1
Mississippi Gulf Coast Air Quality Assessment Introduction
3
Air Quality as it Relates to the Mississippi Gulf Coast
3
Air Pollutants Necessary for the Creation of Ground Level Ozone The Clean Air Act
6
State Implementation Plans
6
Meteorology and Topology of the Mississippi Gulf Coast
7
Health Effects
2
3
8
Environmental Effects
10
Mobile Sources
10
Land Use/Development Patterns
11
Stationary Sources
12
Indoor Air Quality
15
Indicators
16
Introduction This work is part of the Plan for Opportunity, being created under the auspices of the Consortium for a Sustainable Gulf Coast. It is funded in part by a grant from the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, Office of Sustainable Housing and Communities. The Constituency for a Sustainable Coast is dedicated to uniting the region’s elected officials, planning professionals and the public with a common vision for a sustainable coast through the Plan for Opportunity. The Plan for Opportunity will bring the three coastal counties and 11 municipalities together in a comprehensive regional planning process that aims to: •
Lower transportation and housing costs by creating better connections between where people live and work.
•
Develop in ways that value the natural environment, understanding that regional prosperity is dependent on our many environmental assets.
•
Improve air quality by making buildings more energy efficient and reducing vehicle miles traveled.
•
Create a broad range of employment and business opportunities by coordinating land-use, transportation and infrastructure planning.
•
Improve regional health by ensuring that all communities have access to fresh food, safe recreation, open space, medical care and clean air and water.
The planning process will be a broad-based effort, understanding that the success of the final plan rests on the extent of stakeholder input and decision making. The Plan for Opportunity is the key to strengthening the regional economy, improving quality of life for residents and creating a more sustainable regional future. As part of the planning process, the Constituency is actively preparing for a sustainable future for the air quality of the region. This air quality assessment is the first stage in the Consortium’s
efforts to envision more sustainable air quality for the Mississippi Gulf Coast. The Consortium has undertaken this study to better understand the many contributing factors that affect the region’s air quality. The region’s air quality is affected by a complex and wide variety of factors, such as mobile emissions, source emissions, climate and development patterns. This air quality assessment focuses on the health effects, environmental effects, mobile sources, point sources, indoor air quality and land use/ development patterns.
Air Quality as it Relates to the Mississippi Gulf Coast The health, environmental, and economic impacts of air pollution are significant. Each day, air pollution causes thousands of illnesses leading to lost days at work and school. In 2008, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) lowered the National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) for ground level ozone to 75 parts per billion (ppb). Based on the three year average of 2006-2008, three counties in Mississippi (DeSoto, Harrison and Jackson) were recommended to be declared in non-attainment. Currently, just DeSoto has been designated as not being in attainment but the Gulf Coast continues to be very close to not meeting the standard established by the EPA for ozone of 75 ppb. The State and EPA determine if a county is compliant with the Clean Air act using the three year average of ozone readings for the county, which is based on the annual forth highest daily maximum 8 hour concentration. This data is collected from a single monitor located in each county. The 2012 annual averages are as follows: Hancock County (67ppb), Harrison County (73ppb) and Jackson County (73ppb).
Air Pollutants Necessary for the Creation of Ground Level Ozone Hydrocarbons or Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) Chemical compounds that contain hydrogen and carbon. Most motor vehicles and engines are powered by hydrocarbon based fuels such as gasoline and diesel. Hydrocarbon pollution results when unburned or partially burned fuel is emitted from 3
Figure 1 Mississippi Gulf Coast Ozone Levels, 2002-2011
Source: Mississippi Department of Environmental Quality
the engine as exhaust, and also when fuel evaporates directly into the atmosphere. Hydrocarbons include many toxic compounds that cause cancer and other adverse health effects. Hydrocarbons also react with nitrogen oxides in the presence of sunlight to form ozone. Hydrocarbons, which may take the form of gases, tiny particles, or droplets, come from a great variety of industrial and natural processes. In typical urban areas, a very significant fraction comes from cars, buses, trucks, and non-road mobile sources such as construction vehicles and boats.1 Carbon Monoxide (CO)
4
A colorless, odorless gas that forms when carbon in fuel is not burned completely. Carbon monoxide is a component Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless gas that forms when carbon in fuel is not burned completely. It is a component of exhaust from motor vehicles and engines. Carbon monoxide emissions increase when conditions are poor for combustion; thus, the highest carbon monoxide levels tend to occur when the weather is very
cold or at high elevations where there is less oxygen in the air to burn the fuel.2 Nitrogen Oxides (NOX) A group of highly reactive gases that contain nitrogen and oxygen in varying amounts. Many of the nitrogen oxides are colorless and odorless. The common pollutant nitrogen dioxide (NO2) can often be seen combined with particles in the air as a reddish-brown layer over many urban areas. Nitrogen oxides are formed when the oxygen and nitrogen in the air react with each other during combustion. The formation of nitrogen oxides is favored by high temperatures and excess oxygen (more than is needed to burn the fuel). The primary sources of nitrogen oxides are motor vehicles, electric utilities, and other industrial, commercial, and residential sources that burn fuels.3
Figures 2 and 3 Ozone Precursor Emissions from Anthropogenic Sources
Source: Mississippi Department of Environmental Quality, 2009
Ozone (O3) Ozone is a gaseous molecule that contains three oxygen atoms (O3). Ozone can exist either high in the atmosphere, where it shields the Earth against harmful ultraviolet rays from the sun, or close to the ground, where it is the main component of smog. Anthropogenic ground-level ozone is a product of reactions involving hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides in the presence of sunlight. Ozone is a potent irritant that causes lung damage and a variety of respiratory problems. Motor vehicle exhaust and industrial emissions, gasoline vapors, and chemical solvents as well as natural sources emit NOx and VOC that help to form ozone. Sunlight and hot weather cause ground-level ozone to form in harmful concentrations in the air. As a result, it is known as a summertime air pollutant. Many urban areas tend to have high levels of ground level ozone, but even rural areas are also subject to increased ozone levels because wind carries ozone and pollutants that form it hundreds of miles away from their original sources.4 VOC + NOx + Sunlight = Ozone A NOx limited region is one where the concentration of ozone depends on the amount of NOx in the atmosphere. This
