Visual Essay portfolio

N O I L

E

L rebellion E B Form follows

BRYONY HANCOCK DECEMBER 2016

ABSTRACT

The progression from one social and stylistic trend to another can be reasoned by the idea of change being inherent to progressing as humans. By rebelling against what is current, we discover new ways of designing forms which are different and unique. This visual essay forms a critical investigation into how rebellions and controversies have resulted in new design characteristics. It analyses the extent to which rebellions were important within design culture during the 20th Century and how they have affected the social and cultural changes which followed.

This was done through photographic analysis and secondary literature reviews, as well as primary images to highlight the rebellions’ presence in our modern world. Analysis of the rise of subcultures identifies their immense importance in fashioning diverse social landscapes. Women’s deliberate estrangement from traditional heteronormativity demonstrates how their rebellion lead to empowerment of female artists and androgyny. Confrontation of taboo topics such as poverty, disease and race have exposed governmental and legislative groups for their prejudices, concluding how integral rebellions are within creative society.

By cross-referencing literary and visual sources, a well-founded argument is made for the vast number of instances in which rebellions by counter-cultures have led to previously ‘alternative’ stylistic forms being filtered into mainstream design.

CONTENTS _Introduction _Subcultures

Moonshine Runners

Mods and Rockers Punk

Heroin Chic _Heteronormativity

Finding the Flapper

The Perfect Woman

Man or Woman?

_Class

Race Poverty Disease _Conclusion _Figure List _Bibliography _Appendices

“Constant change is fundamental to most aspects of youth culture: to stay still is to stagnate.�

(McDermott, C., 1987, p. 18)

INTRODUCTION ‘The action or process of resisting authority, control, or convention’ (Oxford English Dictionary, [n.d.]). Rebellion is present in all cultural and social design trends, such as fashion, graphics, products and architecture. Rebellion aids in making these trends extremely ephemeral.

Often, new cultural concepts arise from the disapproval of previous trends, in the eternal belief that there is always a better way of doing things.

Having always been intrigued in subcultures and alternatives to the ‘social norm’, exploring the theme of rebellion gives the chance to question my own design preconceptions. By examining controversies during the 20th Century, this visual essay aims to explore and challenge the ways rebellion against convention has led to diverse forms which fluctuate in accordance with cultural trends.

It was important to ask three questions: What were the key subcultures and controversies within the 20th Century? What were the contextual and historical reasons for their popularisation? How did forms arise from their breakthrough into mass culture?

BCULTURES

T L U C

SUBCULTURES

B U S

T Subcultures, by their nature, are formed by individuals having opposing beliefs to the social norm. It is this intentional difference in style, belief systems, ethics and processes which leads to an ever-changing landscape of forms – without rebellion against what is current, how do we progress?

ALCOHOL? WHAT ALCOHOL?

Expanding rapidly, subcultures across the world began to grow in numbers and confidence, rebelling against the rulings of the conservative middle class. An example is the controversial prohibition of alcohol in America, 19201933. Despite Congress passing laws banning the sale and consumption of alcohol, “those who wanted to keep drinking found ever-more inventive ways to do it� (History.com, 2009).

Figure 4 How Whiskey Cars Worked [digital image].

Secretive organisations such as the Moonshine Runners, shown in Figure 4, transported whiskies and spirits from hidden stills to markets all across the Southeast (Longhorne, J., [n.d.]). ‘Bootlegging’ came with a risk; if they were noticed, a quick getaway was essential. The need to modify their vehicles to outrun the police led the Moonshine Runners racing against eachother. Hence, the beginnings of NASCAR.

NASCAR is a race based entirely on speed, with its cars being famous for their striking aesthetic and precisely engineered components. The modern day cars are direct descendants from the originals, showing how rebellion against fundamentalists lead to the automotive phenomenon of NASCAR.

WE ARE THE MODS.

Sparking up in 1960s London was a clash of subcultures; the infamous mods and rockers. The Mods pioneered modern jazz, wore suits and favoured Italian scooters (see Figure 6). Conversely, the Rockers liked rock ’n’ roll musicians such as Elvis Presley, leather jackets and 1950s Triumph motors. Nevertheless, although the Mods and Rockers signified two diverse approaches of disenfranchised youth (Sub Cultures List., [n.d]), their origins were similar. Both groups originated from the post-war Teddy Boy, well as being working class youths.

