BSES Amazon 2009 Expedition Report

2009 Amazon Expedition Report

Published by BSES Expeditions, At the Royal Geographical Society, Kensington Gore, London, SW7 2AR, +44 (0) 2075913141, email info@bses.org.uk, Registered Charity No. 802196.

Sketches by Phoebe Tickell

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The Team Leaders Ewan Laurie Malcolm Bell Andy Boyd George Bullard Abbie Garrington Stephanie Law Torstein Løver John Lowry Theresa Meacham Tom Sargeant Georgina Standen Andrew Stokes-Rees Chris Stubbs Karina Tarling Dorothy Tomalin

Chief Leader Deputy Chief Leader & Safety Officer Expedition Doctor Tribe Fire Leader CARE Programme Coordinator & Wild Fire Leader Chief Scientist & Caiman Fire Leader Adventure Leader Ucayali Fire Leader Tribe Fire Leader Wild Fire Leader Expedition Doctor Chief Adventure Leader Caiman Fire Leader Ucayali Fire Leader Expedition Co-ordinator

Young Explorers Caiman Fire

Wild Fire

Nick Baxter Issachar Dieng Elizabeth Emmerson Jack Flanagan Ali Gardner Becky Harris Brittany Harris Adam Jackson Linn Klausen Rose Leeson Riana Mallon Ralph Wainer

Dan Brydon Laura Collins Katherine Edgar Arabella Fox Sally Gittings Alex Helliar Sophie McDonald Amalie Rieber-Mohn Catherine Stuttard Phoebe Tickell Ben Toms

Tribe Fire

Ucayali Fire

Grace Boardman Annabel Clark Sophie Edgell Anastasia Kim Aaron Le Flohic Gillies Megan Lister Carly Madgin Joanna Rothwell Katie Sanderson Ricardo Weekes Johnson Sam Whitaker Tim Wilson

Daniel Betney Sarah Edwards Als Everest Daniel Hughes Lorna Johnston James King Anna MacDonald Emily Patterson Jack Pitts Daniella Rabaiotti Kyana Terrelunge Hannah Thomas

BSES Expeditions 2

Expedition Area

Samiria, Yanayacu Grande and Hungurahui rivers confluence area (map made from satellite imagery and location labels). Canoe exploration in 2009 was along the Yanayacu Grande river, while the main research base (Lobo/Nutria) was located at the mouth of the Hungurahui River.

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Introduction – Ewan Laurie The Amazon Rainforest is an iconic location. It has drawn explorers from around the world for centuries. Each expedition has its own reasons for setting out, but there are common themes; a desire to understand the vastness of this colossal biome, its stunning biodiversity, adaptable people and punishing conditions.

As with all BSES expeditions we set out to develop ourselves; to learn, reflect and understand. We wanted to have fun, meet new people, challenge ourselves. We wanted to do this in one of the most testing environments on earth, whilst contributing to vital conservation science in an area of global significance. And that’s what we did.

than ever before. This meant that the need to tread lightly was uppermost in our minds and through the excellent CARE programme, developed by Abbie Garrington and delivered by all leaders, we were able to make sure we all knew why we were there.

The expedition was a resounding success and great credit is due to the Young Explorers and Leaders who worked so hard to make that outcome a certainty.

The BSES Amazon 2009 expedition was the latest and largest in a series of similarly themed expeditions to the Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve in Peru, involving more boats and more people BSES Expeditions 4

Chief Leader’s Report The Pacaya-Samiria Reserve in the Peruvian Amazon is Peru’s largest national reserve. It comprises some 2 million hectares of seasonally flooded rainforest, bounded by the Rio Maranon to the north and the Rio Ucayali to the south. Both contribute to the Amazon River, which officially starts where the two rivers meet.

The annual floods are caused by snow melt in the Andes and this year they continued much later into the year, presenting us with an extra wet challenge, but also with the chance of collecting a unique dataset for Dr Richard Bodmer and his colleagues who coordinate the conservation effort in the area.

round of necessary briefings on everything from communications, to hygiene, to science and adventure skills. These would be the techniques and ideas that we would need to master quickly if we were to achieve our goals.

The next day we travelled by bus to Nauta and boarded boats for our journey upriver. At the beginning of the trip, Caiman and Wild were to be based on the Lobo de Rio (Giant River Otter) with the Nutria (a semi aquatic rodent) tied up alongside.

They would be based at Hungurahui, whilst Tribe and Ucayali would be based on the floating research station Pithecia (Saki monkey) at Yanayacu. The two halves would swap locations at the halfway point.

It took a few days to move the entire group upstream, but the time was used in training and practicing new techniques. There was also time for the groups to bond, which is vital for a successful expedition.

The main party of leaders and 47 YEs arrived in nd Iquitos on the 22 of July to find that our simply outstanding Advance Party headed up by the unstoppable Malcolm Bell had put into practice all of our plans and had smoothed over a variety of diplomatic issues, mostly involving people not having received their money on time. Their tasks also included obtaining large quantities of supplies, as we had a goal of flying out the minimum possible kit, one of many tactics to minimise our impact on the environment.

After settling in at the Pascana (our base in Iquitos run by the ever generous Victor and his team), we tested our swimming skills and started the long

At the Hungurahui location, sub groups rotated through a series of surveys and activities, to ensure everyone had a go at all surveys. In the heat of the day it could be hard to continue actively watching for elusive turtles or dolphins from the boats, especially in the early days when the unseasonally high water levels meant that many of the species we were looking for were hiding away from the main channel, but the passion of Chief Scientist Steph Law won through, driving us on and reminding us of the importance of our mission.

The surveys at Hungurahui included terrestrial transects through the rainforest, dolphin and turtle surveys from boats and caiman surveys at night.

The overnight canoe-based Macaw surveys were also run at this location, which gave everyone a chance to improve their paddling skills. A two day jungle living course was also operated at this location, which gave everyone the skills they needed for surviving and indeed thriving in the rainforest.

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On board the Pithecia at Yanayacu, fires alternated between a 5-day Wild Camp, brilliantly conceived by Andrew Stokes-Rees, which involved canoeing, trekking and camp skills. There were also science surveys, including terrestrial transects, turtles and a fishery survey which doubled up as an opportunity to catch lunch.

Life on board was basic and cramped, but full of opportunity. The nature of the boats does not permit YEs to cook for themselves, so there is a degree of free time not normally available on expeditions, which we exploited to the full. Abbie Garrington’s superb CARE course allowed us to indulge in all things cultural from nature poetry and drawing to photography, assessing our environmental impact and debating environmental ethics. This allowed each member of the expedition to attain their John Muir Award. In addition, there were book groups, mass yoga sessions, video diaries, card games and quizzes to entertain once the all important data had been entered onto the laptops.

There were occasional mishaps and low points, caused by illness, bad luck and elusive wildlife, but we were supported by a medical team of epic endurance, ability and sense of humour, all of which qualities were tested at various points during the trip, but never found wanting.

All too soon we were heading back downstream to Iquitos, saying a tearful farewell to our Peruvian friends who generously welcomed us to their village at San Martin and where the football match diplomatically ended as a draw.

There was time to clean and pack kit on the way down and also time for sampling a little of the local culture in Iquitos, alongside a trip to a butterfly farm.

Pretty soon everyone was looking relatively clean and we’d packed away the kit in a depot for next year’s expedition (less freight = fewer carbon emissions). Suddenly I found myself on the way to Iquitos airport and leaving the amazing Amazon.

We’d done so much, but it seemed too soon.

At halfway, the groups swapped, having been mostly apart since the day we set sail. This called for a colossal fancy dress party, with pirates as the theme. Lots of tips and ideas were passed on to those swapping location and there was a general comparison of insect bites. Too soon the groups were apart again and completing the opposite part of the rotation. That the plan ran almost entirely to schedule was due to a combination of luck, careful planning and hard work on the part of all leaders, particularly those who had been to the area previously. YEs threw themselves at every opportunity and created even more, including games of football and the “Parrotlympics”, both of which will live long in the memory.

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Fire Report: Tribe Fire Getting to Iquitos Day 1 If you would really like to know what a true Amazon fire should be like, then look no further than Tribe fire. Such close friendships were created and so many jokes were told during the expedition and all st of this started on Tuesday 21 July 2009.

Anxiousness, tiredness and most importantly excitement were the main emotions felt at 5:45 in the morning at Heathrow airport, but all were welcomed with a cheery hello and smile. Do not worry if you have not met the other members of your fire as Sam, the newest member was met and welcomed and we were all friends before we hit the manic check-in.

After a quick caffeine boost in the airport we all boarded a flight to Houston. If you are lucky enough to sit next to someone in your fire then you can develop friendships even more. Nine hours later we arrived in Houston and after a quick run-around, we boarded another 8 hour flight to Lima, Peru. This was turning out to be a mammoth journey!

Iquitos to Pithecia Day 2-4 This morning we drove from our hotel to Nauta. We had our first real test of enduring the heat whilst waiting for our buses to leave. The journey was interesting as we saw the city of Iquitos get sparser and sparser as we reached denser rainforest. The locals all waved or winked as we passed and we got a flavour of the type of houses that they all live in.

Once we reached Nauta, we unpacked all the group kit of the buses along with all our rucksacks and began to load up the Lobo de Rio, which would house Caiman and Wild fire for the next two weeks.

We, however, had speed boats laden with coca-cola and sandwiches to whisk us down to our boat – the Pithecia. We were all cramped into airplane style seats and enjoyed the views of the jungle as the trees raced past. It was also interesting to see how the colour of the river changed as we went further away from Nauta.

We stopped about halfway, two hours in, for a walkabout, and our first group photo! One of many to come. Later, we reached the Pithecia and unpacked our stuff into our rooms. After assessing the shower situation and exploring the boat, we all settled in and had our first of many rice dishes. Glad to finally be here!

After a few hours sleep in Lima, we finally arrived in Iquitos airport. As soon as we got on the bus to the Pascana hotel, it became apparent just how remote the location was.19 hours of flying and still not there! Even Iquitos, a city, is extremely remote in the heart of the rainforest and only accessible by First week transects on Pithecia Day 5-11 water or air. However we still had two more days of Our first week on the Pithecia was a chance for travel to reach our final destination, the PacayaTribe to really get to know each other as we had the Samiria reserve.

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boat to ourselves. Ucayali were headed out on wild camp.

Tribe was split into three transect groups, the Termites, Tapirs and Ticks, for all of our surveys to be conducted. We took it in turns to do each of the transects including turtles, terrestrial, fish and caiman, accompanied by George, Theresa and Andy (an adopted tribal leader) as well as an expert Peruvian.

The turtle transects became more successful as the week went on due to the river water dropping. Our terrestrial transects allowed us to cut deep into the jungle before walking the same back, recording the vast array of animals we saw including red howler monkeys, woolly monkeys and snakes!

The fish survey allowed for some more relaxation, although many of us were relatively unsuccessful on the jungle-crafted hook and line! The Peruvian showed us how it should be done catching many Shuyo, Piranhas and spiky Caracchana!

The caiman took place in the evening starting at 2000. In the strong lamp light, many red eyes could be seen staring back at us. Manual made several daring attempts to capture a caiman and finally pulled a baby on board for us all to hold. After a week of fun and interesting data collection, we th packed for wild camp on the 30 July, ready for a week in the jungle!

