Contents 1.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 4 2.0 Climate .................................................................................................................................................... 5 2.1 Area focus ........................................................................................................................................... 5 2.2 Temperature ....................................................................................................................................... 7 2.3 Sunlight ............................................................................................................................................. 10 2.4 Wind .................................................................................................................................................. 13 2.5 Precipitation ...................................................................................................................................... 16 2.6 Humidity ............................................................................................................................................ 19 3.0 Building shape ....................................................................................................................................... 21 3.1 Decision parameters ‐ building shape types ..................................................................................... 21 3.2 Evaluation ‐ building shape types ..................................................................................................... 22 4.0 Construction .......................................................................................................................................... 23 4.1 Decision parameters ‐ construction systems .................................................................................... 23 4.2 Evaluation ‐ construction systems .................................................................................................... 23 5.0 Foundations and ground conditions ..................................................................................................... 25 5.1 Technical terms ................................................................................................................................. 25 5.2 Challenges/solutions ‐ soil and rocks ................................................................................................ 25 5.3 Challenges/solutions ‐ permafrost .................................................................................................... 26 6.0 Materials ............................................................................................................................................... 29 6.1. Decision parameters ‐ facade/construction materials .................................................................... 31 6.2 Evaluation ‐ facade/construction materials ...................................................................................... 31 6.2.1 Graphical evaluation ‐ facade/construction materials .............................................................. 31 6.3 Decision parameters ‐ insulation materials ...................................................................................... 32 6.4 Evaluation ‐ insulation materials ....................................................................................................... 32 6.4.1 Graphical evaluation ‐ insulation materials ............................................................................... 33 7.0 Heating and power supply .................................................................................................................... 34 7.1. Decision parameters ‐ heating and power supply systems ............................................................. 38 7.2 Evaluation ‐ heating and power supply systems ............................................................................... 38 7.2.1 Graphical evaluation ‐ heating and power supply systems ....................................................... 39 8.0 Water supply ......................................................................................................................................... 40 9.0 Waste disposal ...................................................................................................................................... 41
DESIGN MANUAL FOR BUILDING IN GREENLAND DTU JAN 2009 BRIAN HURUP‐FELBY, JONAS VENDEL JENSEN, THOMAS MONDRUP
10.0 Ventilation strategies .......................................................................................................................... 42 10.1 Ventilation types ............................................................................................................................. 42 10.1.1 Natural ventilation ................................................................................................................... 42 10.1.2 Mechanical ventilation ............................................................................................................. 43 10.1.3 Hybrid ventilation .................................................................................................................... 43 10.2 Ventilation principles ...................................................................................................................... 43 10.2.1 Mixed Ventilation ..................................................................................................................... 43 10.2.2 Displacement Ventilation ......................................................................................................... 43 10.3 Inlet and exhaust ............................................................................................................................. 44 10.4 Heat recovery .................................................................................................................................. 44 11.0 Thermal Mass ...................................................................................................................................... 45 12.0 Means of transport ............................................................................................................................. 34 12.1 Decision parameters ‐ means of transport ..................................................................................... 34 12.1.1 Boat .......................................................................................................................................... 34 12.1.2 Helicopter ................................................................................................................................. 35 12.1.3 Snow tractor............................................................................................................................. 35 12.1.4 Snow mobile ............................................................................................................................ 36 12.1.5 Dog sledge ................................................................................................................................ 36 12.2 Evaluation ‐ means of transport ..................................................................................................... 36 7.2.1 Graphical evaluation ‐ means of transport ................................................................................ 37 13.0 Codes and regulations ......................................................................................................................... 46 13.1 Layout of buildings .......................................................................................................................... 46 13.1.1 General demands ..................................................................................................................... 46 13.1.2 Accessibility .............................................................................................................................. 46 13.1.3 Corridors and ramps ................................................................................................................ 46 13.1.4 Stairs ........................................................................................................................................ 46 13.1.5 Railings ..................................................................................................................................... 46 13.1.6 Common lavatory rooms ......................................................................................................... 46 13.1.7 Dining room ............................................................................................................................. 47 13.1.8 Shower and changing room of employees .............................................................................. 47 13.1.9 Special for hotels ...................................................................................................................... 47 13.2 Constructions .................................................................................................................................. 47 13.2.1 General ..................................................................................................................................... 47 13.2.2 Loads ........................................................................................................................................ 47 13.3 Fire conditions ................................................................................................................................. 48 13.3.1 Hotels ....................................................................................................................................... 49 13.3.2 Hotels with a maximum of 10 beds ......................................................................................... 49 13.4 Moisture insulation ......................................................................................................................... 50 2
DESIGN MANUAL FOR BUILDING IN GREENLAND DTU JAN 2009 BRIAN HURUP‐FELBY, JONAS VENDEL JENSEN, THOMAS MONDRUP
13.4.1 General conditions ................................................................................................................... 50 13.4.2 Surface water and drainage ..................................................................................................... 50 13.4.3 Climate screen ......................................................................................................................... 50 13.4.4 Wet Rooms ............................................................................................................................... 51 13.5 Heat insulation ................................................................................................................................ 51 13.5.1 General conditions ................................................................................................................... 51 13.5.2 U‐Values for building components .......................................................................................... 51 13.5.3 Total Heat Loss ......................................................................................................................... 52 13.5.4 Energy frame ............................................................................................................................ 52 13.5 ..................................................................................................................................................... 52 13.5 ..................................................................................................................................................... 52 13.6 Acoustic environment ..................................................................................................................... 52 13.6.1 General conditions ................................................................................................................... 52 13.6.2 Sound insulation ...................................................................................................................... 53 13.6.3 Reverberation time .................................................................................................................. 53 13.7 Indoor environment ........................................................................................................................ 53 13.8 Installations ..................................................................................................................................... 54 13.8.1 Heating, hot water and cooling systems .................................................................................. 54 13.8.2 Ventilation systems .................................................................................................................. 54 14.1 Lecture material from courses on DTU ........................................................................................... 55 14.2 Technical Reports ............................................................................................................................ 55 14.3 Books ............................................................................................................................................... 55 14.4 Standards and regulations .............................................................................................................. 55 14.5 Websites.......................................................................................................................................... 55
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DESIGN MANUAL FOR BUILDING IN GREENLAND DTU JAN 2009 BRIAN HURUP‐FELBY, JONAS VENDEL JENSEN, THOMAS MONDRUP
1.0 Introduction The need of making buildings that interact and function with its surroundings is becoming a way of designing. Understanding the location, climate, context in order to make buildings that, trough an integrated design process, appears with a low imprint on its surroundings. This design manual takes its background on how to design buildings in an arctic area ‐ in this case Greenland. The manual is meant to be used as a prequel to the start design; a summation of what to keep in mind before starting the design process. The manual is not an "absolute" guide, more a guideline that points out options and different solutions. It is a work in progress that becomes more specific when a given building site with a given function is given. The design deals with the overall approach of designing in Greenland. The manual describes the different climatic conditions and gives an introduction to important issues such as transportation of building materials, building shape, construction types, ventilation of a buildings, usable windscreen materials, insulation types, water and power supply, waste disposal, foundation systems and overall building codes. The manual evaluates by trying to simplify the decision making. This is done by setting up different possibilities. The design manual has no directly conclusions; it meant to be read as a helping guide.
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DESIGN MANUAL FOR BUILDING IN GREENLAND DTU JAN 2009 BRIAN HURUP‐FELBY, JONAS VENDEL JENSEN, THOMAS MONDRUP
2.0 Climate Greenland is the world’s largest island (2,2 million km2) and stretches almost 24 degrees of latitude from top to bottom 2,600 km. The northern part of the country is situated very close to the North American continent, only separated by a relatively narrow ice‐filled sea. Southern Greenland is situated between the American continent to the west and the ocean to the east. Due to the size of the country there are great variations in the climate; winters can be severe and the summers relatively mild. [J. Cappelen, 2001] The figure below shows the four main climate zones and the distribution of climate conditions across the world. Each zone represents disparate climatologically characteristics, whereas Greenland is situated in the “cold zone”, the arctic climate. [K. Daniels, 1997]
Figure 1: Climate zones [K. Daniels, 1997]
2.1 Area focus The climate part describes the climatic conditions; “temperature”, “sunlight”, “wind”, “precipitation” and “humidity”. Besides focusing on Greenland, the following parts display climatic data for Sisimiut, Kangerlussuaq and Ilulissat. The focus is made in light of the study trip to Greenland where these specific locations were visited and mentioned for further project work.
