dramaturgy by alex miller
Hotel on the Corner of Bitter and Sweet
“The China Affair”
The Sino-Japanese War 1931-45 A Prelude to War Japan In the years following World War I, Western Powers were content to abandon their Imperial Aims in China. For Japan, the rising sun of the East, this was unacceptable. Japan had allied itself with Britain, and when the war was over, claimed Germany’s territory in China. These territories, combined with Korea, Taiwan, and the surrounding island chains, created Japan’s own sphere of influence. The Great Depression forced the burgeoning Japanese Empire to look toward China again for industrial resources and a market for Japanese goods. By 1931, the Imperial Japanese Army, a strong political power in its own right, set the framework for over a decade of war between Japan and China. This war, at the time referred to as “The China Incident” by the Japanese government, was the latest in a series of struggles between Japan and its mainland neighbor. In the late 19th century, the newly formed Imperial Japanese Army stunned the world by defeating the larger and more experienced army of the Qing dynasty, annexing Korea and Taiwan. Since then, the Japanese army had grown to over 300,000 men, and the Japanese navy ranked third in the world. “The China Incident” would grow to become one of the bloodiest and most vicious conflicts of the 20th century. China The Kuomintang, or the Chinese National Revolutionist Army, was China’s main fighting force and the army of Chiang Kai-Shek, Generalissimo and leader of the Republic of China. Before war with Japan, Shek had led the Kuomintang to consolidate control of the various Chinese factions under one banner: his. He ended many of the uneven trade agreements with the Western powers and established new, more equal, treaties. He embarked on several wide-spread campaigns to destroy the Chinese Communist Party. When Japan occupied Manchuria in 1931, Chiang signed the treaty that recognized Manchuko as a separate nation from his Republic of China. When war broke out again in 1937, Chiang attempted to halt the Japanese advance in Shanghai, committing most of his best trained and well equipped soldiers. Though defeated, the Kuomintang’s defense of Shanghai caught the attention of the world. For the next seven years, the United States, Britain, and even Germany supplied the Kuomintang with weapons, ammunition and economic aid. Many of these supplies were hoarded by the corrupt authorities running the Kuomintang, leading to an army that was undersupplied and outgunned by the Japanese. Thanks to these shortfalls, and also his ongoing attempts to destroy the communists, Chiang Kai-Shek operated defensively until the Western powers declared war on Japan. By 1942, Chiang had been recognized as one of the key leaders of the allied powers along with FDR, Churchill, and Stalin.
The Cairo Conference: Churchill, FDR, and Chiang Kai-Shek discuss the course of the Pacific Theater. 1942
Japanese infantrymen advance with rifles and grenades, leaping over barbed wire and preceded by an artillery barrage, in the Peking sector in China on Aug. 19, 1937. Heavy casualties occurred on both sides, but Chinese losses outnumbered the Japanese five to one. (AP Photo)
A Chinese mother in Nantao, Shanghai’s most congested district, is shown as she sits stolidly amid wreckage which once was her home, Sept. 16, 1937. Hundreds were killed and wounded, and countless homes were in shambles as the result of a Japanese air bombing of August 28. (AP Photo)
Chinese prisoners are roped together and taken to the rear by their Japanese captors at Shanghai during the Second Sino-Japanese War, Nov. 1937. (AP Photo)
Japanese invaders found this portion of Nanking deserted when they forced their way into the city but the work of the Chinese in setting fire to the city can be noted in the background. Note Japanese soldiers in the street. Dec. 28, 1937 (AP Photo)