Although some members described themselves as middle class, these socio-economic tiers were rarely represented by the anarchic mods and rockers.

Figure 6: Brighton Mods [digital image].

Due to the gangs’ divergent styles, their rebellion during the mid-1960s was not only towards an inherently middle class British social structure, but towards each other. Famously, they fought on Brighton beach in 1964, leading to the arresting of over 50 people (Sub Cultures List., [n.d]). This rebellion stamped in their powerful message into our social history, leaving them a legacy which could be argued is intrinsic in the formation of today’s Hells Angels. This attests how forms within fashion, motorbikes, and music have been influenced by major rebellion within youth subculture during the 1960s, an era of change.

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One of the most notorious subcultures is punk. Having grown up to my dad’s punk music after he grew up in 1970s Birmingham, I was exposed to musical sensations such as Joy Division and the Sex Pistols, no doubt impelling me to become an avid fan of punk music myself.

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“‘Punk? It’s about being fucked off with a nonstop lecture from the last generation.’

Mark p.”

(McDermott., 1987, p. 67)

Figure 10

There are many discrepancies to when ‘punk’ began, with the work of Stevenson (1999, p. 6) claiming it was Malcolm McClaren and Vivienne Westwood’s ‘SEX’ shop at the wrong end of the King’s Road, Chelsea in 1974. Specialising in rubber-wear, unashamed perverseness and kinky attire which was usually hidden in the wardrobe of a middle-aged politician, this shop sparked a decade of revolt.

Punk’s unity was rooted in rebelling against the establishment

‘SEX’ was one of the first public backlashes against Thatcherism’s impartiality of the 1970s and is seen to typify punk. But, there is discrepancy over whether Westwood, who has been pronounced the Queen of Punk (Bloomfield, 2016) was merely a public face who was popularised by musicians at the time, such as the Sex Pistols.

Figure 13

Steele and Park (2008, p. 125) corroborate this notion, in this statement which is worth quoting in full:

Figure 15

Punk’s calling was to shake up the status quo, but it never went beyond brazen confrontation. The real revolution that Johnny Rotten, Steve Jones, Paul Cook and Glen Matlock (later replaced by Sid Vicious) of the Sex Pistols launched was the do-it-yourself-who-gives-a-fuck attitude they carved into music.

Figure 17: Street Fashion in Nottingham

There is no doubting the effect punk had on mainstream fashion: ripped clothes, straps referencing sexual bondage wear and tartan have all filtered into high-end fashion, showing how easy it is to reappropriate their DIY attitude for the masses, shown in Figure17. It could be argued mainstream fashion has hijacked punk’s true beliefs; I question whether punk is seen as a rebellion nowadays. Nevertheless, as a form of rebellion it influenced not only fashion but furniture design as well.

Opting to leave the Architectural Association on grounds of it being too conservative (McDermott, 1987, p.116), Ron Arad’s mark as a distinctive furniture designer was made by his “One Off” studios in London, 1981.

He is now one of the world’s most successful designers, architects and artists, having arisen from a candid expression of rebellion.

Arad also influenced another popular designer. Tom Dixon held his first solo exhibition in Arad’s One Off gallery in 1985. As the bassist in a punk band named “Funkapolitan”, Tom Dixon’s origins were from an entirely nonconformist background.

“Back then it was much easier to be anti-establishment.”

Tom Dixon. In: Pople, 2015.

Figur 20

Why was punk well received by youth culture?

Dixon’s ‘lucky break’, as some people might call it, was helped immensely by how welcoming the public were to new ideas. Being original and ‘non-conformist’ was applauded, as society was trying to break free from the slick, black, humourless designs of the 1970s.

Modernism was clean and full of smooth surfaces, and following both political and social unhappiness young people did not feel they could express themselves.

HEROIN CHIC Amongst the kitsch, Spice Girls-filled, Tamagotchi-lovers of the 1990s, there emerged a dark undertone of the fashion world acting as a complete contrast to popular culture.

Known as ‘heroin chic’, this controversial way of promoting couture fashion houses combined borderline under-age models being photographed in back streets, with ambiguous substances surrounding them, all being glamourised through powerful advertising.