Diary Entry 4th August 2009 The air is hot and heavy with a bounty of new smells and flavours. Vivid neon lettering screams from walls of concrete and rusted metal – this town never seems to sleep, and every turn of a corner welcomes new surprises and quirks. There is no label that could describe it – a wrinkled old man with skin like leather brandishes bracelets, sweets, earrings for the ‘chica guapa’ – right outside a grand five star hotel, with panels of polished glass, and men in crisp white collars, waiting to usher in guests. A woman drops plastic bottles from her window, into the arms of ragclad children, eager to earn their next meal. A burnt out, open-aired bus whirs past and countless tuk tuks dodge and weave and accelerate and hoot, harassing any passerby who dares hesitate for a second. There is a Tex-mex, crowded with jungle paraphernalia, boasting skulls of caiman and the head of a horned bull. Wander down the alleyways and boulevards at dusk and they are transformed – a tottering clown on stilts passes us indifferently, music blares out into the starry night and the air is mystical, the people full of magic. A woman smiles a crooked, gap-filled grin, and people chatter, call shouts of recognition, advertise merchandise, laugh, whistle and jeer. Out onto the edge and you reach the river, the vast expanse of murky waves and ripples, the moon glistening in its surface at night – the shadow of a dug out canoe floats eerily by, and the wooden houses crowd the banks, precariously balancing on wooden supports. Children squat and play, surrounded by mud littered with debris and waste. Iquitos is sprawled in the middle of the Amazon rainforest, unreachable by roads, and sounds like something out of a story book – looks like falling ill had a bright side, bringing me back to this kooky town and I want to promise myself that one day I’ll return again… by Phoebe Tickell during a few days in Iquitos (my evacuation) BSES Expeditions 8

Wild Camp Days 11 – 13 Day1 - After a 6 o’clock start we left the Pithecia in canoes at about 8 o’clock. We were all up for the challenge of the first long canoe trip. We paddled 6km up stream (but paddled about 10km of water) to base camp which took just over 4 hours. We were tired but satisfied! A couple of us took on the responsibility of getting the fire started and making lunch as soon as we arrived with the help of Pedro, our Peruvian guide for the 5 days of wild camp.

Machete training and swimming off the rafted up canoes in the cocha were on the agenda for the afternoon. It was the first time for everyone using a machete as well as swimming in the Amazon! A great day for new experiences!

Day 2 - After a restless night for some after sleeping hammocks, we canoed down a tributary. The water level was relatively low and lots of branches poked out of the water changing the required style of canoeing – including Annie walking onto a tree root to free her caught canoe!

Day 3 An emotional start to the day as Carly read a poem nd to mark the 2 year anniversary of the death of her sister Sam. My Big Sister…

Two years without your smile, Two years not looking in your eyes, Two years he’s gone without you, Two years I feel of grey skies.

This time of year has come again, This time I dread each year.

It’s the day you left to be with God, But still I don’t think it’s fair.

I wish so much I could be with you, And think of it every day.

I often lift my head to heaven, Thinking of you and how she has to pay.

But then shoulders back, head held high, I say be strong, she would not want you to sigh.

For your boy I carry on my life, For your boy is why I’m here.

Until the many years away I join you, Your boy will be my life, my soul My everything!

We then landed and trekked on an old hunter’s path – very exciting. Before turning back, we built a fire and cooked lunch. We were all ready for a good sleep after a physically tiring day. Doc Andy’s chilli con carne concoction and a hot mug of Milo.

Canoeing again today – 4km upstream. We stopped for lunch and collected fire wood, deciding that this place was a definite possibility for a new camp. We went swimming in the cocha again and had swimming relay races, boys vs. girls, around the rafted canoes – so fun! After the boys and girls cheated equally, we decided to call it a draw.

Some of the girls went fishing with Pedro in the afternoon and were then taught how to gut fish.

Throwing the innards into the water caused a 5m caiman to surface where we had been swimming earlier! We set off for base-camp at about 8pm in the dark and canoed back. We all enjoyed the canoe back, lit by the stars.

Day 4 Today we all had a bit of a lie-in until 7:30am. We started the fire as soon as we got up so that our porridge wouldn’t take ages to make.

After breakfast, we made a little documentary, one of which was about the life cycle of a leaf. It was really fun to do as our fire gets along so well and we all worked as a team.

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When we had made and had lunch, we then as a fire, had a bit of free time. However unfortunately one of our tribe members cut their hand with their pen-knife and had to 3 stitches without anesthetic – very brave!

Most of the girls sat down and made some bracelets which was good fun. We also made some for our fire leaders to say thank you for being so fantastic.

Then suddenly we heard another scream and another tribe member had split his lip with a machete and lost half a tooth (just shows you have to be careful with machetes!) and he had to be taken back to the Pithecia for stitches. So then we were two members down!

We had made a rope swing at wild camp that we all went on which was really good!

Our guide who we had with us had caught some fish during the day so we had fish fried with garlic and tomatoes which was delicious. After tea we then played a game and then all went to bed and had a sing song which made us fall asleep.

First week on the Lobo de Rio The Changeover Day What a day! It brought us the pirate invasion of the Lobo – the official changeover of boats. On record, it was the day that Tribe and Ucayali moved onto the Lobo de Rio (the river otter) but to make it more interesting we used whatever kit we had lying around to dress up as pirates. Likewise, the groups on the Lobo dressed up in blue face paint.

We used pegs and face paint to create cuts and tribal face lines with earrings, a combination of belts and clothes to make us more ... pirate-ish! Since only the Lobo had a motor, it joined the Pithecia downriver and with a hefty pirate yell, we boarded it with all our personal and group kit.

We found our rooms, cleared the cockroaches and settled in. A game of cards was started between boats. Then at lunch time the lobo motored back upstream. We ate on the way back up river and arrived at a guard station with a turtle-hatching safe beach in the early afternoon. The first turtle and caiman transects were begun that afternoon, and we all went to bed after a long day tired but happy.

Day 5 Today we all woke from our last night in wild camp.

We were all sad because we all enjoyed living in the jungle so much we didn’t want to leave! Once we had packed all our personal kit, then the group kit, we had breakfast (apple custard). When all the kit was in the canoes, we went round to our swing and had one last turn and then we set off down the river back to the Pithecia. The canoe down the river was amazing – so relaxing! We just flowed down whilst singing loads of songs (including the Geordie song).

It was so hot we decided to raft up and have a dip in the water to cool down which was fun. When we got back on the boat, we had our supper. Betty (a Peruvian friend) taught us some salsa and all the other Peruvians made us music to dance to. It was a really good end to the day! We then went to bed when the generator went off ready for the day ahead.

Day 17 Having spent our first night on board the Lobo we all set off on our various transects in good spirits!

Terrapins went for a dolphin transect and Trogons went on terrestrial. Although tribe were split into our two groups for the separate transects we managed to squeeze in our typical lagoon swim together – this had become a very regular occurrence! TRIBE STYLY! Following our supper, terrapins had a caiman survey whilst trogons awaited our return relaxing on the Lobo.

Day 18 Still getting into the Lobo swing of things – Terrapins set off on their dolphin transect in the sweltering heat at 9am and a couple of hours previous trogons had get off on their various terrestrial transects. With land available we all took the opportunity to either play volleyball with the

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Peruvians or cool off with a refreshing swim. Once again Terrapins left for their last caiman survey. th

Day 19 Saturday the 8 of August Terrapins were up early to do their terrestrial transects, whilst saying farewell to the other half of Tribe who were off on their Jungle Camp for 2 days.

Having seen the Howler monkeys, snakes and various frogs and lizards, Terrapins relaxed with some very muddy football to cool off in the afternoon sun.

Jungle Living We left at 8am by pecce-pecce then walked for 4 km through the jungle carrying heavy rucksacks.

We found the clearing used by previous groups and began setting up tarpaulins and hammocks for the night. After lunch of vegetable bolognaise we were visited by Caiman fire who had walked from Wild Camp to pay a visit. Later we did some navigation skills cutting pathways through the jungle with machetes in certain directions. After dinner we all sat around the fire and listened to the sounds of the jungle and watched the fire flies. All tired and sweaty, we had a swim in the nearby cocha which was beautiful in the evening sun.

Day 20 We woke up at dawn to a breakfast of rice pudding.

Our leaders Andy and Malcolm had set up a treasure hunt to test our navigation skills which was really fun and helped us to work as a team. We then struck camp and made our way back to the river where we met the peki-peki and traveled back to the Lobo. After lunch we all went for a swim to cool down before returning to unpack then re-pack for the Macaw survey the next day. We had fish and rice for dinner before having an early night ready for tomorrow’s wake up call at 4:30am.

Day 21 The Macaw surveys transect was indeed one of the most challenging – both physically and mentally. As if waking up at 4:30am was not crazy enough, we were required to paddle 7 km in our trio canoe groups. We ate breakfast at 4:45am and set off for our epic journey up river. We traveled 3.5 km stopping for 15 minutes Macaw watch every 500 meters. We then traveled another 3.5 km to the camp site where we would stay the night and repeat the draining process. Upon arrival we were pleasantly surprised at the state of the camp site.

After 5 minutes of admiration of the work Victor and the previous group had produced, our hunger soon unveiled so we got cooking.

After our long paddle and eating we decided to nap as we prepared ourselves for another 3.5 km paddle at 4.30pm. It could not have come any sooner but we had to get moving again if we wanted to get BSES Expeditions 11

activities for the return of Ucayali, and to enable us to earn our John Muir award.

On the agenda: Haiku poetry, some creative photography, swimming lessons, cross dressing and a final romantic evening all together on Lobo.

Some of us also paddled out on the canoes to watch the sun set tram a nearby cocha, as dolphins leapt around us. This had to be one of my favourite moments of the trip – spent in beautiful surroundings with fantastic friends.

Our final day spent moored on the Lobo was taken up by preparations for the “Parrot-Olympics” – our friendly inter-fire event. The day was a huge success, with events such as “tomato and spoon race”, “canoe race”, “5 legged race” and “tug of war”. It was a victory for Tribe over most of the events, but Ucayali managed to secure a win with the final Tug or War, and was presented with the “Parrot-Olympics Trophy” by sponsors George and Andy. Our final day ended with a toga party aboard Lobo – improvising with our bed sheets for our meeting with the Pithecia.

back just after the sunset in order to eat supper and be in bed for 8pm. As soon as we got back, we got cooking regardless of how tired we were. Soon after finishing supper we dived straight into bed with the joy of knowing we had to wake up at 4:30am again.

The last few days had been some of my favourites, although tinged with a hint of sadness. As we began our journey back to Iquitos it had begun to feel like the beginning of the end of our time as a Tribe.

Day 22 f time had passed by any quicker we would have gone back in time. Before we knew it, it was time to set off at 5:30am for an agonizing 7km of paddling.

Regardless of how tired we were we completed our survey and returned to our base. We couldn’t have had a better breakfast to come back to porridge.

This brought our spirits back to life and so we were fired up for another 7 km journey back to the Lobo.

Surprisingly we departed earlier than was expected and arrived later than predicted, but we all had fun regardless.

Day 24 th On the 13 of August Tribe A set out on a moonlit pecce-pecce ride in the hope of bearing the poachers to the nearby turtle egg nests. Thankfully we arrived to find six undisturbed nests on one beach and five on another collecting over 300 eggs in total!

The next morning our neighbouring fire, Ucayali all left for Jungle camps, so Tribe were left alone on the Lobo with two of our fabulous leaders – George and Andy. With their help we planned some BSES Expeditions 12

capacity of the jungle with numerous bites, and Hannah’s screams echoing far and wide, whenever anything touched her. The rest of the day entailed getting ready for the 5 day Wild camp, planning our personal projects and going through the John Muir Award. That night we had our first party, as by then the Lobo de Rio and all of its inhabitants had arrived. We played Charades, sang, drunk hot chocolate and generally had a lot of fun. th

Fire Report: Ucayali Fire nd

22 July We arrived in Iquitos airport in the morning after a 2 ½ hour flight. The humidity was stifling. From the airport our luggage was collected and we made our way to the two endearingly old fashioned buses waiting outside for us. The bus trip was rickety but full of different sights as we entered Iquitos. The hotel was down a side street and we were put randomly into rooms. At 1.00 we made our way through the streets of Iquitos to the local outdoor swimming pool. After the intense heat it was a relief to jump into the cool pool. A swim test was carried out and then we walked back in the 4.00 down pour.

Our fire stopped on the way for a drink in a small café. Dot and John both ordered plantain and gucha. The plantain was delicious! When we arrived back at the hotel we had 15minutes to get changed and sorted for the evening meal. Dinner was situated in a floating restaurant with stunning views.

A beautiful location and a perfect start to the trip. rd

23 July Today we left our hostel in Iquitos to go to Nauta.

We got up at 5.30 to get a bus at 7. Although typical Peruvian times we didn’t leave until 8. We then left for our 2 hour bus ride. As we were so jet lagged we fell asleep so I don’t remember much of this journey! We then sorted our stuff out and Ucayali and Tribe got onto speed boats and sped up the river to the Pithecia where we would be staying for our first 2 weeks. We would be in this boat for 2 days before leaving for our 5 day jungle expedition.