A Chinese woman surveys the remains of her family, who were killed during Japanese occupation of Nanking, China, allegedly victims of Japanese soldiery. (AP Photo)
Chinese soldiers are forced to flee as Japanese troops invade Nantao near Shanghai, China, Nov. 11, 1937. The Chinese made their way through to safety at the French Concession, where they were disarmed and detained. (AP Photo)
A Japanese soldier looks at the ruins of a Hwai River railway bridge on the main line between Peking and Shanghai near Pengpu in March 1938. Chinese troops withdrew after blasting the bridge to stave off the Japanese advance in the Second Sino Japanese War. (AP Photo)
Timeline September 1931: The Mukden Incident Japanese officers conspire to frame Chinese dissidents in Manchuria for a railroad bombing. The Japanese army occupies Mukden, and begins a full scale invasion of Manchuria. 29 January 1932: The Shanghai Bombings Japanese bomb the suburb of Chapei, an eight-squaremile area near Shanghai. 1,000 people are killed. 18 February 1932: Manchuko The state of Manchukuo (an independent Manchu state) is declared. The government serves as a puppet for the Japanese. 7 July 1937: The Marco Polo Bridge Incident An unannounced Japanese night training exercise south of Beijing alarms Chinese troops in the area, who open fire on the Japanese troops. The situation escalates over the next month, with war breaking out on 9 August. August-November 1937: Battle of Shanghai 10,000 Japanese troops invade the capital of Nationalist China, with 300,000 more arriving in the year. Japanese aircraft bomb the city despite attacks from the Chinese air force. Tens of thousands of civilians are killed. The American cruiser U.S.S. Augusta is accidentally attacked by Chinese forces. 250,000 Chinese soldiers die out of 700,000. Point of Reference: The population of Tacoma, WA is 200,000. 29 September 1937: Bombing of Nanjing Japanese Air Force begins bombing non-military targets in Nanking, leading to more than 600 civilian casualties. 12 December 1937: The Panay Incident Japanese Air Force sinks U.S.S. Panay, an American ship responsible for protecting American interests in China, killing two. Japan formally apologizes and pays reparations to the United States. December 1937-January 1938: The Battle of Nanking Japanese army tortures and kills between 50,000 and 300,000 civilians and prisoners of war. Point of Reference: The population of Spokane, WA is around 210,000.
February 1938: The Bombing of Chongqing Japanese begin bombing the City of Chongqing, temporary capital of the nationalist government. The bombing continues for the next five years, killing over 10,000 civilians. Point of Reference: Key Arena in Seattle can fit 15,000 people. March 1938-May, 1938: The Battle of Xuzhou Japanese take the city of Xuzhou, north of Shanghai. Around 100,000 Chinese Soldiers are killed. Point of Reference: The population of Everett, WA is around 104,000. 1 November 1939: Winter Offensive Chinese Winter offensive begins. The offensive lasts until April of 1940, when it is halted by Japanese forces without making any major headway. At least 60,000 Chinese and 70,000 Japanese troops are killed, 130,000 total. Point of Reference: The population of Bellevue, WA is around 124,000. 18 April 1942: Doolittle Raid American B-25 bombers launched from the U.S.S. Hornet carry out day-light bombing runs on Tokyo, Yokohama, and Nagoya. Most of the planes crash land in the Chinese provinces of Zhejiang and Jiangxi. Most of the surviving raiders are sheltered by the Chinese forces until they can return to Allied lines. May-September 1942: Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign In response to the Doolittle raid, the Japanese Army instigates a massive offensive to search for the raiders and their allies. The Japanese capture and execute eight of the raiders, and kill over 250,000 Chinese civilians, including victims of biological warfare. Point of Reference: The population of Buffalo, New York is around 261,000.