The idea of insalubrity being attractive descends from gothic style. “[It is] the stylistic ideal of a pale, deathlike pallor and a thin and (seemingly) sickly body. Many readers may recognise that death chic passed into mainstream advertising as “heroin chic” in the late 1980s and 1990s.” (Gunn, [n.d.], p. 57. Cited in Goodlad, L. M. E. and Bibby, M., 2007)

Gothic chic was filtered into mainstream fashion by brands such as Alexander McQueen, notorious for depersonalising women, as well as John Galliano, a controversial designer who was arrested on counts of racism and anti-Semitism (Chrisafis, 2011).

Heroin chic was also dramatized in the honest portrayal of Edinburgh’s drug scene in Danny Boyle’s Trainspotting, 1996. This shows the influence a subculture can have on the forms of advertising within mainstream fashion, with gothic ideals being twisted to play to society’s darkest weaknesses and hidden desires.

N O R E

ERONORMATIVITY

HETERONORMATIVITY

T E H

A subculture of their own, women’s rebellions over the past century have been well founded. The notion of white, male heteronormativity is steeped in capitalism, privilege and ostentatiousness. “Heteronormativity is defined as a system of valuing heterosexuality as the natural and normative sexual orientation, thereby devaluing all other expressions of sexuality... it operates within a patriarchal framework where gender is viewed as a natural derivative of sex� (Dellinger and Peacock, 2013, p. 640)

FINDING THE FLAPPER Amidst the Roaring ‘20s, a new woman was emerging.

Flappers such as Dorothy Mackaill (Figure 27) and Louise Brooks wore tuxedos and trousers, along with openly experimenting with their sexuality (Leaper, 2016). “She flirted because ‘it was fun to flirt, ... bobbed her hair, … put on her choicest pair of earrings, and a great deal of audacity and rouge and went into battle” (Ginsburg, 1989, p.13).

“She flirted because ‘it was fun to flirt, ... bobbed her hair, … put on her choicest pair of earrings, and a great deal of audacity and rouge and went into battle” (Ginsburg, 1989, p.13).

Figure 27: Dorothy Mackaill, 1927 [digital image].

Figure 28: Anita Page, 1928 [digital image].

They also began to become role models for younger women. Anita Page (Figure 28) is reported to have received 35,000 fan letters per week (Leaper, 2016). In this image all three women are angled backwards, with their pushed out pelvis’s connoting sexual power.

Shins, thighs and cleavages are on show, with embellished dresses intentionally lifted up for the photograph. This photographic visual language is itself a rebellion against a patriarchal society.

Despite the impact flappers made, there is argument that the style’s popularity was short-lived. This is supported by Ress, (2010, p. 118) who concludes, “By the 1930s, for example, her name and her public appearance dwindled and, prior to the American emergence into the Second World War, finally disappeared altogether.

As evidenced by the plethora of literature that chronicles her rise and fall, however, the flapper legacy remains.�

The flapper’s rebellious nature is documented in films such as Baz Lurhmann’s ‘The Great Gatsby’ (2013) and Alan Parker’s ‘Bugsy Malone’ (1976). The commercial success of these films shows how influential flapper girls were within their rebellion, in spite of being limited to a small period of history.

THE PERFECT WOMAN Post-war, being the “Perfect Wife” was seen to be the ultimate goal (Gardiner, 2015). Often women served as subjects, passive ghosts of feminine domestic life.

Women were changing. Society was changing. Art was changing.

Sculptor Louise Bourgeois experimented with form, often achieving phallus and breast associations within her sensuous marble sculptures. This kind of exposure of female body parts annulled embarrassment towards individual body types.

“Bourgeois expanded the realm of the genre as well as the accepted boundaries of women’s creativity within threedimensional formats.”

(Barker and Ellsworth, 2011).

Although largely unrecognised, female artists were significant in the revolutionary new art forms which appeared in the 1960s (Reckitt and Phelan, 2001, p.51). Marlene Dumas’ work, ‘Porno Blues’ in Figure 33 explores undertones of female form, with her influence on form being an explosion of political and artistic controversy, liberating design of its boundaries.

Figure 33, Porno Blues

On the surface, the purpose of Bourgeois’ and Dumas’ rebellion seems to be to subvert stereotypical representations of women being passive beings. However, when analysed more critically, it could be argued their rebellion is not just against patriarchal society, but acts as a way of asserting their rights as artists to visualise whatever themes they wish.

MAN OR WOMAN?