Sarah and I shared a room which instantly became messy. After dinner we played cards until the generator went out on our way to bed we saw fireflies and bats. th

25 July A good start to the day with an egg and rice for breakfast. Today we were going further upriver on the Pithecia, but since it had no engine we were tugged up by the Lobo. On the way we had more meetings about wild camp while sitting on the foredeck, and watching the jungle flow by, with a cloud of egrets escorting us all the way. After lunch we had our first tropical monsoon, and it was not wasted as the majority of the boat promptly stripped down and used it as a shower. That evening we had a quiz, which involved a few jungle related questions, and also a few about the leaders, which were quite informative. th

July 26 Today we woke to the smell of fried spam and rice for breakfast. Initial fears were quashed upon discovering that, actually, fried spam is quite tasty.

Five days of ‘wild camp’ started today for Ucayaliites, we all rose early (5.30 am) in anticipation of a 5km canoe to the site of our remote jungle camp.

Progress was slow however, and it wasn’t until 2pm that we actually set off up the Yanayacu Grande River. It was worth the wait! Canoeing upstream alongside primary rainforest, pink and grey dolphins, Amazonian kingfishers- and all under a blue, cloudless sky. Certainly an expedition ‘favourite moment’.

We arrived at 5.30pm, about 30-60 minutes before dark. This left us enough time to set up two sleeping areas, a latrine and fire. After a quick dinner we were ready for a good night’s sleep. However, in the rush to get camp set up before dark, we had set up the hammocks too closely together. The result was 8-10 crushed campers! Emily and I then spent an hour and a half constructing our own sleeping area from one tarp, four sticks and one hundred and one mosquito nets. In the dark. Top work! - Johnny M would be proud. th

27 July Porridge for breakfast (under cooked). We did canoe skills with Andy, learnt J-Strokes and other basic techniques, and also machete training which many people were very excited about. Saw some parakeets feeding off an ant nest whilst we were attempting to cut a transect, also what is apparently

24 July 5 O’clock wake up today and a short session of mourning yoga to start the day. We got out first taste of the rainforest when we were all taken on a jungle walk, and we got the first hint of the pain BSES Expeditions 13

the missing link between birds and dinosaurs, some birds called Hoatzins.

After spaghetti bolognaise lunch we had a siesta to wait for the cooler hours of the day. Pedro took us fishing with handmade rods in a small lagoon then we bathed in the river. Dinner was the best, especially with chocolate peanut bars for dessert. th

28 July th On the morning of the 28 we got up and canoed down to a small tributary leading onto the river discovered by James and Andy the previous day.

We then canoed down it, cutting our way through the undergrowth with machetes to allow the canoes to pass through. W e then hit dry land and went for a walk through the forest to see what animals we could see. We saw squirrel monkeys and parakeets and Pedro managed to build a bridge across a river which I managed to fall off, soaking myself. It was then lunch, which me, Pedro, Dan, John, Dan and Dot all caught some fish for as well as having the usual rat packs. We then canoed back out onto the river and made camp in an abandoned hunter’s camp which was much nicer than our original location. That evening we went swimming in the cocha next to the camp in the dark off the canoes. It was amazing. That night I fell asleep to the sounds of the dolphins in the cocha. th

29 July We all had a good night’s sleep for the first time. We were all given jobs to do that would improve the camp we had designed yesterday. A few were sent to set up the radio for communications, another few to build the toilet and John, Dan Hughes and me were asked to improve the docking for the canoes and build a path to camp. In the afternoon we were also split, some went fishing and the rest of us went back to take down base camp. Later we all expressed our feminine side through the medium of designing necklaces. th

30 July Last morning in jungle camp. We got up to the boys serving breakfast of custard an apple pieces-yum!

After breakfast we tidied up camp and set out back to the Pithecia on the Yanayacu River. Back on the Pithecia there was a mad dash for the showers and we were all very ready for lunch. After a few hours relaxing we had a wild camp debrief and then were told our groups for the next 5 days. The rest of the night was spent making ourselves smell half decent and playing cards.

so amazing! It felt weird though it felt like I was floating in mid air with River Dolphins popping up around me. In the evening after dinner we did a caiman survey in the dark which was nice although whilst sitting at the back of the pecce-pecce I didn’t really get to see much. The excitement occurred on the way back, random fish where diving into the pecce-pecce, I was actually scared! There was about 20 no exaggeration. One slapped John and Als on the back and another hit Dan on the face it was funny now I think about it but at the time I was just praying they didn’t touch me! st

1 August Me and Jack woke up at about 5.30 and woke everyone else from our remix of the fresh prince. I went on transect with Hannah, Dot, Manuel and Franco as our guides. We had to keep quite quiet so as not to scare the animals away. During this transect we saw a huge variety of wildlife including a family of 65 squirrel monkeys clambering from branch to branch as they passed through. Further up transect we saw a coati which Manuel chased for fun like a little kid. Then we came to a tree which Manuel cut a branch from and placed it vertically.

Out came the purest water I have ever drunk. nd

2 August Woke up early for breakfast of rice. Everyone left for their surveys. We were fishing today. Me, Jack, Hannah and James. We traveled up river for about 20min, and then set up 2 nets. We then topped at the side and attempted to catch fish. We were there for about 2 hours and caught 0 fish. We then collected the nets which weren’t too much of a success and headed back to the boat. It was Dot’s last night so after tea and a group went caimaning, we set up a slumber party for the night. rd

3 August Today I swapped survey groups so as to give Dani the chance to gain more information towards her project. We said a sad goodbye to Dot in the morning before leaving for turtles at 10.00. Before starting the 5km transect we popped up to the Lobo to drop off some antibiotics. We saw several splashes of turtles! In the afternoon I did some work on my project and 8.00 was caimaning time. 2 baby caimans were caught, measured and held. th

4 August Today tribe came back from wild camp. Our transect group went on a fishing transect, this meant I could lie in until 7:30 as we didn’t leave until 9. Breakfast was spam and rice which is another st meal I will eat here but not at home. On the way 31 July back we met up with Tribe and helped them take Outside I can hear loads of River Dolphins which is their stuff from the canoes. We then spent the rest cool. This morning I went on Turtle survey where we of the afternoon socializing and relaxing. After saw 5 turtles. The highlight of my day had to be dinner we had a salsa class as it was our last night swimming in the river as it was my first time, it was BSES Expeditions 14

on the Pithecia. After this the Peruvians threw us a party which involved lots of dancing on the top deck!

After the party we started playing cards before the generator went out. Sarah and I then made our way to bed for our last night on the boat. th

7 August After an interrupted night we found that the storm had been raging from 23:00 to 3:00; no wonder John was looking tired. We had a 3000m macaw survey to do before breakfast, so begrudgingly we made our way onto the river; however, the sunrise woke us up immediately. After a sugar-filled breakfast we packed up camp and made our way back to the Lobo. We finished the day with a mammoth volleyball tournament and a swim off the pier. th

8 August Woke up after a lovely lie in until 7 ‘o’clock yey!

After breakfast we set out at about 10am to do the turtle transect. Apparently we saw 2 turtles along the 5km transect although I think only the Peruvian guides actually saw them. It was a beautiful day though and the scenery was amazing whilst floating down river. The other half of Ucayali got back just after our group, they were doing a Dolphin transect.

We all had lunch together before a quiet afternoon catching up on diaries and personal projects. th

9 August Today we got up to do our dolphin survey and had a really good time watching the pink and grey river dolphins leaping out of the water and fishing. I’ve become pretty good at telling the difference now, they are amazing to watch. When we go to a bend in the river, at one point there were loads of them, both pink and grey, leaping out the water and splashing around. It was fantastic! That afternoon we all went swimming in the rain which was great fun. We were all climbing onto the inflatable canoe and then tipping everyone off it. It was so nice to cool off after baking in the boat for Dolphins. The rest of the evening was spent chilling out on the Lobo de Rio showering and washing clothes. That night we had a surprise after dinner of…FRUIT! It may have been tinned but it was amazing all the same. It even had grapes in. I went to bed feeling very satisfied.

draining day was concluded by sitting under a starry sky looking for comets before bed. th

11 August Went on Transect 2 today, it’s SO muddy. We didn’t see many animals but the guides found a pool full of white gelatinous goo which is actually rendered animal fat, as giant tadpole like creatures live in the pool which suck blood and devour any creature that goes in. After lunch we played a bit of football and attempted one game of touch rugby before swimming off the platoon. We did scientific drawing before having a briefing about tomorrow by Malcolm and Tor, about what we will do on Jungle Living. th

12 August We left for jungle camp after rice and bread at 8.30. It was a ten minute boat ride and then a 5km walk.

Once at camp we cooked vegetable casserole for lunch. Afterwards everyone fell asleep for ages before being awoken by the flies. Next we did a navigation session and split in half. When we got back it was nearly dark but luckily the other group had put on the water for dinner. We ate lamb pilau and haribo and then to avoid the mosquitos I called it a night. th

13 August Breakfast was as early as usual, about 6:30 with a similar meal to all the rest of fish and rice and onions. This time I was going on transect two with Emily, Lorna and John. Santiago and Bry were with us this time. We got onto the pecce-pecce at about 7:30 as this transect started a little down river. This transect was the most fun for me even though it was knee high in mud for most of it. This was due to the fact we saw so much. We saw one group of 95 squirrel monkeys, a frog as big as a dinner plate beside a hole filled with tadpoles about 3 inches long. Where we stopped for a break there was a big liana vine that I decided to climb and John suggested we make it into a swing. So for the next hour we all felt like Tarzans swinging from jungle vines. We then headed back by pecce-pecce to the obo for grub! th

14 August Today we had breakfast then Ucayali B set off for Jungle Living and it was SO hot. We trekked for 1 ½ th hours carrying awkward barrels and arrived at the 10 August camp to have lunch. Wild fire turned up during our Today was a scientific data collection day, with me, rest which was n ice so they had their lunch too. We Anna and Hannah walking a total of 4km along then got to work on building a raft so Torstein cut a transects one. A particular highlight was seeing beast of a tree down with a beat of an axe. What an around twenty-two squirrel monkeys, some of which absolute machine! We were all hacking away at were within one or two meters of us. We also saw logs with machetes, it was so much fun. Then we Howler Monkeys and Capuchin Monkeys, to name a set to work on building up the first parts of the raft. few. Lunch after the transect involved yet another James and Torstein tested a few and they floated meal mainly consisting of rice, before a leisurely but were very wobbly. We then had tea and it was a game of football and then a cooling dip in the river. A beautiful night. Afterwards Lorna, John, Als and BSES Expeditions 15

Sarah decided it would be fun to sit on one log and go into the cocha to look at the stars. It was the most terrifying experiences of my life but also the funniest! After face plants and screams we got back to shore with a Torstein style fire awaiting us to dry off. Today was one of the highlights of my trip! th

15 August We woke up at 5.00 ready to start another Macaw transect at half past. This time we stopped at 8 times to sit for 15 minutes watching for all types of macaw flying past. We then canoed back. For breakfast we made Milo porridge with powdered milk and peach and pineapple desert to thicken it. Yummy! We were due to start back for the lobo at 10.15 so we packed up camp and loaded all our belongings into a canoe.

The last night in the jungle, gone, like that. We arrived back at 12.30 and had rice, beans etc for lunch.

An hour or two later and it was time for the parrotOlympics. The events were tomato and spoon race, assault course, football, swim race, chuck, machete and tug of war. Each person did about 2 events and everyone took part in the tug of war. Tribe vs.

Ucayali. Despite being exhausted Ucayali was victorious and it was really satisfying to see how we had developed as a team. th

16 August Today those on the Nutria got woken up at 4:30 and told we had 5 minutes to grab our stuff for the day and get off before we got stuck. So we slept under the stars until 7am when breakfast started. After breakfast we had a briefing, telling us what would be happening for the next two last days. It was quite sad. All of us then packed up the group kit. We washed and dried it then put it away until next year’s expedition. We carried on doing this until lunch time.