occurs when there is a lack of Nitrogen Dioxides thus inhibiting ozone titration when oxygen mixes with VOCs. In these regions, controlling NOx would reduce ozone concentrations. The Gulf Coast is a NOx limited region, meaning that controlling the amount of NOx emissions will reduce ground-level ozone concentrations. Because of the naturally high concentrations of VOCs (primarily from vegetation, marshes and bacteria) on the Gulf Coast, policies that control NOx are more likely to be implemented. Figures2 and 3 show the share of ozone causing emissions held by mobile, point and area sources. 65 percent of NOx emissions in the state of Mississippi come from mobile sources. Mobile sources include on-road vehicles, aircraft, trains, ships and barges, and other small engines such as lawn mowers, recreational boats and agricultural machinery. Point sources include chemical plants, refineries, electric utility plants and other industrial sites. Area sources are reported by category rather than an individual source. These include uses such as residential fuel combustion, solvent use (e.g., small surface coating operations), product storage and transport distribution (e.g., gasoline), light industrial/commercial sources, agriculture (e.g., feedlots, crop burning) and waste management (e.g., landfills). The current action plan being developed will consider measures 5
Table 1 Emissions Estimates Area
Rate
VMT
g to lbs
Daily Pollution
701,174 mi
.002203
4,325 lbs
5,004,202 mi
.002203
30,867 lbs
3,124,639 mi
.002203
19,274 lbs
701,174 mi
.002203
2,147 lbs
5,004,202 mi
.002203
15,323 lbs
3,124,639 mi
.002203
9,568 lbs
701,174 mi
.002203
32,283 lbs
5,004,202 mi
.002203
230,406 lbs
3,124,639 mi
.002203
143,866 lbs
Hydrocarbons Hancock County Urban Area Harrison County Urban Area
2.80 g/mi
Jackson County Urban Area Nitrogen Oxide (NOx) Hancock County Urban Area Harrison County Urban Area
1.39 g/mi
Jackson County Urban Area Carbon Monoxide (CO) Hancock County Urban Area Harrison County Urban Area Jackson County Urban Area
20.9 g/mi
Source: Mississippi Department of Transportation HPMS Data
to reduce the amount of “on road” emissions being produced in the region from vehicles. Measures such as transit improvements, traffic flow improvements, carpool services, bicycle projects and alternative fuels are being considered. Recommendations from the Plan for Opportunity will seek to reduce the vehicle miles traveled (VMT) in the region which reduces vehicle emissions. Current emissions estimates are shown below in Table 1.
The Clean Air Act In 1970, Congress created the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and passed the Clean Air Act, giving the federal government authority to clean up air pollution. Since then, EPA and states, tribes, local governments, industry, and environmental groups have worked to establish a variety of programs to reduce air pollution levels across America.5 By reducing air pollution, the Clean Air Act has led to significant improvements in human health and the environment in the United States. Since 1970, the six commonly found air pollutants have decreased by more than 50 percent, air toxics from large industrial sources such as chemical plants, petroleum refineries, and paper mills have been reduced by nearly 70 percent, new 6
cars are more than 90 percent cleaner and will be even cleaner in the future and production of most ozone-depleting chemicals has ceased.6 Under the Clean Air Act, EPA sets limits on certain air pollutants, including setting limits on how much can be in the air anywhere in the United States. This helps to ensure basic health and environmental protection from air pollution for all Americans. The Clean Air Act also gives EPA the authority to limit emissions of air pollutants coming from sources like chemical plants, utilities, and steel mills.7 States have to develop State Implementation Plans (SIPs) that outline how each state will control air pollution under the Clean Air Act. A SIP is a collection of the regulations, programs and policies that a state will use to clean up polluted areas. The states must involve the public and industries through hearings and opportunities to comment on the development of each state plan.8
State Implementation Plans The Clean Air Act requires EPA to set NAAQS for ozone and
five other pollutants considered harmful to public health and the environment (the other pollutants are particulate matter, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide and lead). The law also requires EPA to periodically review the standards to ensure that they provide adequate health and environmental protection, and to update those standards as necessary.9 Under the Clean Air Act, as amended in 1990, each state must develop a plan describing how it will attain and maintain the NAAQS. In other words, how it plans to clean up polluted areas and keep them clean. This plan is called the State Implementation Plan and is a collection of programs (monitoring, modeling, emission inventories, control strategies, etc.) and documents (policies and rules) that the state uses to attain and maintain the NAAQS. A state must engage the public in approving its plan prior to sending it to EPA for approval.10 The Mississippi State Implementation Plan provides regulations for the prevention, abatement and control of air contaminants through permit regulations for the construction and operation of stationary emitting sources. State, local and tribal agencies can also benefit greatly from employing voluntary actions along with required regulatory actions to meet their clean air goals. Programs like “ozone action days” on which drivers and businesses voluntarily take actions to reduce their emissions that form ground-level ozone ‑ may be more cost-effective than the prescriptive measures required in nonattainment areas. Such actions may benefit air quality not only where they are taken, but also in downwind areas that may be affected by declining air quality. Innovative programs educate citizens about their role in contributing to air pollution and the role they can play in reducing it. By incorporating voluntary actions alongside regulatory actions a state may meet their ozone reduction attainment goals more quickly and with stronger community support.11 The Gulf Regional Planning Commission (GRPC) and Mississippi Department of Environmental Quality (MDEQ) have formed an Ozone Action Committee, called the Clean Air Committee, to develop an action plan in efforts to keep the region in attainment with air quality standards. In order to reduce the amount of mobile
emissions in the region produced by vehicles, the action plan will consider measures to reduce the amount of “on road” emissions. These measures will include, transit improvements, traffic flow improvements, carpool services, bicycle projects and placing an emphasis on the use of alternative fuels. The Ozone Action Plan is expected to be completed and submitted to EPA for approval by the end of 2013. In addition, the Clean Air Committee has signed an agreement to participate in the EPA Ozone Advance Program. Working closely with the committee, GRPC and MDEQ will develop a “Path Forward Plan” that will outline the collaboration and activities that will be implemented to reduce ozone. This plan is due to EPA by the start of 2014 and will target mobile source emissions and voluntary action plans of industry. Education will be a key strategy to reinforce the need for clean air.
