Beautoyful by Brian Landisman

Beautoyful Brian Landisman

Beautoyful

Plastic Perceptions of Body Image

by Brian Landisman

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Communications Design. School of Art and Design Pratt Institute May, 2016

Recieved and Approved:

Graham Hanson, Thesis Advisor

Date

Santiago Piedrafita, Department Chairperson

Date

Brian Landisman, MS Thesis Candidate

Date

Like all kids, I loved my toys. Most of my prized

from the X-Men, Spider-Man, and Justice League fran-

possessions growing up were action figures from

chises, all of whom I idolized. I watched my cousin,

army troops to superheroes. My friends and I would

who was also my age, as he received similar gifts.

spend countless hours acting out scenarios with them,

We spent the rest of the evening playing heroes and

taking down the bad-guys and saving the world. In

villains with our new toys, happy as can be.

a way, I saw myself in these plastic figures as whom I wanted to be when I grew up. I had quite a collection of these toys stashed in my room, and every winter when Chanukah rolled around, that collection increased. For most Jewish people above the age of twelve, Chanukah represents the liberation of the Holy Temple from Greek invaders. For the rest of us, however, this holiday meant only one thing: presents! During this time of year, my parents always knew exactly what I wanted.

Although all of my action figures varied in height, clothing, or special features, they shared one dominant characteristic: their physiques. None of them lacked in muscles across their arms, legs, chest, or stomach. I was only ten, but the way that these toys were designed was not lost on me even at that young age. I admired these characters, and their awe-inspiring build further enforced my need to be, and look, just like them. As I grew older, the desire to have a perfectly chiseled masculine body found a more permanent place in my

At ten years old, my entire family and I celebrated the

mind. I found myself never fully satisfied with the way

last night of the holiday at my auntâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s house, where the

I looked because I never succeeded in obtaining that

kids would go downstairs to open gifts following a

physique. Sometimes I would catch a look at myself

traditional dinner. As soon as the time came, I raced

in the mirror and flex a muscle, disappointed that my

downstairs with everyone to the basement where the

biceps werenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t even in the same ballpark as those of

presents were waiting. I attacked the wrapping paper

my favorite childhood heroes. I began to feel unat-

on the boxes as if it was intentionally keeping me

tractive and even a little jealous of other men, real or

from getting to what was inside. I then found myself

animated, who had those physical features I told myself

gazing at the very toys I was hoping for: action figures

were the only acceptable forms of a male body.

The way that the human body is portrayed through toys

search for solutions to negative body images influenced

is crucial to consider, especially when they cross paths

by toys, thereby putting a stopper on any lasting physical

with young and impressionable minds. One 2006 study,

and/or mental disorders that can develop after the child

"Does Barbie Make Girls Want to Be Thin?" has shown

has been exposed to them. I believe that changing

how Mattel’s iconic Barbie doll can have negative

children’s thinking about physical appearance early

effects on a young girl’s development, “which would

on can result in a healthier view of his/her own body.

contribute to an increased risk of disordered eating and

Furthermore, they can begin to perceive not only their

weight cycling.” But body image issues in children are

own physical appearance in a more positive light, but

not exclusive to that gender. Young males are also at risk

those of others as well, which can lead to better inter-

for lasting negative effects because of how bodies are

actions and social behavior. This exploration will strive

represented in this context. Another study performed by

to show how design can be a formidable tool in altering

physician Harrison G. Pope shows how an increasing

people’s attitudes and behaviors towards this problem.

trend in muscular-looking action figures can open the

By implementing the aforementioned design principles, I

door to a risk of body dysmorphia among men.

will be looking to create a method of introducing a new

With this in mind, how can we use design as an aid in finding a solution to this problem? My thesis will focus on how body image is conveyed through toys targeted to children between the ages of 6 and 12. Through methods of application, product, and digital design, I will

type of toy with more realistic physiques that children will want to play with. I believe this solution will serve to change the way toys are designed from early stages of production, as well as challenge the current ideals of what is considered a “desired” physical form in children by exposing them to a healthier range of body types.

My research throughout will focus on the psycholog-

As I, among many others, harbored less-than-positive

ical issues with body image among young male and

perceptions about how one is supposed to look as I

female children, though the ultimate solution to this

grew up, the importance of this issue cannot be over-

challenge could very well relate to weight-loss, treating

stated. Distorted views of body image can spur extreme

obesity, or methods of getting todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s youth to become

actions, including bulimia or body dysmorphia, in order

more physically active. I will strictly be focused on

to achieve an unrealistic, unhealthy conformity. My the-

the impact that these types of products can have on

sis will be executed with the goal of using design to get

a childâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s general feelings and personal self-image. In

children to change the way they look at themselves and

addition, I will not be investigating the impact of every

others, in order to improve their personal self-esteem

type of toy on a childâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s psyche; the toys I discuss will

and social interaction. I will provide detailed research

be dolls, action figures, and others designed with a

on the history of the evolution of toys in relation to

human body. Finally, I will not attempt to solve body

physique, as well as studies about their impact. As I feel

image issues or disorders concerning people of all

it is important to see what is currently being done from a

ages. My research will warrant the investigation of

design perspective, I will also take into account current

psychological patterns of individuals outside my target

efforts to change the way these products are marketed

audience, but I primarily want to examine how these

and produced for children.

problems arise from early on, and find a solution to stop these problems and undesired behaviors from reaching beyond adolescence.

Beauty Standards. . . . . . . . . . . 6 Beauty in the Western World. . . . . . . . Symmetry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Beauty Across Cultures. . . . . . . . . . . Perceptions of Perfection . . . . . . . . .

Self-Image in Children .

8 10 18 20

. . . . . 26

The Birth of Body Image. . . . . . . . . . Other Media. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fat Shaming. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Poor Self-Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

28 33 34 36

Toys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Importance of Play . . . . . . . . . . 40 Enter Barbie, the 3-D Fashion Doll . . . . 44 G.I. Joe and the Birth of Action Figures. . 55

Case Studies .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

Lammily Doll. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 A Positive Exposure on Beauty . . . . . . 70 The Anti-Disney Princess . . . . . . . . . 76

Testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Toybuilder Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . 84 Application Screenshots. . . . . . . . . . 86 My Takeaways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

Conclusion & Design . . . . . . .

The Beautoy Shop. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 Thesis Reflections . . . . . . . . . . . . .108

Beauty Standards

Family, friends, and even life experiences constantly teach us to treasure inner beauty over outer beauty. Even so, the desire to be deemed physically attractive by others can sometimes be so tempting that we can easily forget this positive lesson. I, among countless others, know how difficult it is to conform to certain norms telling and showing me what a beautiful person is supposed to look like. But where do these norms originate? How do they change from one part of the world to another? Are there some that can be considered universal? In order to answer these questions and understand exactly how â&#x20AC;&#x153;beautyâ&#x20AC;? is defined in our civilization today, I believe it is important to examine the standards in Western culture and compare them to those of other civilizations throughout the world.

Beauty in the By simply witnessing the rise of exaggerated body types all around us, it is understood that our culture holds physical appearance in high regard. Results of a 2006 study on anti-fat biases by the Rudd Center for Food Policy and Obesity at Yale University revealed these negative attitudes prevalent in America, as 46% of the 4,000 participants said they would rather give up a year

various media platforms, making them powerful and

of their lives than be obese.3 The willingness of people

dangerous tools affecting social behavior. The media’s

to sacrifice so much to retain a more attractive physique

involvement with shaping these attitudes have seem-

stems from the many social stigmas and biases that

ingly placed the Western world in a type of causality

surround certain body types. A 2011 report by Arizona

loop; media platforms relay stereotypes to the public,

State University, titled "Body Norms and Fat Stigma in

and with our acceptance of them as reality, we are

Global Perspective", further examines this:

essentially allowing those platforms to continue

“In much of the industrialized west, where bodies are the dominant and preferred symbols of self, slimness is associated with health, beauty, intelligence, youth, wealth, attractiveness, grace, self-discipline, and goodness. Fatness and obesity are by contrast associated with ugliness, sexlessness, and undesirability but also with specifically moral failings, such as a lack of self-control, social irresponsibility, ineptitude, and laziness.”4

Whether or not we’re consciously aware of it, we almost immediately form associations when we encounter a particular body type, live or animated. Our biases continue to flourish today with the help of

communicating these messages. This notion expresses the need for a change somewhere within this endless cycle in order for us to break it.

Western World 46% of the 4,000 participants said they would rather give up a year of their lives than be obese. Yale Universityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s study, The Influence of Oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Own Body Weight on Implicit and Explicit Anti-fat Bias.

Symmetry Size is not the only aspect to consider when discussing physical perfection. Symmetry is also seen as a trademark of beauty in Western culture, but what makes it particularly interesting from other factors used to determine attractiveness is its strong roots in science and biology. Since the times of ancient Greece, the idea has been set forth that symmetrical features are deemed more attractive then uneven ones, which continues to be speculated in modern times.5 Research performed by the University of New Mexico in 1994 revealed that men with symmetrical measurements in the face and body attracted more sexual partners.6 It is still unknown whether physical symmetry in humans is a result of superior genetics or a lack of stress during development, but it seems quite the advantage for those yearning to be considered beautiful and/or desirable.

In 2013, artist and photographer Alex John Beck challenged symmetrical beauty with a new project, titled Both Sides Of. After shooting portraits of his models, he digitally manipulated the images and created side-by-side composites of symmetrical faces created from the original photograph, not included in the final piece. Each pair showcases both the left and right sides of the model, mirrored to look like complete faces (FIG 1).7 The resulting images contained differences ranging from tame to eerie. I believe that Beckâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s project was successful in providing people with another way of looking at beauty through the aspect of symmetry to question what Western society has been teaching them from early ages.

FIG 1: Alex John Beckâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s project, Both Sides Of. Above: An illustration based on Back's initial concept sketch describing the project. Next three spreads: Photoshopped symmetrical composites of the left/right sides of the modelâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s face, inspired by Beck's project.