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DESIGN MANUAL FOR BUILDING IN GREENLAND DTU JAN 2009 BRIAN HURUP‐FELBY, JONAS VENDEL JENSEN, THOMAS MONDRUP
Figure 2: Greenland
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DESIGN MANUAL FOR BUILDING IN GREENLAND DTU JAN 2009 BRIAN HURUP‐FELBY, JONAS VENDEL JENSEN, THOMAS MONDRUP
2.2 Temperature When comparing the western and eastern coast, the summer temperatures only vary few degrees, when going from the north to the south. This is due to the summer midnight sun in Northern Greenland. During winter the winter darkness and the absence of warm ocean currents opposite lead to significant temperature variations from south to north. Great temperature differences also occur when looking at the outer coast and inside the fjords. In the summer the drifting ice and the cold water alongside the coast can result in higher temperatures inside the fjords. Due to thermal conditions, the heat capacity of water, the presence of completely or partial open sea makes the coast areas warmer in the winter. In Greenland föhn winds are relatively common. In the winter these warm and dry winds can make the temperature rise 30°C during comparative short time, inducing melting of snow and ice. [www.dmi.dk] In Figure 3 below mean temperatures for Sisimiut, Kangerlussuaq and Ilulissat distributed among the year are shown. Table 1 and Table 2 respectively outline the absolute maximum and minimum temperatures. 20 15
Temperature [ºC]
10 5 0 ‐5 ‐10 ‐15 ‐20
MAR
APR
MAJ
JUN
JUL
AUG
SEP
OKT
NOV
DEC
‐12,8 ‐13,9 ‐10,1
‐3,6
2,9
6,8
9,8
9,3
5,8
0,7
‐3,2
‐6,9
Kangerlussuaq ‐14,5 ‐16,4 ‐12,4
‐2,2
7,6
13,9
16,3
13,4
7,5
‐1,8
‐7,6
‐11
Ilulissat
‐4,7
2,3
8
10,3
8,6
5,1
‐0,7
‐4,9
‐6,7
Sisimiut
JAN
FEB
‐13,3 ‐15,9 ‐15,7
Figure 3: Mean temperatures for Sisimiut, Kangerlussuaq and Ilulissat [J. Cappelen, 2001]
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DESIGN MANUAL FOR BUILDING IN GREENLAND DTU JAN 2009 BRIAN HURUP‐FELBY, JONAS VENDEL JENSEN, THOMAS MONDRUP
However, a building should be designed based on worst case scenario; meaning maximum and minimum temperatures. In the two following tables the absolute maximum and absolute minimum temperatures are pointed out. The tables show: • • •
Sisimiut; max = 23,8°C and min = ‐38,8°C Kangerlussusaq; max = 25,5°C and min = ‐47,2°C Ilulissat; max = 20,6°C and min = ‐37,8°C
Table 1: Absolute maximum temperatures [°C] [J. Cappelen, 2001]
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DESIGN MANUAL FOR BUILDING IN GREENLAND DTU JAN 2009 BRIAN HURUP‐FELBY, JONAS VENDEL JENSEN, THOMAS MONDRUP
Table 2: Absolute minimum temperatures [°C] [J. Cappelen, 2001]
As the tables point out, seasonal and daily changes in air temperature vary greatly, too much for human comfort (changes from minus 50°C to plus 25°C; the surface temperature of materials can vary even more). When designing buildings it is important to reduce the temperature variation to as little as possible. This means; stabilising the indoor air temperature within a selected range of comfort (depending on chosen criteria for indoor environment). Looking at the affect of buildings, low outside temperatures affects in four main ways: • • • •
Heat loss Phase changes of water (gas to liquid to soil) in concealed spaces Freeze‐thaw cycles at exposed surfaces Dimensional changes of exposed materials (contraction) 9
DESIGN MANUAL FOR BUILDING IN GREENLAND DTU JAN 2009 BRIAN HURUP‐FELBY, JONAS VENDEL JENSEN, THOMAS MONDRUP
The affects can be elaborated in to: • • • • • •
The rate of a heat loss depend on the difference between indoor and outdoor temperatures and how well the building is insulated Low air temperatures condense the water vapour of air in to liquid, which (when confirmed in stagnant air spaces) speeds up the weakening of the building envelope Water and ice in walls reduce the thermal resistance of insulations, and furthermore induce the possibility of e.g. wood rot when temperatures rise again Foundation zones with high water content heave when it gets frozen Water pipes freeze Air temperatures alter the dimensions of materials, cracks occur in many materials exposed to cold air temperatures
Persistent low temperatures reduce the frequency of freeze‐thaw cycles. However, building surfaces just below freezing temperatures may be raised to thaw temperatures by exposure to sunlight combined with heat lost from the heated building. As soon as the sun disappears the temperature at the building surface drops below freezing point again. Thus, when building in arctic climate e.g. the selection of building materials becomes very important. [H. Strub, 1996]
2.3 Sunlight Although the northern part of Greenland is dark throughout most of the year, the southern part enjoys a relatively rich amount of sunlight (hours of bright sunshine). In the table below the mean hours of bright sunshine is pointed out. Looking at the table, distinct difference between locations can be seen. Sisimiut and Kangerlussuaq have values of 1550 and 1610 hours per year. Numbers corresponding to Copenhagen mean values of 1539 hours per year. However, in Greenland the primary distribution of sunshine hours occurs during summer, whereas the sun almost disappears in winter. [www.dmi.dk] Table 3: Mean hours of bright sunshine [hours/month] [J. Cappelen, 2001]
During spring the sunlight feels very bright because it glances off the snow and embeds itself in the retina. There is no escape, the tundra and the sea ice offer little shade. In the summer, because there is no snow cover to reflect the sunlight, and in the winter, because the sun is too low in the sky, the light intensity and possibility of glare recedes. 10
DESIGN MANUAL FOR BUILDING IN GREENLAND DTU JAN 2009 BRIAN HURUP‐FELBY, JONAS VENDEL JENSEN, THOMAS MONDRUP
The distribution of sunlight over a sphere shaped object, the earth, varies with the angle of incidence. At high latitudes (e.g. Greenland) the angle of incoming sunlight, defined as the solar elevation, appears very low (see Figure 4).
Figure 4: Sunlight angles at high latitudes [H. Strub, 1996]
In Figure 5, Figure 6 and Figure 7 the solar elevation in Sisimiut, Copenhagen and Munich is illustrated. Again, the solar elevation in Greenland appears low; Sisimiut with a maximum elevation of 47°, Copenhagen 57° and Munich 65° (all during summer). Looking at the solar azimuth in Sisimiut, it is notable that during summer the sun never disappears, whereas in winter it almost never shows.
Figure 5: Solar elevation/azimuth Sisimiut [www.solardat.uoregon.edu]
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DESIGN MANUAL FOR BUILDING IN GREENLAND DTU JAN 2009 BRIAN HURUP‐FELBY, JONAS VENDEL JENSEN, THOMAS MONDRUP
Figure 6: Solar elevation/azimuth Copenhagen [www.solardat.uoregon.edu]
Figure 7: Solar elevation/azimuth Munich [www.solardat.uoregon.edu]
The concentration of sunlight received at surfaces varies with different angles of incidence; low‐angle sunlight reaching a vertical surface (high angle of incidence) delivers more solar energy per unit surface area than low‐angle sunlight reaching a horizontal surface (low angle of incidence). Thus, the main impact of the sun occurs on vertical surfaces; walls and windows (see Figure 8). However, it is the flat roof that takes up the sun the most hours each day. Walls and windows receive sunlight in turns as the earth rotates.
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DESIGN MANUAL FOR BUILDING IN GREENLAND DTU JAN 2009 BRIAN HURUP‐FELBY, JONAS VENDEL JENSEN, THOMAS MONDRUP
Figure 8: Sunlight angle of incidences [H. Strub, 1996]
Depending on window position, low‐angle sunlight penetrates the depths of buildings inducing possibilities of causing glare and overheating problems. Opposite, sunlight reaching central parts of a building furthermore facilitates the opportunity of using and storing heat energy produced by sunlight. Storing the heat however requires a well insulated building and a certain amount of thermal building mass. The surface temperature of building materials exposed to sunlight can vary from minus 40°C in winter to plus 60°C, or even more, in summer. Though sunlight alters the chemistry of building materials, sunlight also dries out wall, ceiling and other building assemblies that have been wetted by rain or condensation. Solar shading strategies vary with latitude. Figure 9 displays optimised solar shading angles depending on location. At high latitudes a solar shading angle of approx 90 degrees appears effective. However, when using vertical solar shading it must be focused to prevent glare with respect for people working near a building. [H. Strub, 1996] [J. Cappelen, 2001]
Figure 9: Solar shading angles [H. Strub, 1996]
2.4 Wind In general it is not that windy in Greenland. Many days are completely calm with calm seas and glassy fjords and lakes. However, the wind can pick up at any time, and at its worst certain areas can experience so‐called föhn winds. Föhn winds are usually warm winds coming from the south‐east which can be very strong with gusts of more than 50 m/s.
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DESIGN MANUAL FOR BUILDING IN GREENLAND DTU JAN 2009 BRIAN HURUP‐FELBY, JONAS VENDEL JENSEN, THOMAS MONDRUP
During the winter the wind can increase the effect of the cold. Minus 5°C feels a lot colder in a wind blowing. This is what is known as the “wind chill factor”. In Greenland the local conditions and especially the topography play a major role when dealing with wind direction and speed. In the table below the wind direction frequency distributed among the year is shown (mean wind speed). Table 4 shows large differences from place to place, which partly reflect local conditions and partly reflect the large distances in the country. Table 4: Mean wind speed [m/s] [J. Cappelen, 2001]
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DESIGN MANUAL FOR BUILDING IN GREENLAND DTU JAN 2009 BRIAN HURUP‐FELBY, JONAS VENDEL JENSEN, THOMAS MONDRUP
Table 5: Most frequent wind direction [%] [J. Cappelen, 2001]
The wind works on buildings most of the day, causing parts to vibrate and the entire building to tremble. It presses on windward facades and sucks at leeward facades, bending the building out of its shape (see Figure 10). After a few years, eaves begin to drop and chimneys to lean. Thus, when designing buildings in Greenland, there should be a focus on the overall building shape, the placement of windows and entries, and on avoiding unnecessary cantilevers and other building elements that can be captured in the wind.
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DESIGN MANUAL FOR BUILDING IN GREENLAND DTU JAN 2009 BRIAN HURUP‐FELBY, JONAS VENDEL JENSEN, THOMAS MONDRUP
Figure 10: Impact of wind [K. Daniels, 1997]
Wind increase problems associated with heat loss. The warm air inside a building flows outward into the cool outdoor air. The cooler the outdoor air, the more heat is lost. The higher the wind speed, the greater amount of heat can be absorbed from the building. To avoid these types of heat losses, assemblies and fittings within the building should be constructed as tight as possible. Furthermore, wind enhances uncontrolled passage of water vapour through the building envelope. Wind speed by itself only tells the building designer what kind of forces the building envelope must be able to resist. The prevailing wind direction must be known in order to determine which sides of the building that is most disposed to heat loss and solar heat gain, to wetting and drying, and to snow drifting. [H. Strub, 1996] [J. Cappelen, 2001] [www.greenland.com]
2.5 Precipitation In the arctic climate annual precipitations around only 250 mm are common (see figure below). In Greenland the distribution of total precipitation varies depending on location (continental or coastal areas). In general the amount of precipitation is higher at the coasts than inside the country. Furthermore, the southern parts of the country, especially on the east coast, experience more precipitation when comparing with northern parts.