Image Bibiliography Chongquing http://media.nara.gov/media/images/28/14/28-1383a.gif Second Sino-Japanese War Map http://www.warchat.org/pictures/second_sino-japanese_war_map_japanese_control.jpg Cairo Conference http://www.ulrich-menzel.de/odw/kairo-konferenz_g.jpg Chiang Kai-Shek http://1873.img.pp.sohu.com.cn/images/blog/2009/11/30/11/17/125f2c8443dg213.jpg Sources http://ww2db.com/battle.php?list=C http://ww2db.com/person_bio.php?person_id=c2 Paine, S.C.M. The Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895: Perception, Power, and Primacy, 2003, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, MA Jowett, Philip (2002). The Japanese Army 1931–45 (1). Botley, Oxford: Osprey Publishing Wilson, Dick (1982). When Tigers Fight: The story of the Sino-Japanese War, 1937–1945. New York: Viking Press
“The War Years” Seattle in 1941-45
When World War II came to the United States, Seattle stood at a vital point in the defense of the American Mainland. Even before Pearl Harbor, Seattle was one of the major points of exchange between Japan and the United States. Japanese envoys seeking an audience with the United States government would often arrive in Seattle before continuing by rail or plane across the country. The home of Boeing Field, Seattle was also a point of interest for Japanese businessmen and engineers looking to advance their country’s manufacturing in the wake of their war in China.1 The city’s docks were the export point for American raw materials purchased by the Japanese. These economic interests were tempered by a growing anti-war movement, looking to curb Japanese Imperial aggression. With every visit to Seattle by Japanese dignitaries or shipment of goods to Japan, demonstrators appeared to protest Japan’s war in China and to demand trade boycotts.2 On December 7, 1941, America reeled from an unexpected and resounding strike. The pacific fleet lay in ruins in their own port. Without them, the west coast of America was practically defenseless to Japanese attack. Within hours of hearing about the attack on Pearl Harbor, the entire coast came alive with defensive preparations. Reservists were called to active duty. Coastal Defense forts in California, Oregon, and Washington transitioned to war readiness almost immediately. Seattle’s industrial center was rejuvenated with a purpose to supply the United States Military for the coming battles with Japan and their Fascist allies in Europe. The shipyards in Bremerton, Wash., served as the major repair facilities for the West Coast. Immediately after Pearl Harbor, five of the surviving Battleships were repaired and refitted in Bremerton, becoming known as “the Pearl Harbor Ghosts.” In addition to these battleships, another twenty were repaired by the crews in Bremerton along with 18 aircraft carriers, 13 cruisers, and 78 destroyers. Working around the clock through the entire war, the shipyard also constructed an additional 53 ships to replace ones lost in action. The shipyard employed 30,000 men and women, with many commuting from Bainbridge Island or Seattle via the half-dozen ferries operating on Puget Sound night and day.3 While the shipyards in Bremerton churned out warships to take back the Pacific, Boeing Field became one of the most active production sites in the United States. Under a constant camouflage net to protect the factories from Japanese bombers, 22,000 workers produced more than 8,200 planes. The pride of the Boeing work force was the famed B-17 “Flying Fortress.” Nearly 7,000 of these massive bombers were constructed for missions around the world. Their exploits on the European front, where they conducted daylight raids on Nazi targets, were posted on the Boeing Factory floor for the workforce to see.4 These military projects were made possible by the largest amount of war contracts per capita in the entire country. The government awarded over $709 Million to the shipyards and over $1 Billion to the aircraft factories.5 While the industrial centers of Washington worked non-stop, the farmers and agricultural workers of Eastern Washington did their part. State farms and fisheries contributed huge quantities of fruit, vegetables, fish and dairy products to be preserved and sent to the front lines. Almost the entire production of canned salmon in Washington was purchased by the armed forces during the War Years.6 Seattle’s prominence as a naval and air force center also made it, and the Pacific Northwest, a prime target for Japanese attacks on the American mainland. As early as summer 1942, forts at the mouth of the Columbia River suffered several attacks from Japanese submarines.7 In Seattle, thousands of school children from elementary school to college participated in air raid drills.8 Police and fire officials were issued gas masks in the event of Japanese. Blackouts and coastal “dimouts” were in place at night.9 Yet for all these precautions, the greatest fear came from being unprepared or unready for a Japanese raid.10
The main fuselage sections of the bomber are being joined in Seattle, Washington on June 11, 1943. In the background are a row of tail stabilizers. The wings are put in place following the fuselage. (AP Photo)
Students in a local high school ducked for shelter beneath their desks during a mock air raid in Seattle, Washington on Jan. 3, 1942. Not on the curriculum of any school in the United States, students throughout the country were taught what to do in the event of an enemy air raid. (AP Photo)
An arial view of the Puget Sound Naval Yard in Bremerton. Immediately after Pearl Harbor, it became one of the most active shipyards in the United States.
At the rate of one every four days the Boeing Aircraft Company at Seattle is rushing the production of four-engined bombers. Here bodies in various stages of completion are shown on the assembly line at plant 2 in Seattle Jan. 15, 1940. A total of 6,000 men are employed at the plants, 1, 2 and 3 which are operating on a 24-hour basis. (AP Photo)
Rationing became a necessary, if unpopular, act during World War II. From 1941-45, many important items were rationed in the U.S. including sugar, meat, gasoline, and even leather shoes. Posters like this one reminded the American people what their sacrifice meant for their men on the front line.