Beauty Across Cultures

19 A county’s socioeconomic status has also proven to be a significant factor. Many traditional cultures throughout the world have an extensive history of men who were praised with large bodies. Reasons for this included locations experiencing a lack of food, an issue that continues to plague many underdeveloped countries today. “In places where the food supply is There are parts of the world that do not share the same

often or cyclically inadequate, fat is a status symbol,”

ideas as the Western world about what a beautiful

states psychotherapist Carolynn Hillman in her book,

body is. In these places, the thought of a thin body runs

Love Your Looks: How to Stop Criticizing and Start

parallel with disease and wasting away while fuller

Appreciating Your Appearance.10 With neither enough

bodies are favored for a number of reasons. The unfor-

food nor the money to afford it available, seeing a

tunate prevalence of the acquired immune deficiency

man with a plump figure was a strong communicator

syndrome, or AIDS, in Africa has contributed to differ-

that he was both wealthy and well fed. Although this

ing views on body sizes there, for example. Because

idea has diminished over time as countries developed,

common symptoms of the disease include rapid weight

traditional cultures still carry ideals of male body

loss and extreme tiredness, according to the federal

image reminiscent of it. A 2013 study was published in

website, AIDS.gov, the idea of thinness has become

Obesity Facts: The European Journal of Obesity, which

synonymous with poor health in this context. To avoid

examined current weight perception among Korean

this undesired body type, weight gain is looked on in

men. The research found “a considerable proportion

high regard, and can be interpreted as healthy or of

of normal or overweight young men perceived them-

a higher status. In her book, Feeding Desire: Fatness,

selves to be underweight and reported attempting to

Beauty, and Sexuality Among a Saharan People, author

gain weight. This suggests that many men, even from

Rebecca Popenoe examined females of varying ages in

younger generations, continue to adhere to the tradi-

a Nigerian village. She found young girls being taught

tional ideal of body shape – i.e., larger body sizes are

that “fatness” is considered sexy, and were encouraged

viewed as symbols of masculinity and power.”11

to gain a more voluptuous figure. If these practices 9

were performed in Western society, however, they would be considered strange and rejected quickly. No matter how different a society’s standards of beauty are, they share the ability to impact young minds, instilling values into children and affecting how they view themselves as they grow.

Perceptions of Perfection

Superdrug, a United Kingdom beauty and health-

Wanting to demonstrate that men have just as much,

care retailer, set a project in motion with the goal to

if not more, pressure to conform to beauty standards,

visually portray the different standards of beauty that

Superdrug performed the same experiment to include

exist in multiple parts of the world today. Their project,

similar pressures on men. In February of 2016, a

Perceptions of Perfection Across Borders, began in

similar image of a man was sent abroad to designers of

2015 with a single image of a female form sent to

both sexes for the same type of Photoshop treatment.

female graphic designers spanned out over 18 diverse

Altered submissions included not only slimmed-down

countries. Each designer was tasked with manipulating

versions of the original, but ones with increased

the image using Photoshop to make her look more

muscle mass and definition as well.12 This extension

attractive based on the beauty ideals of that particular

of Superdrug’s project sheds a light on how physical

country. The results sent back to Superdrug proved

beauty varies from country to country, and affects both

extremely revealing. Every designer’s final image had

genders. Our own country may consider some of these

similar alterations applied to it, including a slimmed

renderings extreme or exaggerated, but they represent

waist and adjusted facial features. While there were

dominant public opinions in different parts of the

a few representations that didn’t deviate far from the

globe. Regardless of the differences between each ren-

original image, there were others that looked shock-

dering, together they reflect universal pressures on men

ingly different. According to Superdrug’s website detail-

and women to conform to different standards.

ing this project, some countries “chose to render her so thin that her estimated Body Mass Index (BMI), according to a survey we conducted, would fall under or dangerously close to 17.5,” where adults suffering from anorexia have a body mass of below 17.5, according to the UK National Health Service.13

FIG 2: Superdrugâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Perceptions of Perfection project. Previous spread: the original photographs sent to the designers for photoshopping. Current spread: a sample of submitted renderings of each part of the experiment from participating countries.

Self-Image In Children

When the phrase, â&#x20AC;&#x153;body-imageâ&#x20AC;? is heard, you can expect a person to associate it with thoughts on his/her physical traits or how attractive they are perceived. These associations would be correct, but they are not exclusive to adults. It is not unexpected to discover that children harbor the same thoughts about their appearance. Instead of the amount of playtime as their biggest problem, more kids these days are developing concerns with how they look early on.

The Birth of Body Image

Becoming aware of one’s body can begin as early as

Because infants’ familiarity with the world is new, what

the first year of life. Infants slowly start to develop a

they are visually exposed to can leave a lasting impact.

sense of themselves through mirrors or photographs,

Visuals of body types are no exception. In 2013, The

and will start to react physically as they take notice. A

Journal of Experimental Child Psychology performed

2003 Emory University study investigated the behav-

an experiment where infants under a year old were

ior of 2 to 3 year old infants when exposed to such

exposed to photos of bodies considered attractive or

mediums. They found that most children this age show

unattractive, in accordance with standards of today’s

signs of embarrassment because they begin to develop

Western society. The results found “9-month-old

a basic self-consciousness during this time. They start

children preferentially attend to unattractive bodies,”

to understand that other people bear witness to their

which is partially due to a greater amount of expo-

actions. “Their behavior indicates a drive to vanish

sure to them.15 Bodies regarded as “perfect” are not

from the public eyes, as if they came to grip via the

as common, although considered more desirable by

experience of their own specular image of how they

the general population. Therefore, infants are prone to

present themselves to the world. Not only do they

develop a stronger familiarity with bodies considered

discover in the mirror that it is themselves, they also

“imperfect,” because it’s what they know. It is when

realize that it is themselves as perceived by others,”

they are exposed to other social mediums directed at

says psychology professor Phillipe Rochat, the head of

them that this preference is altered.

the study. Infants have a sense of their own appear14

ance only a year after they learn to walk because they start to recognize themselves. As the child grows, these basic sparks of self-image seem to do the same.

Other Media As influential as toys are to children, it is important to

company, determined that the average age of children

acknowledge similar facets of media, and the power

today that are receiving mobile phones from their

they can hold. Children are constantly developing rela-

parents is 6, where it was almost twice as high 10 years

tionships with digital platforms at much earlier ages. A

earlier.17 While most parents contribute to these statistics

2003 study by the Kaiser Family Foundation, titled "Zero

because they are attempting to keep in touch with

to Six: Electronic Media in the Lives of Infants, Toddlers,

their children better, kids see their phones as a means

and Preschoolers," uncovered that 70% of American

of entertainment. A child’s desire for an adult piece of

children between the ages of 4 to 6 watch television

equipment is a reflection of their constant imitations of

every day, and 43% have access to it in their own

adult behavior, including thoughts on how attractive he/

room. The commonplace of these devices increases the

she is. A child’s relationship to all of these different types

exposure to the “beautiful” bodies that populate them.

of media exposure is strongly related to toys; children

Unfortunately, it doesn’t end with television. Mobile

form bonds with characters they see through television

phones have made it incredibly easy for people on the

and video games, and when they encounter the toy

go to watch programs and play games centered on these

version of those same characters, the chance they’ll turn

characters, and they are finding their way into younger

to their parents and say, “I want that,” is strong.

hands. A study by Vouchercloud, an online coupon

F A T

I have discussed the prejudices orbiting around the idea of being considered fat in Western society earlier in my thesis. These same prejudices do not always begin in the minds of adults, however, but can be sourced back to children. Once these negative notions are in place, they leave a significant effect on a child’s behaviors and feelings on the way they look, changing how they perceive others in social settings, including school. Children bullying and shaming one another in these environments is a serious issue that helps contribute to the victims’ low self-esteem. Preadolescents who suffer from weight-related teasing tend to find themselves with terrible self-images and a risk of creating unhealthy behaviors later in life, according to a 2010 study by psychologist Timothy D. Nelson in The Journal of Pediatric Psychology.18 The notion of being “normal” is something that kids tend to pressure one another about, and one can develop a poor self-image when unable to reach it.

Shaming

A 2013 study implemented by Andrew Hill, professor

showed any interest in befriending him. Another ver-

at the University of Leeds, presented to the European

sion of the study was performed with a female protago-

Congress on Obesity, further supporting this sugges-

nist, producing similar results. “This research confirms

tion. Hill provided 126 boys and girls between the

young children’s awareness of the huge societal interest

ages of 4 and 6 with variations of a children’s book

in body size,” says Hill.19 Much like gender roles, body

portraying the main character, Alfie, as average weight,

image seems to be yet another concern that children

overweight, or in a wheelchair (FIG 3). He then asked

are picking up all too easily, making the conclusions

the children if they would ever consider Alfie as a

they arrive at more difficult to change as they mature.

friend if he were real. The “average” Alfie received the highest amount of potential friend requests, while only one child of the 43 who read the “overweight” version

FIG 3: Variations of “Alfie” presented to the child subjects in professor Andrew Hill’s study.

Poor Self-Image Findings from a report published by The British Journal

Though more commonly discussed, wanting to be

of Health and Psychology in 2003 show that children

thinner is only one type of concern that kids have with

between the ages of 6 and 8 (over one-half of girls

their bodies. There is a growing pressure, particularly

and one-third of boys) have been shown to prefer a

for boys and men, to get bigger by gaining more mus-

body type that was thinner than their own. In addi-

cle mass. Even during the stages of preadolescence,

tion, children within this age range have been prone

these pressures exist. A 2014 study, "It’s All About

to experiment with some form of dieting. Due to the

the Six Pack: Boys Bodies in Contemporary Western

overwhelming exposure to social cues promoting a

Culture," examines the perceptions of young boys on

beautiful body type in Western culture, children develop

masculinity and men’s bodies. The results revealed an

the desire to conform to these standards. When these

admiration from participating boys for tough-looking

thoughts become embedded in a child’s mind, extreme

men with six-pack abdominal muscles. “The data

action follows to reach that conformity. Eating disor-

within this research provides evidence that boys in

ders, for example, are becoming more prevalent among

early childhood and the middle primary years (up to

children before they even enter their teenage years.

10 years of age) have clear perceptions of what a male

Between 1999 and 2006, the amount of reported hos-

body is supposed to look like,” says professor Murray

pitalizations of children 12 and under relating to eating

Drummond of Flinders University, head of the study.22

disorders had risen almost 120%, according to data

Influenced by what they see, children this age begin to

published by The American Academy of Pediatrics.

correlate strength with how muscular they are. Even on

the opposite end of the spectrum, the risk of extreme, unhealthy behavior is just as dangerous as children grow. In this instance, starving oneself or developing an eating disorder is replaced with steroid use and spending absurd amounts of time exercising. A 2014 study published by The American Psychological Association highlighted harmful outcomes that arise from poor body image in teenage boys. Aaron J. Blashill, a staff psychologist at Massachusetts General Hospital, found that “self-perceived underweight status among adolescent boys is associated with both increased victimization and depressive symptoms. In turn, both are associated with anabolic-androgenic steroid use […]”23 Unfortunately, this dangerous tendency towards a perfect body is only a sample of the physical and mental consequences that emerge when poor body image appears early in life, and continues into later stages of life.

