USYD Architecture 2021 | BDES3011 How Is Democracy Being Projected in Contemporary National Monument by Brian Yung

“How Is Democracy Being Projected in Contemporary National Monument?”

490031933

University of Sydney School of Architecture, Design & Planning May 2021

Fig 01\ National Assembly Building, Dhaka, Bangladesh1

Cemal, “Louis Kahn: National Parliament of Bangladesh”

“Architecture is the reaching out for the truth.” Louis I. Kahn

ABSTRACT

In this study, Jatiya Sangsad Bhaban or JSB, a parliamentary complex in Dhaka, designed by Louis Kahn is analysed upon the realisation of democracy under the framework of “Monument”. This analysis mainly lies in my understanding of the architectonics of the complex, however, Kahn’s philosophy also plays a significant role in its success, his opinion on the absence of stylisation and hermeneutics determines the soul of this extraordinary architecture, and it needs our attention to the impact it has on the more specific and practical aspect of democracy or, in my words, the cultural liberation. The monumental components are also examined under a few sub-consequent themes to consolidate the argument that the JSB is a democratic monument, for example, materiality, form, and context to the idea of “nature”; scale and light to the idea of “sublime” and “machine”. In the fabric of these qualities, there may be some conflicts, yet they do co-exist. The interrelationships of regionalism and universalism, separation and participation are also discussed as they show the coherence with the political status of Bangladesh. The tensions in these relationships respond to the “significance” of a national monument and democracy. -

BACKGROUND

Louis Kahn was invited by his student, who was originally commissioned for the task, to lead the project of a new parliamentary complex, Jatiya Sangsad Bhaban, for the capital of then East Pakistan, now Bangladesh.2 There were numerous programs in the preliminary design, such as the athletic and aquatic centres, the art school, the science institute, and the hospital. They had never been realised, only the assembly chamber and the residences of legislators and ministers were brought into reality. The complex took 23 years for its completion (1966-1983), the construction was once halted due to floods, warfare, and political turmoil in the 1970s. Kahn, as the chief designer of the project, never got to witness the completion of his last masterpiece. When the complex was completed, it was no longer one of the two parliaments in the former Pakistans. It became a national symbol of a freshly independent republic, as well as being one of the poorest countries in the world.

Hubert, “Kahn’s epilogue: National Capital, Dacca, Bangladesh”, 1

MONUMENT

"Monument" is a derivative of monere which means to bring someone’s recollection of the past to the present and to recall; of men which embodies the senses of measuring, manifestation and remaining. From men, mon or min, there are terms constructed of or related to those senses, like reminiscence, eminence, and demonstration, etc.3 In most circumstances, since the 16th century, "monument" has been to serve the purpose of reminiscence, commemoration and tribute. A monument usually remarks the history 4 and the context within it often appears to be frozen in a certain era. In many cases, the historical value is the significance of the monument. However, it is the significance itself that matters to a monument, not the history. The quality to remain is, perhaps, a vehicle that connects the future and the present with the past. So, we should clarify two things that make a monument monumental. The first question, what is the significance that it should last? The second question, what is the media that brings in the essence so that it makes the significance durable and obvious? A monument does not need to respond to history to become a monument because it becomes historical as it decays.

Materiality

Kahn had been an expert and experimentalist in the concrete study. Instead of a finely rendered exterior wall, Kahn decided to leave the concrete exposed, and the walls were inlaid with white marble bands. Kahn did not look for the “perfection” of craftmanship because he never believed in it. Kahn believed that beauty emerges from selection and integration. To him, being true and attached to the material was important because the material “tells” us what it wanted to be. “Every building must have... its own soul.” Kahn

The authenticity of material reveals its true potential. Kahn “liberated” the NATURE of material by exposing it. The presence of its solidity, tension and weight is revealed and released through the exposed texture and colour palette. They emerge with lines, forms, and landscape. The bold and unnatural concrete protrudes itself from the natural scenery while the red brick clusters, which are more earthy compared to the concrete, fit into the hazy and muddy landscape extremely well. The concrete surface starts to get weathered and scarred by the nature at the same time. The tensions and conflicts are undisturbed and keep developing the context under its given autonomy. The beauty of balance emerges when the true quality gets to prove itself with that autonomy and time. This resonates with the greatest significance of the building: democracy. The building was claimed to symbolise democracy and the new life after decolonisation. The coherence with democracy was achieved by the instrumental effects from the raw and bold material, instead of perfect polish. Moreover, it is worth questioning whether the material also reflected the decolonised identity of Bangladesh, other than the originality of the material itself.