Depicting the Japanese as inhuman, sadistic savages was a popular method of raising support for the war and encouraging productivity.
China, a longtime enemy of Japan, became one of the U.S.A.’s chief allies in the Pacific War. Here, a poster encourages American to donate to the Chinese War Effort.
Sources 1. https://docs.google.com/file/d/0B6qu9iYq7dp1MWEwM2dyd01qbEE/edit 2. https://docs.google.com/file/d/0B6qu9iYq7dp1NkFESk1IY2xoZVU/edit 3. http://www.historylink.org/index.cfm?DisplayPage=output.cfm&file_id=5579 4. https://docs.google.com/file/d/0B6qu9iYq7dp1c3ZVOUJuS1oxd2c/edit 5. http://www.historylink.org/index.cfm?DisplayPage=output.cfm&file_id=1664 6. http://www.historylink.org/index.cfm?DisplayPage=output.cfm&file_id=1664 7. http://www.historylink.org/index.cfm?DisplayPage=output.cfm&file_id=7217 8. http://www.historylink.org/index.cfm?DisplayPage=output.cfm&file_id=8401 9. https://docs.google.com/file/d/0B6qu9iYq7dp1ZVZLd1ptR1h2Vmc/edit 10. https://docs.google.com/file/d/0B6qu9iYq7dp1QTNXbmdpamxqbG8/edit Image Bibliography Boeing-Plant http://s1.alt1040.com/files/2012/04/Boeing-Plant-2-1.jpg Bombardero-B-29 http://s2.alt1040.com/files/2012/04/Boeing-Plant-2-3-Bombardero-B-29.jpg Puget Sound Naval Yard http://www.history.navy.mil/photos/images/h84000/h84924.jpg
“I Am an American” Japanese Internment 1942-45
7 December 1941 Japanese Navy attacks Pearl Harbor: two battleships sunk, four damaged. 2,402 Americans Killed. News arrives that Guam and Manila have also been attacked by the Japanese. Seattle, as a key defensive location on the West Coast, is mobilized to war readiness. All reservists are recalled, and forts are closed to nonessential personnel.1
Seattle School Board are forced to resign from their positions. The School Board accepted their resignations after a petition campaign by a group of white mothers from Gatewood Elementary School. The employees published their letter of resignation in several local papers, leading to several local protests in support of the teachers.6
8 December 1941 Federal Agents in Seattle arrest Martin George Dudel, German-born publisher of Staatzeitung, a German language newspaper. He was never formally charged with a crime, but in 1942 he was interned at Fort Lincoln in North Dakota for three months.2
18 March 1942 President Roosevelt creates the War Relocation Authority, tasked with assisting enemy aliens who wished to voluntarily evacuate from military exclusion zones. 8,000 Japanese voluntarily move from their homes in Exclusion Zone No. 17
20 December 1941 New York Times publishes an article listing Japanese population in the United States, based on the 1940 Census. Of the 126,947 people of Japanese ancestry, the largest concentration is in Los Angeles with 23,321. Seattle has the second largest Japanese population with 6,975.3
20 March 1942 The City of Seattle fires five public workers of Japanese descent.8
15 February 1942 Thomas Clark, enemy alien control coordinator for the Western Defense Command, recommends to Attorney General Francis Biddle that emergency methods are put in place to evacuate enemy aliens from the West Coast “combat zone,” in response to sightings of Japanese submarines off the coast of Alaska and Washington.4 19 February 1942 President Roosevelt Signs Executive Order 9066. This authorized the Secretary of War to designate military exclusion zones, and authorizes the military to take whatever measures necessary to enforce the restrictions surrounding these areas.5 27 February 1942 Twenty-seven Japanese-American employees of the
29 March 1942 Western Defense Command halts all voluntary evacuations from Exclusion Zones, restricting movement of enemy aliens and confining them to their communities. 31 March 1942 227 individuals of Japanese ancestry are evacuated from Bainbridge Island, Washington, and sent to Manzanar War Relocation Center in California.9 1 April 1942 3,000 individuals of Japanese ancestry from Los Angeles, San Diego and San Francisco are sent to Manzanar War Relocation Center. 10 2 April 1942 Kenji Ito, a Japanese-American lawyer, is acquitted by a Seattle court on the charges of espionage. The prosecution argued that Ito ran a Seattle-based spy ring and transmitted information on military service clubs
back to Japan. In his closing remarks, Ito claimed, “I would rather live in this country where dictators hold the olive branch in one hand and a dagger in the other.”11 6 April 1942 Japanese leaders in Seattle receive a letter from First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt. The First Lady assured the Japanese community that the government would protect them against possible vigilante attacks, and assured them that the evacuation would be “as decent and as comfortable as possible.”12 19 April 1942 The Japanese-American Citizens League in Seattle release a statement pledging full cooperation with the government for the upcoming evacuation of their community.13
Exclusion Area No. 1. Established in the wake of Executive Order 9066, any persons deemed enemy aliens living in this area were evacuated to WCCA assembly centers by March 1942. The relocation centers, now commonly known as internment camps, were constructed over the next four months. Camps like Manzanar and Tule Lake were initially meant to be temporary, like the assembly centers, but were later converted into permanent relocation centers. These centers were run by the civilian-led Wartime Relocation Authority, while other camps such as Fort Missoula or Crystal lake, were under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Army or the Justice Department.