Boys in early childhood and the middle primary years have clear perceptions of what a male body is supposed to look like. Murray Drummond on the results of his study, It’s All About the Six Pack: Boys Bodies in Contemporary Western Culture.

Toys

Have you ever seen a child overcome with pure joy as they get their hands on a toy theyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ve been yearning for? I have, but I never thought much of it until now. I would always simply smile and reminisce on how I used to get excited for toys when I was little. Throughout my thesis exploration, I found myself wondering why I got so worked up over them. A childâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s interaction with toys is far more important than I realized.

The Importance of Play I found a fascinating view on the significance of

“play” while reading the book, Play Matters, written by Miguel Sicart, an associate professor at the

Center for Computer Game Research at IT University Copenhagen. Here, Sicart sheds light on what children seldom notice about their toys: “A toy is an opening for appropriation. In childhood, the toy is an element for getting the fantasy started, a gate to the world of imagination. The toy becomes an extension of the playful mind, an exploration of both who we are, as children, and what we do. The child’s toy waits for us on the shelves, static, promising play, and when we grab it, play takes over through the toy, and the life of imagination fills in the appropriated reality.”24

I was inspired about this idea of a toy’s role in playing. In the eyes of a child, dolls and action figures are playthings, a way to act out fun, fantasized scenarios. It’s as if these inanimate objects, however, actually breathe life into a child’s behavior. Because of a toy’s influencing ability, the physical features they carry can affect how a child plays and looks at the world. Now that I have a stronger understanding of why toys are so important, I believe the way they’re designed and marketed to children is also relevant to investigate.

Today, I can walk into almost any toy store in America

doll or action figure during that time, its characteristics,

and expect to get bombarded by plastic figures with

from the material it was made of to the physical traits it

extreme bodies. But if I were to play this same sce-

had, were drastically different from what children are

nario out in previous time periods, I would find it

surrounded by today. A prime example was the emer-

difficult to encounter the same types of products. This

gence of the famous rag doll, Raggedy Ann, in 1918.

is because children’s toy trends have shifted in America

P.F. Vollard, the publisher of the popular Raggedy Ann

throughout the 20 century. I recently came across an

Stories, had the idea to sell the toys with his books (FIG

article from TIME Magazine that reflects this idea. In it,

4).26 I can see a variety of differences in this one doll

author Allie Townsend, managing editor of Facebook,

when comparing it to those more common today.

ranks 100 of the most influential American toys since the 1920’s.25 I moved through the list from the beginning, and rarely did I come across a toy resembling a doll or action figure until decades later. The toys that populated the store shelves during the first half of the century showed little similarity to those today. Children during that time spent their days playing with toys like yo-yos, stick horses, and model train sets instead of those resembling a human form. Even if a child had a

This doll’s features made her a wholesome toy. When her brother, Raggedy Andy, hit the scene, he shared these same qualities. Here was a popular pair of dolls that would not be considered to have extreme body types in today’s society, but rather simple toys for simple play. It wasn’t until the middle of the century that toys began to move away from these production standards.

FIG 4: An original Raggedy Ann doll, circa 1920, preserved by the National Museum of Play.

Raggedy Ann dolls were made from soft cloth instead of hard plastic.

Raggedy Ann never donned clothing that would be considered controversial or sexually revealing.

There was a lack emphasis on the shape of Raggedy Annâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s body.

Enter

The 3-D Fashion Doll Inventor Ruth Handler fostered a major shift in the toy

them. Handlerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s mind interpreted these facts as major

industry. In 1945, she had already founded the com-

void in the market, and began working to fill it. Inspired

pany, Mattel Creations (now Mattel Inc., one of the

by its German predecessor, Handler developed the first

largest toy manufacturing competitors in the world). It

American fashion doll: Barbie. Young girls finally had a

wasnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t until 1959, however, that Handler introduced the

toy that could help them imagine their future as adults.

world to a new kind of doll, inspired by her daughter, Barbara. According to the book, The Barbie Chronicles: A Living Doll Turns Forty, Handlerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s game-changing idea sparked when she and her children encountered a similar three-dimensional German doll, Bild Lilli (FIG 5), that year during a trip to Europe.27 She purchased one for her daughter, knowing Barbara would take to it due to her new tendency to play with adult-looking fashion dolls made of paper instead of her once-beloved baby dolls. Handler also noticed her daughter, entering her teenage years, would act out adult scenarios with

Barbie has received an overwhelming amount of praise from consumers since her conception. She arrived on the scenes during the same era that televisions were becoming more common in American homes, and Mattel capitalized on that by heavily advertising her through this medium. Young girls across the country owned an average of eight Barbie dolls, with at least two being sold somewhere every second, according to psychiatrist Ann Ruth Turkel in her 1998 report, "All About Barbie: Distortions of a Transitional Object."28 Now, she can be frequently located at the top of almost every

FIG 5: The original 1959 Barbie doll, created by Ruth Handler (left), has physical features that almost mirror those of an original Bild Lilli doll presented at German auction house in 2013 (right).

holiday gift list. The National Retail Federation, one of the world’s largest retail trade associations, released a 2014 survey for the most popular holiday toys. The results showed Barbie holding the “number two spot,” for the first time after eleven years at the top.29 She has made such an impact in the doll industry, that a 2014 TIME Magazine article ranked her at #2 of “The Most Influential Toys of All Time.”30 Barbie’s body is one of her more prominent adult features that make her so wildly popular among her target audience. I find myself questioning, however, why the design of her body is so heavily focused on features of an adult woman if she is marketed towards preadolescent girls. The Bild Lilli doll was designed with similar physical features like Barbie, but she wasn’t made for kids. According to Robin Gerber, author of Barbie and Ruth, Lilli was a sexual character in a German comic strip written by Reinhard Beuthien (FIG 6), which led to adults purchasing the toy designed from her likeness. Gerber writes, “Men got Lilli dolls as gag gifts at bachelor parties, put them on their car dashboard, dangled them from the rear-view mirror, or gave them to girlfriends as a suggestive

FIG 6: Samples of the original Bild Lilli comic strip, published in Bild-Zeitung circa 1952.

keepsake.”31 While Lilli dolls were found in cigarette shops, Barbie now populates the shelves of children’s toy stores. A doll endowed with extremely exaggerated features, which originated in a more adult venue, is a fact I find very important as I investigate the effect toys like these have in the hands of children. Before Lilli’s conception, encountering a doll with this particular body type was practically unheard of. Her adult-looking features were the reason why she found herself in adult hands. When Handler took these dolls back to Mattel and began re-designing them to create Barbie, the features that set this doll apart were not lost on her either. During a 1977 New York Times interview, Handler reasoned her decision for Barbie’s curves and contours. “Every little girl needed a doll through which to project herself into her dream of her future. […] If she was going to do role-playing of what she would be like when she was 16 or 17, it was a little stupid to play with a doll that had a flat chest. So I gave it beautiful breasts.”32 But while Handler saw this design choice as a positive element to a child’s playtime, a number of others saw it as detrimental to their perspective on how a woman should look.

Barbie Backlash Rehabs.com backs those same concerns with assistance from a 2013 experiment. The online organization, which provides people with information for addiction and behavioral disorders, wanted to demonstrate how Barbie’s proportions would be ridiculous on a live female. They created a series of infographics examining Barbie’s various body parts and illustrating realistic consequences of achieving those standards of beauty coveted by girls everywhere (FIG 7).33 For instance, “with a neck twice as long and six inches thinner than the average woman, Barbie would be incapable of lifting her head.” Their research goes beyond criticizing these measurements, and looks at the likelihood of encountering a woman with them. They concluded that the probability of randomly picking a woman with the same neckline as Barbie, for example, is 1 in 4,356,203,065. Mattel’s advertising of a toy with these unrealistic, and uncommon, physical features is the source of distress in parents looking for one to instill positive views of body-image in their children.

FIG 7: An Infographic depicting how Barbie’s unrealistic body proportions would fail on a girl/woman in the real world, designed by Rehabs.com.

Barbie’s sales are currently reflecting these growing attitudes. Her popularity has noticeably declined over the past three years. In Mattel’s 2014 earnings report, they revealed a 16% dip in Barbie’s yearly gross sales, with a drop of 12% in their last quarter earnings.34 New competitors are contributing to this shift, and don’t seem to be suffering through low sales as much as Barbie. Their success is reasoned by their design, reflecting changing ideals of body types in toys. Mattel owns other dolls geared towards the same target audience, for example, including the American Girl Doll (FIG 8) and Monster High Doll brands. American Girl dolls portray more realistic-looking bodies, making them relatable to young girls; Monster High Dolls, though designed with a shape similar to Barbie, encourage girls to embrace their flaws and the features that make them different. Both brands take a more positive step to challenge the long-lasting standards Barbie has set for the industry, which can account for parents of young girls buying these types of toys instead of Barbie. “I never had a Barbie growing up,” said a friend as I discussed this topic with her. “My mom didn’t think it was a realistic depiction of a woman. She would tell me that a life-sized Barbie doll couldn’t exist without a lot of problems, and wanted me to play with more appropriate looking toys.”35

FIG 8: An American Girl Doll from Mattel currently for sale. In its way, the doll takes a more positive step towards a diverse but beautiful body image in young women.

Expert Opinions Experts in the realms of toy production and psychol-

was never designed to be realistic. She was designed

ogy have presented dissenting opinions on this issue,

for girls to easily dress and undress,” says Culmone

and one of them comes from Dr. Leslie Slim, a child

in a 2014 interview with Fast Company, a magazine

psychologist of Mayo Clinic, one of the world’s most

focusing on design and innovation aspects of the

noted hospitals. In a 2014 interview by USA Today,

business world.37 Though Mattel designed her body

Slim presented the idea that a mother holds more

for technical purposes, it has since grown into bigger,

power over their daughter’s body image than Barbie

psychological issues. But Culmone goes on to discuss

or other media ever could. “Even if a mom says to

this: “You have to remember that girl’s perceptions are

the daughter, ‘You look so beautiful, but I’m so fat,’

so different than grown up’s perceptions about what

it can be detrimental,” says Slim, who further sug-

is real and what isn’t, and what the influences are.”

gests mothers cease communication concerning body

I believe this difference is a challenge we currently

issues, as children will learn and listen intently.

face in our call for change. In order to move forward,

Also coming to Barbie’s defense is Kim Culmone,

we must improve the bridge between children and

Vice President of Design at Mattel. “Barbie’s body

adults, guiding them to more realistic perceptions.