This was pasta, rice and beans! After lunch we wrote profiles on ourselves answering questions like ‘’How will we be remembered?’’ and ‘’favorite quotes?’’

After this we sunbathed, read and slept until dinner.

Then we had a party with the Peruvians. th

Mon 10 We had a meeting about wild camp and were briefed about what to pack; wet kit, dry kit, something to sleep in, roll mat, mess tin and mug, and kit for personal hygiene. We were told about navigation and that we would be expected to navigate in the dense jungle with limited help. We were also briefed on canoe safety and how to distribute the kit within the canoe. We were then provided with large dry bags to pack our kit in this prevents the kit getting wet when were in the canoes. We were then provided with the water holders for the entire trip and it was our responsibility to ensure they were full.

Tues11th We packed up the canoes with the group kit which was distributed between all the canoes so the weight was evenly distributed. Each boat had a competent paddler at the back of the canoe to steer and the less competent in the front. We remained in the eddy by the side of the Pithecia while discussing our journey up river and how to cross the main river.

We then set off ferry gliding across the Samiria into the Yanayacu Grande River. During our journey up river we stopped at intervals to raft up next to a tree to remain stationary to discuss the next stage of the journey and the dangers we may encounter such as sweepers and strainers. The journey took us about two hours in which we travelled approximately 5km SW and due S. when we arrived at base camp we unloaded then set up camp. Every one was involved in setting up hammocks mossy next and tarps. We then collected fire wood to build up the fire and to make sure we had enough wood so we didn’t have to go out in the dark. After tea we then spent time together before going to bed. th

Wed 12 We rekindled the fire to cook breakfast a task designated to two people the night before. After breakfast we spent our time collecting fire wood and exploring the area around the camp, making sure we always had our compasses and whistle. Over lunch we had a meeting to discuss the aft.eve activity, canoeing up a little known tributary of the Yanayacu. We were briefed on how to portage a canoe over dead fall obstructing our path and how the lead boat had to go ahead and machete low hanging vines to create a safe path. We set off in the early afternoon upstream along the Yanayacu for approximately 2km NW before branching off up the tributary which was only visible if you knew it was there. We encountered several obstacles which we had to portage. We arrived at the cocha were the group stayed together while the lead boat went o ahead to fid where the river entered the cocha.

When it had been found the whole group went a little way up the river. Unfortunately we couldn’t go very far as we wanted to make it out of the tributary before night fall because of all the obstacles which we needed to portage. We made it back to the Yanayacu before night fall and travelled the last 2km S in the dark under the stars. We had to be constantly alert looking for the markers which we had left to indicate the entrance to the lagoon by the camp site. We then rekindled the fire and made tea before going to bed. th

Thurs 13 We rekindled the fire to cook breakfast after which we spent time exploring the area around the camp site more toughly. The group then spilt up into smaller groups some going canoeing on the lagoon BSES Expeditions 16

to improve there paddling technique, some went fishing for the nights tea, some helped make improvements to a hide which was being built, some to set up a camera on a known woodpecker nesting site, and the rest of the group helped make improvements to the campsite and collected fire wood. After lunch it was a group effort to prepare the nights tea from the fish caught in the morning. In the evening we had time to share sections from our diaries/journals and some people read sections from their books. th

Fri 14 After building up the fire and having breakfast we had a briefing about the days activity, walking to meet with the jungle living group at Cocha Urina.

We had to discuss the arrangements for the responsibility of navigation, safety while trekking through the jungle and the most efficient way to work as a team as you quickly loose sight of people in the dense jungle. We canoed across the lagoon where we arranged ourselves in the order required to navigate with the person with the machete at the front cutting the pat. Other people within the group also had machete so if anything was not cleared by the first person could be cleared to create the safest path possible. We navigated by setting the compasses to a certain bearing then a designated person would give instructions to the lead person with the machete ensuring they were always in a straight line along the bearing. This was done till the person with the machete was nearly out of sight then the person giving the instructions would change to the person behind the lead person. When we were unable to follow the bearing because of big trees or particularly dense sections of the jungle we had to count paces along a new bearing then do the opposite to get back on the original bearing. We travelled 1km on a bearing of 90Ëšbefore hand railing along a ridge to find the hunter track. The hunter track was marked by machete marks on the trees at chest height. The trees were marked on both sides so the track was easy to follow in both directions.

We followed the trail for 5km until we reached the cocha where we hand railed east till we met the other camp. After lunch with the other group we made the return unfortunately not crossing the bogs quite as successfully as on the way there. We finally made it back to our camp just before night fall, quickly gathered some fire wood and made some tea. th

nets, bashers, and comms equipment we began collecting fallen branches and dead leaves to put on the ground which had been well trodden. This is so there is less sign of us having been there and so the soil regenerates quicker, if we had just left then the soil may never have recovered. We then packed up the canoes again evenly distributing the weight and the canoe skills trying to get different people in the back of the canoes we set of back to the Pithecia. We paddled within hearing distance as we paddled back N and NE down the Yanayacu for approximately 5km occasionally rafting up to ensure we were staying together. When we reached the Samiria we ferry glided back across to the Pithecia where we unloaded the group and personal kit. We the unpacked and cleaned the group kit before repacking it for it to go into storage. We then unpacked personal kit and set about the challenge of washing it.

Sat 14 We rekindled the fire to cook breakfast and made plans as to who was going to take down which parts of the camp. We had to take down the camp leaving as little evidence that we’d been there as possible.

We did this by removing anything manmade we had taken to build the camp such a Para cord and duct tape. After taking down all the hammocks, mossy BSES Expeditions 17

BSES Expeditions 2009 Amazon Science Report Wildlife Conservation Research into Wildlife Population Density and Abundance to Evaluate Conservation Success in the Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve, Peru.

Stephanie Law 1. Abstract Working on behalf of reserve authorities and in collaboration with a number of institutions, alongside professional ecologists, students of The University of Iquitos and local guides, BSES Young Explorers conducted surveys to monitor wildlife populations in the Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve, in the North Eastern Peruvian Amazon basin, over a 20 day period. Surveys were to assess biodiversity of the reserve and to give an indication of the success of conservation strategies employed. Surveys were completed on key indicator fauna, this included species that would give an indication of the general quality of the rainforest and of aquatic ecosystems, such as terrestrial mammals, river dolphins and macaws. Other surveys, like those focused on the caiman and yellowspotted river turtles, were conducted to assess the recovery of previously hunted populations. Results are comparable to previous years showing that populations are at a healthy level and are thus a good indicator that the reserve is successfully conserving biodiversity. Data from this 20 day period is to be collated with that collected at various times in the year and locations throughout the reserve to enable a more reliable conclusion as well as seasonal, regional and annual comparisons to be made.

2. Introduction 2.1 British Society

Schools

BSES has been running extreme scientific research expeditions to remote wilderness areas around the world since 1932. Early expeditions collected valuable fieldwork data and brought back specimens for the Natural History Museum and the British Museum. These days, from glaciology and meteorology, to ornithology and physiology, it collaborates with a range of scientific research institutions from universities and world-respected scientists; to incountry NGOs and conservation organisations.

Exploring

The British Schools Exploring Society is the country’s leading youth development charity undertaking scientific research expeditions, with a provenance second to none.

Its approach to youth development is unique and successful; using a mixture of science and adventure, it has been at the forefront of youth development through exploring since its inception.

It uses the underlying principal of ‘adventure with purpose’ to develop the next generation of leaders and scientists.

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2.2

Ungurahui exists, (5o03’17,98”S, o 74 32’45,96”W)) indicated by B on map 3.

Location of the Study Area

Research was undertaken in the Pacaya Samiria National Reserve, part of the Amazon Basin in the North-Eastern district of Loreto, Peru. The reserve extends over 2,080,000ha and is located between two rivers: the Ucayali and Maranon, which come together to form the Amazon. These two rivers have meandered and changed pathways to leave behind old channels; the Pacaya a previous channel of the Ucayali and the Samiria of the Maranon, see map 1. The Samiria River basin is the largest geological and ecological feature in the reserve (Bodmer et al 2008).

Map 2: Showing the regions of hunted zones in the Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve. Circled are the sampled areas at Ungurahui and Yanayacu Grande, which both fall into the lightly hunted zone.

(Bodmer & Puertas, 2007, Monitoring Wildlife Populations). A larger version can be seen in Appendix B.

Map 1: Map of the Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve, bounded by the River Maranon and River Ucayali. A larger version can be seen in Appendix A. Research was conducted at 2 locations along the upper sections of the Samiria River, this area of the reserve lies within a lightly hunted zone, shown in map 2.

The Pithecia boat anchored at the confluence of the Yanayacu Grande River with the Samiria River, (4o58’58,48”S, 74o32’45,96”W) indicated

by A on map 3. Two further boats the Lobo de Rio and Nutria travelled further up river and anchored at the confluence of the Ungurahui River with the Samiria, at this confluence guard station PV3

A B

Map 3: Partial View of the Samiria River Basin. Study locations are indicated by A and B. (Bodmer et al 2006). A larger version can be seen in Appendix C.

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Samiria have a characteristic black colour; as the water slows through the forest it picks up tannings from decaying leaf litter in the river. Contrastingly, the rivers they originate from, the Maranon and Ucayali, are rich in suspended sediments from the Andes giving them a whitish colour (Bodmer et al 2008).

The reserve was established over 30 years ago, on its formation indigenous tribes were removed to outside the boundaries of the reserve with some moving out as far as Iquitos. Changes in management policies over the last two decades have seen local indigenous people participating in the management of the reserve (Bodmer & Puertas 2007, Impacts of displacement, quoted in Bodmer et al 2006). There are now 173 rural settlements within the reserve, the majority of which are small villages of less than 500 inhabitants.

Many inhabitants are of mixed race as well as ethnic groups such as the Cocamacocamilla.

The villagers rely on subsistence production and extract resources from the forest; it is important this custom remains sustainable (Gonzalez 2004)

A clearing made by hunters in the last 3 months, discovered at Ungurahui site when completing a terrestrial transect.

Site was approximately 4km from the Samiria River and from the guard station; a number of peccary skulls were left at the site indicating that hunters had targeted peccaries most likely for their hide.

2.3 History and Ecology of the Study Area The reserve is characterised by a flooded forest ecosystem, referred to as Varzea forest. The forest is founded on soft alluvial soils, with the deposition of sediment increasing soil fertility as the forest becomes flooded during the wet season. From the months of June to September the river levels fall by as much as 11m, altering the dispersion of species and the resultant competition for resources.

In the dry season precipitation off the Pacific Ocean decreases resulting in less rain in the Eastern Andes and less run-off. River levels fall. Fish become concentrated in channels resulting in an abundance of food for predators such as the river dolphin and caiman. In the wet season, precipitation off the Pacific Ocean rises again and the consequential increase in rainfall and run off from the Eastern Andes cause the river levels to rise again.

Fish become dispersed and terrestrial mammals become concentrated on high land making them easier targets for hunters. The rivers that bound the reserve: the Pacaya and

‘On April 30, 1993, Peru ratified the Convention on Biological Diversity (RL 21681) and delivered it duly signed to the Secretariat of the United Nations Organization on June 7, 1993. This Convention entered into force as of December 1993. Important points, specified in the Convention, were incorporated into the new Political Constitution (1993) drafted after Rio ‘92.

Article 68 of the new Constitution stipulates that “the State must promote the conservation of Biodiversity and protected areas”.’ (National Report 1997) A succession of laws quickly followed with the aim of conserving the biodiversity of Peru, this included laws

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prohibiting trade in wildlife yet in the markets in Iquitos this trade persists.

3. Objectives 3.1 Primary Objectives Success in conservation management relies on understanding the population dynamics over time of those species trying to conserve. BSES in conjunction with students from the University of Iquitos were to complete surveys with the aim to collect data on a number of key species that would enable an accurate estimation of population abundance and density. This data could be compared with previous years to make a judgment on the strength of the population and the implications that management strategies have. BSES were to help collect data over a period of 20 days from 27th July to 16th August.