Fig 02\ National Assembly Building, Dhaka, Bangladesh5

Tawa, “Week 8: Monument”.

Carpo, “The Postmodern Cult of Monuments”, 52.

The use of red brick in the residences was undoubtfully a straightforward way to respond to the local environment that it was a relatively prevalent, mature, and easy-to-source 5

Cemal, “Louis Kahn: National Parliament of Bangladesh”

construction material in South Asia. Some believed Kahn, as a foreign architect, was attempting to show respect to the local custom through his obsession with red brick which I believe he did. However, this claim cannot go further and to be justified as “an act to help decolonise Bangladesh”. As we look retrospectively onto the colonial architectures across the former Indian Empire, we may realise that there had been precedents long before Kahn did the same thing which was to integrate local material into the building. Adapting to the local environment was not the same as decolonisation.

undaunted to create forms that were unfit for the general taste of that time. Perhaps, the way Kahn explored form and geometries liberated himself from conforming to standards and justification. It helped him see from a wider angle while he was “desubjectified”.

The Bangladeshi climate and the availability of construction material were the main issues before the construction. Therefore, I believed the source of material at the JSB does not form a part of the narrative of the project. It would be inappropriate to claim that the adaptation to local custom equals to signifying the full liberation from the colonial impact. To be more accurate, the material itself simply strengthens the identity of Bangladesh subtly but it does not wash away its colonial past which may also be unnecessary. What I believe Kahn had done in this project is the process of unravelling architecture. He fragmented the pre-existed framework (in the western understanding) of a parliament building. Contradictions, that were seen from the use of marble and concrete; concrete and bricks, were essential to the buildings in Dhaka, and Kahn had taken it into account.6 Perhaps, creating contradictions was the key mission that helped reflect Bangladeshi identity, free from the western framework. Kahn consistently worked in the same manner when he was dealing with forms and arrangement, to achieve the tension among components.

Fig 03\ Kahn’s iterative drawings

In his iterative drawings, he slowly explored the potentials to distort forms from the undefined apertures in the grids and tangents. While the finalised plan looked symmetrical, it was never fully symmetrical as we investigated the detail. The rectangles on respective ends never actually aligned on the axes. This left room for the dynamic expression of forms, and it defined the virtual territories within the loosely enclosed space with light, or hollow columns as he called.

Kahn opted for a more globally legible language, which was geometry, and the Bangladeshi have an innate attachment to geometry. The pure and elaborate forms broke the limit between cultures. Kahn had always been irrational in the process of making. He was

Kahn devoted himself to metaphysics. As he played with pure forms and geometries, the undefined quality would eventually reveal its character in the final form of the complex. However, he never justified his way of playing with symmetries because he believed that they needed to be open to interpretation. 7 Unlike many architects, he preferred the absence of poetic representation in his works. Poetic expression was indeed unreliable, especially as a foreign architect in a foreign project. Variations in understanding the architecture are

Form

Gast, “Louis I. Kahn: The Idea of Order”, 102

the global language that ties Bangladesh with the modern world even when contradictions exist. This global language was not created for the sake of a uniform hermeneutics, but it was established for the people from different backgrounds to feel connected by the same thing albeit the image we perceive might vary. The avoidance of concrete hermeneutics was important to prevent cultural appropriation. The complex is constructed by rectangles, circles and triangles, or cubes, cylinders, and prisms. Other than the plain white surface, nothing can be simpler than the above forms. Its unornamented appearance has been accepted by the local, and they are also stunning enough to arouse our imagination. The purity of forms works with our imagination and memory. It is the aura of the architecture: Cultural Paradox. For many Bangladeshi, the complex may remind them more of the Bengali vernacular ingredients, such as the repetitive patterns on the pottery and handcrafts; for many westerners, they may connect their image 8 of the water castles in Germany and France with the water and the cylindrical towers in the complex. It is open to our imagination, and it is our freedom to feel differently. In this complex, the flexibility to accept all minds is more important than concrete semiotics. It is a vague image that counters the idea of western enlightenment where every detail needs to be justified with exact reasons.