Barbie’s New Bodies Seeing Mattel support Barbie’s proportions, it appeared

As progressive as this move was, the article also points

the iconic doll was not headed for the change that so

out certain setbacks and challenges that came with

many demanded. Earlier this year, however, the company

Mattel’s "Barbie-shift" that I think bear further consid-

revealed a new line of products in an exclusive TIME

eration. Firstly, Barbie’s original form has always been

Magazine article, "Barbie’s Got a New Body," with the

one of, if not the defining characteristic that made her

goal to calm the waters of the toy’s opposition, thereby

an icon in the toy industry. Changing that aspect of

boosting its sales from the recent plummets. Project

the toy could forever change her image to young girls,

Dawn, as it was called, started when the design team

but perhaps not in the way Mattel was hoping for. A

began thinking of ways to turn Barbie into, “a reflection

mother, who took her daughter to see Barbie and Santa

of the times.” They made alterations to the toy’s face and

Claus at a tree-lighting ceremony, expressed these

body, which resulted in three new variations to the origi-

same concerns during one of the project’s initial focus

nal doll, categorized as "curvy," "tall," and "petite" (FIG 9).

groups. “If a black woman or a redheaded woman or

Mattel also released a new line of clothing, accessories,

a heavyset woman had shown up, my daughter would

hairstyles, and skin tone options to accompany the new

have been like, ‘Where’s Barbie?’” It’s easy to imagine

body measurements. “The company hopes that the new

older girls and women to jump on board with this

dolls […] will more closely reflect their young owners’

new change in Barbie’s appearance, as they probably

world,” the article states. I find this statement particularly

understand the importance of it. Girls of a younger

intriguing, when only recently did Culmone, a top-

age, however, will be the ones to play with the doll. If

level employee behind Barbie’s design, defend the toy’s

the previous portrayals of Barbie ingrained in children

preceding looks during the Fast Company interview. Did

cause them to reject the new version, Mattel’s venture

Mattel’s Vice President of Design actually support Barbie’s

could be for naught. In addition, some consider this

unrealistic figure at the time? Was it a distraction in order

to be a small step to what could be done further. “I

to keep Project Dawn under wraps until it was ready

wish that she were curvier,” says another woman in the

for the public? Regardless, it seems the company finally

article. These viewpoints bring interesting thoughts to

started to see the flaws in Barbie’s perfect body that many

the table as I continue with my exploration, looking for

others already noticed.

an innovative solution.

FIG 9: The newly released Barbie dolls designed with varying body types. From left to right: "Petite," "Curvy," and "Tall" Barbie.

G.I. JOE and the birth of action figures

FIG 10: The original 1964 G.I Joes, representing the different branches of the United States Military. From left to right: Action Soldier (U.S. Army), Action Marine (U.S. Marine Corps), Action Sailor (U.S. Navy), and Action Pilot (U.S. Air Force).

Shortly after Barbie dolls found their way into the hands

G.I. Joe was received by the public with great approval,

of girls, another change in the industry occurred that

and became one of Hasbro’s biggest assets to date.

had an equally strong effect on boys. Until this point,

FundingUniverse, an online archive containing thou-

dolls were exclusively targeted for females, which

sands of company profiles, states that, “In it’s first two

left the marketplace something to be desired from a

years, G.I. Joe brought in between $35 and $40 million

male-perspective. Hasbro, another multinational titan of

and accounted for nearly two-thirds of the company’s

the industry, noticed this gap and developed the concept

total sales.”40 Although this new toy was designed solely

of Government Issue Joe (abbreviated to G.I. Joe) in

for boys, Hasbro developed marketing strategies similar

1964. The problem, however, was that most boys didn’t

to those that made Barbie such a hit among girls. One

play with dolls during this time, says Sharon M. Scott,

of these successful strategies was what is commonly

author of Toys and American Culture: An Encyclopedia.

referred to as “razor-razor blade,” where the purchase

“Hasbro was actively seeking a boys toy that could

and owning of one product would eventually lead

equal the success Barbie was having in the girl’s mar-

to purchasing expensive accompanying ones. Barbie

ket.” They coined the phrase, “action figure” when

accomplished this with great ease, being a fashion doll,

referring to Joe as a way to shape its image as more mas-

where clothing plays a big part of the sales. Hasbro

culine and appropriate for play. Hasbro’s descriptor for

mimicked this concept by releasing accessories for Joes

their new product would later open the door to a field

representing different branches of the United States

of toys in the industry. This phrase continues to be used

Military (FIG 10). They also took a page from Mattel’s

today for describing any doll meant for boys.

book, and had given the plastic figure the body of an

adult instead of a child. Now boys, alongside girls, had an outlet where they can imagine themselves in different scenarios through play.

G.I Joe’s original body design didn’t match Barbie’s,

on the toy store shelf with many other action figures. The

however. I am not referring to the obvious gender dif-

franchise now had cartoons and comic books portraying

ferences or size of each toy, but rather the proportions.

these same characters in heroic situations, further driv-

Unlike Barbie, the first wave of Joes didn’t have sculpted

ing it’s sales up. Joe’s body also emerged with noticeable

bodies or exaggerated features. They, instead, looked

changes during this time. From head to toe, the muscles

like average military men. This was synonymous with

adorning his body had increased, both by size and defi-

the brand’s ‘everyman’ image that Hasbro was clearly

nition. Since Joe’s re-launching, his body has grown to

aiming to sell, which aided in the initial success of the

such proportions that the figures being produced today

toy. Its success didn’t last, however, and G.I. Joe was

bare no resemblance to the originals on the shelves over

discontinued by the late 1960’s due to the anti-war land-

50 years ago (FIG 11). Other media outlets have contin-

scape in America during the Vietnam War. Hasbro began

ued to support these changes through portrayals of these

production again in 1982, and Joe found his place back

same characters in comics, cartoons, and feature films.

1964

2016

FIG 11: A physique comparison of the original G.I Joe (left) and a current figure available for purchase today (right).

FIG 12: A set of over-exaggerated bodies on the action figures of Batman and Superman at a local Toys R' Us store.

Plastic Muscles on the Rise The growing trend in over-muscular action figures did not end with G.I. Joe. Instead, this toy’s popularity provided the opportunity for other brands to apply these same changes to their products (FIG 12). Harrison G. Pope, Jr., a current psychiatry professor at Harvard Medical School, examined this trend through other action figures and their relationship with American trends in his 1998 research study, "Evolving Ideals of Male Body Image as Seen Through Action Toys."2 In addition to G.I. Joe, Pope examined the designs of other action figures over the span of 30 years, comparing body measurements over time. “Many modern figures display the physiques of advanced bodybuilders and some display levels of muscularity far exceeding the outer limits of actual human attainment,” says Pope. Although these impossible portrayals of men are not lost on most adults, children do not make the same distinctions as to what is real or not when they’re playing with their favorite toy. In addition to their strength or superhuman powers, this notion gives these characters another innate skill: the ability to send signals to children that these physiques are cool, popular, and attainable. This leads to harmful internal looks on how they view their own bodies by comparison, and an insatiable need to fix them by any means necessary.

Case Studies

I have discussed my proposed problem in its context with interesting facts and figures, but it is equally vital to look at what is being done now. Although I consider this topic both interesting and important, I am definitely not the first to have these thoughts. This has been a problem for a long time, and there are those who have already devised their own solutions. With this in mind, one of the most important aspects of my exploration has been to look at current projects relating to my thesis. The following case studies include projects both directly relating to the design of toys and body image in different mediums. However different each study may be, they have all provided great takeaways for me to consider and integrate into my own design solution.

Lammily Doll to Counter the Barbie Image

The Idea My first case study focuses on the emergence of the

Nickolay Lamm, an American graphic artist, noticed this

Lammily doll (FIG 13), as I consider this toy a strong

void as well. “I remember walking around Target, shop-

representation of what this thesis is about. It was

ping for a doll for my niece, and saw a ton of Barbie

designed to challenge ideas of beauty that its popu-

dolls,” said Lamm during an interview I conducted.41

lar predecessors still communicate. The Barbie doll’s

“I was also aware of the news surrounding the negative

success could be traced back to Ruth Handler, who

effects that skinny dolls have on kids.” His personal

noticed that there was no other toy like her on the

revelations were backed by a 2012 data report he found,

market at the time. Barbie’s physical features were a

published by The Centers for Disease Control, which

monumental factor that helped her stand out from her

included the average body proportions of women over

competitors. And while she was considered some-

19 years old.42 He took this data to Adobe Photoshop,

thing new and different during her early years, she has

and developed a 3-D rendering of what the ever-popular

grown to be a current staple in toy chests everywhere.

Barbie would look like with these measurements (FIG

It is now commonplace to see Barbie being purchased

14). The result was a figure, dubbed “normal Barbie”

alongside other toys following her example, sporting

by media outlets, with a body type resembling a more

similar features. With all of these unrealistic body types

realistic woman, making the original Barbie’s extreme

populating store shelves today, the industry now finds

measurements more apparent when standing side-by-

itself with a new void; encountering fashion dolls with

side. Lamm’s rendering gained such positive reception

more relatable physiques is proving near impossible.

that he decided to take his work to the next level and

create an actual version of it. In an email to TODAY. com, the website of an American news and talk show, Lamm wrote, “If average-looking Barbie looks this good, and if there’s even a chance of Barbie influencing young girls, why not make one?”43

FIG 13: The first-edition Lammily doll, complete with bendable joints and toned down clothing.

FIG 14: Barbie (left) next to Lammâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s 3-D rendering of the doll with body proportions provided by the Centers for Disease Control (right).