Data was to be collated with that collected both prior and subsequent to the expedition so a more accurate conclusion could be drawn.

A stuffed Red and Green Macaw and Jaguar Cub for sale, alongside skulls of primates, peccaries and caiman.

Key indicator species were the focus of each survey. The pattern of biodiversity of a key species is used as an indicator of overall biodiversity. There are proposed criteria which are used in the selection of an indicator species: its ecology and natural history should be known, it should occur over a broad habitat and geographical range, it should be readily surveyed, patterns observed in the indicator species should reflect patterns in other species and it should have potential economic importance (Pullin 2002).

3.1.1 Surveys Terrestrial Mammal and Game Birds were surveyed.

Ungulates such as white lipped peccary, collared peccary and lowland tapir are preferred species for hunting followed by rodents, primates, edentates and carnivores.

Although variation in wildlife species found at meat markets exists between

Turtle eggs for sale in an Iquitos market.

It is such wildlife that the PacayaSamiria Reserve strives to protect.

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rural and urban areas, tapir and primates are more important sources of meat in rural areas (Bodmer et al 2004).

Estimating densities of these species enables estimates to be made of hunting pressure and the sustainability of hunting.

system and to assess the abundance of fish species as prey for other key indicator species.

3.2 Secondary Objectives: Conservation Management Strategies The hunting of wildlife in Loreto, Peru had an annual economic value of $US 1,362,450 to the rural sector in 2004.

Hunting is primarily for subsistence meat only then followed by the sale of meat to urban markets like Iquitos and the sale of pelts. Due to this economic value community based management of a reserve like the Pacaya-Samiria is required to help educate rural hunters and reduce hunting pressure (Bodmer et al 2004). If such management strategies are succeeding then a corresponding increase in population densities of target species should hopefully be seen.

Numbers of Caiman are established to assess the impact of the recovery of the previously hunted black caiman on the populations of common and dwarf caiman.

Macaws are surveyed to look at changes in numbers as they are a key indicator species of the health of the forest. Macaws generally nest in the palm swamps associated with the study location and feed on the fruits of the forest. Its mobility as a species would result in a fall or rise in populations as macaws either enter or leave the reserve depending on the availability of roosts and food.

4. Methodology 4.1 Terrestrial mammals

Yellow Spotted and Giant Amazonian River Turtles were counted to estimate population densities with the aim to ascertain the success of the head-start conservation programme that began 11 years ago. This head-start programme was to continue and turtle eggs were to be removed to a safe beach at PV3 Ungurahui guard station when found.

River Dolphins both pink and grey are used as indicators of the health of the aquatic system by looking at population density.

Again the speed at which dolphins can respond to changes in the quality of the hydroscope, as they can enter and leave the various tributaries of the reserve, will be reflected in changes in population densities.

Tamandua (Tamandua tetradactyla), an arboreal anteater, seen on Transect 3 at Ungurahui location.

Line censuses along transect trails were used to conduct terrestrial mammal and game bird censuses. Censuses trails, between two and five kilometers in length, were surveyed repeatedly. At Ungurahui two transects were initially cut and surveyed, however on transect one high water levels limited the

The abundance, diversity and composition of fish were assessed as an indication of impacts made by any local fisheries. This in turn would give an indication of the health of the aquatic

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distance that could be surveyed.

In addition a third longer transect that had been previously used earlier in the year, where water level was not an issue, was surveyed. At Yanayacu Grande two transects were surveyed. Over a period of 20 days a total distance of 315.2km was surveyed (154.2km at Ungurhui and 161km at Yanaycu Grande).

Data was to be collated with data collected throughout the year and census information was to be analyzed using DISTANCE software, a programme used to calculate population densities using probability functions (Thomas et al. 2002, quoted in Bodmer & Puertas 2007, Monitoring Wildlife Populations). The number of sightings recorded over a 20 day period was deemed insufficient to determine a probability function, therefore abundance of species were calculated in the form of individuals per km.

Information registered on a census included: day, site, species, number of individuals, and perpendicular distance from the individual to the transect line, habitat, time, distance travelled and weather conditions. Habitat is classified as either: Varzea, land which floods during the wet season; Restinga or Terra Firma, land which does not flood during the wet season; Vajial, land which is permanently covered by water; Shapajal, Aquajal, Shebonai, Huasayal, all different types of palm swamp.

The equipment used for line transects included: a map of the area, a compass, data sheets, pens and binoculars. Trails were not placed with any predetermined knowledge of the distribution of the animals. Censuses were done using small groups no larger than five observers. Transects were walked slowly and quietly (500-1,000m/hr) between 7am and 3pm (Bodmer et al 2008).

The method assumes that all the animals that are on the center of the line transect (0m perpendicular distance) were observed. The technique is based on the notion that observers do not see all the animals that are off the center of the line, and that the probability of sighting an animal depends on the distance of the animal from the line.

Animals closer to the line have a higher probability of being seen than animals further from the line. The perpendicular distances of all animal sightings were recorded (Buckland et al. 1993, quoted in Bodmer et al 2006).

4.2 Censuses of caimans

The method relies on measuring the perpendicular distance of animals before they move as a consequence of seeing the observer. That means observers must try and see the animal before they sight the observer and must measure the perpendicular distance of the first sighting of the first animal seen regardless of group size. The number of individuals within the group is then recorded.

Juvenile Common Caiman also known as the Spectacled Caiman (Caiman crocodilus) caught at Yanayacu Grande Site.

To assess the population and ecology of caiman species in the ecosystem it is necessary to gain an understanding of their population size. In particular to assess the population size of the

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recovering Black Caiman (Melanosuchus niger) population and any impact that this has on the common caiman population. The smaller, Dwarf Caiman (Paleosuchus trigonatus) also exists within the reserve. Caiman censuses were conducted at both the Ungurahui and Yanayacu Grande sites.

A total distance of 153km over the 20 day period was surveyed (100km at Yanaycau Grande and 53km at Ungurahui).

Aquatic transects were used traveling upstream or downstream on the Samiria river. A GPS was used to determine the 5km distance that was surveyed each night from 8:30pm.

Caiman surveys were conducted from a small boat fitted with a 15-horsepower engine. Caimans were located by their eye reflections using a 12-volt spotlight and approached to a distance where the engine was silenced and the boat paddled closer.

and nine points were established in each sampling unit separated by 500m.

Surveys were completed by canoe using a GPS to measure the distance between points, the waypoint of each point was recorded to ensure consistency of locations between surveys. At each survey point all canoes would raft together to prevent the boats drifting on the current and away from the survey point. Observers were to search both banks for macaws either perched or flying and the distance of the birds were estimated.

Fifteen minutes were spent at each point, as recommended by Ojasti (2000) (quoted in Bodmer & Puertas 2007, Monitoring Wildlife Populations).

Censuses were carried out twice a day in the morning at dawn (5:30-9:00h) and in late afternoon at dusk (16:00-18:30).

Surveys were completed at dawn and dusk as macaws are more active during these periods as they leave and return to roosts. The censuses usually last longer in the morning than in the afternoon due to time constriction of restricted light during the evening surveys. Each census was completed on a two day rotation; on day one the dawn survey was completed up river on the Ungurhui River from where the Lobo de Rio was anchored (transect one). At the end of the survey a further 1.5km up river was covered by canoe and a camp established. The second survey of the day was completed further up river on the Ungurahui from camp (transect two) and return to camp was made in the dark by head light. On day two transect two was completed at dawn before breaking camp and returning back to the Lobo de Rio at the guard station. When an overnight camp was not appropriate all surveys at dawn and dusk were completed on transect one.

All caimans seen were identified to the species level as best as possible and the estimated size of the caiman and location were noted.

Attempts to capture caimans under 1.5m were made by hand. Caiman caught were secured by taping their snout shut. This allowed a more accurate measurement of size from the tip of the snout to the tip of its tail. The sex of the caught caiman was also determined.

The population abundance of each species were calculated using the formula N/L, where N= the number of individuals and L= the distance travelled in kilometres. The results will indicate the number of individuals per kilometre.

(Bodmer et al 2008) 4.3 Censuses of macaws Censuses of macaws were carried out at the Ungurahui site. Point counts were used to monitor macaws, a method suggested by Hostetler (2001) (quoted in Bodmer & Puertas 2007, Monitoring Wildlife Populations). Between seven

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4.4 Turtles 4.4.1 Census of turtles and the nesting programme The censuses of the river turtles, in particular the Yellow-Spotted River Turtle (Podocnemis uniflis) and the Giant Amazonian River Turtle (Podocnemis expansa) were carried out in the Ungurahui and Yanayacu Grande sites. The method consists of travelling with the current of the river on a boat for a distance of 5km, either upsteam or downstream, on the Samiria River. The number of individuals sited, either sunbathing or swimming, was registered along with distance along transect, time sited, perpendicular distance from the centre line of transect and microhabitat.

The classification of the microhabitat will take note of the sticks and fallen logs, floating logs, beaches and whatever solid structures floating on the surface of the water.

Dusk survey along transect two on the Ungurahui River

The censuses were carried out using a boat and following an imaginary line across the middle of the river between the hours of 10:00 and 13:00. The boat drifted with the current at an approximate rate of 2km per hour. To facilitate the observations, binoculars were used when individuals were sunbathing more than 50 m away from the boat. River turtles are notoriously shy creatures and it was vital that all on board for the survey remained as quiet as possible to minimise any disturbance and increase the likelihood of making a sighting. A GPS system was used to measure the distance travelled. The ‘fixed width’ method was used to estimate turtle abundance, where the fixed width was the width of the river.

Blue and Yellow Macaws (Ara ararauna) at Ungurahui location.

There were five known species of macaw in the reserve to survey: Blue and Yellow (Ara ararauna), Scarlet (Ara macao), Red and Green (Ara chloroptera), Chestnut Fronted (Ara severa) and Red-Bellied (Orthopsittaca manilata). Abundance data of a species was calculated by adding the total number of sightings and dividing this number by the number of points. Thus, abundance is expressed as the number of individuals per point. In total 141 points were censured.

Population Density using the fixed width method: D=

N 2AL

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Where:

found and marked for collection later on as guides completed a search, however on return some marked nests had been emptied by illegal poachers.

D= Density N= Number of individuals A= River width L= Distance travelled 2= Number of margins sampled

Transport of eggs.

Once the nests are found, they were carefully excavated out of the soil using ones hands. Eggs were extracted, one by one, and placed very gently on a tray with a layer of sand. Care was taken to maintain the original position of the egg and not to turn them around during handling in order to make sure that the growth rate of the embryo remains intact.

Every nest in the tray was labelled with the location of the beach, the number of eggs collected and the number of eggs that are not viable.

Eggs considered viable are those that develop a whitish spot 24 hours after they have been laid. Eggs that are not considered viable, due to cracks in their shells, fungus, abnormal size, or appearing flaccid, were discarded (Bodmer et al 2008). Only viable eggs were transported to the safe beach at Ungurahui guard station.

4.4.2 The nesting programme Beaches at Ungurahui were used to collect turtle eggs from nests as part of the head starting programme.

Turtle eggs were collected from the nests and placed in an artificial beach constructed next to the park guard post at Ungurahui to incubate. After 60 days the turtles hatch and were released back into the main river from where the eggs were initially collected from. The artificial beach was prepared from sand which had been carefully selected and was free from organic remains and insects.

The artificial beach was encircled by a barrier created from palm tree wood, in order to keep in the sand and to facilitate drainage whilst avoiding the loss of nests during the incubation process. The size of the palm frame is dependent upon the number of nests planted; in this case a frame of 5 by 6 metres was used. (Bodmer et al 2008) Collection of eggs.

The unusual high water levels near Ungurahui location meant that there were fewer beaches exposed and therefore fewer sites for turtles to lay their eggs and fewer sites to search.

Rain fall in the evening also prevented the collection of eggs. The nests were located on those beaches which were exposed by gently probing the ground with a small stick; or by simply pressing the ground very gently with one’s heel when the footprints are not clear enough or had been washed away by rain.

Nests were located by experienced guides and students helped remove, transport and nest the collected eggs.

On some occasions nests had been

The collection of eggs at a beach near Ungurahui site. Eggs from two separate nests can be seen in the blue tray to transport them.