The rise of stars such as David Bowie, using his alter-ego Ziggy Stardust, and Grace Jones, a revolution for women and racial equality, obscured sociostereotypical boundaries of gender with their use of make-up and clothing.

Figure 36, Ziggy Stardust sun makeup [digital image].

This image of Bowie as Ziggy Stardust epitomises the insurgence of the Glam Rock and New Romantic era. The use of lipstick, glitter, hair dye and a fuchsia pink background highlights his androgyny (Howarth, 2016].

This photograph would have been circulated in magazines such as the NME, influencing many international followers. Bowie’s gaze is directly towards the viewer, encapsulating them in his androgynous world. His posture is regal, equating him to a godlike being. The image’s composition and focus is solely on him, letting the form reconstitute ideas of the individual choosing their own gender.

Grace Jones’ use of exaggerated shoulder pads and double breasted jackets declares herself as a male equal. Her video collection was deliberately titled, “A One Man Show”.

Her stance, short hair and sunglasses all make her gender ambiguous.

This rebellion towards traditional heteronormativity from popular music stars set an example to the public of how experimental Glam Rock and New Romanticism could be.

S S A

CLASS

CLASS

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RACE Although sometimes criticised by civil rights experts for mainly playing for white audiences, Louis Armstrong along with many other black jazz artists were integral in speeding up the civil rights movement, with Crouch (2008) stating: “Jazz predicted the civil rights movement more than any other art in America.�

Being a culture where the artist was judged by his or her ability, not by irrelevant factors such as race, the popularisation of jazz across America exploited society for its segregation and prejudice, with musicians such as Armstrong and Billie Joe Armstrong acting as pioneers for racial and social justice (Verity, M., 2015).

Figure 42: . Louis Armstrong [online].

Playing in ‘whites only’ venues such as ‘The Cotton Club’, these black musicians rebelled against racial state law.

Analysing these images, the stage for black performers is the focus, not the white audience. This reverses the social preference of white over black, giving the artists the power. Figure 42 shows a hierarchy of levels, with Armstrong being pictured above the audience.

History’s changing racial landscape was also documented in Baz Luhrmann’s recent series, “The Get Down”. Following the event of hip-hop in the 1970s Bronx, it mixes fiction and truth, showing how underground clubs and parties received a reputation for being sinful and ‘ungodly’. The original hip-hop groups such as the Sugarhill Gang were part of this rebellion, (O’Keeffe, 2016) and its influence is proven by the release of shows such as “The Get Down”.

POVERTY In our changing world of developing civilisations, poverty and its effects are often advertised by the media through help causes and charity. However, this was not always the case. An article in the Guardian’s Observer published last year told the story of photographer Nick Hedges’ investigative work for the homeless charity Shelter. The charity wanted to find out how dire the housing conditions were for the people living in the slums of the UK between 1968 and 1972 (Doward, J., 2016). At first glance the images appear to be of post-war Britain. This was not the case however; the subjects were living in the 1960s, the Space Race era of fashion, mods and new technology.

At the time, poverty akin to this was covered up by the government, not wanting to expose their slack sanitary regulations.

Hedges deliberately examined the city’s poverty, in the hope of showing the public what life was like for a multitude of people. This defiance has led to the previous mentioned charities and help groups who prevent this conditions: an example of how rebellion through photographical form can aid the greater good.

DISEASE During the late 1970s and 1980s, the spread of the AIDS virus was controversial. As discussed by The New York Times only printed three AIDS stories in 1981, none of which were headline news. But why?

The obvious reason for not publicising the effects of this epidemic was overt homophobia.

However, in such a conservative establishment, the reasons may have sunk deeper. Newspapers believed their readership were uninterested in “sex-crazed gay men and drug-addled junkies… who were seen by many as getting what they deserved” (Body Positive, 2001), therefore choosing to skirt around taboo topics and use vague generalisations.

In 1991, inventor, Trevor Baylis saw a programme on the spread of AIDS in Africa and invented the revolutionary wind-up radio as a way to broadcast news to people across the continent. After failing to be granted a patent initially, the product was shown on ‘Tomorrow’s World’ in April 1994 and became an international success.

Rebelling against the media’s reluctance to address ‘distasteful’ or ‘prohibited’ topics such as homosexual health, Baylis succeeded in making a product which has been applied to many areas and countries since.

CONCLUSION An outbreak of controversies and rebellions over the past century have each led to unique forms of fashion, graphics, products and furniture; therefore, the use of the phrase ‘Form Follows Rebellion’ is justified.