Figure 11: Annual precipitation [K. Daniels, 1997]
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DESIGN MANUAL FOR BUILDING IN GREENLAND DTU JAN 2009 BRIAN HURUP‐FELBY, JONAS VENDEL JENSEN, THOMAS MONDRUP
The figures below indicate that precipitation peaks in summer (blue columns). Sisimiut has a total of 383 mm per year (corresponding to 76 days with rain every year), Kangerlussuauq 149 mm per year (39 days per year) and Ilulissat 266 mm per year (60 days per year). To compare Copenhagen has a total of 613 mm per year (113 days per year).
Figure 12: Precipitation, Sisimiut, Kangerlussuaq, Ilulissat and Copenhagen [www.dmi.dk]
Rain may last for hours and sometimes days. Rain combined with high wind result in driving rain wetting vertical building surfaces. Driving rain will enter the building envelope if no effective air barrier system is set up. Furthermore, rain in reaction with atmospheric gases and pollutants will, over time, affect the surface durability of exposed building materials. In Greenland about half of the annual precipitation falls as snow. Peak snowfall occurs in the fall and only little snow falls during the winter when air temperatures are very low (in the graphs snow is pointed out as precipitation when the air temperature is below 0 °C). Below the table outlines the number of days with snowfall depending on location.
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DESIGN MANUAL FOR BUILDING IN GREENLAND DTU JAN 2009 BRIAN HURUP‐FELBY, JONAS VENDEL JENSEN, THOMAS MONDRUP
Table 6: Number of days with snowfall [days] [J. Cappelen, 2001]
Distribution of snow cover varies greatly. Depressions in the terrain and sheltered sides of rocks fill with snow. Open spaces and ridges exposed to the wind do not. Areas in Greenland experience blowing snow. Unlike snowstorms, blowing snow refers to airborne snow particles that reduce horizontal visibility. Furthermore, blowing snow compile in any building cavity having a “back door” for the passage of air. Consequently, when constructing buildings in Greenland, fittings and building assemblies must be airtight and constructed with great care. In addition, blowing snow causes snow drifting. Snow drifts compile on the lee side of houses. Thus, e.g. placement of doors and entrances appears important (see picture).
Figure 13: Lee side snow drifts [H. Strub, 1996]
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DESIGN MANUAL FOR BUILDING IN GREENLAND DTU JAN 2009 BRIAN HURUP‐FELBY, JONAS VENDEL JENSEN, THOMAS MONDRUP
When designing buildings in Greenland, snow drifting should be taken into account. In Figure 14 eight rules of thumbs for controlling snowdrifts around buildings are illustrated. Snow drifting also roughens exposed materials. Thus, designing buildings in Greenland requires a well‐ structured selection of strong and durable building materials. [H. Strub, 1996] [J. Cappelen, 2001]
Figure 14: Rule of thumbs for controlling snowdrifts [H. Strub, 1996]
2.6 Humidity When designing for Greenlandic climate one must control all phases of water; ice (frost), water (leaks) and water vapour (humidity). Inside the building structure water will corrode metal, rot wood and soak the building insulation. Humidity is characterised as the amount of water vapour present in the air. The higher the air temperature, the greater the number of water molecules the air can contain (meaning much greater moisture content). In the Greenland low air temperatures induce low humidity. In heated buildings the moisture content of the air usually exceeds the moisture content of the air outside in winter, resulting in inside water vapour diffusing outward through the building envelope. Compared to dry air, water vapour has high heat storage capacity, why water vapour lost to the outside means loss of heat from the building. Furthermore, inside buildings the warm air rises to the ceiling. Some air escapes into the roof‐ceiling assembly through joints around e.g. lamp fixtures (fixtures causing breaks in the attached vapour barrier). The warm air condenses in contact with the colder air and surfaces inside the roof‐ceiling assembly, making building damages possible. However, it is just as much a problem to have too little water vapour inside a building. Structural materials that have high moisture content when installed will shrink in dry environments resulting in 19
DESIGN MANUAL FOR BUILDING IN GREENLAND DTU JAN 2009 BRIAN HURUP‐FELBY, JONAS VENDEL JENSEN, THOMAS MONDRUP
cracks in the building envelope. Furthermore, very dry air irritates the eyes and the nose, chaps lips, dry out the throat and cracks skin.
Figure 15: Low humid climate
In the winter cold air must be brought in to ventilate heated buildings. The low moisture content of very cold air compared to warm air therefore is very important. A favourable solution is to heat up the outside air coming in. Heating the air does not directly raise the moisture content, only its potential for containing water vapour. [H. Strub, 1996] [J. Cappelen, 2001]
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DESIGN MANUAL FOR BUILDING IN GREENLAND DTU JAN 2009 BRIAN HURUP‐FELBY, JONAS VENDEL JENSEN, THOMAS MONDRUP
3.0 Building shape Traditional Greenlandic architecture varies from the well‐known curved igloos to the more basic angulated building shapes. Today Greenlandic building shapes are dominated by squared buildings with slanting roofs; simple, though very identifiable, architecture (se picture below).
Picture 1: Traditional Greenlandic building
Within a design process one has to select or build up an overall building shape. What building shape to select can depend on different parameters; architectural values, energy aspects, how the building shape responds the climatic conditions and challenges etc, how it adapts to its surroundings. This part describes the consequence of selecting various building shapes. Below selected overall shapes are illustrated; basic angulated (main principle in Greenland), edged and curved. The selected shapes represent three overall shapes (different types could have been included).
Picture 2: Building shape types (1; angulated ‐ 2; edged ‐ 3; curved)
3.1 Decision parameters ‐ building shape types When designing building shape, selected parameters must be considered. In the table below the parameters for evaluating building shape types are outlined. 21
DESIGN MANUAL FOR BUILDING IN GREENLAND DTU JAN 2009 BRIAN HURUP‐FELBY, JONAS VENDEL JENSEN, THOMAS MONDRUP
Table 7: Parameters for evaluating building shape types
Parameter Complexity Flexibility Climate Compactness Aesthetics
The degree of complexity The potential of expansion Building shape versus climatic conditions The degree of compactness Architectural value
3.2 Evaluation ‐ building shape types The shape types are rated in order to produce an overview. The three types are rated in light of the parameters pointed out above. The rating goes from 1 good to 5 (5 being the best). The ratings are subjective ratings made on the basis of knowledge achieved via studying at DTU and information obtained throughout the study trip to Greenland. Table 8: Evaluation building shape types
Type/parameter Angulated Edged Curved
Complexity 5 3 1
Flexibility 5 3 1
Climate 1 3 5
Compactness 1 3 5
Aesthetics 1 3 5
3.2.1 Graphical evaluation ‐ building shape types The figure below illustrates a graphical overview (radar diagram) of the evaluation of the shape types.
Complexity
5 4 3 Aesthetics
2
Flexibility
1
Angulated Edged
0
Curved
Compactness
Climate
Figure 16: Graphical evaluation of building shape types
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DESIGN MANUAL FOR BUILDING IN GREENLAND DTU JAN 2009 BRIAN HURUP‐FELBY, JONAS VENDEL JENSEN, THOMAS MONDRUP
4.0 Construction The traditional way of constructing in Greenland includes e.g. huts made of peed and igloos made of snow. Today most Greenlandic buildings are made of wooden constructions (basic principles). However, during the past years, more modern architecture and new building principles have been introduced (mainly for public buildings). The following part features an evaluation of various construction types, pointing out different important parameters. In the table below selected construction types are listed up. Below the construction types are illustrated; platform frame construction (underlying platform for all framing work, prefabricated construction schemes), balloon frame construction (initial wall frame erected and set directly on foundation, main principle in Greenland) and shell construction (self‐ sustaining shell or shell attached on a given frame).
Picture 3: Construction types (1; platform frame ‐ 2; balloon frame ‐ 3; shell) [H. Strub, 1996]
4.1 Decision parameters ‐ construction systems When designing buildings, different considerations regarding construction types must be considered. In the table below parameters for evaluating constructions types are outlined. Table 9: Parameters for evaluating construction systems
Parameter Complexity Cost Flexibility Series production
The degree of complexity Cost of technology The potential of expansion The potential of series production
4.2 Evaluation ‐ construction systems In the following part the three construction types are rated in order to produce an overview of possible solutions. The systems are rated in light of the parameters pointed out above. The rating goes from 1 good to 5 (5 being the best). The ratings are made on the basis of knowledge achieved via courses at DTU and information obtained throughout the study trip to Greenland.
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DESIGN MANUAL FOR BUILDING IN GREENLAND DTU JAN 2009 BRIAN HURUP‐FELBY, JONAS VENDEL JENSEN, THOMAS MONDRUP
Table 10: Evaluation of construction systems
Type/parameter Platform frame Balloon frame Shell
Complexity 5 3 3
Cost 5 3 1
Flexibility 5 3 1
Series production 1 3 5
6.2.1 Graphical evaluation ‐ construction systems The figure below illustrates a graphical overview (radar diagram) of the evaluation of the various construction systems.
Complexity
5 4 3 2 1 Series production
0
Platform frame Cost
Balloon frame Shell
Flexibility
Figure 17: Graphical evaluation of construction systems
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DESIGN MANUAL FOR BUILDING IN GREENLAND DTU JAN 2009 BRIAN HURUP‐FELBY, JONAS VENDEL JENSEN, THOMAS MONDRUP
5.0 Foundations and ground conditions Because of the geological conditions, building in Greenland presents a great challenge. To achieve a stable foundation buildings traditionally are built mainly on rocks. However, some buildings are being built on soil. In Greenland much of the soil contains permafrost, requiring special foundation solutions. In the following part “technical terms” and “challenges/solutions” are described.
5.1 Technical terms Special ground conditions are described: • • •
Active layer; soil or rock that thaws every summer and freezes in the winter Frost susceptible soil; soil or rock that is susceptible to frost heave as it is frozen Permafrost; soil or rock that has a temperature below zero degrees during the entire year
Figure 18: Soil
Figure 19: Permafrost
5.2 Challenges/solutions ‐ soil and rocks In some arctic areas, especially on the coastline of Greenland, buildings are constructed directly on the exposed bedrock. In these cases the challenge is not irregular settlements or frost heaving, but anchoring and fasten the building to the rock so it does not slide down the side or “blow away” during a storm.