Meteorology and Topography of the Gulf Coast One of the main contributors to ground-level ozone on the Gulf Coast is the sea breeze, caused by the proximity of the Gulf of Mexico and by weather conditions with light steering winds. This breeze results in higher ozone concentrations generally along the coastline. Ozone is generally associated with relatively clear skies, light winds, abundant sunshine, and temperatures above 80 to 85 degrees Fahrenheit. Typically, these meteorological conditions are associated with the high pressure areas which migrate across the US during the summer season. However, persistent high pressure in the summertime causes coastal areas like the Gulf Coast to accumulate high concentrations of pollutants during the night and morning hours, and the land breeze carries the pollutants out to the Gulf of Mexico. During the afternoon, the sea breeze flow reversal carries the ozone back to the coast.12 Where land and sea meet, the atmosphere above is often characterized by temperature gradients that influence circulations resulting in the formation of a sea breeze. Field studies and numerical modeling efforts around the country and internationally have shown that a sea breeze circulation can influence local ozone concentrations. A sea breeze may exacerbate air pollution levels by constricting local ventilation and instead recirculating air that would otherwise move off shore.13 7
Table 2 Air Quality Index
Score
Definition
Good (0-50)
No health impacts are expected when air quality is in this range.
Moderate (51-100)
Unusually sensitive people should consider limiting prolonged outdoor exertion.
Unhealthy for Sensitive Groups (101-150)
The following groups should limit prolonged outdoor exertion: • People with lung disease, such as asthma, • Children and older adults • People who are active outdoors
Unhealthy (151-200)
The following groups should avoid prolonged outdoor exertion: • People with lung disease, such as asthma • Children and older adults • People who are active outdoors • Everyone else should limit prolonged outdoor exertion.
Very Unhealthy (201-300)
The following groups should avoid all outdoor exertion: • People with lung disease, such as asthma • Children and older adults • People who are active outdoors • Everyone else should limit outdoor exertion.
Source: United States Environmental Protection Agency
Health Effects When inhaled, even at very low levels, ground level ozone can cause acute respiratory problems; aggravate asthma; cause significant temporary decreases in lung capacity of 15 to over 20 percent in some healthy adults; cause inflammation of lung tissue; lead to hospital admissions and emergency room visits [10 to 20 percent of all summertime respiratory-related hospital visits in the northeastern U.S. are associated with ozone pollution]; and impair the body’s immune system defenses, making people more susceptible to respiratory illnesses, including bronchitis and pneumonia.14 Children are most at risk from exposure to ozone. The average adult breathes 13,000 liters of air per day. Children breathe even more air per pound of body weight than adults. Because children’s respiratory systems are still developing, they are more susceptible than adults to environmental threats. Ground-level 8
ozone is often a summertime problem. Children are outside playing and exercising during the summer months at summer camps, playgrounds, neighborhood parks and in backyards.15 Even moderately exercising healthy adults can experience 15 to over 20 percent reductions in lung function from exposure to low levels of ozone over several hours. Damage to lung tissue may be caused by repeated exposures to ozone -- similar to the types of effects of repeated sunburns to the skin -- and this could result in a reduced quality of life as people age. Results of animal studies indicate that repeated exposure to high levels of ozone for several months or more can produce permanent structural damage in the lungs. Among those most at risk to ozone are people who are outdoors and moderately exercising during the summer months. This includes construction and other outdoor workers.16 The EPA reports real-time ozone forecasts for over 300 cities at www.airnow.gov using the Air Quality Index (or AQI) to report
levels of ozone and other common pollutants in the air. The AQI, shown in Table 2, is a simple color-coded scale. For example, yellow means “moderate” conditions and red means “unhealthy” conditions. This color scheme can help you know, at a glance, if air pollutants are reaching unhealthy levels in your area.17
Figure 4 Hancock County Air Quality Index Ratings, 2002-2012
Overall, air quality ratings on the gulf coast have remained fairly constant with most days rated as “Good” or “Moderate”. Since 2008, air quality ratings have increased for the gulf coast which correlates with lower ozone levels since 2008. Asthma One key aspect of successful management of a person’s asthma is recognizing the impact of the environment on their condition. Management of asthma requires attention to environmental exposures both indoors and outdoors. Americans spend 90% of their time indoors, where they have a greater ability to modify their environment.18 The indoor environment contains both pollutants (eg, particulate matter, nitrogen dioxide, secondhand smoke, and ozone) and allergens from furred pets, dust mites, cockroaches, rodents and molds. Outdoor air pollutants that impact asthma include particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide, and guidelines recommend that individuals with asthma avoid exertion outdoors when these pollutants are elevated. Exposures in the workplace can aggravate pre-existing asthma or can cause new-onset asthma. Although there is no cure for asthma, it can be controlled with medical treatment and management of triggers.19
Figure 5 Harrison County Air Quality Index Ratings, 2002-2012
Figure 6 Jackson County Air Quality Index Ratings, 2002-2012
Chronic Bronchitis and Emphysema Individuals with chronic bronchitis, and emphysema will generally experience more serious health effects at lower ozone levels. Ground-level ozone can irritate your respiratory system. When this happens, you may cough, feel irritation or soreness in your throat, or experience chest tightness or pain when taking a deep breath. It can also reduce lung function, making it more difficult to breathe as deeply and vigorously as you normally would, especially when exercising. Breathing may also start to
Source: United States Environmental Protection Agency
9
feel uncomfortable and you make take more rapid and shallow breaths than normal. Ground-level ozone can inflame and damage cells that line your lung and make your lungs more susceptible to infection. Repeated exposure may permanently scar lung tissue.20