67 tion Lammily dolls, which were ready for distribution by November of 2014, a month away from one of the biggest shopping seasons of the year. Once he delivered the first set to the public backers who helped fund the project, they became available for purchase

The Design Process Lamm’s initial hurdle, however, was to gain the financial support to create this doll. In 2014, he opened a public campaign through CrowdtiltOpen, an online crowdfunding tool, having faith that people would stand behind the idea of an appropriately proportioned toy available for children. His theory proved to be correct; carrying the tagline, “average is beautiful,” the campaign exceeded its $95,000 goal with a total of $501,000.44 With successful funding achieved, Lamm was ready to give shape to his creation.

online, in addition to a handful of stores throughout New Jersey, as seen on Lammily's website.46 The public immediately noticed visible differences from Barbie when the initial dolls were released. The Independent article provided some of the earlier critiques of the product, describing her clothing and makeup as more “toned down”45. Her design also exceeded Barbie’s in terms of movement; Lammily had been built with movable joints at the elbows, feet, and other points of the body, enhancing the flexibility of the toy and promoting the idea of increased activity. Lamm further extended the doll’s reach to his target audience

Lamm had the assistance of many manufacturers

through numerous online advertisements. In this con-

throughout the doll’s production, but it was the ironic

text, viewers could actually witness Lammily rejecting

inclusion of Robert Rambeau, Mattel’s former Vice

the “Barbie” standards of beauty, and enjoying herself

President of Manufacturing, that elevated the devel-

“as she is.” These advertisements helped give her a

opment process, according to The Independent, a

more relatable tone.47

British National newspaper.45 With Lammily’s primary goal to promote a healthier body image by countering standards Barbie has set, Lamm now had a former backer of the fantasized fashion doll in his corner. Rambeau provided his knowledge and experience through numerous consultations, assisting Lamm in getting in touch with the proper people for the work required. With his help, Lamm finished the first-edi-

Lamm introduced accessories into the equation as Lammily increased in popularity. These accessories, however, were not the types commonly produced by other toy companies, such as cars or purses. Instead, he released a set of stickers consisting of scars, freckles, and other organic-looking marks that children could add to the doll. His reasoning for these additions was to boost the notion that children should welcome their differences, because in reality, everyone has them. “If a doll has these things, it shows that it’s okay for girls to have them. It’s cool and natural,” said Lamm during my interview.41

A Kids Critique By this point, Lamm had a massive amount of support

considered her to have a “perfect size” by comparison.

from the public, but all of the current opinions to the

When the moderator asked, “Which one would you like

Lammily doll were primarily from adults. He wanted a

to receive as a present?” Barbie frequently found herself

first-hand look at how children responded to her. Shortly

dropped to the side as each child expressed the desire to

after the doll’s release, he took some to an independent

add Lammily to their toy collection (FIG 15).

preschool academy in Pittsburgh, where second-grade students discussed the toy through interviews while he recorded them.48 The students instantly began physically exploring Lammily’s features, stroking her lifelike hair and bending her joints, and took to her quickly. “She’s really unique,” and “she looks like my sister” were just a few of the overwhelmingly positive responses the toy received. The children were then asked to compare Lammily to a Barbie doll placed on the table before them. Each student noticed Lammily’s wider frame, but

But it wasn’t solely the female students that were drawn to the doll’s design. “Once the boy dolls get out, I’ll probably play with them a lot,” one male student stated during his interview. Watching the boys favoring Lammily over Barbie demonstrates that these toys, though geared towards girls, can have lasting effects on either gender. Messages are also sent to males through a dolls shape about what a woman’s body is supposed to look like, making a young boy’s perspective an import-

FIG 15: A student during Lamm's interview experiencing the Lammily doll for the first time, favoring it over a Barbie doll.

ant consideration while they are designed. This idea was

Lamm used actual body measurements in his 3-D

not lost on Lamm either as I discussed this thought with

rendering of Barbie during the initial stages of this

him. In addition to releasing versions of the doll in the

project. I believe this was a direct contribution to the

future with different body shapes and ethnicities, Lamm

praise this rendering received. Using data provided by

revealed his current plans to begin production of a male

the Centers for Disease Control not only gave the final

counterpart to Lammily.

product a sense of legitimacy, but helped viewers per-

sonally relate to a figure with real representations.

My Takeaways

I think that the distribution and availability of the doll

The information provided from this case study has

could have been improved upon. Although Lammily’s

proven invaluable to my research. From Nickolay

website provides the easiest way to purchase her, she

Lamm’s ideas that created the Lammily doll to its

should have a stronger presence in actual retail out-

astounding success, I have taken away key points, which

lets. This way, Lammily, and dolls like her, would gain

I will consider moving forward:

more exposure to children and parents alike walking

The way toys are designed physically can strongly influence a child’s perceptions about body types in reality. In order to steer children from fantasized standards of

into these stores, thereby increasing its chance of being purchased. Further investigation from a distribution standpoint would be needed here to develop a solution.

beauty that can develop, an alternative toy is needed to

Lamm’s interviews on children reacting to Lammily

represent a healthier viewpoint.

proved informative, but could use more sound statistics.

Children are surprisingly open to the current shift in their toys’ physical appearance, and welcome representations of a more realistic body image. We are constantly hearing the opinions of adults surrounding this subject, but it is easy to forget that children have their own thoughts on a toy’s physique that must be considered when designing them.

More scientific research and studies should be implemented to determine if kids actually want to play with this type of toy, or if they are attracted to it simply because it is new. If this type of research revealed a “lasting” effect on children’s play, it would help Lamm determine if the doll would be able to stand the test of time.

A Positive Exposure on Beauty

FIG 16: One of Rick Guidotti’s photographs of Christine, featured in LIFE magazine’s article, Redefining Beauty.

The following case study examines a project using photography to emulate a wider range of what is, and should be, considered beautiful among children. Many kids today continue to strive for a sense of normalcy concerning their appearance due to the vast amount of visuals out there, setting narrow standards of what being beautiful really means. The ones born with significant physical differences, however, have a tendency to see themselves as deformed or “less than,” letting their self-image plummet because they stand out from others. Reaching young minds with the idea that physical diversities should be embraced instead of shunned is an important one that we must continue to stress early. Visuals highlighting these children in a more positive light have the potential of improving attitudes towards people with attributes that wouldn’t be considered attractive by certain standards currently in place.

A Photographer & Albinism This idea is precisely what New York fashion photog-

this before,” Guidotti continues to say during his TED talk.

rapher Rick Guidotti began focusing his energy on.

Enthralled what he saw, he walked over to the Barnes and

Throughout his impressive career, he has traveled to the

Noble bookstore and immersed himself with textbooks

fashion capitals of the world and utilized his skills for

and journals about the condition.

clients such as Yves Saint Laurent, GQ, and other brands monopolizing the industry. Guidotti slowly began to feel trapped in his work, however. As a former student at the School of Visual Arts in New York City, he strived to see beauty everywhere he looked, but was hindered by the types of subjects he was hired to photograph. “I was always told, every single day, who was beautiful,” expressed Guidotti on his past frustrations during a Technology, Entertainment, and Design (TED) conference in 2011. “I was forced to work within certain parameters of the beauty standard.”49 In 1997, however, he had a chance encounter that forever changed who would be standing at the end of his camera. He was leaving his studio in Manhattan after a long day of shooting when he came across a young woman with albinism, a genetic disorder defined by the lack of pigment in the skin, eyes, and hair. “She was stunning, and I had never met a model like

The visuals that accompanied these books, though, disturbed him greatly. Instead of photographs similar to what he had just seen outside, he found images portraying people with albinism in a dehumanizing light, emphasizing the condition instead of the person. “These were images of diseases. These were not images of people,” said Guidotti in an interview for Flickr, an online image sharing and management application.50 Looking to change public perception on how the world looks at people with albinism to how he saw it, he contacted the National Organization for Albinism and Hypopigmentation (NOAH) with the desire to photograph children with the condition. With a long history of magazine articles surrounding this topic teetering on the boundaries of shame and exploitation, the organization was initially hesitant in assisting Guidotti with his

endeavor. Eventually, though, the photographer’s vision

services, including photo shoots, self-esteem work-

won them over. With their help, he landed a photo

shops, and lectures, all designed to change our soci-

session with a young teenager named Christine. During

ety’s ways of thinking about people with differences.

the shoot, he noticed that Christine’s confidence in her

“With 1 out of 5 children in the world being born with

beauty significantly improved as he utilized the same

a disability,” according to the organization's web-

techniques he used on high profile fashion models. The

site, “the need for society to understand and respect

final images from this project landed in the pages of LIFE

children and adults living with genetic, physical, and

Magazine in 1998, representing Christine and her albi-

behavioral differences is critical.”51

nism as a positive epitome of diverse beauty (FIG 16).

Embracing What's Different

A recent expansion of Positive Exposure was the program, The Pearls Project, which provides students and teachers with the chance to learn about people

The success and acclaim the photo shoot gained gave

living with such differences. The organization website

Guidotti the opportunity to make a major change in

provides an in-depth look at the process: after expe-

his career; he left the world of fashion photography

riencing a photo exhibition about a specific child,

to focus all of his attention on snapping his camera

the viewer is then introduced to a live online blog,

for children with not only albinism, but all kinds of

where the subject discusses his/her life in a safe space

genetic conditions. That same year, he founded Positive

overseen by the parent organization. The project is cur-

Exposure, with the defining goal of using visual arts to

rently being utilized in schools and museums (FIG 17),

“celebrate the richness and beauty of human diversity.”

helping more people learn to see beyond a person’s

The New York based organization offers a variety of

disability and help foster a greater sense of inclusivity.

FIG 17: A Positive Exposure exhibit at the Art Academy of Cincinnati, an example of the organizationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s extensive reach to kids in public learning environments.

My Takeaways This case study holds many important elements that will

The study targets both adults and children in changing

aid me in my thesis. This provided a different view on

their attitudes. From the standpoint of children, I believe

promoting a positive body image in children outside the

it is important that these ideas become ingrained in their

realm of toys. The underlying goal of altering perception

minds while they are still impressionable, as it will teach

on a large scale is what I strive to achieve here. This study

them about appreciating everyoneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s differences early on.

successfully enlightens people, including myself, to focus

Adults benefit from this, as well. Guidotti proves that,

on embracing ones physical attributes instead of develop-

no matter the age, it is never too late to learn to respect

ing shame from them. There are some elements through-

yourself and one another.

out this study that bear further investigation:

Can this study be applied to toys? In this context, a

The use of visual communication in a positive context

genetic condition was highlighted and the result was

has proven to be a powerful tool in altering attitudes

well received. It seems somewhat far-fetched to me that

and behavior. The images Guidotti first encountered

children would respond positively to dolls or action

about albinism were shockingly harsh and cold, but

figures adorning similar conditions or disabilities. My

those same people photographed in a light of accep-

reason for this skepticism is the current exposure to all

tance changed the way theyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;re viewed by the public.

the other existing media outlets supporting the opposite, narrow-minded idea of a conformed perfection. On the other hand, this study is reminiscent Mattelâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Monster High Dolls that I discussed earlier. Each figure had genetic differences that fit inside the context of the characters and overall narrative of the franchise. In order for these alterations on toys to work, I believe a particular context is needed to help nudge children to welcome the physical differences.