Figure 20: Foundation on rocks in Sisimiut
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DESIGN MANUAL FOR BUILDING IN GREENLAND DTU JAN 2009 BRIAN HURUP‐FELBY, JONAS VENDEL JENSEN, THOMAS MONDRUP
When building in soil with no permafrost, the foundation is designed the same way as in Europe or other mid‐latitude areas. However, the main problem is frost heaving in the active layer. This can be overcome by placing the base foundation deep in the soil, below the annual frost penetration. If the building is designed to be placed directly on the exposed rock, two basic ways are described. One is to drill rock anchors into the rock and cast a concrete foundation up around them. The anchors in the rock will secure the concrete foundation being properly braced. This type of foundation is normally used to support more permanent buildings. If the building is designed on piles, this can be fixated to the rock in almost the same way. A metal plate is fixed to the pile end that rests on the rock. Rock anchors are drilled into the rock and the foundation plate is fixed to it; the building is properly anchored to the rock. [H. Strub, 1996]
5.3 Challenges/solutions ‐ permafrost Ground layers that contain permafrost are, as a starting point, stable and can be used to support building foundations, as long as the temperature is kept below zero degrees Celsius. Changes on the ground surface, erecting buildings etc. causes thermal changes in the ground below and can result in thawing of the permafrost (se figure below). The consequents will be a degradation of the soils load baring capability. This will cause the foundation and the building to settle resulting in damage to the building structure and in worst case inducing a building collapse.
Figure 21: Thawed area beneath a building [H. Strub, 1996]
In arctic areas where the top surface layers are frost susceptible, the most common foundation problem is “frost heaving”. Frost heaving occurs when the ground thaws to a depth of 1 to 2 meters during the summer and early autumn. When the ground starts to refreeze, from the top and downwards, ice lenses in the soil can induce the ground surface to heave. If this occurs below buildings, the heaving ground will result in an upward going pressure on the foundations (see figure below). If the upward going forces are higher than the downward going resistance of the foundation, the foundation will heave along with the ground. When the ground thaws the following summer the foundation settles. Normal buildings will not be able to resist this kind of movement for longer periods. [H. Strub, 1996] 26
DESIGN MANUAL FOR BUILDING IN GREENLAND DTU JAN 2009 BRIAN HURUP‐FELBY, JONAS VENDEL JENSEN, THOMAS MONDRUP
Figure 22: Frost heave circle [H. Strub, 1996]
If the soil layers below the active layer are constantly frozen (permafrost), the ground can be considered to be stabile for foundations, as long as the ground remains frozen. Steps must be taken in order to prevent the permafrost layer from thawing. One way is to raise the foundation above ground and insulate the lowest floor. For buildings needed to be at ground level, insulation and ventilation of the space between the subfloor and ground can be a solution. Frost heaving can countered by anchoring the foundation in the layer below the permafrost, by installing mechanical refrigeration of the ground or using ad‐freeze bounding between the foundation piles and the surrounding soil layers. Frost heaving can also be controlled by adding a non‐frost‐ susceptible soil layer, like gravel, above the active layer. This will enclose the active layer inside a layer that will not heave when it freezes. The table below outlines the different ground conditions and the matching foundation types. [H. Strub, 1996] Table 11: Ground conditions and foundation types
Ground condition type Solid rock
No permafrost
Permafrost
Discontinuous permafrost
How Rock anchors; drill into the rock and then cast a concrete foundation up around. A metal plate fixed to the end of the pile, drill anchors into the rock fixing the plate. Foundation by cast concrete, steel piles or wood piles, below the annual frost penetration. Foundation by cast concrete, steel, thermo or wood piles. Using “adfreeze bounding”1 to reinsure that the permafrost layer cannot thaw, i.e. insulting extra towards the ground floor or raising the building in order to keep the low temperature under the building. Refrigeration of the soil. Problematic, thawing of permafrost is an option, but not recommended, best option is to avoid building on such sites.
Where Where the ground rock is exposed and top soil blown away.
Areas south of the north pole circle and away of the icecap. In the valleys, this consists of old flood delta and flood beds, and where the top soil is present.
In the valleys, this consists of old flood delta and flood beds, and where the top soil is present.
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Adfreeze bounding: An adfreeze bond occurs when the pile surface, which is in contact with the permafrost, freeze to the soil. This creates a movement resistance preventing the piles from moving upwards. In some cases the piles can be designed totally to rely on this resistance, in order to carry the building load. The part of the pile situated in the active layer is often coated with a grease substance in order to prevent the layer from binding to it. This means, the frost heaving will transfer less vertical movement to the piles.
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6.0 Materials The materials are in this chapter divided into two categories. The first group is materials used primary for the “facade” (these materials could also double as the main materials construction part for the supporting structures). The second group is the “insulation materials”, which consists of the traditional materials and the newest (in this chapter not named by their product name but by their material properties and product group, i.e. Rockwool is named as “rock wool”, styropor™ is named under “polystyrene”). Problem; when building in Greenland, building materials have a big influence on the performance and maintenance of the building. Furthermore, being in an area with critical access and poor accessibility, almost all building materials must be transported to the building site. Because of this, weight and volume of the materials are critical due to the fact that building sites often lie beyond reach of any roads (referring to previous chapter; “Means of transport”). Next problem; there are not much local material. This is bough due to the fauna and land, but mainly because of the fact that during most of the year the land is covered in snow, ice or melting water, making it difficult and very costly to collect wood etc. The sources of material available at the location are often contaminated by sea salt, either prehistoric or modern, limiting its potential as building material (depending on the material).
Picture 4: Facade/construction materials (1; bricks ‐ 2; concrete ‐ 3; carbon fiber ‐ 4; tent fabric)
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Which material to choose, when building in the arctic climate, depends on type of use and conditions in the surrounding area? The harsh Greenlandic climate corrodes the building materials because of their moisture ratio, an important factor to take in to account. Traditional materials in Greenland can be categorised as indigenous materials. Materials such as field stone, gravel and sand materials, sod and peat, skin and bone and snow. All these traditional building materials have had their usefulness in past times in order to shelter the inhabitants form the prevailing winds and downfall. In order to design a building that lives up to today’s requirements there is a need of looking into other possibilities. The problem with traditional building materials, e.g. sod and peat, is the heat resistance; resulting in buildings with massive heat loss and indoor environmental problems. Thus, when building in arctic climate, looking at materials and their ability of insulating appears important. Modern building materials used in Greenland are often manufactured in e.g. Europe. A transportation distance of thousands of kilometres may induce stress and deteriorating of the materials. Choosing robust and durable materials therefore appears significant. [H. Strub, 1996] As pointed out earlier, a proper insulation of the building appears essential, especially when building in Greenland. When selecting type and amount of insulation, different parameters and certain aspects should be taken in to account. The insulation has to fulfil the current needs and demands. Furthermore, one has to consider the longevity, the weight and how to handle it.
Picture 5: Insulation materials (1; stone wool ‐ 2; leca/shrimp shells ‐ 3; vacuum ‐ 4; sheep wool)
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Besides of reducing heat loss, the selection of a given type of insulation often depends on means used to manage moisture and condensation on one side or the other of the thermal insulator (however, by reducing thermal gabs and ventilating, moisture and condensation can be controlled and hopefully prevented)
6.1. Decision parameters ‐ facade and construction materials Like the discussion regarding means of transport, the evaluation is made on the basis of different “decision parameters”. When designing and selecting materials for buildings located in arctic areas one has to consider a number of different parameters. Table 12: Parameters for selecting facade and construction materials
Parameter Climatic properties Weight Longevity Maintenance Availability Price
The climatic properties of the material, the heat resistance and the expected behaviour The weight of the material (an important factor when transport is difficult) Life expectancy Degree of maintenance needed Is it available locally The cost of the material
6.2 Evaluation ‐ facade and construction materials On the basis of the parameters pointed out in the table above various materials, usable for facades (wind screens), are evaluated. In order to give a simple overview of the selected types of materials the evaluation is shown in the form of at table (see Table 13). Each type of material is rated on a range going from from 1 to 5 (5 being the best). The ratings are subjective and made on the basis of own experience achieved via courses at DTU and interviews made throughout the study trip to Greenland. Table 13: Evaluation of facade and construction materials
Type/parameter Climatic properties Concrete 1 Bricks 2 Wood 5 Gypsum 3 Glass fibres 4 Carbon fibres 5 Aluminium 2 Plant fibres 4 Plastics 5 Tent fabric 2 Animal skin 2
Weight 1 2 3 4 4 5 5 3 5 4 3
Longevity 4 4 4 3 3 3 5 3 4 1 2
Maintenance 4 4 2 3 4 5 5 4 4 1 1
Availability 3 3 1 3 1 1 3 3 1 3 5
Price 3 3 3 3 3 1 4 3 3 5 5
6.2.1 Graphical evaluation ‐ facade and construction materials The figure below illustrates a graphical overview (radar diagram) of the evaluation of the facade and construction materials.
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Climatic properties
5 4 Price
3
Concrete Bricks Weight
2
Wood Gypsum
1
Glass fibres
0
Carbon fibres Aluminium Plant fibres Plastics
Availability
Longevity
Tent fabric Animal skin
Maintenance
Figure 23: Graphical evaluation of facade/construction materials
6.3 Decision parameters ‐ insulation materials Selecting insulation materials for buildings located in arctic areas induce the consideration of different parameters. In the following part the parameters are described. Table 14: Parameters for selecting insulation materials
Parameter Thermal properties Weight Longevity Moisture resistance Availability Price
The thermal properties, heat resistance The weight of the material (an important factor when transport is difficult) Life expectancy How well does it cope to getting wet Is it available locally The cost of the material
6.4 Evaluation ‐ insulation materials Based on the parameters above various materials, usable for insulating building in arctic climate, are evaluated. The selected types of insulation materials are evaluated in the table below. Each type insulation material is rated from 1 to 5 (5 being the best). Again, the ratings are made on the basis of own experience and interviews made during the trip to Greenland.