damage leaves so that they fall off the plants too soon or become spotted or brown. These effects can significantly decrease the natural beauty of an area, such as in national parks and recreation areas.
Environmental Effects to Plants and Marine Life
One of the key components of ozone, nitrogen oxides, contributes to fish kills and algae blooms in sensitive waterways, such as The Gulf of Mexico.24 The Gulf of Mexico hypoxic zone is a seasonal phenomena occurring in the northern Gulf of Mexico, from the mouth of the Mississippi River to beyond the Texas border. It is more commonly referred to as the Gulf of Mexico Dead Zone, because oxygen levels within the zone are too low to support marine life. Nutrient abatement in large systems, such as the Gulf of Mexico Dead Zone, has been slow, due to the accumulated materials in sediments. Abatement can be accomplished with current technology, but would require improvements in nutrient retention by farms throughout the Mississippi River Basin. Plans undertaken to reduce gulf hypoxia would also result in cleaner air, enhance ground and surface water quality, promote beneficial growth management, reduce topsoil loss, provide additional wetland habitat, and the more efficient management of agricultural resources.25
Reductions in stratospheric ozone levels will lead to higher levels of Ultra Violet B (UVB) rays reaching the Earth’s surface. The sun’s output of UVB does not change; rather, less ozone means less protection, and hence more UVB reaches the Earth. Studies have shown that in the Antarctic, the amount of UVB measured at the surface can double during the annual ozone hole. Another study confirmed the relationship between reduced ozone and increased UVB levels in Canada during the past several years.21 Physiological and developmental processes of plants are affected by UVB radiation, even by the amount of UVB in presentday sunlight. Despite mechanisms to reduce or repair these effects and a limited ability to adapt to increased levels of UVB, plant growth can be directly affected by UVB radiation.22 Phytoplankton form the foundation of aquatic food webs. Phytoplankton productivity is limited to the euphotic zone, the upper layer of the water column in which there is sufficient sunlight to support net productivity. Scientists have demonstrated a direct reduction in phytoplankton production due to ozone depletionrelated increases in UVB.23 Ground-level ozone interferes with the ability of plants to produce and store food, so that growth, reproduction and overall plant health are compromised. By weakening sensitive vegetation, ozone makes plants more susceptible to disease, pests, and environmental stresses. Ground-level ozone has been shown to reduce agricultural yields for many economically important crops (e.g., soybeans, wheat, cotton). The effects of ground-level ozone on long-lived species such as trees are believed to add up over many years so that whole forests or ecosystems can be affected. For example, ozone can adversely impact ecological functions such as water movement, mineral nutrient cycling, and habitats for various animal and plant species. Ground-level ozone can kill or 10
Mobile Sources Air pollution in the United States comes from many types of engines, industries, and commercial operations. Pollution sources that move, such as passenger vehicles, freight trucks, construction and industrial equipment and trains, are known as “mobile sources.” Vehicle travel results in emissions of pollutants that are harmful to human health. Carbon monoxide (CO), Sulfur Oxides (SOx), Nitrogen Oxides (NOx), Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC), and particulate matter (PM) are all emitted directly from the exhaust of vehicles during daily travel. Factors that affect the amount of emissions from motor vehicles include the number of trips made by passenger cars in everyday travel, the number of vehicle miles traveled by those cars and traveling speed and idling time. On-Road Vehicles EPA expects NO2 concentrations will continue to decrease in the future as a result of a number of mobile source regulations
that are taking effect. Tier 2 standards for light-duty vehicles began phasing in during 2004, and new NOx standards for heavyduty engines are phasing in between 2007 and 2010 model years. Current air quality monitoring data reflects only a few years of vehicles entering the fleet that meet these strict NOx standards.26 In order to further reduce emissions from vehicles there is a need to increase the number of “choice” users of alternative transportation. This can be done by establishing key headway, travel time and facility standards for the region’s transit network, as well as continuing to offer options which address connectivity to regional employers located outside of existing core development areas. As described in The Plan for Opportunity Transportation Assessment, headway and travel time standards for “Commuter” and “Destination” corridors need to be set and monitored as part of the Coast Transit Authority’s (CTA) ongoing evaluation of ontime performance. Enhancements as well of the current fixed route network to incorporate new express transit or Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) capable of travel times compatible with auto travel time standards can assist in increasing the number of “choice” users. Existing vanpool and carpool options successfully convert single occupancy trips into shared trips along the I-10 and US 90 corridors. Financial incentives for employees of federal agencies are in place to subsidize vanpool costs. Adding capacity to this program over time, along with an enhanced marketing, outreach, along with a new state-funded incentive program similar to the existing federal program, will encourage more business participation. Mississippi Department of Transportation’s (MDOT) existing Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality (CMAQ) funding program should be considered to fund an incentive program for high occupancy travel, as well as other projects that reduce VMT and lessen on road emissions. Improvements to address needs of choice riders will also make transit more convenient for current user groups, helping boost the number of repeat trips made daily. In addition, marketing and education can help change the conversation regarding the costs of auto ownership, as compared to using alternative transportation for some, a majority or all of the daily transportation needs. This conversation would be combined with information on how transportation alternatives can serve as a viable option for commuting to work.