With the advent of western liberalism and social democracy, the rise of subcultures in the 20th Century launched the idea of controversy becoming a trend: something to broadcast and get attention for.

Subcultural groups such as the Moonshine Runners and Mods and Rockers were social offspring of legislation at the time and have both been influential in modern automotive culture. Punk fashion was popularised by the likes of musicians Sid Vicious and Johnny Rotten and consequently filtered into mainstream tastes.

Controversies surrounding the popularisation of these subcultures, were albeit melodramatic, but each new wave was a deliberate kick against what came before, linking back to the eternal belief of there being a better way of doing things.

By mid-century, women started a rebellion of their own. Despite the flapper’s short-lived reign, her influence was unparalleled and female power spread across the world, with laissez-faire artists such as Louise Bourgeois desensitising the public to female form in an act of liberalism. Alongside this, pioneers of androgyny David Bowie and Grace Jones were so open about their gender fluidity that their effect on the LGBTQ community was radical.

Taboo topics such as race, poverty and disease were openly addressed by jazz artists, photographers and inventors, all acting against inhumane constitutional attempts to conceal issues the public needed to be faced with.

WHAT

IS THE IMPACT OF REBELLION ON DESIGN?

Reflecting back on this investigation, it shows how each rebellion influences the next, with society becoming more open to new ideas and forms within design as time passes. The symbiotic relationship between design and rebellion is ever changing, resulting in cyclical trends following each generation’s problems with their respective overarching authorities. This bring me to question whether rebellion actually exists anymore; it is commonplace, even predictable to do something intentionally different.

By mainstream design brands latching onto the form of rebellion, surely the spirit of rebellion is annulled?

In our global assortment of cultures, sub-cultures and counter-cultures, can we ever be truly different from what already exists?

FIGURE LIST Figure 1: My Own Image, 2015. Street Art in Hockley 1 [photograph].

Figure 2: My Own Image, 2015. Street Art in Hockley 2 [photograph].

Figure 3: Joe Baglow, (date unknown). Subculture by Joe Baglow [digital illustration].

Phosphor Art. Available at: http://www.phosphorart.com/subculture-by-joe-baglow/ [Accessed 13 November 2016] Figure 4: Deaton, J., 2011. How Whiskey Cars Worked [digital image]. HowStuffWWorks. com. Available at: http://auto.howstuffworks.com/auto-racing/motorsports/whiskeycar3.htm [Accessed 03 December 2016] Figure 5: Race Car Engineering, 2013. NASCAR could abandon V8 engines [digital image]. Racecarengineering.com. Available via: http://www.racecar-engineering.com/ news/nascar-could-abandon-v8-engines/ [Accessed 07 December 2016] Figure 6: Hartshorn, M., 2013. Brighton Mods [digital image]. Flickr. Available at: https:// www.flickr.com/photos/melanie36/9589157719/in/set-72157635229129238/ [Accessed 13 November 2016] Figure7: BuzzFeed, 2012. Are you a mod or a rocker? [digital image]. Buzzfeed.com.

Available at: https://www.buzzfeed.com/teamstupidest/are-you-a-mod-or-a-rockervery-vital-quiz-from-5atw [Accessed 04 December 2016] Figure 8: Vivienne Westwood, [n.d.]. Destroy T-Shirt. In: McDermott, C., 1987. Street Style: British Design in the 1980s. 2nd ed. London: The Design Council. (p. 26) Figure 9: Stevenson, R., 1999. Vacant: A Diary of the Punk Years. 1st ed. London: Thames and Hudson. (p. 18).

Figure 10: Reid, J., and Stevenson, R., [n.d.] Anarchy Tour Flag. In: Stevenson, R., 1999.

Vacant: A Diary of the Punk Years. 1st ed. London: Thames and Hudson. (p. 19).

Figure 11: Stevenson, N., [n.d.] In: Stevenson, R. and Stevenson, N., 1999. Vacant: A Diary of the Punk Years. 1st ed. London: Thames and Hudson. (p. 6).