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Table 15: Evaluation of insulation materials
Type/parameter Stone wool Glass wool Paper wool Polystyrene Sheep wool Shrimps shells Vacuum panels Natural fibres
Thermal properties 3 3 3 4 2 2 5 1
Weight 2 3 3 4 2 1 5 3
Longevity 3 3 5 4 2 2 4 2
Moisture resistance 4 4 3 4 1 1 5 1
Availability 3 3 1 3 5 5 1 2
Price
5 5 4 5 3 3 1 3
6.4.1 Graphical evaluation ‐ insulation materials The figure below illustrates a graphical overview (radar diagram) of the evaluation of the insulation materials. Thermal properties
5 4 Price
3
Weight
Stone wool
2
Glass wool
1
Paper wool Polystyrene
0
Sheep wool Shrimps shells Vacuum panels
Availability
Longevity
Natural fibres
Moisture resistance
Figure 24: Graphical evaluation of insulation materials
[C. Petersen, 2003] [http://www.glacierbay.com/vacpanelinfo.asp] [http://www.vacuuminsulation.co.uk/] [http://www.vip‐bau.de]
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7.0 Means of transport In Greenland the long distances and arctic climate represent a natural obstacle to land based transportation. There are no roads between towns and settlements, and no railway either. Thus, the transport in Greenland mainly takes place on sea and by air, although winter permits the possibility of using sledge vehicles. In consequence, building work in Greenland is very depended on transportation possibilities. Transporting building material and building modules into the arctic terrain requires and allows only specific means of transportation. The various types of transportation available possess different specifications and parameters. In the following part the “boat”, “helicopter”, “snow tractor”, “snow mobile” and the “dog sledge” is evaluated as types of transportation.
7.1 Decision parameters ‐ means of transport The means of transport are evaluated on the basis of a number of selected parameters. In the table below the parameters are outlined. Table 16: Parameters for evaluation means of transport
Parameter Accessibility Type of load Load capacity Cost
The degree of range Types of load possible for transporting The degree of weight capacity Cost of operation
In light of the specifications mentioned above each type of transportation is evaluated. The evaluation is made on the basis of information and specification data obtained throughout the trip to Greenland and information found via the internet.
7.1.1 Boat In Greenland towns and other settlements often are located near a coastline or a fjord. Thus, boats are an often used type of transportation. The current specifications and service areas depend on the size and type of boat. The boat is described as a smaller motor boat with the possibility of an additional barge with a lifting crane.
Picture 6: Boat
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DESIGN MANUAL FOR BUILDING IN GREENLAND DTU JAN 2009 BRIAN HURUP‐FELBY, JONAS VENDEL JENSEN, THOMAS MONDRUP
1. Accessibility; poor accessibility (operate via the ocean, alongside the coasts or in the fjords) 2. Type of Load; all types (objects transported on a barge) 3. Load Capacity; heavy weights 4. Costs; expensive to operate
7.1.2 Helicopter Helicopters mostly operate in the northern, southern and eastern parts Greenland. Furthermore, helicopters are used when transporting objects back and forth between small settlements. The helicopter is remarkable for its potential of placing objects in the fell or on top of a mountain.
Picture 7: Helicopter
1. Accessibility; excellent accessibility (operate in the air, lowering down objects on the ground) 2. Type of Load; most types of loads (objects are being lifted beneath helicopter, must be stable) 3. Load Capacity; medium weights 4. Costs; expensive to operate
7.1.3 Snow tractor A large part of the year Greenland is covered with snow. In this period the snow tractor is a useful means of transportation. The snow tractor carries objects by dragging them on a supplementary sledge.
Picture 8: Snow tractor
1. Accessibility; excellent accessibility (operate on snow covered mainland and frozen lakes/fjords) 2. Type of Load; all types of loads (modifying size/type of sledge used for dragging objects) 3. Load Capacity; heavy weights 4. Costs; average to operate
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DESIGN MANUAL FOR BUILDING IN GREENLAND DTU JAN 2009 BRIAN HURUP‐FELBY, JONAS VENDEL JENSEN, THOMAS MONDRUP
7.1.4 Snow mobile In Greenland the snowmobile is an often used type of transportation. The locals especially use the snowmobile for shorter distances. The snowmobile carries objects by dragging them on a small supplementary sledge.
Picture 9: Snow mobile
1. Accessibility; excellent accessibility (operate on snow covered mainland and frozen lakes/fjords) 2. Type of Load; limited types of loads (additional sledge only permit small objects) 3. Load Capacity; low weights 4. Costs; average to operate
7.1.5 Dog sledge For many years dog sledges have been the preferred type of transportation, especially used by hunters and fishermen. Today you are only allowed to use the dog sledge north of the Arctic Circle and Eastern Greenland. The dog sledge carries objects by dragging them on a small supplementary sledge.
Picture 10: Dog Sledge
1. Accessibility; excellent accessibility (operate on snow covered mainland and frozen lakes/fjords) 2. Type of Load; limited types of loads (the sledge only permit small objects) 3. Load Capacity; low weights 4. Costs; cheap to operate
7.2 Evaluation ‐ means of transport The table below outlines the means of transportation evaluation, a complete overview illustrated in colours and numbers. The various types are rated based on the parameters mentioned above. The 36
DESIGN MANUAL FOR BUILDING IN GREENLAND DTU JAN 2009 BRIAN HURUP‐FELBY, JONAS VENDEL JENSEN, THOMAS MONDRUP
rating goes from 1 good to 5 (5 being the best). The evaluation is based on on information gathered throughout the trip to Greenland. Table 17: Evaluation of means of transport
Type/parameter Boat Helicopter Snow tractor Snow mobile Dog sledge
Accessibility 1 4 4 5 5
Type of load 5 4 5 2 1
Load capacity 5 3 5 2 1
Cost 1 1 3 4 5
7.2.1 Graphical evaluation ‐ means of transport The figure below illustrates a graphical overview (radar diagram) of the evaluation of the different types of transport pointed out.
Accessibility
5 4 3 2 Boat
1
Helicopter Cost
Type of load
0
Snow tractor Snow mobile Dog sledge
Load capacity
Figure 25: Graphical evaluation of means of transport
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DESIGN MANUAL FOR BUILDING IN GREENLAND DTU JAN 2009 BRIAN HURUP‐FELBY, JONAS VENDEL JENSEN, THOMAS MONDRUP
8.0 Heating and power supply This part treats the subjects of heating and power supply. Important subjects, that requires special solutions when building in Greenland. The chapter will list up different possibilities for solving heating and power supply problems and try to make a simple way of determining which system fits the demands the best. By putting different solutions into diagrams an evaluation overview is made. The traditional way of heating in the arctic areas is not any different form the way of heating in the rest of the world. This is done mainly by burning fossil fuel, either in form of oil, coal or gas. In Greenland the heating supply is powered by burning oil (kerosene, petrol). The same principal is used for power supply (electricity). Power is delivered by converting fossil fuel with the help of generators into electricity. Therefore, Greenland is heavily dependent on fossils fuels; not being very sustainable, why new solutions are needed. Implementing new modern power supply systems should be a combination of different technologies. A combination of different non fossil fuel depended solutions combined, in order to secure the demands, with the possibility of a traditional backup system (e.g. burning oil system or a simple petroleum oven). Furthermore, different technologies are depending on each other. E.g. a heat pump cannot function without power, why it has to be connected to a photovoltaic panel or a mobile hydroelectric turbine. However, all these “alternative” technologies have one weakness; they have to be proven reliable in Greenlandic areas before accepted.
8.1. Decision parameters ‐ heating and power supply systems When designing new heating and power supply systems, different considerations must be taken in to account. In the table below selected parameters for evaluating heating and power supply are described and listed up. Table 18: Parameters for evaluating heating and power supply systems
Parameter Cost Maintenance Mobility Availability Carbon neutrality
Cost of technology and lifetime running cost The degree of maintenance needed The degree of transport and mobility Is it available locally Carbon footprint during service life
8.2 Evaluation ‐ heating and power supply systems In the following part different systems are evaluated. Different possibilities are listed in the table below and rated in order to get an overview of possible solutions. The different solutions are rated based on the parameters above. The rating goes from 1 good to 5 (5 being the best). The evaluation is based on information found on manufacture factsheets and on information gathered throughout the trip to Greenland.
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Table 19: Evaluation of heating and power supply systems
Type/parameter Petroleum oven Biogas heating/electricity Heat pump Solar heating Mobile hydroelectric turbines Sterling engine Photovoltaic’s (battery storage) Fuel cells Wind turbines Diesel generator
Maintenance 5 2 4 4 3 1 4 4 3 5
Mobility 5 3 3 2 3 1 4 4 4 4
Availability 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5
Carbon neutrality 1 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 1
Cost 5 4 3 3 4 1 2 3 4 5
8.2.1 Graphical evaluation ‐ heating and power supply systems The figure below illustrates a graphical overview (radar diagram) of the evaluation of the various heating and power supply systems.
Cost
5 4 Petroleum oven
3
Bio heating/electricity
2
Carbon neutrality
Heat pump
Maintenance
Solar heating
1
Mobile hydr. turbines
0
Sterling engine Photovoltaic’s Fuel cells Wind turbines Diesel generator
Availability
Mobility
Figure 26: Graphical evaluation of heating and power supply systems
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DESIGN MANUAL FOR BUILDING IN GREENLAND DTU JAN 2009 BRIAN HURUP‐FELBY, JONAS VENDEL JENSEN, THOMAS MONDRUP
9.0 Water supply The supply of water is depending on the type of building and the given function that has to be fulfilled. Some building, e.g. huts in the mountains, could be without water, forcing the people living there to collect or bring water along.
Picture 11: Pipe line
However, if there is a possibility of getting water nearby (e.g. at a lake close to the hut), it could be considered to bring it to the building. This would require the construction of a pipe system. In Greenland it is not an option to put water pipes in the ground, due to the permafrost and rock underground. Consequently, pipes have to be placed on ground surface and exposed to climate, which makes them woundable to low temperatures and the risk of frost burst. A solution could be heat tracing the pipes. This however cost energy, and if the energy supply at the given site is limited, the specific solution appears unfavourable. Therefore, other solutions must be considered. In the table below, selected options are set up. Table 20: Water supply systems
Type Melting snow Nearby stream Fresh water spring Transported to site
Getting water by melting snow, common used in winter time Using a nearby stream, in winter time it is possible to drill a hole in the ice Water coming out of rock layer, possibility of the spring being frozen in winter time Brought along to the site, in storage tanks
The various water supply systems are chosen not to be rated. The value of the different water supply options depend on the location of the building. As an example, if the building is situated close to a stream, the option “nearby stream” appears to be the most effective solution. 40
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10.0 Waste disposal Waste is composed of human organic waste, organic and inorganic waste; all big concerns in the Greenlandic areas. The concern is that due to the climate the natural decomposition is slow, meaning that waste is present for a long period of time.