Boats and Personal Watercraft EPA standards for exhaust and evaporative emissions reduce the environmental impact from marine spark-ignition engines and vessels. The emission standards require manufacturers to control exhaust emissions from the engines and evaporative emissions from fuel tanks and fuel lines. Manufacturers must ensure that each new engine, vehicle, or equipment meets the latest emission standards. Once manufacturers sell a certified product, no further effort is required to complete certification. If products were built before EPA emission standards started to apply, they are generally not affected by the standards or other regulatory requirements.27 To assist owners of older commercial boats or watercraft MDEQ created the Mississippi Diesel Emission Reduction Subgrant Program, a competitive sub-grant process in which entities apply for funding by submitting an application following a request for proposals. Projects that could be implemented included engine repowers, engine upgrades, engine replacement, retrofitting of equipment, cleaner fuels, or idle reduction technologies.28
Land Use/Development Patterns Land-use and transportation are inextricably linked: land-uses generate vehicle trips; land-use locations determine trip lengths; land-use character at trip ends influence mode selection; and together, these create trip times by mode. VMT is low in areas that are compact, complete, and connected. Where walking, biking, and transit are feasible choices, VMT decreases as people choose those non-auto options. Auto trips also become shorter in such areas, further decreasing VMT. As the region’s land-use intensity and mix decrease moving north from the coast, VMT rises because of fewer non-auto options and greater trip lengths. The region’s single-family dwelling shares by VMT area are 26% in low area, 44% in moderate areas, and 30% in high areas. Higher VMTs result from people living farther from work, school, shopping and other daily needs. Establishing priority zones for higher density population settlement, commercial development and general employment clustering around key transportation node and aggressive land use policies aimed at
11
Table 3 Facility NOx Emissions by Source, State of Mississippi Source Type
2008 Emissions in Tons
Electricity Generation via Combustion
121,403
Miscellaneous
69,759
Pipeline compressor station
28,099
Pulp and Paper Plant
20,139
Petroleum Refinery
16,417
Gas Plant
6,291
Airport
5,999
Portland Cement Manufacturing
4,557
Steel Mill
607
Brick Manufacturing & Structural clay
566
Landfill
542
Printing/Publishing
470
Oil or Gas Field (On-shore)
221
Bulk Terminals/Bulk Plants
143
Institutional - schools, hospitals, prisons
137
Military Base
56
Total
275,406
Source: United States Environmental Protection Agency
clustering population, employment and services around key transportation nodes help maximize the investment made in these systems. These policies will also help the region address their key housing needs and changing market dynamic created by an increase in the need for housing which if flexible and affordable, to a growing number of single person and graying households. Tightening the connections between these areas will also reduce the cost of transportation absorbed by lower income persons participating in the work force, thus helping extend the amount of income available for savings or spending on goods and services. Incentivizing these areas helps create an environment where new businesses can be established, existing businesses can grow, helping to create more opportunity for a broader segment of the population, all while decreasing the effects on air quality due to higher VMTs. 12
Stationary Sources A stationary source is any place or object from which pollutants are released, such as a power plant, factory, or other machines. Mobile sources move (e.g., cars and buses), while stationary sources do not (e.g., factories). Some of the major contributors to air pollution are power plants, manufacturing, refinery, airports, and landfills. Table 3 shows the 2008 emissions by source for the State of Mississippi. Manufacturing Manufacturing plants employ over 20,000 people on the Gulf Coast. These factories and plants are stationary sources and must install pollution control equipment and meet specific emission limits under the Clean Air Act. Table 4 shows major manufacturing employers on the Gulf Coast and their NOx emissions. EPA requires certain large industrial facilities to install stateof-the-art air pollution controls when they build new facilities or make modifications to existing facilities. Failure to install controls results in emission of pollutants that can degrade air quality and harm public health. Reducing air pollution from the largest source of emissions is one of EPA’s national enforcement initiatives. EPA is taking action to eliminate or minimize emissions from coal-fired power acid, glass and cement plants and petroleum refineries.29 Since 2000, EPA has engaged in an enforcement initiative specifically focused on addressing air emissions from petroleum refineries and has reached innovative, multi-issue, multi-facility settlement negotiations with major petroleum refining companies. These settlements have resulted in significant emission reductions of NOx, SO2, benzene, volatile organic compounds and PM.30 Energy The supply and use of energy in the community has a significant impact on air quality. Air pollution emissions, including greenhouse gases, are associated with the generation of electricity to light, heat and cool buildings and power vehicles, and the combustion of natural gas primarily to heat structures. The energy sector emits approximately two-thirds of the
Table 4 Gulf Coast Major Manufacturing Employers and NOx Emissions Name
County
Est. # Employees 2008 NOx Emissions
Ingalls Shipbuilding, a division of Huntington Ingalls
Jackson
10380
N/A
Chevron USA, Inc. Pascagoula Refinery
Jackson
3600
4,104
Signal International
Jackson
2250
0
DuPont DeLisle
Harrison 850
1,221
VT Halter Marine, Inc.