The Anti-Disney Princess

FIG 18: The original illustration of Merida, protagonist of the Disney film, Brave (left), compared to the rendering newly redesigned with the aid of Pixar Animation (right).

This case study has provided a look at another form of

Many people who saw what kind of messages this

media to examine that’s currently working to improve

redesign would send to their kids rejected the new

the way bodies are represented. Most of these toys I

change. The following month, a petition surfaced on

have discussed thus far come to children with spe-

Change.org, which currently has over 260,000 sup-

cific character descriptions and back-stories. The gap

porters demanding the return of the original Merida.

between toys and other forms of media (print, animated

The petition states, “by making her skinnier, sexier

movies, etc.) is a small one. The problem, however, is

and more mature in appearance, you are sending a

that these characters are depicted in the same damaging

message to girls that the original, realistic, teenage-ap-

way in those mediums as their toy counterparts. This

pearing version of Merida is inferior; that for girls and

provides additional methods for unhealthy representa-

women to have value – to be recognized as true prin-

tions to reach children, which show little signs of disap-

cesses – they must conform to a narrow definition of

pearing. In 2013, for example, Disney redesigned one

beauty.”52 I think this is an important example of how

of its princesses, Merida of the animated film, Brave,

parents and adults play a pivotal role in how children

released the previous year (FIG 18). Some of the appar-

are represented, and are calling for a change.

ent changes included a slimmer figure and a substantial amount of makeup that was not previously there. She no longer looked like a real girl, but adopted the appearance of unrealistic women who came before her.

The Guardian Princesses Setsu Shigematsu is one such woman looking to lend

The physical features of these animated women

a hand in this image-revolution. A mother and media

represented not only a diverse group of different

and communications professor at the University of

ethnicities, but also a wider range of body sizes not

California, Riverside, she became a strong advocate

commonly seen in most Disney princesses. “We shift

in fighting the hold the “princess culture” has on our

away from a focus on external beauty and promote

country’s youth, including her own daughter. Looking

a healthy self-esteem based on the development of

to put a positive spin on these illustrated women, she

children’s talents,” reads the mission statement on the

decided to write her own princess story for her daugh-

website.53 It’s worth noting, however, that some fea-

ter’s 5th birthday party. The new protagonists were of

tures remain similar to depictions that came before,

a group of diverse women dedicated to protecting

including big eyes and luscious hair. Shigematsu

the world with their magical powers. The response

wanted to keep these small elements present because

that her work received from adults and children at

she understood that completely denying children

the party was so positive that Shigematsu decided to

from something only aids in building their fascination

create a series of books centered on these characters.

with it. So, rather than cutting her daughter off from

In 2013, she took her idea to the public on the crowd-

Disney princesses, she decided to transform them in

funding campaign website, Indegogo, requesting help

particular ways.53 I believe that this was a smart move

to springboard this venture into fruition.53 Setting a

because it’s a type of change that affects children’s

goal of $9,500, she managed to raise over $12,000

perceptions of beauty, but succeeds more subtly.

and was ready to publish. She enlisted artists and

If every little feature was altered to counter popu-

graphic designers who agreed to work pro-bono to

lar standards, children might not take to it as well

help with the project. Dubbed The Guardian Princess

because these new visuals would show no similarities

Alliance, the first set of books (FIG 19) were available

to what they currently are interested in.

for purchase in 2014, and are still available today on the company website.54

My Takeaways Reviewing this case study, I look at this project as a

Similar to past studies performed comparing toys, I feel

great example of the impact different media plat-

one implemented in this context should be utilized. If

forms have on the way children interpret beauty.

Shigematsu were to perform a scientific study, which

The way Shigematsu took these potentially harmful

included a side-by-side comparison of the Guardian

notions embedded in popular Disney characters, and

Princesses to physical portrayals in previous childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s

morphed them into something positive, is a great

books, the research performed here would provide a

inspiration to me which I will implement in my future

more accurate reading to what children currently prefer.

experiments. I feel that this study gives me key factors that I need to consider as I continue:

Can this study be applied to toys? These new interpretations of beauty were created two-dimensionally on

Parents and adults support this revolutionary change in

pieces of paper, but I believe that a three-dimensional

beauty standards. The reactions the Guardian Princesses

figure can evoke completely different experiences and

got from adults, from its initial release to the crowdfund-

sensations in children. Without printed text or dialogue

ing campaign, were just as important as those from chil-

leading their story along, toys provide the opportunity

dren. Since adults are the primary consumers, they have a

for children to let their imagination take over. They can

say in what their child is exposed to and plays with.

freely make judgments on the characterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s supposed

When change is forced on a child, or becomes too much, success is unlikely. If children are turned off to the final solution and refuse to interact with it, it hinders its ability to set these positive notions into their heads. Itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s unfortunate that children idolize these current standards, but what they like needs to be considered moving forward. In light of this, I must tackle this challenge delicately in order to effectively alter these perceptions.

personality based on its appearance.

FIG 19: Illustrations of Shigematsuâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Guardian Princesses. Above: the different princesses of the series. Right: cover artwork for one of the books currently for sale on the website.

Testing

Up until now, my thesis exploration has been purely focused on research, studies, and design-related solutions performed in the past. With all of this valuable information at my disposal, however, itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s now time for me to start looking toward the future. The real meat of my work will now start with executing my original proposal for solving the now clear problem between these types of toys and the psychological effect they have on children. I would like to begin this phase of my thesis by diving into my original proposal: implementing an application for children to create their own personalized toy, while encouraging a more positive self-image.

I started my experimentation phase by taking my orig-

Following this step, the user will then begin to build

inal idea and running with it. Toybuilder, the applica-

and accessorize his/her custom figurine with a variety of

tion prototype I created, is designed to do simply that:

clothes, hats, and body marks to make the final product

build toys. The key to this application, however, is the

more personable. Once the building is complete, the

image-scanning feature meant to promote a more posi-

user will be able to print out their creation through a

tive self-image in how children view themselves. Once

connected 3-D printer. The goal here is for the child to

an image of the user is submitted, the application will

enjoy playing with a toy that looks like them. I believe

trace his/her body contours and develop set outlines.

that the more self-esteem that comes from this interaction

These dimensions created from the image are the one

will counter the negative effects that previous toys have

element set in stone during the toy making process and

manifested so well in the past.

cannot be adjusted by the user. A girl wouldnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t be able to give herself more voluptuous curves; a boy canâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t put on rippling muscles that arenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t there.

Homepage

The user starts by taking a full-body photo for the application to create outlines from.

The application detects the contours of the body and creates outlines used as the fixed base during the toy-creating process.

The toy-building pages. Each category on the navigation bar opens a menu of options to decorate your figure with.

From the "SHARE" button, you can show your newly created toy on social media with images and comments.

Once the "FINISH" button is selected, he/she can digitally print the toy with a connected 3-D printer.

My Takeaways From a purely experimental standpoint, designing this

A narrative would help make the app, and the toy that

application was a success. I was able to finally start to

comes out of it, more approachable. As I think about

give my initial solution a form and see how efficient its

all the popular toys that are out there now, almost all

practicality would be in the real world. This is where the

of them have some sort of backstory that gives them

success of this application ends, unfortunately. Looking

something to aid in a child’s play. Whether it’s a fashion

at it now, I can clearly see some large flaws within that

icon, professional wrestler, or a superhero from another

I either missed or never considered while creating it. I

planet, these bits of information guide a child’s imagina-

have taken away key factors from this prototype based

tion, and make the toys more relatable.

on my personal conclusions, as well as feedback from friends, colleagues, and children themselves:

There are some technical concerns that need to be worked out. How the doll is printed, for instance, is a

This app doesn’t appear to be appealing to children.

question that needs to be answered here. My original

While creating Toybuilder, I was mainly thinking about

thought was to have this application link to a personal

it in terms of how it would work, navigating through

3-D printer where the rendering would come to life.

the app, etc. I did not, ironically enough, take into

These printers, however, are not very common. Another

account the child’s potential reaction to it. Essentially,

form of distribution would most likely be required.

this does not look like something a child would ever want to play and experiment with. Looking at other applications geared towards children that are out there, my creation didn’t resemble any that I came across. As I stated earlier in this thesis, this needs to be something that a child wants. After watching how my niece quickly stopped paying attention as I tried to play this with her, it clearly isn’t.

Designing for a child’s use is more productive than designing for the parents. Yes, adults are the one’s who voice their concerns about this problem more than children do. With that notion, wouldn’t it be easier to simply design an application for parents so they can make appropriate toys for their kids? My idea when creating this was for children to make their own choices while being subtly guided in the right direction. I believe, this way, a more positive self-image will likely remain because they are making their own choices.

Design & Conclusion

What will the landscape of toy production look like in the future? Will it continue to relay a certain standard of beauty, or will the growing trends of a more realistic and positive self-image be reflected in these plastic bodies? I find myself asking these questions and more as I dive into my capstone project and reflect on the work Iâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ve done throughout this thesis.

Design Project I have examined an extensive amount of studies and

Toy Assembly. The signature experience in the toy-mak-

solutions already set in motion to tackle this problem,

ing process, this is composed of the child selecting raw

including my own experimentation. Within each, I have

pieces of a toy (head, torso, arms, legs, etc.) that the

taken away aspects that work, as well as those that were

store will assemble. Each category will contain a fine

lacking. The main goal that all of these projects share,

array of ethnicities to cater universally to customers. In

however, is to increase the number of proportionately

addition all the pieces will be catered to the standard

appropriate toy choices for children. I now believe the

1:6 and 1:4 scale ratios that most plastic figures are

notion of having more choices is the key to keep us on

being built today. These standard sizes ensure that the

the right track. There are so many different brands of dolls

shop can work effectively without getting bombarded

and action figures on the shelves of toy stores today, but

with sizes that are too broad to handle. The shop,

they all share the same impersonal characteristics. My

however, should be able to handle custom sizes for an

project will center on effectively implementing a childâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s

additional charge.

choice when it comes to creating his/her own toy.