He irrationally integrated the distorted geometries, the religious function, and the parliament that were significant to the fresh republic of East Pakistan. Because of the uniqueness of form and the absence of purposed stylisation,9 the complex works as a unique and autonomous entity that is flexible enough for the Bangladeshi to freely characterise their chamber of politics. Kahn created this room of autonomy and the Bangladeshi builds up their own identity with this power of autonomy. Identity follows autonomy. Otherwise, Bangladesh’s identity could hardly be represented without democracy and free will. The autonomy of form is significant in the JSB. Moreover, democracy is more than being autonomous, it relies on something more specific, such as citizenship and national desire. Democracy exists because a nation needs progress, and people have opinions on how to move onward. People have the desire to express their opinions because they feel belonged to society. It is worth our attention on how the complex constructs the bond between the elites and people, the sense of citizenship, and the sense of autonomy.

Instead of forcefully implanting the western vision of politics, it is more appropriate to leave some room for the locals to complete the narrative of the architecture. With more autonomy given to the Bangladeshi, it is easier to introduce democracy as a new localised paradigm in this country. The complex holds the remnants from western democracy and transcends it into Bangladesh. The fragmented idea of a new parliament penetrates the boundary of cultures, neither is it modernist or regionalist, it is an independent system that has its way of presentation.

Fig 04\ Plan of Jatiya Sangsad Bhaban10

8 9

Botz-Bornstein, “Transcultural Architecture: The Limits and Opportunities of Critical Regionalism”, 103

Institution & Machine

Kahn, “The Louis I. Kahn Archive: Personal Drawings: The Completely Illustrated Catalogue of the Drawings in the Louis I. Kahn Collection”

The JSB is anchored north and south, the central oval space which houses the chamber is technically an independent hub that is separated from the peripheral figures by sheltered airspace. The oval figure is compressed by the 4 distinctive boxes at the corners of the diagonal square whilst the oval seems to have the radiating force against them. It expands and is also retained. The tension is extremely clear in the plan. As the oval figure is mainly detached from the peripheral functions and they have no interlock, the oval space seems like an automaton that can spin itself, and it has the self-conscience to speak for itself and to escape from the limitation. 11 It is an intriguing and dramatic architectural language that expresses itself metaphorically although it was created from a metaphysical process of making. The oval figure expresses the autonomy and ambitions that need the order to reach its justice, equality, and balance. The tension between the oval and rectangular occurs on the tangents where they interact. These tangents are the function links that connect the peripheral space and the oval space. 12 From the section, the autonomy of each concrete blocks is very clear. However, we can only grasp the bond between units in the realised complex as they linked together as a whole by the figurative geometric order.13 Although the peripheral space is not technically the exterior, it is the defensive membrane that protects the sacred oval chamber, and it operates as a buffer zone between the outer world and the indoor functions. The rectangular container (the peripheral space) contrasts with the oval space whilst their existence is vital to each other. The tension expresses the balance of power, one cannot fully override the other. This competitive relationship is crucial to the sustainability of democracy.

Fig 05\ National Assembly Building, Dhaka, Bangladesh14

Fig 06\ Macro Plan of Sher-e Bangla Nagar, Dhaka, Bangladesh

The JSB is the symbol of a democratic beginning, it is the monument that witnessed and remarks the establishment of Bangladesh. Apart from the tectonics of geometries and functions, there are apparatuses, which some were realised, and some were rejected, that manipulate people’s mentality and complete the integrity of democracy.

The JSB is a massive administrative district divided by a lake. Two precincts are bridged by the national assembly building. The two precincts can be understood as the realms for the elites, which are the ministers and the officials, and the realm for the citizens. The national assembly houses the senators and the representatives and becomes the media between the public and the public servants. The national assembly building is a transcending process from popularism to elitism. This transcending process is also where both extremes get pulled in and work together to strike the balance for