Jackson
0
Gulf Ship, LLC
Harrison 512
N/A
Ingalls Shipbuilding, a division of Huntington Ingalls
Harrison 500
N/A
Trinity Yachts
Harrison 400
N/A
Gulf Coast Pre-Stress
Harrison 339
N/A
Mississippi Phosphates Corporation
Jackson
225
131
United States Marine, Inc
Harrison 200
N/A
Triton Systems, Inc.
Harrison 185
N/A
First Chemical Corporation
Jackson
160
123
Tindall Corporation
Jackson
130
N/A
Goldin Metals, Inc.
Harrison 70
N/A
Bay Technical Associates, Inc.
Harrison 68
N/A
Hartson-Kennedy Cabinet Top Co., Inc.
Harrison 60
N/A
Calgon Carbon Corporation
Hancock
45
157
Specialty Machine Works, Inc.
Harrison 45
N/A
Specialty Hose & Fabrication, Inc.
Harrison 5
N/A
675
Source: Harrison County Development Commission
nation’s emissions inventory of SO2 and approximately one-third of the NOx. Investigations of this sector have identified a high rate of noncompliance with New Source Review (NSR) and Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD) permits when old plants are renovated or upgraded.31 Ports The Mississippi State Port Authority (MSPA) is located in Gulfport and can serve two-thirds of the U.S. market. Operating at limited capacity in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina, the Port handled more than 2 million tons and 200,000 containers. The MSPA is the third busiest in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico and is
presently rebuilding and restoring the facilities damaged in 2005 by Hurricane Katrina. The MSPA is critical to the economic wellbeing and diversity of the Gulf Coast, as well as the entire state of Mississippi. Peak capacities at other ports in the region, the expansion of the Panama Canal and shifting international trade patterns all present opportunities for future growth of the port. The MSPA is currently undergoing an expansion project that will deepen the Gulfport channel from 36 to 45 feet. The expansion plan will also include some key environmental components such as finding a beneficial use for dredged materials; effectively utilizing technology to reduce air pollution; and developing a design that provides stormwater holding ponds and is aesthetically pleasing. 13
Table 5 Gulf Coast Major Power Plants and NOx Emissions
Table 6 Mississippi Gulf Coast Public Airports
Name
County
Est. # 2008 NOx Employees Emissions
ID
City
Name
HSA
Bay St Louis
Stennis International Airport
Mississippi Power Company
Harrison
728
12,398
66Y
Diamondhead
Diamondhead Airport
Mississippi Power Company
Jackson
230
11,795
GPT
Gulfport
Gulfport-Biloxi International Airport
MS82
Gulfport
Shade Tree Field Airport
5R2
Ocean Springs
Ocean Springs Airport
PQL
Pascagoula
Trent Lott International Airport
Source: Harrison County Development Commission, United States Environmental Protection Agency
Port Bienville in Hancock County connects directly to U.S. Highway 90 by access road and is ten miles from Interstate 10 and eighteen miles from the intersection of Interstates 10, 12 and 59. Port Bienville Industrial Park is a shallow draft port with multiple berths. A 12 foot channel connects Port Bienville to the Mississippi Sound and the Intercoastal Waterway. The Port of Pascagoula is centrally located on the Gulf of Mexico, with convenient and efficient transportation outlets. The proximity to deep water shipping lanes requires an average pilotage time of 60 to 90 minutes. Public terminals in the West Harbor and East Harbor are geared to accommodate efficient handling of cargo --- over 35 million tons annually. Inbound cargo includes forest products, crude oil, phosphate rock, chemicals and aggregate. Outbound cargo consists of forest products, paper products, frozen poultry, petroleum products, fertilizer and chemicals. Marine diesel engines are used in a variety of different types of vessels ranging in size and application from small recreational runabouts to large ocean-going vessels. New marine diesel engines must meet increasingly stringent emissions requirements, yet these engines continue to emit significant amounts of NOx and PM, both of which contribute to serious public health problems.32 Standard operating procedure for almost every large ship is to keep its diesel engine running the entire time the ship is docked at port. This allows ships to run their auxiliary electrical systems. Ships burn bunker fuel, often without many emissions controls, which releases significant amounts of carbon dioxide, black carbon, and other air pollutants. In-port idling to generate electricity is a particularly inefficient use of bunker fuel. In an 14
Source: AirNav, http://www.airnav.com/airports/us/MS
eight-hour stay in port, a ship can easily emit over 2.5 tons of pollutants. In the United States alone, over 100 ports combine to handle 57,000 dockings each year. Idling ships spew diesel fumes into these port areas, resulting in high pollution concentrations that have effects on public health.33 The problem of dockside idling can largely be alleviated by plugging docked ships into the local electrical grid. Known as ‘alternative marine power’ or ‘cold ironing,’ this practice allows ships to completely shut down their diesel engines for the entirety of their stay in port. Cruise ships, container ships and other large vessels can take advantage of shore-based power provided they have been outfitted to do so. Most existing ships are not built with such capability, but retrofit programs are becoming increasingly popular. Oil tankers can also utilize shore-based power, but require specialized on-shore infrastructure that is both more powerful and expensive to provide the energy necessary to pump its cargo in and out of the ship.34 Airports There are six public airports in the Mississippi Gulf Coast region (see table 6), including commercial facilities and general aviation facilities. The Gulfport-Biloxi International Airport (GPT), part of Foreign Trade Zone 93, is served by five national airlines – American Airlines, Delta, United, US Airways and Vision Airlines – as well as being served by all-cargo airlines and private jets. Commuter service is able at several other regional airports. Keesler Air Force Base (BIX) serves as an airport for the United States Military.
