★ Section 2: Parts of Speech

Nouns

Types of nouns:

· Common Nouns: name a class of people, places, things, or ideas. EX: designers, seamstress, models. · Proper Nouns: give the name or title of a particular person, place, thing,

or idea (must be capitalized).

EX: Vivienne Westwood, Maison Margiela, Comme Des Garçons. · Compound Nouns: consist of words used together to form a single noun. EX: businesswoman, mainstream, showcase · Concrete Nouns: refer to material things, to people, or to places. EX: fabric, scissors, sequins. · Abstract Nouns: name ideas, qualities, concepts, emotions, or

attitudes.

EX: vogue, mode, fad

Functions (How nouns are used):

· Subject (comes before the verb) Dame Vivienne Isabel Westwood is credited for popularizing punk fashion. · Direct Object (comes after the verb and answers what or whom) Dame Vivienne Isabel recruited Andreas Kronthaer as designer and creative director of Vivienne Westwood brand. · Indirect Object (answers to who or to whom) Vivienne Westwood has donated its proceeds to the Environmental Justice Foundation.

Pronouns take the place of nouns that have been established.

Personal:

Nominative (subjects) Objective (objects)

I/we me/us you/you you/you

He, she, it, one/they him, her, it, one/them

Possessive:

My, mine our, ours

Your, yours your, yours

His, her, hers, its, one’s their, theirs

Relative:

Nominative Objective who whom

That that those/this Possessive whose of that

Interrogative:

who, which, what, whatever, whoever

Reflexive: (personal pronouns plus the suffix –self or –selves)

Used only: when the action verb is directed toward the subject of the construction: People love themselves after finding a style of clothing that makes them feel comfortable and confident. to intensify a point: Rei Kawakubo herself founded and led Comme Des Garcon in 1973.

Demonstrative:

this, these that, those

Indefinite:

all, another, anybody, anyone, anything, both, each, either, everybody, everyone, everything, everywhere, few, many, much, neither, nobody, none, no one, nothing, one, other, several, somebody, someone, such.

Verbs show the time, action, and state of being of a subject.

Tense: verbs indicate time via tenses:

simple past past past perfect past progressive

simple present Present present perfect present progressive

present perfect progressive Future future perfect

Types: There are at least eleven (11) types of verbs: auxiliary verbs (helping verbs) linking verbs (verbs that do not describe action, but connect the subject of a sentence to other parts of the sentence – usually the predicate) lexical verbs (main verbs) dynamic verbs (indicate action) stative verbs (describe a condition) finitive verbs (indicate tense) nonfinitive verbs (infinitives or participles) regular verbs (weak verbs) irregular verbs (strong verbs) transitive verbs (verbs followed by a direct object) intransitive verbs (verbs that do not take direct objects) Voice: Voice is the form of the verb that indicates how it relates or interacts with the action. The English language has two voices: ACTIVE and PASSIVE. Active: Yohji Yamamoto and Rei Kawakubo challenged the ideals of feminine beauty. Passive: The ideals of feminine beauty were challenged by Yohji Yamamoto and Rei Kawakubo.

Verbals: (VERB FORMS NOT USED AS VERBS)

Gerund: word ending in “ing” used as a noun. ·Revolutionizing fashion is what Vivienne Westwoods, Commes des Garcon, and Maison Margiela do best. Participle: word ending in “ing” or “ed” used as an adjective · Maison Margiela creates astonishing designs. · The distressed jeans looked especially marvelous on the runway. Infinitive: verb preceded by the word “to” (to go, to jump) used as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs · Maison Margiela likes to use unconventional materials to create avant-garde and deconstructive designs.

Adjectives and Adverbs

Adjectives

Adjectives modify, describe, limit, and identify nouns and pronouns.

· Kinds: Demonstrative, Common, Proper Demonstrative - This Common - Avant-garde Proper - English

Adverbs

Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.

· Endings –ly, -wards, -wise -ly: beautifully -wards: backwards -wise: lengthwise

· Conversions 1. Fashionable → fashionably 2. Effortless → effortlessly 3. Graceful → gracefully Types:

Manner, Frequency, Degree, Place, Time Example Types: Manner – Although, Comme des Garcon showcases avant-garde pieces on runways that oftentimes lack mobility, the models manage to walk gracefully. (How do they walk?)

Time – Outdated trends will eventually make their way to the runways. (When will trends make their way to the runways?)

Place – Fashion journalists are willingly present in fashion week across the world to see the designs of Vivienne Westwood, Comme Des Garcons, and Mason Margiela amongst other brands. (Where are fashion journalists?)

Degree – Mason Margiela’s designs are increasingly out of the ordinary. (How out of the ordinary are they?)

Frequency – Vivienne Westwood usually makes a political statement in her collections. (How often does she make a political statement?)

CONJUNCTIONS

Coordinating (FANBOYS): for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so Correlative: Either/or; neither/nor; not only/but also; both/and; whether/or; as/so

Subordinate: after, though as, as if, as long as, as thought, because, before, if, in order that, provided that, since, so, so that, that, though, till, unless, when, where, whereas, while

Relative pronouns: who (refers to people), which (refers to nonliving object or animals), that (may refer to animals or nonliving objects)

PREPOSITIONS

Prepositions link nouns, pronouns, and phrases to other parts of the sentence. Prepositions are NEVER followed by verbs. There are one-word prepositions and complex prepositions. These are some common one-word prepositions: aboard, about, above, according to, across, across from, after, against, along, alongside, alongside of, along with, amid, among, apart from, around, as, as far as, aside from, at, away from, back of, because of, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, between, beyond, but (except), by, by means of, concerning, despite, down, down from, except, except excluding for, for, from, from among, from between, from under, in, in addition to, in behalf of, including, in front of, in place of, in regard to, inside, inside of, in spite of, instead of, into, like, near, near to, notwithstanding, of, off, on, on account of, on behalf of, onto, on top of, opposite, out, out of, outside, outside of, over, over to, owing to, past, prior to, to, toward, under, underneath, until, unto, up, upon, up to, versus, with, within, without.

Conjunctions and Prepositions

Transitions of Logic Chart

Addition

Comparison

Contrast Milder

a further and and then then also too next another other nor further furthermore moreover in addition additionally besides again equally important first, second finally, last

just as ... so too a similar another... like similarly comparable in the same way likewise

but yet and yet still otherwise or though but another rather however still nevertheless on the other hand on the contrary even so notwithstanding for all that in contrast alternatively at the same time though this may be otherwise instead nonetheless conversely

Stronger

Time

Purpose

Place

Result

then now soon afterward later shortly earlier recently first, second, third next before after today tomorrow meanwhile at length presently at last finally immediately thereafter at that time subsequently eventually currently in the meantime in the past in the future

to do this so that to this end with this object for this purpose for that reason because of this in order to

there here beyond nearby next to at that point opposite to adjacent to on the other side in the front in the back

so and so then hence therefore accordingly consequently thus thereupon as a result in consequence

Example

Summary and Emphasis

that is specifically in particular for one thing for example for instance an instance of this this can be seen in

in sum generally after all by the way in general incidentally naturally I hope at least it seems in brief I suppose in short on the whole as I said in other words to be sure in fact indeed clearly of course anyway remarkably I think assuredly definitely without doubt for all that on the whole in any event importantly certainly