Picture 12: Waste burning unit Greenland
In Greenland the way human waste is disposed by pouring it directly into the sea. The organic and inorganic waste is burned, only some of the components in the inorganic waste are recycled. It could be possible to use the organic waste (both human waste and organic waste) to get biogas energy or mould. Then the organic waste will be recycled and used again, instead of contributing to polluting the sea. In the table below different possibilities to treat waste are pointed out. Table 21: Waste disposal systems
Type Biogas toilet Aerobic digestion toilet Organic waste collecting Inorganic waste collecting Waste burning
Collecting human by‐products and other organic material, use in a biogas reactor Collecting the human by‐products and other organic material Transported away from site Compressing the waste for collecting Burning of organic and inorganic material in order to get heat
As for water supply systems, the waste disposal systems are not rated.
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11.0 Ventilation strategies The main goal of “ventilation” in arctic areas is to achieve good indoor air quality and maintain acceptable room temperatures. In the following part different “ventilation types” and “ventilation principles” are described. Furthermore, strategies concerning “inlet and exhaust” and “heat recovery” are mentioned.
11.1 Ventilation types Generally seen, the ventilation of buildings can be done in three different ways; by using “natural ventilation”, “mechanical ventilation” or “hybrid ventilation”.
11.1.1 Natural ventilation Natural ventilation functions without the aid of fans or other mechanical equipment. Natural ventilation (achieved by thermal buoyancy) works because of difference in the density of the outdoor and indoor air. This leads to a pressure differences, resulting in air getting sucked in and pulled out through openings in the building envelope. The system efficiency strongly depends on the temperature difference between the outside and indoor temperature. The colder the outside air, the more efficient the system is. This type of ventilation is typically named “stack ventilation”.
Figure 27: Stack ventilation
Natural ventilation (achieved by wind pressure) functions when the wind is striking external building surfaces coursing pressure differences, forcing fresh air into the building through the windward openings and lead out through lee side openings. This type of ventilation is often named “cross ventilation” or “single sided ventilation”, see figures below.
Figure 28: Cross ventilation
Figure 29: Single sided ventilation
Natural ventilation in arctic areas would be possible due to the driving forces being present (achieved either by temperature differences and/or pressure differences). Especially ventilation based on thermal buoyancy appears beneficial, because of relative large differences between outside and indoor air temperatures. 42
DESIGN MANUAL FOR BUILDING IN GREENLAND DTU JAN 2009 BRIAN HURUP‐FELBY, JONAS VENDEL JENSEN, THOMAS MONDRUP
When using natural ventilation, the air often is drawn directly from the outside and into the building via vents and window openings. In arctic areas the temperature most of the year is very low, why drawing air directly into the building is not advisable. The inlet air has to be preheated in order to avoid unnecessary heat loss, changing temperatures and draught problems inducing discomfort. However, preheating the air will typically cause an increase in the energy consumption and decrease the efficiency of stack ventilation. [J. Fan, 2008] [CR 1752, 1998]
11.1.2 Mechanical ventilation The system is capable of providing stable and controlled ventilation. Though, using a mechanical ventilation system induce an increase of the energy consumption and furthermore needs more maintenance, compared to natural ventilation. Mechanical ventilation systems are typically designed as either “a constant air volume system” (CAV) or a “variable air volume system” (VAV). When using a CAV system the air change is regulated by turning the system on and off. The VAV system varies the air change volume according to the needs. This makes it a very efficient system for rooms and buildings with variable people load.
11.1.3 Hybrid ventilation Hybrid ventilation is a natural ventilation system that functions with a mechanical support system attached. The mechanical system takes over and runs the ventilation when the outside weather conditions prevent the natural ventilation from functioning. Hybrid ventilation is typically used in large complex buildings where the valid building code demands a specific air change rate.
11.2 Ventilation principles In the following part different ventilation principles are described; “mixed ventilation”, “displacement ventilation”.
11.2.1 Mixed Ventilation When using mixed ventilation, the air is supplied to the room with high speed. This is done in order to mix the air in the room to a homogenous mass.
110.2.2 Displacement Ventilation The principle of displacement ventilation is to transfer heat and pollution from the residence zone close to the floor up to the ceiling where it can be extracted through an outlet system. [C. Forsingdal, 2008]
Figure 30: Mixed Ventilation
Figure 31: Displacement Ventilation
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11.3 Inlet and exhaust In the arctic areas several problems can occur, regardless of what type of ventilation systems that is being used. Openings in the building and especially ventilation inlets have a tendency to fill up with snow during the winter. At the ventilation outlets the warm exhaust air condensate and freezes. This can result in ice a blocking of the ventilation outlet inducing the system to shut down. Therefore, ventilation openings should be placed in order to prevent these problems and be equipped with slides that can be closed when needed. However, manually removing of ice and snow on a frequent basis must be considered as the most effective way of keeping the ventilation system running during the winter. [H. Strub, 1996]
11.4 Heat recovery Due to low outside air temperatures arctic areas have a yearlong heating demand. Consequently, using high efficient heat recovery systems appears essential in order to reduce the energy consumption for heating. Recovered heat is used to preheat the air taken into the building for ventilation (as mentioned earlier, heating the inlet air is crucial in arctic areas because of cold outdoor air). The inlet air should normally be heated up to a temperature between 16°C and 20°C in order provide a satisfying thermal indoor environment. This can be very energy demanding as the temperature difference in some cases can be as much as 50°C. Using warm outlet air (produced in the building) to heat up inlet air is a good and sufficient way of reducing the temperature difference and the “actual” need for heating up the air temperature. Heat recovery unites are normally mechanical systems that allow heat to be transferred and reused. The two basic ways of doing this, is by using an “air to air” unit where the heat is directly transferred from the warm airstream to the cold, or by using an “air to liquid” unit where the heat is transferred between air and water. [H. Strub, 1996] [CR 1752, 1998] Below different heat recovery systems are described; both “passive” and “active” systems. Table 22: Heat recovery systems
System Passive heat recovery
Active heat recovery
Function System to recover the heat in the exhaust air; “air to air” systems or “air to liquid” systems System to recover the heat in the exhaust air; “air to air” systems or “air to liquid” systems
Power need System functions with out power or with little additional power from i.e. photovoltaic’s
Efficiency Efficiency up to about 80% depending on the system design
Where to use Suitable to for remote buildings where power is limited
System functions needs power in order to function
Efficiency up to about 80% depending on the system design
Suitable for lager buildings with power present
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12.0 Thermal Mass In arctic areas the spring and summer sun may cause massive overheating of rooms that have unprotected windows facing south. In some cases the overheating results in thermostats shutting down the heating of a building. This will cause an undesirable thermal environment; some parts of the building are overheated while parts located at the back of the building are cooled down below acceptable comfort levels. Opposite, on cloudy days and during the winter radiation heat gain from the sun will be at a minimum. Due to low outside temperatures the heat (warm air) will be drawn through the building and out the window. The heat loss may result in thermostats turning on extra heat causing overheating in rooms located at the back of the building. In order to avoid such temperature fluctuations energy windows, solar shading and shutters should be considered in order to regulate heat gains and losses. The thermal mass of the inside building components and furniture can also be used to reduce the low and high temperature peaks that may occur. During warm periods the building components and furniture will absorb some of the heat and store it. The higher thermal mass the more heat can be stored. When the indoor temperature drops again the heat is released. In colder periods the materials absorb some of the cold temperatures. These are then released to cool the room when the temperature rises. Dense materials such as concrete and gypsum have large thermal masses and are well suited for providing a more stabile indoor environment. Especially in Greenlandic areas it is important to make sure that the thermal mass is not capable of absorbing to much cold during the winter. If this occurs it can result in an increased heating demand during the spring and summer. Buildings that are not in use for longer periods are especially vulnerable to this. The problem can be solved by carefully designing and constructing the building with the right amount/right placement of the thermal mass and/or by insulating it correct. [H. Strub, 1996]
Figure 32: Solar heat gain
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DESIGN MANUAL FOR BUILDING IN GREENLAND DTU JAN 2009 BRIAN HURUP‐FELBY, JONAS VENDEL JENSEN, THOMAS MONDRUP
13.0 Codes and regulations The following part outlines the various criteria based on the Greenlandic building codes and regulations. The chapter enhance specific parameters usable for detailed designing, why it can be seen as technical references or an additional code appendix. [Bygningsreglement, 2006]
13.1 Layout of buildings 13.1.1 General demands •
Buildings should be designed and constructed so that they achieve satisfying conditions within safety, health, accessibility and maintenance.
13.1.2 Accessibility •
•
Level less access to buildings must be provided by a 1,5 x 1,5 meter platform in front of the main entrance. If the door opens outwards the platform is extended 0,2 meters along the building facade. If the terrain conditions demand it, ramps can be used to provide access to the platform. In special cases, where the terrain conditions demand extensive modifications in order to comply with the accessibility demand, the municipal council can grant an exception from the requirements.
13.1.3 Corridors and ramps • • • •
Corridors and ramps must have a minimum width of 1,3 meters. Ramps must not be constructed with a slope of more the 1:20. Ramps must be connected to platforms with minimum dimensions of 1,3 x 1,3 meters at both the beginning and the end. Ramps and corridors must be constructed with sufficient railings in order to provide safety for the uses.
13.1.4 Stairs • •
Stairs must have a minimum width of 0,9 meters. Stairs must be equipped with sufficient hand railing.
13.1.5 Railings • •
Stair railings must have a minimum height of 0,8 meters. Ramp railings minimum 0,9 meter. Balcony railing must have a minimum height of 1,2 meters.