EPA adopted emission standards and related provisions for aircraft gas turbine engines with rated thrusts greater than 26.7 kilonewtons. These engines are used primarily on commercial passenger and freight aircraft. The requirements were previously adopted by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). Included in the rule are two new tiers of more stringent emission standards for oxides of nitrogen (NOx). These are referred to as Tier 6 standards and Tier 8 standards. The Tier 6 standards become effective for newly-manufactured aircraft engines beginning in 2013.35 The Federal Aviation Administration has a Voluntary Airport Low Emission Program (VALE) that is designed to reduce all sources of airport ground emissions. Created in 2004, VALE helps airport sponsors meet their state-related air quality responsibilities under the Clean Air Act. Through VALE, airport sponsors can use Airport Improvement Program (AIP) funds and Passenger Facility Charges (PFCs) to finance low emission vehicles, refueling and recharging stations, gate electrification, and other airport air quality improvements.36 Gulfport-Biloxi International Airport is the only airport on the coast that is eligible to apply for these grants, however they currently do not have any applications out for a VALE grant. Gulfport-Biloxi International Airport is currently working with a consultant, Gresham, Smith and Partners, to develop a sustainability plan that will outline objectives and goals for reducing emissions and developing environmentally friendly practices such as recycling and using renewable energy sources. This plan is projected to be completed by the end of 2013. Waste Disposal Solid waste landfills must be designed to protect the environment from contaminants which may be present in the solid waste stream. The landfill siting plan—which prevents the siting of landfills in environmentally-sensitive areas—as well as on-site environmental monitoring systems—which monitor for any sign of groundwater contamination and for landfill gas— provide additional safeguards. In addition, many new landfills collect potentially harmful landfill gas emissions and convert the gas into energy.
Disposal of waste can release air pollutants and greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. EPA recommends reducing, reusing, and recycling to manage materials and waste. Individuals can reduce waste by making smart decisions when purchasing products, including the consideration of product packaging. Reusing containers and products and recycling materials such as paper, food scraps, yard trimmings, and electronics can also help decrease the amount of waste that ends up in a landfill. Backyard burning of waste is also detrimental to the health of those nearby and the environment. Trash typically burned can include paper, cardboard, food scraps, plastics, and yard trimmings-essentially any materials that would otherwise be recycled or sent to a landfill. Burning usually occurs in a burn barrel, homemade burn box, wood stove, outdoor boiler, or open pit. Air emissions from backyard burning are released directly to the atmosphere without being treated or filtered.37 The backyard burning of trash can increase the risk of heart disease, aggravate respiratory ailments such as asthma and emphysema, and cause rashes, nausea, or headaches. Backyard burning also produces harmful quantities of dioxins, a group of highly toxic chemicals that settle on crops and in our waterways where they eventually wind up in food and affect public health.38
Indoor Air Quality The U.S. EPA estimates that ninety percent (90%) or more of each day is spent in our home, school, workplace, or car. While efforts to reduce air pollution typically focus on outdoor air, there are many pollutants indoors that deserve equal attention and action. The U.S. EPA estimates that indoor air can be two to five times more polluted than outdoor air. The elderly, the very young, pregnant women, and those with allergies, asthma and other respiratory ailments are often the first to notice indoor air pollution problems. In fact, indoor air pollution is among the top five environmental health risks according to the U.S. EPA. Indoor pollution sources that release gases or particles into the air are the primary cause of indoor air quality (IAQ) problems in homes. Inadequate ventilation can increase indoor pollutant levels by not bringing in enough outdoor air to dilute emissions from indoor sources and by not carrying indoor air pollutants
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out of the home. High temperature and humidity levels can also increase concentrations of some pollutants.39 There are many sources of indoor air pollution in any home. These include combustion sources such as oil, gas, kerosene, coal, wood, and tobacco products; building materials and furnishings as diverse as deteriorated, asbestos-containing insulation, wet or damp carpet, and cabinetry or furniture made of certain pressed wood products; products for household cleaning and maintenance, personal care, or hobbies; central heating and cooling systems and humidification devices; and outdoor sources such as radon, pesticides, and outdoor air pollution.40 Due to the natural events the Gulf Coast encounters such as tropical storms and hurricanes, flooding and wind damage can be a major contributor to IAQ. Failure to remove contaminated materials and to reduce moisture and humidity can present serious long term health risks. Standing water and wet materials are a breeding ground for microorganisms, such as viruses, bacteria, and mold. They can cause disease, trigger allergic reactions, and continue to damage materials long after the flood. Elevated concentrations of airborne asbestos can occur if asbestoscontaining materials present in the home are disturbed. Airborne asbestos can cause lung cancer and mesothelioma, a cancer of the chest and abdominal linings.41 Health effects from indoor air pollutants may be experienced soon after exposure or, possibly, years later. Immediate effects may show up after a single exposure or repeated exposures. These include irritation of the eyes, nose, and throat, headaches, dizziness, and fatigue. Such immediate effects are usually shortterm and treatable. Sometimes the treatment is simply eliminating the person’s exposure to the source of the pollution, if it can be identified. Symptoms of some diseases, including asthma, hypersensitivity pneumonitis, and humidifier fever (PDF), may also show up soon after exposure to some indoor air pollutants.42 Other health effects may show up either years after exposure has occurred or only after long or repeated periods of exposure. These effects, which include some respiratory diseases, heart disease, and cancer, can be severely debilitating or fatal.43 16
The Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 created the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). OSHA is in the U.S. Department of Labor and is responsible for developing and enforcing workplace safety and health regulations. Although OSHA does not have IAQ standards, it does have standards about ventilation and standards on some of the air contaminants that can be involved in IAQ problems.