Figure 12: The Ladycracy, 2016. Sex Shop [digital image]. Theladycracy.it. Available at: http://www.theladycracy.it/2016/11/28/il-punk-e-morto-ecco-spiegato-il-gesto-dijoe-corre/ [Accessed 07 December 2016] Figure 13: ASL, 2013. Slogans: Intimidation [digital image].Theacidsweatlodge. blogspot.co.uk. Available at: http://theacidsweatlodge.blogspot.co.uk/2013/02/ slogans-intimidation.html [Accessed 13 November 2016]

Figure 14: Cartledge, F., (no date). Distress to Impress? Local Punk Fashion and Commodity Exchange. In: Sabin, R., 1999. Punk Rock; So What? London: Routledge Figure 15: Steele, V., [n.d.]. In: Steele, V. and Park, J., 2008. Gothic: Dark Glamour [photograph]. 1st ed. London: Yale University Press. (p. 124).

Figure 16: Gerard Malanga, [n.d.]. Patti Smith. In: McNeil, L. and McCain, G., 1996.

Please Kill Me: The Uncensored Oral History of Punk. 1st ed. New York: Grove Press.

Figure 17: My Own Image, 2016. Street Fashion in Nottingham 1 [photograph].

Figure 18: Ron Arad, [n.d.]. One Off. Covent Garden, London. In: McDermott, C., 1987. Street Style: British Design in the 1980s. 2nd ed. London: The Design Council. (p. 117).

Figure 19: My Own Image, 2016. Funkapolitan Vinyl Cover. [photograph].

Figure 20: Hulton Archive / Getty Images, 1982. Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher with President Ronald Reagan in 1982 [digital image]. CapX. Available at: https:// capx.co/why-margaret-thatcher-and-ronald-reagan-were-right/ [Accessed 07 December 2016].

Figure 21: Anne of Carversville, 2015. France Debates New Fashion Model BMI Laws & Pro-Ana Websites [digital image]. Available via: http://www.anneofcarversville. com/body-politics/2015/3/17/france-debates-new-fashion-model-bmi-laws-proana-websites.html [Accessed 06 November 2016] Figure 22: Borden, J., 2003. New millennium Gothic and CBGB’s first annual Drop Dead festival. In: Steele, V. and Park, J., 2008. Gothic: Dark Glamour. 1st ed. London: Yale University Press. (p. 49) Figure 23: Bobb-Parris, M., [n.d.]. Alexander McQueen Savage Beauty [digital image]. Available at: http://whoisbobbparris.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/ Alexander-McQueen-Savage-Beauty_4928.jpg [Accessed 07 December 2016].

Figure 24: Caro-Jon-Son, 2010. Trainspotting, Ewan McGregor [digital image].

Flickr. Available at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/45005123@N03/5178710447 [Accessed 07 November 2016].

Figure 25: Sieverding, K., 1973. Transformer 1 A/B. In: Reckitt, H., Phelan, P., 2001.

Art and Feminism. London: Phaidon Press Ltd. Figure 26: Anon, c. 1920. Flapper Girl [digital image]. Tumblr. Available at: http:// holdthisphoto.tumblr.com/post/37749263077 [Accessed 05 December 2016].

Figure 27: Leaper, C. 2016. Dorothy Mackaill, 1927 [digital image]. Marieclaire.co.uk.

Available at: http://www.marieclaire.co.uk/fashion/1920s-fashion-icons-whodefined-twenties-style-92566 [Accessed 06 November 2016 Figure 28: Leaper, C. 2016. Anita Page, 1928 [digital image]. Marieclaire.co.uk.

Available at: http://www.marieclaire.co.uk/fashion/1920s-fashion-icons-whodefined-twenties-style-92566 [Accessed 06 November 2016 Figure 29: My Own Image, 2016. 1920s inspired products. [photograph].

Figure 30: Baz Luhrmann, 2013. The Great Gatsby [film still]. Moviecitynews.com.

Available at: http://moviecitynews.com/2013/09/wilmington-on-dvds-the-greatgatsby/ [Accessed 07 December 2016].

Figure 31: House of Home, 2015. Kitchens Design Through the Decades: 1920’s 1950’s [digital image]. Houseofhome.com. Available via: https://www.houseofhome. com.au/blog/kitchen-decades-1930-1950 [Accessed 06 November 2016].

Figure 32: Bourgeois, L., 1969. Femme Couteau. Sculpture. In: Reckitt, H., Phelan, P., 2001. Art and Feminism. London: Phaidon Press Ltd. (p. 59).