Gast, “Louis I. Kahn: The Idea of Order”, 108

Scully, “Louis I. Kahn”, 22

Gast, “Louis I. Kahn: The Idea of Order”, 106

Cemal, “Louis Kahn: National Parliament of Bangladesh”

good. Order and social participation are made possible and present by parliamentary democracy. The communication with form and orientation makes the presence of democracy more apparent and tangible. In the original plan, the national assembly is the centre of the district and it expands outwards with a complete and autonomous community. The complex was planned to include many other programmes, such as educational institutes, aquatic facilities, libraries, etc, which have never been realised. However, in Kahn’s ambition of the “citadel of assembly”15 , as he called it, it was a demonstrative model for the modern and prosperous Bangladesh. It was a direct manifestation of national desire as he was told to design. Unfortunately, it was a mission impossible to be fully realised by the East Pakistani government due to the astronomical cost. Moreover, starting from that point, Kahn might have unnoticedly shifted back to his western point of view of a prosperous nation. To then East Pakistan, this ambition might be out of reach and unrealistic. Perhaps, what prosperity meant to the Bangladeshi was simpler and more basic. In the micro plan, as mentioned above, the national assembly building is a transcending process. Kahn decided to place a mosque at the forefront of the complex. 16 The mosque is slightly tilted and faces Mecca. It projects a new connection with a place invisible from its horizon. It weaves a network that resonates with the mosques around the globe. Remarkably, it shows the prime reason for the establishment of Bangladesh: religion. Every visitor must walk past the mosque to enter the national assembly. This gesture is monumental in that it reminds whoever tries to be a part of the establishment to respect the religion. The journey starts with the religion and it ends with the religion. For the majority in Bangladesh, religion is the common ground and a vital link that connects the people with parliament. It seems to carry a message that the parliament belongs to the citizens of Bangladesh.

Fig 07\ Interior of The National Assembly Building, Dhaka, Bangladesh

The call for respect is everywhere to be seen in the complex. The “hollow columns” are among the most significant features in the building. “Hollow column” is not entirely physical. The shell of the building is the column itself and it is hollowed and opened with apertures. The control of light is the main purpose of these columns. Light from the outside is cut by the wall openings, and sharp glare is introduced into the air space. Light forms a space within a space. The projection from the boundary of the opening defines these soft-bordered domains. The border is intangible, but it is measurable by the unmeasurable quality (light). It is a magical relationship: to have by not have, as well as an illusional experience yet one can feel its existence through contrast, warmth, and movement. It physically interacts with the body and changes people’s path. People may enjoy being shone by the glare, but more would avoid it. Light may also affect our emotion, historically we often see light as a sacred symbol, we may be awed by it so that we respect and worship. Hence, people in Bangladesh may have developed their attitude toward the parliament, which is different from Westminster. Perhaps,

Gast, “Louis I. Kahn: The Idea of Order”, 99

the peaceful and solemn environment shapes the image of the Bangladeshi democracy: mild and sacred.

Conclusion

As a contemporary monument, it is not necessary to describe a story of triumph. However, its significance should remain after decades or centuries. Autonomy, connections, contradictions, and ambitions are the few significance of the complex. The residents in Dhaka are proud of having the JSB as their national symbol, and the JSB becomes a successful example that has a great impact on Dhaka’s architecture. The exchange of pride and experience is robust evidence of the connection between the people and the monument. The JSB means significantly to the people of Bangladesh every day in many aspects. As a hub of democracy, to a certain extent, it represents the benefits of the whole nation. The national assembly is a monument that reminds the people of Bangladesh of their rights and social status in a democracy through the architectonics and connection to the physical society.

ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY | THEORY III

ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

University of Sydney School of Architecture, Design & Planning

Ahmed, Nazimuddin, Kazi Khaleed Ashraf, Saiful Haque, Shamim Ara Hassan, Abu H. Imamuddin, Muzharul Islam, Süha Özkan, and Debashir Sarkar. Exploring Architecture in Islamic Cultures 2: Regionalism in Architecture. Singapore: Concept Media, 1985. The authors and participants in the seminars share their views upon the diverse spectrum of Regionalism embodied in many Islamic architectures, both the traditional and the contemporary. It slightly touches regionalism claimed to have been manifest in the JSB in terms of materiality and response to Dhaka’s climate condition. Arguably, it may clash with Botz-Bornstein’s claim that he speaks in terms of linguistic representation (metaphorical concept). It is questionable that the essence of vernacular architectures is used as a vehicle to tie the locals’ sentiment with the architecture, or it is used as an inspiration for the form-design process. The prime existence of the mosque at the entrance may be a starting point for the investigation of regionalism in a contemporary national monument. It prompts us to consider the possibility that Kahn’s monumental design becomes a part of the culture through his unique and pioneering architectonics – the design affects and invents the culture, instead of the other way round. This helps with the further study of the interrelationship between monument and culture.