13.1.6 Common lavatory rooms • •
•
The lavatory may not have direct access to any dining room. There must have special toilets for men and women, unless each toilet is placed in separate rooms with an additional for‐room without urinals. For‐rooms can be designed to serve several toilet rooms. Toilets must have water flushing. There must be arranged at least 1 toilet for every 15 employees. If urinals are used there must be at least 1 of every 20 men. 46
DESIGN MANUAL FOR BUILDING IN GREENLAND DTU JAN 2009 BRIAN HURUP‐FELBY, JONAS VENDEL JENSEN, THOMAS MONDRUP
• • •
The floor of the toilet room must be at least 1 m2. Wall height in lavatory compartments must be at least 2.2 meters, rooms with slopping ceiling, there must be a clear height of at least 2.0 m by toilet‐bowl. Lavatory rooms or adjacent for rooms must have a sufficient number of sinks installed.
13.1.7 Dining room •
•
Dining rooms must have a floor area of 1 m2 pr. person that are using it at the same time. However it must be at least 7 m2. The room height must be minimum 2,2 meters. In rooms designed for 50 or more people the room height must be at least 2,5 meters. Dining rooms must have windows installed in order to provide sufficient access to daylight and view.
13.1.8 Shower and changing room of employees •
• •
The must be minimum 1 shower for every 10 employees. Every shower spot must be ad least 0,6 meters wide and have a clear area of 1,2 meters in front of it. The showers must be installed in connection to a changing room. The area of the changing room must be minimum 1 m2 pr. Person. The room height must be least 2,2 meters. The changing room must be connected to a toilet. Men and women must have access to different changing and shower rooms or be able to use it in different periods.
13.1.9 Special for hotels •
•
In hotels and similar buildings at least 1/3 of the rooms must have direct level access to bathroom and toilets. The clearance in front of the sink, toilet and shower must be at least 1,1 meter. Rooms must be constructed under maximum consideration for people whose freedom of movement and vision is reduced. [Bygningsreglement, 2006]
13.2 Constructions 13.2.1 General • • •
The constructions must be carried out in a sound manner, with the use of materials that are durable and suitable for the purpose, in order to achieve satisfying safety and health conditions. Building structure must be designed so that they can withstand the normally occurring static and dynamic loads. The building foundation must deep enough to reach firm a ground layer or rock. Otherwise it must be constructed in a way that prevents damage as a result of movements in the soil. Foundations for sewers, drainage pipes and similar structures must also be ensured against soil movements due to temperature variations over time. [Bygningsreglement, 2006]
13.2.2 Loads •
All load stability calculations are preformed according to the Danish regulations stated in Danish Standard 410 (DS 410). If required, the Danish values are substituted by the Greenlandic. 47
DESIGN MANUAL FOR BUILDING IN GREENLAND DTU JAN 2009 BRIAN HURUP‐FELBY, JONAS VENDEL JENSEN, THOMAS MONDRUP
13.2.2.1 Wind load • Buildings up to 20 meters must be able to withstand the following wind loads regardless of the terrain conditions they are build in. The magnitude of the wind load varies according to the geographical locations. Table 23: Dimensioning wind load in Greenland
Location Nuuk Sisimiut Kangerlussuaq Ilulissat Upernavik Thule Airbase •
Wind Load, q, kN/m2 1,6 1,2 1,2 1,2 1,6 1,6
The values listed in the table above are only examples of different geographical wind loads. Wind loads for other locations can be found in [Forskrift for last på konstruktioner, 1995].
13.2.2.2 Snow load • If the roofs slope are more than 15° and the maximum building depth is 12 meters, the values stated in DS 410 is used. [ • If the roof slope is less the 15 ° or if the building depth is more than 12 meters, the snow load factor must be multiplied with 1,5 – 2,5 depending on the variations in snow amount from town to town. • If the roof construction allows for large accumulations of snow, the snow factor must be determined by an evaluation of the specific case, taking into account the variations in snow amount from town to town. 13.2.2.3 Other loads • Other loading types, such as people load and equipment load etc. are calculated according to DS 410. [Forskrift for last på konstruktioner, 1995]
13.3 Fire conditions •
Buildings must be designed and arranged so that they achieve a satisfying protection against fire and minimizes the risk of fire spreading to surrounding buildings. The design must enable rescue personal and fire fighters to conduct the work as easily as possible.
Figure 33: Fire
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DESIGN MANUAL FOR BUILDING IN GREENLAND DTU JAN 2009 BRIAN HURUP‐FELBY, JONAS VENDEL JENSEN, THOMAS MONDRUP
13.3.1 Hotels 13.3.1.1 Fire Cells and fire sections, etc. • Each bedroom with an adjacent room, toilet and shower rooms must be design as a single fire cell. If the bedroom is connected to one or more rooms, that has their own access door from the outside. Then each room must be constructed as a fire cell with ad lest a BD‐30 (30 minutes fire damping) door between them. • If the hotel is designed with a sleeping section, this must be constructed as a single fire section. The floor area of a fire section must not exceed 600 m2 for building with more than one floor. The fire section can be maximum 2000 m2 in one floored building. A fire section must however only contain 50 sleeping accommodations. 13.3.1.2 Escape routes • Bedrooms, where the lower edge of the rescue opening no more than 2.0 m above the ground, may be connected to a corridor that only leads to the exit in one direction. The distance from the exit of the outermost bedroom door should not exceed 25 m. • Escape corridors, which are longer than 25 m, should be divided by smoke‐tight doors. The doors must be equipped with automatic fire closing mechanisms. • Doors between corridors that are part of the escape route and staircases must be equipped with automatic fire closing mechanisms. • Doors of access from the sleeping areas to escape route must be passable without the use of keys, key cards or special tools. • In a sleeping section with a floor area of more than 1000 m2 must be fitted with emergency lighting and panic lighting along the escape routes, unless all bedrooms have doors to outside. • Sleeping sections with more than 10 bedrooms must be equipped with an early warning system, unless all bedrooms have doors to the outside. • Sleeping sections must have fire hoses installed.
13.3.2 Hotels with a maximum of 10 beds •
Hotels with a maximum of 10 beds may be design and in accordance with the building regulations demands for single family houses.
13.3.2.1 Fire Cells and fire sections • The building must be designed as a single fire cell, unless the total floor area is more than 400 m2. In this case the building must be divided into several fire cells. • In buildings with 2 floors and basement, the bearing constructions in the basement and floor separation above the basement must be constructed as ad least BD‐60 building component. The staircase between the basement and ground‐floor must be separated from basement or ground‐floor by structure elements that are classified as at least BD‐60 building components and the doors as at least BD‐30. • Outer walls, bearing walls, columns, beams, floors and similar structures must be carried out as at least BD‐30 building components. 49
DESIGN MANUAL FOR BUILDING IN GREENLAND DTU JAN 2009 BRIAN HURUP‐FELBY, JONAS VENDEL JENSEN, THOMAS MONDRUP
13.3.2.2 Rescue conditions • Rooms and kitchens that are separate rooms must have direct rescue opening to the outside, either as a window, door or hatch. Rescue openings may be omitted, if a room has access, though two different doors to adjacent rooms with rescue openings. 13.3.2.3 Installations • Houses that are attached to a year‐round water supply must have a fire hose with adjustable nozzle permanently connected and adapted into a length, corresponding to the house size. In houses without a year‐round water supply must have a manually operated fire extinguisher with a capacity of at least 10 litres, plus a 10 litre bucket. 13.3.3 Additional regulation for grouped houses • Houses, which are grouped or lies closer than 2,5 meters they should be separated with constructions materials that are at least BS‐60, or by BD‐60 materials which are at least Class B when the building is constructed with a additional fire protection system, or as with construction materials that are BD‐90. • Grouped houses must be divided into fire sections for each 600 m2 floor space. [Bygningsreglement, 2006]
13.4 Moisture insulation 13.4.1 General conditions •
The building must be constructed in such way that rain, snow, surface water, groundwater, soil moisture, building humidity, condensation and air humidity does not lead to moisture damage and moisture problems.
13.4.2 Surface water and drainage •
•
The terrain must have sufficient fall away from building. If this is not possible, other measures of drainage must be established. If necessary, drainage should be constructed under and around the building. Surface water and drain water must not be transferred to the public sewer system.
13.4.3 Climate screen •
•
• •
Roof constructions, outer wall constructions, basements and crawling spaces, which contain moisture sensitive materials, must be protected against the accumulation of harmful condensing moisture. Terrain constructions must be designed so that there will not be absorption of moisture from the underlying soil, and so that there cannot be any damaging moisture accumulation from the indoor air. Outer walls must be constructed so that no outside water or moisture can penetrate the. Roofs must be designed and constructed of materials that prevent rain and snow from penetrating. Furthermore the roofs must have a sufficient slope that allows rain and melt water from snow to run off. 50
DESIGN MANUAL FOR BUILDING IN GREENLAND DTU JAN 2009 BRIAN HURUP‐FELBY, JONAS VENDEL JENSEN, THOMAS MONDRUP
13.4.4 Wet Rooms • • • •
Bathrooms, toilet room with floor drains and other wet rooms must meet the following requirements: The floors and walls should be constructed, so that they can withstand the moisture, chemical and mechanical effects that normally occur in wet rooms. Floors and floor coverings, including joints and connections, must be watertight. Rooms that have floor drains must have fall in the floor against drain, in water‐loaded part in the room. [Bygningsreglement, 2006]
13.5 Heat insulation 13.5.1 General conditions • • •
Buildings must heat insulated, so that unnecessary energy consumptions are avoided, while still achieving satisfying health conditions. Construction parts against the outside, including windows and doors must have as few cold bridges as possible in order to avoid problems with condensation. Buildings and constructions parts, including windows and doors must be designed so that the heat loss is not increased significantly because humidity, wind or unintended air passing through the building.