A Japanese-American store in Everett, WA closing in anticipation of evacuation.
A Japanese-American store in Oakland, CA.
Japanese familes from Bainbridge Island, WA are led to a waiting train to be taken to Manzanar Relocation Center, CA.
Two plainclothesmen, left, watch as Japanese aliens are removed from their homes on Terminal Island, Vital Naval and Shipbuilding center in Los Angeles, CA on Feb. 3, 1942. These are but a small part of the 400 male Japanese aliens—Terminal Island residents—rounded up early on February 2 by 180 federal, city and county officers. (AP Photo/Ira W. Guldner)
Vandals attack a Japanese-American home in Seattle, WA, an all too common event in the months after Pearl Harbor.
In a move sponsored by the Japanese-American Citizens’ League, Seattle Japanese registered for evacuation from military areas, March 10, 1942 - without waiting for official action. Here a group of Japanese filled out questionnaires for women of the league. Both American-born and alien Japanese cooperated. (AP Photo/Paul Wagner)
Sources 1. http://seattletimes.com/html/businesstechnology/2008870662_picovers.html?syndication=rss 2. http://www.historylink.org/index.cfm?DisplayPage=output.cfm&file_id=8654 3. New York Times (1923-Current file); Dec 30, 1941; ProQuest Historical Newspapers: The New York Times (1851-2008) pg. 6 4. https://docs.google.com/file/d/0B6qu9iYq7dp1Y1FfWndmWUpBZ3M/edit 5. http://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=false&doc=74 6. http://www.historylink.org/index.cfm?DisplayPage=output.cfm&file_id=3642 7. http://www.sfmuseum.org/hist10/relocbook.html 8. http://www.historylink.org/index.cfm?DisplayPage=output.cfm&file_id=3637 9. https://docs.google.com/file/d/0B6qu9iYq7dp1U2tiN0ZkOEJ6N1k/edit 10. https://docs.google.com/file/d/0B6qu9iYq7dp1TXJKSDZtN1JNdk0/edit 11. https://docs.google.com/file/d/0B6qu9iYq7dp1cGtLQVgxSkdOZVU/edit 12. https://docs.google.com/file/d/0B6qu9iYq7dp1R2NHci1QemhISVE/edit 13. https://docs.google.com/file/d/0B6qu9iYq7dp1ZTFjNWg0U2dMX3M/edit Image Bibliography “No Japanese Wanted” “en-denshopd-i36-00007-1.” Densho Encyclopedia. 16 Aug 2012, 11:38 PDT. 15 Sep 2012, 18:39 <http:// encyclopedia.densho.org/sources/en-denshopd-i36-00007-1/>. Evacutation Sign, Everett http://images.fineartamerica.com/images-medium-large/evacuation-sale-sign-everett.jpg
Japanese Evacuation http://pauldorpat.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/09/Jap-Intern-Colman-Doc-THEN-.jpg “I am American” http://i.imgur.com/yKdgi.jpg
“No Jap” Sign http://jahmp.org/imgs/history/nojapssign.jpg Interment Train http://peacecorpsonline.org/messages/imagefolder/internmenttrain.jpg