The most important part of this aspect, I find, are the

With this in mind, I have created The Beautoy Shop (FIG

proportions of each body part. These will reflect more

20), a physical space where parents and children can

realistic proportions. In addition to the "average" cat-

walk in and become part of the process of making a per-

egory options, there will also be those that are wider,

sonalized toy to take home and call their own. This way,

skinnier, and more muscular. These additional catego-

a child can create a toy that resembles them. The result

ries may seem like a step backward in relation to my

will be a toy they can relate to, which can help boost

thesis, but there is reasoning behind it: As comfortable

their own self-image. The store will have different facets

as children may be with themselves, they may still

and elements that make it unique (FIG 21).

try to reach for somewhat idealized features that they pick up from other media outlets, as discussed earlier.

FIG 20: A concept photograph of the front of the store.

Instead, I want to work in a more positive parallel with

ous steps including assembling the pieces together and

what children are already exposed to. Again, if there

adorning the toy with special features. Joints will be

is too much change involved, children will most likely

added in order to create maximum flexibility, ensur-

not respond well to it, and the shop would be a failure.

ing the child gets maximum play out of the finished

With this in mind, some toy physiques may have a

product. My idea is that the workshop will be sepa-

slight curve in the hip or a touch of definition in the

rated from the store by a large glass window. This way,

arm, but on a much more realistic scale.

customers can to watch the toy making process happen

Special Customization. In addition to the many options that The Beautoy Shop offers, a child may want to add some of physical features on the toy, like a scar or freckles, to personalize it. I want to encourage this by

while in the store, further pushing the idea of making it a real experience. The average time for assembly of the doll would be an average two hours, with any special demands taking as long as several days.

adding a customized photo room. Photographs of spe-

Accessory Selection. Once the toy assembly is com-

cial features will be taken and used as a reference in the

pleted in the workshop, the child can bring it to the final

assembly process. This could include simple painting on

stage of production in the accessory area. Here, the

a particular part of the toy, or a larger redesign outside

child can let his/her imagination fly while he/she dresses

of the existing choices.

the toy or adorns it with a wide range of accessories. It

The Workshop. This is where the assembly of the selected pieces takes place. The workshop is a large room where the toy building will be performed by employees and designers. This process entails numer-

is important that none of the clothing offered would be considered revealing, skimpy, or anything else inappropriate for a child to play with.

Average Figure Sizes

18" 1:4 Scale

12" 1:6 Scale

Figure Skin Tones

#FEDCB6

#E9C3AC

#FBC3AB

#7A5937

Small

Medium

Large

Female torso options for toy assembly

Small

Medium

Large

Male torso options for toy assembly

100

101

102

Small

Medium

Large

Arm options (above) and leg options (right) for toy assembly

103

Small

Medium

Large

Unlike the torso options, these parts can be applied to both male and female figures.

104

105

106

Example female figures

107

Example male figures

Thesis Reflections Simply put, children will always want toys. They have always been, and will continue to be, a staple in a child’s life. They will attach themselves to any item that stimulates their mind and opens up their imagination. Acknowledging these facts, toy manufacturers continue to push out flashy, attractive dolls and action figures for youngsters to have fun with. The emphasis on a toy’s physical features is very important, as they need to appeal to children in order to sell. No matter what the future of the toy industry holds, this will always remain true. Beyond being fashionable or super-strong, toys like these have another ability: they shape a child’s mind to understanding what the popular landscape of beauty looks like. The more plastic bodies emulating a type of perfection that we send a child’s way, the more he/ she will pick up the message, “people are supposed to look like that.” Without a more positive and realistic view on beautiful bodies, children will hold onto these messages. As the child grows, their toys may not stick around, but the values they taught will, which makes them just as potentially damaging as they are fun.

109

From the start of my thesis, I didnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t take this knowledge

final result and the feedback it received, I realized that

with the hopes of countering children playing with these

my hypothesis was not as practical as I thought. I was

types of toys, as that would be virtually impossible.

trying to force a quick fix to this problem, which I now

Instead, I dove into this with the hope of getting children

realize would not work. Furthermore, I was thinking

to start looking at what they consider to be attractive

about this from the point of the problem, not that of the

physical traits in their favorite playthings. As evidenced

child. Would kids take to this? Is this something that

by my research, I believe redesigning these toys is cru-

adults and parents can be a part of as well? These are

cial to shaping minds in a more positive way, as they are

important questions that I did not ask myself at first,

some of the first items that a child will attach to.

but now hold in the back of my mind and inspired my

Thankfully, others are seeing the need for change as

capstone project, The Beautoy Shop.

well, and there have been recent steps in the industry

Reflecting back on the store I designed, there are still

reflecting it. Although these steps are good, theyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;re rea-

some specific production questions that would need

sonably small ones. Looking at these changes, they seem

to be addressed once the store is up-and-running. For

to be somewhat timid to me, unwilling to push it further

now, as a theoretical solution, I believe the store is a

out of fear of negative sales or failure.

very strong step that represents the social change that

My original hypothesis was rooted in practicality; I began this thesis thinking that there needed to be a way to develop an actual system to solve the problem of negative self-image that toys like these can bring. This thinking brought me to my prototype, Toybuilder, during my development phase. Looking back on the

is happening within the landscape of toys for children. Customers will enter the store with a variety of ways to create body-appropriate products. It is the hope that, with all of these options, children will be more likely to relate to these toys because they represent the way they look better than other options out there. This will help further propel us into a new age in which children will develop a more positive view on their physical self through the toys on their shelves.

110

Citations 1. Halliwell, Emma; Ditmar, Helga; Ive, Suzanne. “Does Barbie Make Girls Want to be Thin? The Effect of Experimental Exposure to Images of Dolls on the Body-Image of 5-to 8-Year-Old Girls.” Developmental Psychology 42.2 (2006): 283-292. Web. <http://www.willettsurvey.org/TMSTN/Gender/ DoesBarbieMakeGirlsWantToBeThin.pdf> 2. Pope Jr., Harrison G; Olivardia, Roberto; Gruber, Amanda; Borowiecki, John. “Evolving Ideals of Male Body Image as Seen Through Action Toys.” International Journal of Eating Disorders 26.1 (1999): 65-72. Web. < http:// citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.507.3004&rep=rep1&type=pdf> 3. Schwartz, Marlene B., Vartanian, Lenny R., Nosek, Brian A., and Brownell, Kelly D. “The Influence of One’s Own Body Weight on Implicit and Explicit Anti-fat Bias.” Obesity 14.3 (2006): 440-447. Print. 4. Brewis, Alexandra A.; Wutich, Amber; FallettaCowden,Ashlan; Rodriguez-Soto, Isa. “Body Norms and Fat Stigma in Global Perspective.” Current Anthropology 52,2 (April 2011), pp. 269-276. Print. 5. Brading, Katherine and Castellani, Elena. “Symmetry and Symmetry Breaking.” The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2013 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). Web. <http://plato.stanford. edu/archives/spr2013/entries/symmetry-breaking> 6. Thornhill, Randy and Gangestad, Steven W. “Human Fluctuating Asymmetry and Sexual Behavior.” Psychological Science 5.5 (1994): 297302. Print.

7. Beck, Alex John. Both Sides Of. 2013. Web. http:// alexjohnbeck.com/project/bothsidesof_versions. 8. AIDS.gov. “Symptoms of HIV.” Last revised: 27, Aug. 2015. Web. <https://www.aids.gov/ hiv-aids-basics/hiv-aids-101/signs-and-symptoms/> 9. Popenoe, Rebecca. Feeding Desire: Fatness, Beauty, and Sexuality among a Saharan People. London; New York, NY: Routledge, 2004. Print. 10. Hillman, Carolynn. Love Your Looks: How to Stop Criticizing and Start Appreciating your Appearance. New York: Touchstone, 1996. Print. 11. Joh H-K, Oh J, Lee H-J, and Kawachi I. “Gender and Socioeconomic Status in Relation to Weight Perception and Weight Control Behavior in Korean Adults.” Obesity Facts 6.1 (2013): 17-27. Print. 12. Superdrug. Perceptions of Perfection Across Borders. 2015. Web. <https://onlinedoctor. superdrug.com/perceptions-of-perfection/> AND < https://onlinedoctor.superdrug.com/ perceptions-of-perfection-part-ii-men/> 13. National Health Service. “Anorexia nervosa Diagnosis.” Last Revised: 16, Apr. 2014. Web. <http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Anorexia-nervosa/ Pages/Diagnosis.aspx> 14. Rochat, Phillipe. “Five Levels of Self-Awarness as They Unfold Early in Life.” Consciousness and Cognition 12.4 (2003): 717-731. Web. <http:// www.psychology.emory.edu/cognition/rochat/lab/ fivelevels.pdf>

111

15. Heron-Delaney, M.; Quinn, P.; Lee, K.; Slater, A.; Pascalis, O. “Nine-Month-Old Infants Prefer Unattractive Bodies Over Attractive Bodies.” Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 115.1 (2013): 30-41. Web. <http://www.kangleelab.com/articles/ AttractiveBodies.pdf>

21. Rosen, David. “Clinical Report–Identification and Managment of Eating Disorders in Children and Adolescents.” The American Academy of Pediatrics (2010). Web. <http://pediatrics.aappublications. org/content/early/2010/11/29/peds.2010-2821.full. pdf+html>

16. Rideout, Victoria; Canderwater, Elizabeth; Wartella, Ellen. “Zero to Six: Electronic Media in the Lives of Infants, Toddlers, and Preschoolers.” The Henry J. Kaiser Foundation. Menlo Park, CA 2003. Web. <https://kaiserfamilyfoundation.files. wordpress.com/2013/01/zero-to-six-electronicmedia-in-the-lives-of-infants-toddlers-and-preschoolers-pdf.pdf>

22. Drummond, Murray and Drummond, Claire. “It’s All About the Six-Pack: Boys’ Bodies in Contemporary Western Culture.” Journal of Child Healthcare (2014). Print.