Indicators In order to measure progress on air quality goals, indicators are used to measure achievement over time. Because air quality is affected by the actions neighboring areas, and natural events such as weather, it is difficult to measure just the effects of the Gulf Coast’s efforts on air quality. Compliance with NAAQS, declining number of days per year that exceed NAAQS, number of ozone action days and alerts and declining maximum and average AQI can be used to help indicate progress towards more sustainable air quality on the Gulf Coast. A declining VMT growth rate and reduction in mobile source emissions resulting from on-road vehicles as well as increased transit ridership are also indicators of improvements in air quality. A declining trend in hospitalizations resulting from asthma or other chronic respiratory problems can also be useful indicators of air quality.
Works Cited 1. United States Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Mobile Source Emissions Definitions. Retrieved from http://opusinspection.com/documents/def_pollution.htm 2. Ibid. 3. Ibid. 4. Ibid. 5. United States, Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards. (2007). Plain English Guide to the Clean Air Act. Research Triangle Park, NC. 6. Ibid. 7. Ibid. 8. Ibid. 9. United States Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Ozone (O3) Standards. Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/ttn/naaqs/standards/ozone/s_o3_index.html 10. United States Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Ozone Implementation - Programs and Requirements for Reducing Ground Level Ozone. Retrieved from http://www. epa.gov/airquality/ozonepollution/implement.html 11. United States Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Ozone Reduction Strategies. Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/airquality/ozonestrategy/index.html 12. Texas Commission on Environmental Quality. (2002, December 13). Conceptual Model for Ozone Formation in the Houston-Galveston Area. Retrieved from http://www.tceq. texas.gov/assets/public/implementation/air/am/docs/hgb/protocol/HGMCR_Protocol_Appendix_A.pdf 13. Piety, C. (2007). The Role of Land-Sea Interactions on Ozone Concentrations at the Edgewood, Maryland Monitoring Site (Rep.). College Park, MD: Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences University of Maryland. 14. United States Environmental Protection Agency. (1997, July 17). Health Effects of Ozone. Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/region07/air/quality/o3health.htm 15. Ibid. 16. Ibid. 17. United States Environmental Protection Agency. (2009). Ozone and Your Health [Brochure]. Washington, D.C.: Author. 18. Mississippi State Department of Health. (n.d.). Mississippi State Asthma Plan 2011-2015. Retrieved from http://msdh.ms.gov/msdhsite/_static/resources/2096.pdf 19. Ibid. 20. United States Environmental Protection Agency. (2009). Ozone and Your Health [Brochure]. Washington, D.C.: Author. 21. United States Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Health and Environmental Effects of Ozone Layer Depletion. Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/ozone/science/effects/ 22. Ibid. 23. Ibid. 24. United States Environmental Protection Agency. (1997, July 17). Health Effects of Ozone. Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/region07/air/quality/o3health.htm 25. Carlisle, E. (2000, January 5). The Gulf of Mexico Dead Zone and Red Tides. Retrieved from http://www.tulane.edu/~bfleury/envirobio/enviroweb/DeadZone.htm 26. United States Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Nitrogen Dioxide Basic Information. Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/airquality/nitrogenoxides/basic.html 27. United States Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Gasoline Boats and Personal Watercraft. Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/otaq/marinesi.htm 28. Mississippi Department of Environment Quality. (n.d.). Air Mobile Sources. Retrieved from http://www.deq.state.ms.us/MDEQ.nsf/page/Air_AirMobileSources?OpenDocument 29. United States Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Air Enforcement. Retrieved from http://epa.gov/enforcement/air/index.html 30. Ibid. 31. Ibid. 32. United States Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Diesel Boats and Ships. Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/otaq/marine.htm 33. Cross, J. (n.d.). Shore-Based Power: Reducing Idle Ships’ Emissions. Spring 2010 Climate Alert. Retrieved from http://www.climate.org/publications/Climate Alerts/Spring2010/ Shore-BasedPower.html 34. Ibid. 35. United States Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Aircraft. Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/otaq/aviation.htm 36. Federal Aviation Administration. (n.d.). Voluntary Airport Low Emissions Program (VALE). Retrieved from http://www.faa.gov/airports/environmental/vale/ 37. United States Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Backyard Burning. Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/nonhaz/municipal/backyard/index.htm 38. Ibid. 39. United States Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Indoor Air Quality: An Introduction to IAQ. Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/iaq/ia-intro.html
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40. Ibid. 41. United States, Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards. (2012). Flood Cleanup: Avoiding Indoor Air Quality Problems. 42. United States Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). Indoor Air Quality: An Introduction to IAQ. Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/iaq/ia-intro.html 43. Ibid.
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