitions in tragedy and comedy. At this time of year travel would have been very difficult and The Lenaea was therefore only open to Athenians, unlike the City Dionysia, which made a point of welcoming foreigners.

Aristophanes’ comedies can seem, to a modern audience at least, strangely uneven in their tone. As well as political satire and parodies of tragedies, for example, there are silly puns and jokes about sex and farting. It is tempting for us to try to assess these separately or to ignore the more ‘trivial’ jokes. Some commentators have emphasised the need to appreciate the connection, however. It is part of the comic performance in a festival to say (normally) unspeakable things, whether that is saying a rude word, insulting the gods or creating a whole fantasy about women taking charge of the polis. On this reading, politics provides material for the comedy, but we are mistaken to search for Aristophanes’ political views or to feel that he was earnestly trying to offer political advice to the city. Others have taken a very different view, arguing that while Aristophanes made use of humour, he also took the opportunity to present important issues of the day to the citizens and make suggestions about how to proceed. They point out the specific nature of some of the references in the plays, and in particular emphasise the parabasis (see p. 00). One ancient commentator, Dicaearchus, even claims that the wise advice offered in the parabasis of The Frogs was the reason that it was (very unusually) re-staged.

KEY EVENT

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Part Two Democracy and the Athenians Figure 2.27 A vase from the 4th century BC showing a slapstick scene from a comedy.

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MODERN SCHOLARSHIP Bowie (1996) offers a useful middle ground between the view that Aristophanes only used politics to create laughs and the view that he was actively engaged in making and scoring political points. He argues that Aristophanes is engaged in political issues, but that he is ‘not preaching but probing, demonstrating excesses, warning perhaps, but leaving the answers to the spectators’.

Indeed some would argue that not only did Aristophanes look to make a difference, but that he actually did so. Evidence for this comes in part from the reaction of those satirised. In Plato’s Apology Socrates complains about how influential Aristophanes’ (unfair) depiction of him was, for example, and Cleon seems to have taken legal proceedings against Aristophanes because of how he was portrayed in The Babylonians.

DEMAGOGUES

One of the key attacks on Athenian democracy is that its leading politicians were demagogues (see p. 00). In fact this term is used rarely by ancient authors, but it usefully encapsulates the type of person attacked. Opponents of democracy argue that such characters had no interest in giving wise advice but rather that they simply offered what the people wanted in order to secure their own position. They gain authority not from their talents, but by appealing to the lowest common denominator, manipulating the poor with bribery and persuasive rhetoric. We have already seen that Thucydides (p. 00) felt that such characters came to prominence after the death of Pericles. Others, such as Plato, seem to think that all democratic politicians behave in this way (see p. 00 on the animal trainer, for example, or Gorgias 502–519, where Socrates criticises politicians like Pericles and Themistocles). Aristophanes’ plays have, as one of their key concerns, the relationship between greedy and manipulative politicians and the easily-tricked masses. Many modern historians have challenged the fairness of these criticisms on a number of grounds. They point out that in a direct democracy with regular meetings, leading politicians were constantly being assessed and held to account. In such an environment, making misleading statements or promises that could not be fulfilled would soon result

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in a speaker losing his authority. Others have noted that far from being tricked into shortterm greed, the Athenian dēmos seem to have been generally fairly moderate in their policies. They never demanded redistribution of land, for example, and were notably restrained in their treatment of the oligarchs of 404 after democracy was restored. Another way in which the idea of demagogues holding sway in the assembly has been undermined is examination of the inscriptional record. This shows that contributors to the debates were much more varied than the written evidence of Thucydides or Aristotle would suggest. One of the notable things about the attacks on demagogues is the focus on their background and manners, rather than their politics. Aristotle’s Constitution of Athens, for example, claims that Cleon marked the decline of Athenian democracy because he was not held in good standing by the aristocrats, and because of how noisy and coarse his contributions are to the assembly (compare the portrayal of Paphlagon and the sausageseller – see p. 00). There seems to be a sense (although this idea is challenged by some modern historians) that earlier in the 5th century politicians continued to come from aristocratic backgrounds and relied on their links with leading men, whereas Cleon is part of a new generation who appeal directly to the people. As such Cleon and those like him were always likely to be attacked by certain sectors of Athens.

Two Comic Assemblies – The Acharnians 1–203 and Assemblywomen 1–310

As The Acharnians was put on at the Lenaea, a festival which took place in January, foreigners were unlikely to be present. This is an important point since Cleon took legal proceedings against Aristophanes for slandering the city in the presence of foreigners after his production of The Babylonians at the previous year’s City Dionysia – something Dicaeopolis refers to in this section. In the opening scene the hero is at the assembly hoping to hear a debate about peace with Sparta. Various criticisms of the democratic process are implied or stated:

i. Most citizens are not engaged with politics: they arrive late and have to be ‘roped in’ by the Scythian Archers to attend (the rope has a red dye on it and those caught with this on their clothes not attending the assembly could be fined) in contrast to the hero. This political apathy was potentially very damaging to democracy. It could be argued, however, that the dēmos are hardly to blame for not attending, since the debate is so hopeless. Thus here, as elsewhere, Aristophanes can suggest that if only politicians were better, democratic politics could work. If, however, like Thucydides, one is pessimistic about the likelihood of ‘good’ politicians, this could alternatively be read as anti-democratic stance. ii. Those on the Boulē are only interested in their own prestige, and don’t listen to those with good proposals. iii. The ambassadors are easily fooled by those they meet and are interested only in their own comfort – compare Bdelycleon’s comments on this topic in his argument with his father in Wasps 471–712.

PRESCRIBED SOURCE

Acharnians

Date: Produced at the Lenaea in 425 Author: Aristophanes Genre: Comedy

Significance: In this section we study Dicaeopolis is waiting for the assembly to begin and offers a commentary on its failings as an institution, as well as criticisms of the behaviour of politicians. Prescribed Lines: 1–203 Read it here: OCR source booklet

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