17. Gaston, Corinne. “Study Finds Avergae Age That Children Get Cellphones is Six Years Old.” Editorial. Opposing Views. 1, Dec: 2015. Print. 18. Nelson, Timothy D.; Jensen, Chad D.; Steele, Ric G. “Weight-Related Criticism and Self-Perceptions Among Preadolescents.” Journal of Pediatric Psychology 36.1 (2011): 106-115. Web. <http:// jpepsy.oxfordjournals.org/content/36/1/106.full. pdf+html>

23. Blashill, Aaron J. “A Dual Pathway Model of Steroid Use Among Adolescent Boys: Results From a Nationally Representative Sample.” Psychology of Men and Masculinity 15.2 (2014): 229-233. Web. <http://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/releases/mena0032914.pdf> 24. Sicart, Miguel. Play Matters. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2014. Print. 25. Townsend, Allie. “All-TIME 100 Greatest Toys.” Editorial. TIME Magazine. 16, Feb 2011. Web. < http://content.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2049243_2048646,00.html>

19. Hill, Andew. Title N/A. European Congress on Obesity (2013). Liverpool, UK. Conference.

26. National Museum of Play. Raggedy Ann. Web. < http://www.museumofplay.org/on line-collections/2/7 /97.604>

20. Lowes, Jancita and Tiggerman, Marika. “Body Dissatisfaction, Dieting Awareness and the Impact of Parental Influence in Young Children.” British Journal of Health Psychology 8.2 (2003): 135-147. Print.

27. McDonough, Yona Zeldis. The Barbie Chronicles: A Living Doll Turns Forty. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster, 1999. Print.

112

28. Turkel, Ann Ruth. “All About Barbie: Distortions of a Transitional Object.” Journal of the American Academy of Psychoanalysis 26.1 (1998): 165. Print. 29. Allen, Kathy Grannis and Reynolds Treacy. “Barbie Dethroned in NRF’s Top Toys Survey as Disney’s Frozen Takes the Crown.” Online Survey. National Retail Federation. 24, Nov 2014. Web. < https://nrf. com/media/press-releases/barbie-dethroned-nrfstop-toys-survey-disneys-frozen-takes-the-crown> 30. Waxman, Olivia B. “The 13 Most Influential Toys of All Time.” Editorial. TIME Magazine. 29, Oct 2014. Web. < http://time.com/3089384/influential-toys/> 31. Gerber, Robin. Barbie and Ruth: The Story of the World’s Most Famous Doll and the Woman who Created Her. New York, NY: Collins Business, 2009. Web. < https://books.google.com/books?id=YyJBC0vBbtYC&prints ec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_ summary _r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false> 32. Kershaw, Sarah. “Ruth Handler, Whose Barbie Gave Dolls Curve, Dies at 85.” News article. The New York Times. 29, Apr 2002. Web. < http://www. nytimes.com/2002/04/29/arts/ruth-handler-whosebarbie-gave-dolls-curves-dies-at-85.html> 33. Rehabs.com. “Dying to be Barbie: Eating Disorders in Pursuit of the Impossible.” 2013. Web. < http:// www.rehabs.com/explore/dying-to-be-barbie/#. Vl_i1oQY2fQ>

34. Investor Relations. “Mattel Reports Fourth Quarter and Full Year Financial Results.” 30, Jan 2015. Web. < http://investor.shareholder.com/mattel/releasedetail.cfm?ReleaseID=893785> 35. Kalra, Raji. Personal Interview. 31, Oct 2015. 36. Hunsinger, Dana. “Experts: Mom has Biggest Impact on Girl’s Body Image.” News article. USA Today. 23, Aug 2013. Web. < http://www.usatoday. com/story/news/nation/2013/08/23/moms- daughters-influence-body-image/269 0921/> 37. Wilson, Mark. “Barbie’s Lead Designer Defends Barbie’s Crazy Proportions.” Online Interview. Fast Company. 17, Feb 2014. Web. < http://www. fastcodesign.com/3025620/barbies-lead-designer-defends-barbies-crazy-pr oportions> 38. Dockterman, Eliana. “Barbie’s Got a New Body.” Editorial. TIME Magazine. N.p., 28, January 2016. Web. < http://time.com/ barbie-new-body-cover-story/> 39. Scott, Sharon M. Toys and American Culture: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood, 2010. Print. 40. FundingUniverse. “Hasbro, Inc. History.” Web. < http://www.fundinguniverse.com/ company-histories/hasbro-inc-history/> 41. “Nickolay Lamm and the Lammily Doll.” E-mail Interview. 2 Nov. 2015.

113

42. Fryar, C.D., Gu, Q., and Ogden, C.L. (2012). “Anthropometric Reference Data for Children and Adults: United States, 2007-2010.” National Center for Health Statistics 11.252 (2012): 55. Web. <http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/series/ sr_11/sr11_252.pdf> 43. Stump, Scott. “Normal Barbie Uses Real Women’s Measurements.” Editorial. Today News. N.p., 3 July 2013. Web. <http://www.today.com/news/ normal-barbie-uses-real-womens-measurements-6C10533511> 44. Stampler, Laura. “The New Barbie: Meet the Doll with an Average Woman’s Proportions.” Editorial. TIME Magazine. N.p., 5 March 2014. Web. <http://time.com/12786/ the-new-barbie-meet-thedoll-with-an-average-womans-proportions>

48. Second Graders React to Lammily. Dir. Nickolay Lamm. Lammily.com, 2014. Web. <http://lammily. com/second-graders-react-lammily-vs-barbie> 49. Guidotti, Rick. “From Stigma to Supermodel.” TEDxPHX. Phoenix, AZ. November, 2011. Keynote Presentation. Web. < https://www.ted.com/talks/ rick_guidotti_from_stigma_to_supermodel> 50. Fritzsche, Ryan. “Fashion Photographer’s Life Changed by Chance Encounter.” Web blog post. Flickr. 10 Jul. 2015. Web <http://blog. flickr.net/en/2015/07/10/fashion-photographers-life-changed-by-chance-encounter> 51. Positive Exposure organization homepage. Web. <http://positiveexposure.org>

45. Gander, Kashmira. “Lammily: Barbie-like doll hits Kickstarter fundraising target in a day.” Editorial. The Independent. N.p., 6 March 2014. Web. <http://www.independent.co.uk/news/lammily-barbie-like-doll-reaches-kickstarter-fundraising-targetin-a-day-9174034.html.>

52. A Mighty Girl (organization). “Disney: Say No to the Merida Makeover, Keep Our Hero Brave!” Petitiion. Change.org (2013). Web. <https://www. change.org/p/disney-say-no-to-the-merida-makeover-keep-our-hero-brave >

46. Lammily.com. Store and Distributor Locator. Web. < http://lammily.com/store-locator/>

53. Indegogo. “The Guardian Princess.” (2013). Web. < https://www.indiegogo.com/projects/the-guardian-princess es#>

47. #DoYou - Lammily Goes to the Beach! Dir. Nickolay Lamm. Lammily.com, 2015. Web. <https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=tK5lRSD3Br4.>

54. GuardianPrincesses.com. “ Why We Need the GP.” (2013). Web. <http://guardianprincesses.com>

114

Photo Credits FIG 1: Beck, Alex John. Both Sides Of. 2013. alexjohnbeck.com. Web. <http://alexjohnbeck.com/project/ bothsidesof_versions/>. FIG 2: Perceptions of Perfection Across Borders. 2015 / Perceptions of Perfection Part II: Men. 2016. Superdrug. onlinedoctor.superdrug.com. Web. < https://onlinedoctor.superdrug.com/perceptions-of-perfection/> / <https://onlinedoctor.superdrug.com/ perceptions-of-perfection-part-ii-men/> FIG 3: Hill, Andrew. Alfie. 2013. leeds.ac.uk. Web. <https://www.leeds.ac.uk/news/article/3398/young_children_appear_to_reject_story_characters_who_are_ obese>. FIG 4: Raggedy Ann Doll. The Strong, National Museum of Play. Rochester, NY. Museumofplay.org. Web. FIG 5: Bild Lilli. 2013. Live Auctioneers. New York, NY. liveauctioneers.com. Web. < https://www.liveauctioneers.com/item/16916478_bild-lilli-predecessorof-the-barbie-doll-29-cm-or> / Pizello, Chris. Original Barbie Doll. newsok.com. Web. <http://newsok.com/ article/3353637>

FIG 6: Bild Lilli comic strip excerpts. circ. 1952. zenzo. de. Web. < http://zenzo.de/homepage/cartoons.html> FIG 7: Dying to be Barbie: Eating Disorders in Pursuit of the Impossible. 2013. Rehabs.com. Web. < http:// www.rehabs.com/explore/dying-to-be-barbie/#. VuRCOcd__dk> FIG 8: Kit doll. American Girl Doll. americangirl. com. Web. <http://www.americangirl.com/shop/kit/ kit-doll-paperback-book-bkd73> FIG 9: Aoki, Kenji. New Barbies. 2016. TIME Magazine. Print. FIG 10: Original G.I. Joes. 2014. The Smithsonian: Air & Space. airandspacemag. Web. < http:// www.airspacemag.com/daily-planet/ guys-and-dolls-gi-joe-turns-50-180949667/> FIG 11: G.I. Joe Action Soldier. 2011. Mears Pop Culture Auctions. Web. < http://popculture.mearsonlineauctions. com/lot-54959.aspx> / G.I. Joe Retaliation Roadbock Figure. Hasbro. hasbro.com. Web. < http://www.hasbro. com/en-us/product/g-i-joe-retaliation-roadblock-figure:C0D58242-5056-900B-10F8-C9A3C3464CC9>

115

FIG 12: Batman and Superman action figures. Personal photograph by author. 2016. FIG 13: Lamm, Nickolay. Lammily Doll. 2014. nickolaylamm.com. Web. FIG 14: Lamm, Nickolay. Barbie 3D rendering. Today News. today.com. Web. < http://www.today.com/ news/normal-barbie-uses-real-womens-measurements-6C10533511> FIG 15: Screenshot from video interview. Lamm, Nickolay. 2014. Lammily.com. Web. <http://lammily. com/second-graders-react-lammily-vs-barbie> FIG 16: Christine photoshoot. Guidotti, Rick. 1998. Flickr. blog.flickr.net. Web. < http://blog. flickr.net/en/2015/07/10/fashion-photographers-life-changed-by-chance-encounter/> FIG 17: Positive Exposure Exhibition. Guidotti, Rick. 2014. Art Academy of Cincinnati. Cincinnati, OH. artacademy.edu. Web. <http://www.artacademy.edu/exhibitions/2014/positive-exposure/positive-exposure.php>. FIG 18: Merida design comparision. 2013. Change.org. Web. < https://www.change.org/p/disney-say-no-to-themerida-makeover-keep-our-hero-brave> FIG 19: Shigmatsu, Setsu. Guardian Princesses cover art. 2013. guardianprincesses.com. Web. FIG 20: Concept store. Personal photograph by author. 2016.