Figure 33: Dumas, M., 1993. Porno Blues. Ink and watercolour. In: Reckitt, H., Phelan, P., 2001. Art and Feminism. London: Phaidon Press Ltd. (p. 159).

Figure 34: Anon, c. 2015. Desexualise the Female Body [digital image]. Tumblr.

Available at: http://slicey-k.tumblr.com/post/120179484287/peytonfulford-freethe-nipple-by-peytonfulford [Accessed 07 December 2016].

Figure 35: Von, 2016. Von’s illustrations is based on the lightning bolt from Bowie’s Aladdin Sane album cover [digital illustration]. Dezeen. Available at: https://www. dezeen.com/2016/01/11/illustrated-tributes-to-david-bowie-spread-news-ofmusicians-death/-BOWIE [Accessed 04 December 2016].

Figure 36: Anon, 1973. Ziggy Stardust sun makeup [digital image]. Dezeen. Available at: https://www.dezeen.com/2016/01/12/dezeen-selects-david-bowie-mosticonic-design-moments/ [Accessed 05 December 2016] Figure 37: Anon, Circa 1980. Grace Jones [digital image]. tumblr. Available at: http:// planetofconfusion.tumblr.com/post/38166528182 [Accessed 04 December 2016] Figure 38: The Kitchen, c. 1982. Grace Jones, A One Man Show [digital image].

Artnet.com. Available at: https://news.artnet.com/art-world/grace-jones-a-oneman-show-video-422864 [Accessed 28 November 2016].

Figure 39: Frame, A., 2016. Keep left, Keep Right [photograph].

Figure 40: Frisicano, A., 2015. The best jazz clubs in NYC. [online]. Available at: https://www.timeout.com/newyork/live-music/best-jazz-clubs-in-nyc [Accessed 13 November 2016]

Figure 41: Worth, J., (unknown date). 9 Prohibition-Era Speakeasies Where Celebrities and Gangsters Alike Got Drunk [online]. Available at: http://allday.com/post/72469-prohibition-era-speakeasies-where-celebrities-and-gangsters-alike-got-drunk/ [Accessed 06 November 2016] Figure 42: Daily Mail, 2012. Louis Armstrong [online]. Available at: http://www.dailymail. co.uk/news/article-2243954/Pot-smokers-light-Washington-Space-Needle-statelegalizes-marijuana-sex-marriage.html [Accessed 12 November 2016] Figure 43: The Get Down, 2016. [Web Series]. Netflix, 12 August 2016.

Figure 44: Doward, J., 2016. Shelter and the slums: capturing bleak Britain 50 years ago [online]. Available via: https://www.theguardian.com/society/2016/feb/07/ homeless-shelter-charity [Accessed 06 November 2016] Figure 45: Shelter, 2016. Shelter at 50 [screen shot]. Available at: http://england.shelter. org.uk/our_work [Accessed 07 December 2016].

Figure 46: Anon, circa 1980. AIDs Protestors [photograph]. Available at: http://social. rollins.edu/wpsites/filmsofthe80s/2014/05/28/hivaids-in-the-1980s/ [Accessed 07 December 2016].

Figure 47: Wilcox, J, J., 1991. ACT UP on Broad Street [photograph]. Available at: http:// philadelphiaencyclopedia.org/archive/aids-and-aids-activism/act-up-phila-on-broadst/ [Accessed 07 December 2016].

Figure 48: Evans, M., 1970. New York City’s first gay pride parade [photograph].

Available at: http://learning.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/11/22/teaching-and-learningabout-gay-history-and-issues/?_r=1 [Accessed 07 December 2016] Figure 49: Ward, M., 2014. Wind-up radio inventor gets New Year Honour [online].

Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-30634138 [Accessed 13 November 2016] Figure 50: Frame, A., 2015. Against the Flow [photograph].

Figure 51: My Own Image, 2016. Graffiti in Hackney Wick 1. [photograph].

Figure 52: My Own Image, 2016. Graffiti in Hackney Wick 2. [photograph].

Figure 53: Beer, H., 2012. 356/365 - The All Day Everyday Project. Flickr. Available at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/haynesmann/6690850905/in/faves-32125239@ N00/ Accessed 07 December 2016].

Figure 54: Anon, 2011. Dare to be Different [digital image]. Tumblr. Available at: http:// touchn2btouched.tumblr.com/post/11435384195/dare-to-be-different [Accessed 07 December 2016].

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