Botz-Bornstein, Thorsten. Transcultural Architecture: The Limits and Opportunities of Critical Regionalism. New York: Routledge, 2016. Taylor & Francis. Botz-Bornstein discusses the “cultural” character that Kahn’s Bangladeshi parliamentary complex (Jatiya Sangsad Bhaban / JSB) appears variably to people with local and foreign cultural backgrounds. The question of the need for metaphorical or semiotic representation in architecture prompts us to reconsider the pure nature of architecture, monumentality, and democracy. He highlights that Kahn’s design does not expand logically and linearly. Kahn values the absence of fixed style and ideology, as well as his faith in the pure and culturally shared aesthetics from form, and the loyalty and autonomy that are given to space. It enables Kahn to overcome universalism and regionalism 17 at once by simply avoiding stylisation based on metaphors and cultural implantation, neither local nor foreign. He argues that Kahn’s internationalist miracle is achieved by metaphysics for its purity and the exclusion of a concrete definition of culture so that the architecture consisting of forms and natural elements is legible to all nationalities. This article demonstrates the link between human and architecture, the attachment between emotion and context, and the paradox of cultures. His analysis offers a new perspective and framework for examining the possibilities of cultural paradoxes in a national monument in response to the idea of enlightenment and nature in architecture.

Boullée, Etienne-Louis. Architecture, Essay on Art. Translated by Sheila de Vallée. London: Academy Editions and Helen Rosenau, 1976. Boullée presents his study and practice in monumental architecture, mainly through the ideas of order, constitution, and sublimity. His argument for and kinship to the poetry, sublimity and sanctity of monument intrigue us that we may revise the significance of monument in different contexts, and reconsider the need for the ambience of heroism and supremacy, instead of metaphysical significance. He argues that a “national palace” should incorporate poetry for the most expressive representation of a nation.18 It is worth questioning that how a foreign archetype of monument fits into the local context peacefully to introduce democracy, with the idea of being “true” and “authentic”. With a large number of references to the ancient archetypes of monumental architectures, his argument is prone to the generic and conventional ideas of monumentality. This article provides room for counter-argument on the redefinition or variations of "monument". 17 Botz-Bornstein, “Transcultural Architecture: The Limits and Opportunities of Critical Regionalism”, 103 18 Boullée, “Architecture, Essay on Art”, 99

Carpo, Mario. The Postmodern Cult of Monuments. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, vol.4 no.2 (Winter 2007): 50-60.

De Bleeckere, Sylvain. Style and Architecture in a Democratic Perspective. Philadelphia: Architectural Research Centres Consortium, vol.4 no.1 (2007). https://doi.org/10.17831/enq:arcc.v4i1.51 De Bleeckere studies the history of the realisation of democracy in architecture, critically evaluating the early models of democratic space from ancient Rome to early modern America19, and that brings in the question of the democratic consciousness in contemporary architecture. The expression of democracy in architecture evolves through time and depends on the social context20, for example to what extent and in what scope freedom is being realised. Democracy in the 20th century often links to decolonisation and liberation from white supremacy, and Bangladesh is involved. The formation of Bangladeshi democracy differs from that of the American, and Kahn, as an American from Philadelphia, is responsible for the establishment and promotion of a new political construct and a new paradigm to the Bengali. It prompts us to consider the problem of cultural appropriation that may have occurred during the design process of the monument of a freshly decolonized nation. The discussion of democracy in architecture provides a critical aspect of rethinking the idea of monument and enlightenment.

Hubert, Bruno J. Kahn’s epilogue: National Capital, Dacca, Bangladesh. New York: Penton Media, 1984. Gale. Hubert describes Kahn’s vision on JSB and the authority’s desires for the new identity, social and technological advance, and cultural integrity. 21 Though there are differences between Kahn and the Bangladesh authority on its significance as a national monument, the contradictions exist in harmony and their visions slowly become inclusive and incorporated. He mentions the intriguing phenomenon that Kahn creates a realm of his own. Kahn’s design has a vague link to Bengali indigenous culture nor has it to modernism. The complex itself is a prototype of its kind and thus becomes a new component of Bangladeshi culture for its latter influence in Dhaka. 22 This also resembles the character of independence as a newborn nation. It lets us reconsider the need for cultural coherence or invention as a monument depending on the background. Hubert demonstrates the spectrum of "monument" upon functionality from reminiscence to invention of culture, from passive to active. His analysis is a starting point for the investigation of how the JSB operates as a national monument.