13.5.2 U‐Values for building components •
Buildings which are usually heated to at least 18 °C should be carried out with a transmission coefficient U, which most are:
Table 24: U‐Values for different construction elements [Bygningsreglement, 2006]
Construction element Walls with a weight of less than 100 kg / m² Walls with weight exceeding 100 kg / m² and basement walls against soil. Partitions walls against spaces, which are unheated or heated to a temperature that is more than 8 °C lower than the temperature in the current space. Floors to space, which is unheated or heated to a temperature that is more than 8 °C lower than the temperature in the current spaces. Ground deck, basement floors on the ground and floors over open air or ventilated crawling space Ground deck, basement floors on the ground and floors over the open air or ventilated crawling space, where there is floor heating Ceiling and roof constructions Flat roofs and slanted walls directly against the roof Windows and outer doors, including skylights, glass walls, doors and shutters against the free or against space, which is unheated or heated to temperature, which is more than 8 °C lower than temperature in the current space:
• •
U‐value [W / m K] 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.30 0.20 0.15 0.15 0.20 1.80
Foundations shall be carried out with a linear thermal transmittance that maximum is 0.25 W/mK. For foundations beneath floors with floor heating, the linear thermal transmittance must only be 0.20 W/mK. 51
DESIGN MANUAL FOR BUILDING IN GREENLAND DTU JAN 2009 BRIAN HURUP‐FELBY, JONAS VENDEL JENSEN, THOMAS MONDRUP
• •
Connections between windows or outer doors, glass walls, doors and shutters designed with a linear thermal transmittance that is no more than 0.03 W/mK. Connections between the roof and windows in roof or skylights must have a linear thermal transmittance that is no more than 0.10 W/mK.
13.5.3 Total Heat Loss •
U‐values of the different building components can be changed as long as is does not cause an increase in the buildings total heat loss.
13.5.4 Energy frame 13.5.4.1 General conditions • For a building heated to at least 18° C the window areas can be chosen freely and U‐values changed if buildings total demand for space heating and ventilation are kept within the energy frame. • The energy frame is divided into two zones: Zone 1: South of the Polar circle Zone 2: North of the Polar circle
13.5.4.2 Energy Frame for nonresidential buildings •
•
•
For non‐residential buildings, the total energy requirement for space heating and ventilation per square meter floor area must be no more than; Zone 1: 290 MJ/m2 per. years, plus 280 MJ/m2 per year divided by the buildings number of floors, plus 13.000 MJ. per year divided by build area. Zone 2: 350 MJ/m2 per. years, plus 325 MJ/m2 per. years divided by the buildings number of floors, plus 16.000 MJ per year divided by build area. [J.Kragh, juni 2004]
1: 290 2: 350
13.000 16.000
280 325
⁄
⁄
13.6 Acoustic environment 13.6.1 General conditions •
Buildings must be designed and constructed, so users are ensured a satisfactory acoustic environment. 52
DESIGN MANUAL FOR BUILDING IN GREENLAND DTU JAN 2009 BRIAN HURUP‐FELBY, JONAS VENDEL JENSEN, THOMAS MONDRUP
•
For hotels bedrooms the design value for noise during the night‐time is 30 dB. During the daytime it is 35 dB. For lobbies and receptions rooms the value is 40 dB.
13.6.2 Sound insulation • • •
Between residential units and common areas horizontal air sound isolation must be at least 52 dB and vertically at least 53 dB. Between rooms in residential units and common areas, doors with an air sound isolation of minimum 32 dB is required. Between residential units and spaces with a particular nuisance noise, air sound insulation of at least 60 dB is required.
13.6.3 Reverberation time •
In stairwells with access to more than 4 residential units the reverberation time, whose average value is in the frequency range 500‐3.150 Hz must not exceed 1.3 seconds.
•
In corridors with access to more than 2 housing units the reverberation time, whose average value is in the frequency range of 500‐3.150 Hz must not exceed 0.9 seconds.
•
Technical installations may not create noise nuisance in residential units and kitchens of more than 30 dB. Limit increased by 5 dB to 25 dB for momentary sounds and noise with a pure tone. Technical installations may not create noise nuisance of more than 40 dB immediately outside the building windows, and recreational areas, including balconies, roof terrace, outdoor spaces and the like. The limit is increased by 5 dB to 35 dB for momentary sounds and noise with a clean tone. [Bygningsreglement, 2006]
•
13.7 Indoor environment •
•
Buildings must be constructed so that there in the normal use of the building, in the area where people living for extended periods, can be maintained satisfactory health temperatures, taking into account the human activity in the rooms. Temperature demands are based upon the European standard. (prEN15251). As the heating season in Greenland is all year the acceptable temperature range is 20 – 25 °C. (Category II). The metabolic rate is in this case 1,2 met (Sedentary activity) and the clothing factor is 1,0 clo (normal dressed). [prEN 15251], [CEN CR 1752, 1998]
•
• • •
In planning the construction and selection of materials, window areas, orientation and solar screen, it must be ensured that the appropriate temperature conditions, also in the summer, and that annoyances by direct solar radiation are avoided. Ventilation must be performed by mechanical or natural ventilation. The Air change demand for areas with normal activity is 0,5 times an hour. Bathroom/toilet rooms must have a mechanical ventilation rate of 15 l/s or be ventilated naturally by a vent of minimum 200 cm2. Separated toilet rooms must have a mechanical ventilation rate of 10 l/s or be ventilated naturally by a vent of minimum 200 cm2. 53
DESIGN MANUAL FOR BUILDING IN GREENLAND DTU JAN 2009 BRIAN HURUP‐FELBY, JONAS VENDEL JENSEN, THOMAS MONDRUP
•
Kitchens must have a mechanical ventilation rate of 20 l/s or be ventilated naturally by a vent of minimum 200 cm2. [Bygningsreglement, 2006]
13.8 Installations • •
• •
•
Installations must be constructed so that they do not cause damage to the building. Troublesome vibrations must not be transferred to the building. Furthermore the installations must be constructed, so that they do not lead to any fire hazard. Along pipes ducts and channels, measures must be taken in order to prevent transport of noise, humidity, fire, gases, smoke and odor. Installations must be protected from frost erosion, if they are exposed to frost. Installation must be constructed so that unnecessary energy consumption avoided. They must be insulated against heat loss and condensation. Technical installation, etc., requiring manual operation, inspection or maintenance, must be placed so that there is a clear passage height of 1.9 m and a free width of 0.7 meters or in ducts with removable sections.
13.8.1 Heating, hot water and cooling systems • •
Heating, hot water and cooling systems must be dimensioned and constructed, so that they do not cause any risk of fire and explosion. Electricity heating, air heating and cooling units must be installed with auto‐regulation, so the supply can be adjusted according to the actual need. The units must be equipped with time and temperature controls, so the supply may be interrupted or reduced during periods without use.
13.8.2 Ventilation systems •
• • • • •
Ventilation systems must be constructed with focus on safety, energy consumption and indoor environment conditions. Furthermore they must be constructed so that they do not cause an increased risk of fire. Ventilation systems must be design, so that units and ducts can be cleaned and maintained in order to keep them in a hygienic and technically good condition. Ventilation systems must be fitted with measuring instruments to monitor operating conditions and energy consumption. Ventilation systems must be connected to an effective heat recovery system. This requirement may however be waived, if the return airs heat excess cannot be reasonably utilized. The use of miniaturization of the inlet air may only allowed, if there is a safety, production, conservation or health reason here for. Mechanical cooling of the inlet air may only used when s all other heat reduction measures, including solar screens and removal of heat directly from equipment, lighting, etc. are not sufficient enough to maintain an acceptable indoor environment. [Bygningsreglement, 2006]
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DESIGN MANUAL FOR BUILDING IN GREENLAND DTU JAN 2009 BRIAN HURUP‐FELBY, JONAS VENDEL JENSEN, THOMAS MONDRUP
14.0 References 14.1 Lecture material from courses on DTU J. Fan, 2008: ”Natural Ventilation – Modeling of natural ventilation”. Lecture notes for course 11114. Technical University of Denmark. C. Forsingdal, 2008. “Ventilation, Indoor Climate Air, Displacement ventilation”. Lecture notes for course 11114, DTU. Lindab.
14.2 Technical Reports J. Cappelsen et al, 2001. “The Observed Climate of Greenland, 1958‐99 – with Climatological Standard Normals, 1961‐90” Danish Metrological Institute. ISSN 1399‐1388 J. Kragh et al, 2002. “Analyser til det nye grønlanske bygningsreglement”. Technical University of Denmark. J. Kragh et al, 2004. “Anvisning‐ Beregning af bygningers varmebehov i Grønland”. Technical University of Denmark. ISBN: 87‐7877‐150‐1. C. Petersen et al, 2003. Anvendelse af alternative isoleringsmaterialer”. SBI
14.3 Books K. Daniels, 1997. “The Technology of Ecological Building: Basic Principles, Examples and Ideas”. Brikhäuser. ISBN: 3‐7643‐5461‐5 H. Strub, 1996. “Bare Poles: Building design for high latitudes”. Carleton University Press. ISBN: 0‐88629‐278‐6
14.4 Standards and regulations CEN CR 1752, 1998: “Ventilation for buildings ‐ Design criteria for the indoor environment” European Committee for standardization, December 1998 Bygningsreglement, 2006. 1. Udgave, 1. Oplag. Grønlands hjemmestyre, Direktoratet for Boliger og Infrastruktur, 2006. . Nunatta Naqiterivia A/S. ISBN: 87‐991296‐0‐4. Forskrift for Last på konstruktioner , 1995. 1. Udgave. Grønlands hjemmestyre, Bygge‐ og Anlægsstyrelsen. ISO 7730, 1994: “Moderate thermal environments – Determination of PMV and PPD indices and specification of the conditions for thermal comfort” – International standard, second edition prEN 15251, 2006: “Criteria for the Indoor Environment including thermal, indoor air quality, light and noise” European Committee for Standardization, May 2005
14.5 Websites www.asiaq.gl (Greenland Survey) www.dmi.dk (Danish Meteorological Institute) http://solardat.uoregon.edu/SunChartProgram.html (University of Oregon) 55
DESIGN MANUAL FOR BUILDING IN GREENLAND DTU JAN 2009 BRIAN HURUP‐FELBY, JONAS VENDEL JENSEN, THOMAS MONDRUP
www.greenland.com (Tourism in Greenland) http://www.glacierbay.com/vacpanelinfo.asp (Thermal insulation data) http://www.vacuuminsulation.co.uk/ (Vacuum insulation data) http://www.vip‐bau.de (Vacuum insulation)
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