Nesting.

A hole was dug by hand in the sand similar to that of a natural nest. The depth of the hole depends on the number of eggs that were placed in the nest. One by one, the eggs were placed

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inside the whole, in the same position in which they had been found, and the nest was then covered up with sand and lightly patted to create a little mound of sand about 5cm high. The distance left between each nest was 20 cm, whilst 30 cm of space were left between each row.

09:00 and 14:00; the method consists of travelling with the current of the river at an approximate rate of 2km/hour but which slowed with the falling river depth.

Dolphin transects could take between three and four hours to complete depending on the speed at which the river was flowing.

Placing the eggs in a nest at the safe beach at Ungurahui guard station.

Nests are spaced evenly apart and covered with a small mound of sand.

Any dolphins seen coming to the surface for air, swimming with their heads above water, sunbathing or swimming just below the surface of the water (i.e. no deeper than 5cm) were recorded. Information collected includes: species, group size, group composition, behaviour (swimming, fishing, playing), time, and any additional observations.

For each transect the weather conditions and the start and finish times were recorded. Data were analysed using fixed width method, as used to estimate turtle populations. (Bodmer et al 2008) 4.5 Censuses of fish

Information on the number of nests, the number of eggs, the percentage of unviable eggs as well as the date of collection and incubation were recorded.

(Bodmer et al 2008) Eggs hatch after an approximate incubation of 60 days. The hatchlings are then returned to beach from where they were taken for release.

Censuses were carried out at the Yanayacu Grande site. During the census activities green gill nets of 3.5’’ were used in lakes and channels with weak currents and white gill nets in the river. Fishing points were located on shores or banks where there was aquatic vegetation or shrubs. Nets were cast and left for at least one hour before any catch was assessed. During this time fish were caught with rods using meat as bait. Fish caught using rods were analysed independently of those caught in nets.

4.5 Censuses of dolphins Aquatic surveys were used to census the Pink River Dolphin (Inia Geoffrensis) and the Grey River Dolphin (Sotalia fluviatilis) at the Ungurahui site. A GPS (Global Positioning System) were used to determine the length of each aquatic census. The set length for each transect was 5km, however this was not always possible due to poor weather conditions or time constraints. A total distance of 78.8km was surveyed over the 20 day period.

Individuals were identified, measured and weighed.

Habitats were also compared (lake, channel, river). The diversity index was calculated to compare habitats and to predict which species an individual chosen at random from a capture would belong to.

A wooden boat was used to carry out the census daily between the hours of BSES Expeditions

27

Diversity index: N (N-1) ∑n(n-1) Where: N = total number of individuals caught regardless of species n = total number of individuals of a particular species.

Fish caught in the nets were vulnerable to attack by piranhas.

The catfish pictured had been devoured within an hour.

Productivity of fish was shown in terms of catch per unit effort, using the ‘biomass captured per effort’ method.

Catch per unit effort was calculated by the number of individuals per species caught and the effort spent fishing at each zone. The CPUE method is a robust indicator over time for the level of abundance, density and pressure fishing in a given zone (Queiroz 2000, quoted in Bodmer & Puertas 2007, Monitoring Wildlife Populations). The lengthfrequency analysis indicates the size distribution of a fish population and helps to predict biological impacts of fisheries. A harvest focused on juveniles, for example, causes greater impact than a harvest of adult fish not in their breeding period. (Bodmer et al 2008)

Fish were caught with rods using raw meat as bait alongside casting nets.

5. Risk Assessment A thorough and comprehensive risk assessment was completed by Dr Malcom Bell, Expedition Safety Officer; a full copy of this risk assessment can be seen in Appendix C. The primary risks associated with scientific surveys were as follows:

The collection of biometric data. Fish caught were weighed and measured.

-

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On terrestrial transects: accidents such as a fall, stings and snake bites. This risk was diminished by

-

6. Results 6.1 Terrestrial Mammals Surveys were carried out at both the Yanyacu Grande and Ungurahui site. 2 transects were cut and surveyed at Yanayacu covering a total distance of 161km whilst 3 transects were cut at Ungurahui covering a total distance of 154.2km over 20 days. Water levels were initially high and much of the varzea ground was still flooded at Ungurahui, limiting the distance that could be covered on transects until the water level subsided. Across both sites 23 different species were recorded: 8 primate species, 4 game bird species, 3 edentate species, 3 carnivore species, 3 species of carnivore, 3 rodent species and 2 species of ungulates. 16 different species were observed at the Yanayacu site (Table 1) and 21 were observed at Ungurahui (Table 2).

A b u n d a n c e , in d iv id u a ls p e r k m * 1 0

-

enforcing a policy of appropriate clothing: long sleeves and trousers, footwear have been wellington boots or hiking boots, protecting the ankles.

Anti-venom was available on the boat and provision for evacuation if needed.

On all surveys heatstroke was a potential issue.

A policy was enforced where all volunteers must wear a hat and appropriate clothing, 2 litres of drinking water must be taken and sun screen must be worn and taken along.

On all aquatic surveys drowning was a risk that was minimised by the nature of the boats used. All boats had to drift at a rate of approximately 1-2km per hour to complete surveys accurately.

Students were required to wear buoyancy aids when on the water and must have completed a swimming test on arrival in Iquitos.

All weak and non-swimmers were then identified to leaders.

All leaders on the expedition were fully trained in outdoor first aid and would accompany students on any survey that was considered to be at higher risk. All students were to ensure that a fully equipped first aid kit was available on any survey.

14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 1

Communication systems in terms of satellite phones, HF, VHF and UHF radio, GPS and EPirbs were available on the boat if not on surveys.

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Species

Figure 1: Abundance of terrestrial mammals and game birds at Yanayacu Grande. Species number corresponds to those shown in table 1.

Thorough health and safety briefings were delivered to all students during the up river journey, self awareness with regards to the risks involved consequently helps to reduce or eliminate the risk involved.

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Common name

No

Squirrel Monkey Howler Monkey South American Coati Saddleback Tamarin Brown Capuchin Blue Throated Piping Guan Monk Saki Monkey Woolly Monkey

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Red Squirrell Razor Billed Currasow Tinamou Black Squirrell

10 11 12 13

Ocelot

14

Spix’s Guan

15

Tayra Giant Anteater

16

Scientific name Saimiri boliviensis Alouatta seniculus Nasua nasua

Abundance Ind/km X 10 12.36 9.94 5.84

Saguinus fuscicollis

5.47

Cebus albifrons

4.72

Aburria cumanensis Pithecia monachus Lagothrix lagothricha Sciurus igniventris

Figure 2: Abundance of terrestrial mammals and game bird at Ungurahui location. Species number corresponds to those shown in table 2.

No

Common Name

1

Howler Monkey

2

1.80

4

1.43

5

Woolly Monkey

6

3

Mitu tuberosum

0.99

9

Tinamou Monk Saki Monkey South American Coati Black Squirrel

Tinamus major

0.93

10

Red Squirrel

Sciurus sp.

0.81

11

Spix’s Guan

12

Arboreal Sloth

Leopardus pardalis Penelope jacquacu Eira barbara Myrmecophaga tridactyla

1.24

7

1.24

8

0.06 0.06

13

0.06

14

0.06

Table 1: Abundance of terrestrial mammals and game birds at Yanayacu Grande.

15

The most abundant species at Yanayacu Grande was the squirrel monkey (Saimiri boliviensis) followed by the Howler monkey (Alouatta seniculus), which was by far the most abundant large primate. The most abundant of the game birds was the Blue Throated Piping Guan (Aburria cumanensis).

18

White Faced Capuchin Razor Billed Currasow Blue Throated Piping Guan

16

Brown Agouti

17

18

Night Monkey Red Brocket Deer Peccary

20

Tamandoua

21

Tayra

Alouatta seniculus Saimiri boliviensis Saguinus fuscicollis Cebus albifrons Lagothrix lagothricha Tinamus major Pithecia monachus

Abundance Ind/km x 10 12.06 9.73 9.21 8.50 4.35 2.21 1.75

Nasua nasua

0.84

Sciurus sp.

Sciurus igniventris Penelope jacquacu Bradypus variegates

0.78

Cebus apella

0.39

Mitu tuberosum

0.32

Aburria cumanensis Dasyprocta fuliginosa Aotus sp Mazama americana Tayassu sp.

Tamandua tetradactyla Eira barbara

0.71 0.64 0.39

0.26 0.26 0.19 0.13 0.13 0.06 0.06

Table 2: Abundance of terrestrial mammals and game birds at Ungurahui.

The most abundant terrestrial mammal at Ungurahui was the Howler monkey (Alouatta seniculus) followed by the smaller primates: the Squirrel monkey (Saimiri boliviensis) and the Saddleback Tamarin (Saguinus fuscicollis). Again the larger primates such as the Woolly monkey (Lagothrix lagothricha) and Saki monkey (Pithecia monachus) were not as common. The most abundant game bird was the Tinamou (Tinamus major), the least abundant game bird at this site was the Blue Throated Piping Guan (Aburria cumanensis).

14 A bun danc e, indiv idua ls per k m *1 0

Squirrel Monkey Saddleback Tamarin Brown Capuchin

Scientific Name

12 10 8 6 4 2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Species

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However, whilst the Black Caiman showed a greater abundance at Ungurahui it was the Common Caiman which was more abundant at Yanayacu Grande. The Dwarf Caiman was rarely seen at either site. (figure 5).

6.2 Censuses of Caiman

Common Caiman 42%

Abundance, individuals/km

Caiman censuses were completed over 53km at the Ungurahui site. A total of 278 individuals were recorded, of which 159 were Black Caiman (Melanosuchus niger), 118 were Common Caiman (Caiman crocodiles) and only 1 belonged to the Dwarf species (Paleosuchus trigonatus), see figure 3.

At the Yanayacu Grande site, 439 individuals were sighted over 100km. Of these individuals 229 were recorded as eyes only and could not be identified.

This could be due to individuals increased wariness at this site; surveys at Yanayacu Grande are less common and the permanent presence of a guard station at Ungurahui may result in familiarisation of Caimans here. Of the 210 species identified, 78 were Black Caiman and 132 were Common Caiman.

No Dwarf Caimans were sighted (figure 4).

3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 Black

Common

Dwarf

Species Ungurahui

Yanayacu Grande

Figure 5: Abundance of species seen at the different sites.

6.3 Censuses of Macaw Five species of Macaw were observed during the census at Ungurahui: Blue & Yellow Macaw (Ara ararauna), Red & Green Macaw (Ara chloroptera), Scarlet Macaw (Ara macao), Red Bellied Macaw (Orthopsittaca manilata) and Chestnut Fronted Macaw (Ara severa).

A total 2121 sightings were made across 141 observation points.

Black Caiman 58%

Figure 3: Composition of species seen at Ungurahui.

In d iv id u a ls p e r p o in t

Black Caiman 18%

Eyes Only 52% Common Caiman 30%

16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Blue & Yellow

Figure 4: Composition of species seen at Yanayacu Grande.

Chestnut Red Bellied Fronted Species

Red & Green

Scarlet

Figure 6: Abundance of macaws at Ungurahui.

Discounting unidentified caimans, Ungurahui showed a greater abundance of Caimans than Yanayacu Grande.

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Blue and Yellow Macaws (Ara ararauna) were by far the most abundant species seen with an abundance of 15.04 individuals per point whilst Scarlet Macaws (Ara macao) and Red and Green Macaws (Ara chloroptera) proved to be the most scarce with an abundance of 0.07 and 0.06 individuals per point respectively (figure 6).

largest group consisted of just 12 in comparison.

F re q u e n c y o f g ro u p s s e e n

300

20

250 200 150 100 50

Indiv iduals per point

18

0

16

1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33

14 12

No. of Macaws in group

10 8

Figure 8: Frequency of group sizes for the Blue and Yellow Macaw (Ara ararauna).

6 4 2 0

Blue & Yellow

Chestnut Fronted

Red Bellied Red & Green

Scarlet

25

Species Individuals at Sunset

F re q u e n c y o f g ro u p s

Individuals at Sunrise

Figure 7: A comparison of the abundance of macaws at sunrise and sunset.