19 De Bleeckere , “Style and Architecture in a Democratic Perspective”, 15 20 De Bleeckere , “Style and Architecture in a Democratic Perspective”, 16-18 21 Hubert, “Kahn’s epilogue: National Capital, Dacca, Bangladesh”, 2 22 Hubert, “Kahn’s epilogue: National Capital, Dacca, Bangladesh”, 2

Rykwert, Joseph. Louis Kahn. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 2001. Rykwert describes the composition of the complex on a macro scale concerning the tectonic division of Sher-e-Bangla Nagar. The study of the institution of the complex raises the question of how and to what extent democracy is being realised. The question pushes us forward to the relationship of monumentality and democracy, to the argument of whether monumentality has positive or negative effects on the advocacy of democracy, in other words, does it awe or draw people in? With clear diagrams, plans and section of the complex23, the article provides a comprehensive overview of the complex concerning the urban context and power division. It demonstrates the operation of politics in architecture and helps with understanding the network or order of the complex. The analysis will provide evidence for the evaluation of the democratic monument in the framework of “monument” and “sublime”.

Tawa, Michael. “Week 8: Monument”. Architectural History/ Theory 3. Class lecture at University of Sydney, Sydney. 5 May, 2021.

Scotto, Giulia. Bengal Stream: The Vibrant Architecture Scene of Bangladesh. Basel: S AM Swiss Architecture Museum, 2018. https://doiorg.ezproxy.library.sydney.edu.au/10.1525/jsah.2018.77.3.363 Scotto briefly describes the traditional and ongoing architectural movement in Bangladesh that responds to the local resource, climate, and topographic conditions. It also mentions the landscape of the delta changes during rainy seasons, the plain delta land is divided into fragments of islands. 24 The Bengali has a long tradition dealing with floods, harsh condition with water shapes their way of life, as well as their forms of architectures. Water is a significant part of the Bangladeshi landscape, and it is the link between Bengali aesthetics and nature whilst it erodes many local habitats in recent years. This article makes us think of how water shapes and manipulates people’s emotion. It provides a critical way of looking at the architectonics in JSB and its response to the physical environment with the idea of “machine”.

Scully, Vincent. Louis I. Kahn. New York: George Braziller, 1962. Scully studies chronically Kahn’s struggles and experiments with “order”, form, and space throughout career life, in the process design Kahn jumps in and out attempting to define spaces with classical elements and interrogating “order”25 in the sense of form. It helps in understanding the institution of JSB with the idea of “hollow column” which the column becomes the envelope of space and the apparatus for light manipulation rather than an ornamental feature in a space. Kahn insists that the glare cut by the wall openings adds an effect to space.26 It prompts us to consider whether the light quality contributes to the sacredness, monumentality, and definition of subspace from a humanistic or physical perspective. This article provides background information on Kahn’s preliminary belief in design, explaining the origin of form-design principles and the consequent effects that shape the JSB. It helps with the further analysis in the framework of “sublime” in the study.

23 Rykwert, “Louis Kahn”, 210-213 24 Scotto, “Bengal Stream: The Vibrant Architecture Scene of Bangladesh”, 365 25 Scully, “Louis I. Kahn”, 22 26 Scully, “Louis I. Kahn”, 36

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Gast, Klaus-Peter. Louis I. Kahn: The Idea of Order. Basel: Birkhäuser, 1998.

IMAGE BIBLIOGRAPHY

Aalam, Iqbal. National Assembly, Bangladesh. 2012. Image. 1454x1077. Flickr. https://www.flickr.com/photos/iqbalaalam/7857786118/in/photostream/.

Emden, Cemal. Louis Kahn: National Parliament of Bangladesh. 2018. Image. Divisare. https://divisare.com/projects/396431-louis-kahn-cemal-emden-national-parliament-of-bangladesh

Meriç, İrfan. National Assembly Building Plan. 2015. Image. Slideshare. https://pt.slideshare.net/irfanmeric/history-of-architecture-i-lesson-1-intro/2.

Kahn, Louis I. The Louis I. Kahn Archive: Personal Drawings: The Completely Illustrated Catalogue of the Drawings in the Louis I. Kahn Collection. New York: Garland. 1988.