Temporal analysis indicated that Blue & Yellow Macaws (Ara ararauna) were more active at sunset whilst Red & Green macaws (Ara chloroptera) and the Scarlet macaws (Ara macao) were only sighted at sunset. In contrast Chestnut Fronted macaws (Ara severa) and Red Bellied macaws (Orthopsittaca manilata) were more active at sunrise rather than at sunset as seen in figure 7.

20 15 10 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 121314151617181920212223 No. of Macaws in group

Figure 9: Frequency of group sizes for the Chestnut Fronted Macaw (Ara severa).

F re q u e n c y o f g ro u p s s e e n

25

All macaw groups most commonly flew in groups of 2: 260 sightings of Blue and Yellow macaws were made when they were flying in a pair, 20 sightings of paired Chestnut Fronted macaws were made and 21 of Red bellied. A large variation in group sizes between these species occurred; one group of Blue and Yellow macaws was recorded as being as large as 33 as they flew from what was thought to be a roost. The largest group size of Chestnut Fronted was of 23 individuals and of Red Bellied the

20 15 10 5 0 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10 11 12

No. of Macaws in Groups

Figure 10: Frequency of group sizes for the Red Bellied Macaw (Orthopsittaca manilata).

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6.4 Censuses of Turtles

On Land 4% Sunbathing 27%

A total distance of 157.07km was surveyed in 20 days with a total of 381 individuals recorded across both sites.

60

P o p u la t io n d e n s it y I n d iv id u a ls / k m 2

50

Swimming 69%

40

Figure 12: Behaviour of sighted Yellow Spotted Turtles (Podocnemis unifilis) at Ungurahui

30 20 10

Swimming 35%

0 Ungurahui

Yanayacu Grande Location

Yellow Spotted Giant Amazonian

Figure 11: A comparison of population density of Yellow-Spotted (Podocnemis unifilis) and Giant Amazonian Turtles (Podocnemis expansa) at Ungurahui and Yanayacu Grande.

Sunbathing 65%

Figure 13: Behaviour of Yellow Spotted Turtles (Podocnemis unifilis) at Yanayacu Grande

There was a greater density of turtles at Ungurahui compared to Yanyacu Grande.

The population density of Yellow-Spotted River Turtles (Podocnemis unifilis) at Ungurahui was 48.73ind/km2 compared to only 13.81ind/km2 at Yanayacu Grande (figure 11). The population density of Giant Amazonian turtles (Podocnemis expansa) was also higher at Ungurahui at 7.92 ind/km2 compared to only 3.45ind/km2. The high water levels at both sites and the frequency of rain during the survey period meant that fewer surveys than scheduled took place. It also meant that fewer eggs were collected due to the scarcity of beaches.

A larger percentage of sighted turtles were recorded when they were swimming at Ungurahui but when at Yanyacu Grande a larger percentage of turtles were sighted when they were sunbathing (figures 12 and 13). More appropriate sunbathing sites at Yanayacu Grande could account for this difference.

6.5 Censuses of Dolphins Dolphin surveys were completed only at Ungurahui.

A total of 454 dolphin sightings were recorded and a total distance of 78.8km surveyed. Of those individuals identified 321 belonged to the Pink River Dolphin species (Inia geoffrensis) and 133 to the Grey River Dolphin species (Sotalia fluviatilis).

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Juvenile 24%

A b u n d a n c e ( in d / k m )

4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0

Adult 76% Pink

Figure 16: Population structure of Grey River dolphins (Sotalia fluviatilis). at Ungurahui.

Grey Species

Figure 14: Abundance of dolphins at Unguahui.

Juveniles 14%

P o p u la t io n D e n s it y ( in d / k m 2 )

60 50 40 30

Adults 86%

20 10

Figure 17: Population structure of Pink River dolphins at Ungurahui.

0 Pink

Grey

The population structure of both the Pink and Grey River Dolphins, were dominated by adults (figure 16 and 17).

Species

Figure 15: Population dolphins at Ungurahui.

density

of

Dolphins are generally sighted in pods; however, solitary individuals of both species were frequently recorded. The Pink River Dolphin had solitary individuals and pairs in 64.6% and 26.4% of the sightings respectively, whilst the Grey River Dolphin had solitary individuals and pairs in 34.9% and 36.5% of the sightings respectively (figure 18). Both species can also be seen in larger pods, the largest pod observed of Pink River Dolphins consisted of 7 and of Grey 6. Grey River Dolphins were sighted more frequently in pods larger than 2.

The census indicates that the population density of Pink River Dolphins (Inia geoffrensis) is much higher than that of the Grey River Dolphin (Sotalia fluviatilis) in the Samiria river basin with densities of 50.9ind/km2 and 40.7ind/km2 respectively (figure 15).

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Family 70

Osteoglossidae

60 S ig h t in g s %

50

Prochilodontidae

40 30

Anostomidae

20

Characidae

10 0 1

2 Grey

3 Pink

4

5

6

7

Composition of group

Figure 18: Frequency of sightings of dolphin pods in the Samiria River at the Ungurahui location.

Serrasalmidae

The behaviour of the river dolphins included swimming, fishing and for the Pink Dolphin only, playing. The most commonly sighted activity for both species was swimming which accounted for 61.9% of sightings for the Grey River Dolphin and 87.3% of sightings for the Pink River Dolphin (figure 19).

Loricariidae

100 90 80

Cichlidae

S ig h t in g s %

70

Swimming

60

Species Osteoglossum bicirrhosum (Vandelli, 1829) Prochilodus nigricans (Agassiz, 1829) Schizodon fasciatum (Spix, 1929) Triportheus elongatus (Spix, 1829) Serrasalmus sp.

Pygocentrus nattereri (Linnaeus, 1766) Serrasalmus rhombeus (Linnaeus, 1766) Mylossoma duriventris (Cuvier, 1818) Mylossoma sp.

Myleus rubripinnis (Müller y Troschel, 1845)

Local name Arahuana Yaraqui Boquichico Lisa

Sardina

Piraña Piraña alargada Piraña Piraña roja Piraña blanca Palometa Palometa Curuhuara

Ancistrus sp.

Carachama ancistrus

Hypostomus emarginatus (Valenciennes, 1840) Liposarcus pardalis (Castelnau, 1855) Liposarcus sp.

Carachama Carachama Carachama

Astronotus ocellatus (Agassiz, 1831) Aequidens tetramerus (Heckel, 1840)

Acarahuazú Bujurqui

Fishing

50

Table 3: Known species of fish caught at Yanayacu Grande location

Playing

40 30 20

Species that have been unable to be identified from their local name include:

10 0 Grey

Species

Pink

Caramacha Chiripira Aaneistros Denton Sabalo Piscangle Pantometi Shuyo.

Figure 19: Behavioural activities of sighted Pink and Grey River Dolphins.

4.6 Censuses of Fish A total of 797 individuals were caught across habitats, including the Samiria River, the Yanayacu Grande River and a nearby Cocha, using both nets and rods as fishing methods. Of this capture individuals belonged to at least 22 different species and 7 different families (table 3).

Of the 256 species registered in the Pacaya Samiria National reserve (Ortega & Vari 1986) this list includes just 8.6%.

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Fish were caught in the Yanayacu river and Samiria river and in a nearby Cocha. The rivers provided the biggest capture with 509 individuals caught in total with only 294 indiviuals caught in the Cocha. In this survey the greatest species richness from fish caught in rivers and in the cocha were the Carachama belonging to the family Loricariidae, and also the fish known locally as Shuyo. Those fish with the lowest species richness caught in all habitats were known locally as Acarahuazu and Bujurqui belonging to the Cichlidae family (figure 20 and 21).

As well as accounting for the greatest species richness these two families also accounted for the greatest biomass: Carachama and Shuyo accounted for 37.4% and 22.8% of all the biomass caught in both rivers respectively, they also accounted for 70.3% (Shuyo) of biomass and 25.9% (Carachama) in the cocha. Other species only represent the remaining 3.8% of the biomass captured in the cocha (figure 22 and 23).

Other, 10 Acarahuazu, 4 Sardine, 7

Shuyo, 143 Carachama, 114

Figure 21: Composition of fish caught in the cocha using a net, figures show absolute numbers caught alongside the local common name, 30 25 T o ta l b io m a s s (k g )

20 15 10 5

i

h

ju r qu Bu

a

tf i s

ll o

an p ir

a ri db

ell

ied

am

ac ac L is

Re

he

te

ra n Pi

Caramacha, 11

Ca

ca la n ab

Sa

rd

i co

in e

a Bo

qu

ic h

o

Ca

Other,38

Lis

uy Sh

ra c

ha

ma

0

Species

Sardine, 18 Pirana blanca, 23 Boquichico, 30

Carachama, 191

Figure 22: Biomass of fish captured using a net in all rivers.

50

Lisa, 40

45

Shuyo, 63

T o ta l b io m a s s ( k g )

40 35

Figure 20: Composition of species of fish caught in all rivers using a net, figures show absolute numbers caught alongside the local common name.

30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Shuyo

Carachama

Sablo Species

Sardine

Pantometi

Figure 23: Biomass of fish captured using a net in the cocha.

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Fishing method: nets Samiria All River Rivers 179

414

10 9 8

Cocha

279

5.90

10.37

16.27

7.67

39.785

30.290

70.075

67.210

6.74

2.92

4.32

8.76

C P U E ( k g /h r )

Number of captures Time (hours) Biomass (kg) CPUE (kg/hr)

Yanayacu Grande River 235

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Table 4: Variation of captures according to habitat and fishing method.

Yanayacu Grande River

Samiria River

All Rivers

Location

Number of Captures Time (hours) Biomass (kg) CPUE (kg/hr)

Yanayacu Grande River 52

Fishing method: rods Samiria All River Rivers 95

15

6.98

4.10

11.08

2.58

6.515

7.090

13.605

2.697

0.933

1.729

1.228

0.111

Rods Nets

Figure 24: Fishing effort according to habitat and fishing method.

Cocha

40

Cocha

Diversity Index (H’)

Habitat at Yanayacu Grande Site Yanayacu Samiria All Cocha Grande River Rivers River 3.436 5.053 3.912 2.333

Table 6: Diversity Index (H’) according to habitat

Table 5: Variation of captures according to habitat and fishing method.

Despite having a lower abundance of fish than the Cocha, both rivers had a higher diversity index (table 6). The highest diversity found in the Samiria River with H’ = 5.05 despite having the lowest CPUE of just 2.92kg/hr with a fishing net. Conversely the habitat with the lowest diversity was the Cocha which had shown to have the greatest abundance with H’ of 2.33.

Fishing effort has been calculated in terms of Catch per Unit Effort as an indicator of abundance. The number of captures was greatest in the Cocha when using a net; the CPUE was also greatest at 8.76kg/hr indicating the highest abundance index.

Although sampling effort may have influenced results, longer was spent fishing in the Samiria River, both the number of individuals caught and the CPUE was lowest in the Samiria River at just 179 individuals and 2.92kg/hr (table 4).

Fishing rods proved to be less successful in all habitats in comparison to the nets, in contrast with the use of nets, in terms of CPUE, rods proved to be the most successful in the Samiria River from all habitats sampled (table 5).

Results indicate that the sampled Cocha has a greater abundance of fish than either the Samiria River or the Yanayacu Grande River does; across all habitats fish are caught more easily using a net rather than a rod (figure 24).

Species Min

Total length Max Average

Astronotus ocellatus Acarahuazu

13.7

27

20.3

Colossoma macroponum Gamitana Mylossoma duriventris Palometa Prochilodus nigricans Boquichico

15

42

28.5

10

44

27

10

36

23

Reference of minimal length of captures 20 cm INDERENA, Colombia, 1987 45cm. R.M No 1472001-Pe 19.2cm Barthem y Fabre. 2002 25cm R.M No 1472001-Pe

Table 7: Comparison by length and reference size according to the current laws of abundance and economically

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important species in the Samiria river basin (Bodmer & Puertas 2007, Monitoring Wildlife Populations)

Squirrel and Howler monkey are the species with the highest abundance in the basin of the Samiria River, which is reflected in these survey results (WCSDICE 2004, quoted in Bodmer et al 2008).

As in 2008, the Squirrel monkeys and Howler monkeys were the most abundant of primates, with the Howler monkeys abundance increasing on last year; from 9.32ind/km to 12.06ind/km at Ungurahui. The Woolly monkey being the next large bodied primate with its abundance remaining similar at 4.35ind/km at Ungurahui compared to 3.53ind/km in 2008. If the Howler and Woolly monkey are locked in a Lokta-Volterra competitive interaction, as both species are competing for the same limited resources, (Bodmer et al 2008) then it can be assumed that the Howler monkey is winning this competition in this mid section area of the reserve.

This is a good indication of the Howler monkey’s success despite being a preferred species for hunting (Aquino et al 2001, quoted in Bodmer et al 2008) as both study locations fall into an area of the reserve considered to be lightly hunted, it is a good indication of the success of conservation strategies of the reserve.

30 individuals belonging to the economically important Boquichico (Prochilodus nigricans) were caught in the rivers. Of which only 3 coincided with the minimum capture length of 25 cm reported by the fisheries Ministry.

The majority of fish caught were between 19.5cm and 24.99cm long, none came near to the maximum length of 36cm (figure 25). Such a small sample size does not allow a judgment to be made on the population structure of this species.

14 F r e q u e n c y o f s p e c ie s

12 10 8 6 4 2 0 16.7519.49

14.0016.74

19.50 - 22.25 - 25.00 - 27.75 - 30.50 - 33.25 22.24 24.99 27.74 30.49 33.24 36.00 Length (cm)

Figure 25: Frequency of captures of Boquichico (Prochilodus nigricans)

The Howler monkeys success may come at a detriment to smaller bodied primates as they are out competed for resources. The White Faced Capuchin had a much lower abundance compared to last year, this primate was not recorded at all at Yanayacu Grande and had an abundance of 0.39ind/km compared to 2.37ind/km in 2008 at Ungurahui. Whereas the Brown Faced Capuchin was more successful with a significant increase in abundance at Ungurahui from 0.75ind/km to 8.50ind/km. On many occasions troops of Brown Capuchin monkeys and Squirrel monkeys were sighted together as they moved through the forest to feeding sights. The Squirrel monkeys

7. Discussion 7.1 Terrestrial Mammals Data collected is comparable to that of 2008, populations of terrestrial mammals appear to be at a healthy level and primates still dominate over other animals such as the ungulates and rodents.

However this is perhaps largely due to the diurnal surveys that were completed, evidence of nocturnal species relied primarily on tracks made over night.

Of the twelve species of primates that occur in the reserve (Aquino et al 2001, quoted in Bodmer et al 2008), eight were recorded. Both the

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success largely lies upon their ability to adapt; consuming fruit when abundant, most often in the wet season, and insects, flowers and dry vegetables during times of scarcity (Stone 2007, quoted in Bodmer et al 2008). The association of Squirrel monkeys with Brown Capuchin indicates that Squirrel monkeys may be able to take advantage of the feeding strategies of the capuchins furthering their success as a species.

these nocturnal species which is a limitation of diurnal surveys. Surveys began at 7am when not delayed by rain which increased any chance of making a sighting of any nocturnal species.

Alongside terrestrial mammals and game birds a large number of reptilian and amphibian species were seen without an intended search. A number of snakes in particular the venomous Fer de Lance (Bothrops atrox) were encountered as well as a variety of lizards, skinks and frogs. These species were noted down for interest but no formal data were collected, the abundance and relative ease of sighting these animals without a focused search suggests that a formal survey could be successful and provide a further measurement of the diversity and health of the rainforest.

Despite evidence of recent activity of poachers in this area of the reserve, sightings of four species of game birds at both sites is a further indication of the success of the protection of this area of the reserve through conservation strategies. An increase in abundance of these species on previous years was seen, with the Blue Throated Piping Guan being the most abundant at Yanayacu Grande at 1.80ind/km and the Tinamou showing a massive increase at Ungurahui at 2.21ind/km up from 0.004ind/km in 2008 (Bodmer et al 2008).

7.2 Caimans All three species of caiman that occur in the reserve, the Black Caiman (Melanosuchus niger), the Common Caiman (Caiman crocodilus) and the Dwarf Caiman (Paleosuchus trigonatus) were sighted, albeit the Dwarf Caiman was sighted only once. The dry season is a good time to measure the abundance of caiman as they become concentrated in the river channels as the water levels fall and the cochas dry up, prey become more abundant as fish also become more concentrated in channels.

Although the Common Caiman was sighted more frequently at Yanayacu Grande and the Black Caiman more frequently at Ungurhaui the abundance of these two species at each site were similar.

The Black Caiman was significantly more abundant than the Common Caiman at Ungurahui in 2008. The similarity in abundance of these two species is significant due to the overexploitation of Black Caimans in the 1970s. Due to the commercial value of the Black Caimans pelt populations in the reserve fell drastically and

The high water levels encountered at the start of the 20 day survey period restricted the distance which transects could cover as large parts of land were still flooded by river water. Transects should ideally reach 5km inland resulting in a total distance covered by each transect of approximately 10km.

Although had transects been chosen on higher land the diversity of animals sighted may have been less, in particular of nocturnal animals. Recent tracks of species such as the Tapir, Peccary, and of large cats such as the Jaguar and Ocelot were clearly evident in the soft, muddy ground. A further indication of their presence was seen on the barks of trees which had been used as a scratching post by cats. Previous studies have used motion sensitive camera traps to capture images and a greater indication of the abundance of

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disappeared in parts of the Amazon altogether (Da Silveria & Thorbjarnarson 1999, quoted in Bodmer & Puertas 2007, Monitoring Wildlife Populations).

The population of Black Caimans has been increasing year on year showing a greatest rate of increase from 2004 onwards (Bodmer et al 2009). The success of the conservation of this species in the reserve may turn out to be at the detriment to the Common Caiman if, as suggested, they are in a Lokta-Voltera competitive interaction with the Black Caiman being the successor resulting in a fall in populations of the Common Caiman (Bodmer et al 2009). Although this was not clearly evident from the data collected at Ungurahui and Yanayacu Grande, conservation strategies of the reserve may have to turn and address this possible issue.

two species nest in dead palms whereas Red and Green macaws and Scarlet macaws prefer to nest in relatively soft trees (Rodrigues et al 2005, quoted in Bodmer & Puertas 2007, Monitoring Wildlife Populations). Large patches of palm swamp in the study area would have increased the probability of sighting these two species.

It is important that the reserve conserves such palm swamps for the populations of these macaws.

Macaws are mobile indicators of the health of the forest as they feed on the fruit it produces; as such competition will exist between species. It has previously been noted that a positive correlation exists between the Blue and Yellow macaw and the Red-Bellied macaw whilst a negative correlation exists between the Red-Bellied and Chestnut Fronted macaw, perhaps due to their similar size (Bodmer et al 2008). Data collected in this study would support the former but a surprising number of sightings of Chestnut Fronted did not indicate any such negative correlation with the Red-Bellied macaw. This could be an indication of the lack of competition due to the abundance of resources available in the reserve and thus an indication of successful management and a healthy ecosystem.

It has also been suggested that macaws will compete with other frugivores such as primates; the success of primate populations may lead to a fall in macaw populations (Bodmer et al 2009). The abundance of macaws and large group sizes seen in this data does not suggest this, although it is a relatively small sample taken over just 20 days.

Although all macaws species were seen most frequently flying overhead in pairs it was surprising to see flocks as large as 33.

These flocks were often encountered when nearby a possible roost and at times when macaws would be expected to be leaving roost early in

Few caimans were caught on this survey; those caught were either baby or young juvenile caimans which could be caught by hand.

As such no accurate judgement could be made on the demographic of caiman in this area of the reserve in terms of gender and age. Caimans can be caught using a noose which pulls tight around the caiman’s neck and secured using rope to allow measurements such as length, mass and sex to be recorded. More detailed data can then be used to estimate the size of the caiman when only the head can be seen above water.

7.3 Macaws Populations of macaws appear to be at healthy levels which are comparable to those seen in recent years. As in 2008, Blue and Yellow macaws were by far the most abundant at 15.94ind/point followed by the Chestnut Fronted and Red-Bellied macaws. The abundance of the Blue and Yellow macaw and the Red-Bellied macaw may have been influenced by the study location, these

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the morning survey or returning late on in the afternoon survey.

direction of flight of sighted macaws an indication of possible flight patterns and feeding sites could be made. The large abundance of Blue and Yellow macaws and Red-Bellied macaws is thought to correlate with the abundance of palm swamps in the sampled area; this should be confirmed by completing botany surveys and mapping the plant species in the area.

Red-Bellied macaws and Chestnut Fronted macaws were sighted more frequently during morning surveys whilst Blue and Yellow, Red and Green and Scarlet macaws were sighted more frequently during late afternoon/evening surveys. This contrasts with data taken in 2008 where Red and Green, Chestnut Fronted and Blue and Yellow were more active in the morning and Scarlet macaws and Red-Bellied macaws were more active during late afternoon and evening. This does not indicate any consistency in the temporal activity of macaws.

7.4 Turtles Population densities of both the Yellowspotted Amazon River Turtle and the Giant Amazonian Turtle have increased on last years recorded populations. The abundance of Yellow-spotted turtles increasing from 2.17ind/km (Bodmer et al 2008) or density of approximately 42ind/km2 to 3.90ind/km and 48.73ind/km2 at Ungurahui.

This increase of populations that has been recorded year on year is due to the success of the head start programme of removing laid eggs to a safe beach, protecting them from poachers in the laying season (Bodmer et al 2009).

As with all surveys, it was essential that a knowledgeable guide accompanied the surveys to aid those less experienced in identification. However, this was critical for the macaw survey.

Macaws were generally seen as a silhouette flying overhead, identifications were made often on the call made by macaws. Familiarity with the calls of specific macaw species should be done prior to completing surveys. Although macaws were more likely to be sighted at dawn or dusk as they left and returned to roosts, a number of encounters with macaws occurred outside of a formal survey during mid day raising the possibility of conducting surveys at other times of the day.

Frustratingly macaws were also often encountered between survey points outside of the designated 15 minute time limit and therefore not recorded.

An alternative sampling method may therefore yield a more accurate measurement of abundance although an alternative method would be less comparable to previous year’s data. It was assumed that macaws are more active during the morning and evening as they leave and return to roosts, hence the timings of the completed surveys. By recording and mapping the

Comparable to last years surveys at Ungurahui and Wishto, Ungurahui again had the highest density of Yellowspotted turtles with the density at Yanayacu Grande much lower at 13.81ind/km2. Unlike last year, Giant Amazonian Turtles were recorded at both sites, albeit be it at a much lower population density than the Yellowspotted turtle which may be partly due to the difficulty in sighting them as they do not spend time sunbathing along the river bank.

The presence of a permanent guard station at Ungurahui and the resultant vigilance against poachers at this location would account for the higher population densities recorded here. The variation between sites may be an indicator that poaching pressure still exists away from the guard stations.

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One turtle was sighted at Yanayacu Grande but did not belong to either the Yellow-spotted River turtle or the Giant Amazonian. Identification could not be ascertained from the guides available at the study location.

7.5 Dolphins Data collected indicate that populations of both the Pink River Dolphin and Grey River Dolphin are at healthy levels having increased on numbers from last year. The abundance of Grey River Dolphins of 1.69ind/km at Ungurahui is similar to last years of 1.76ind/km. The abundance of Pink River Dolphins shows a large increase on lasts year’s abundance of 2.04ind/km reaching 4.07ind/km this year.

It has been suggested that a recent influx of dolphins into the reserve may be due to exploitation of petroleum and fishing activities outside the reserve.

This would account for the increase in numbers of Pink River Dolphins as they feed on fish of a similar size to those caught by fishermen (Bodmer et al 2009).

Dolphins are key indicator species partly due to the fact that they are not hunted by man or any other predator but also due to their mobility; any resource pressure then they can leave in search of a better quality habitat.

Although an increase in population densities of dolphins indicate a healthy aquatic system in the reserve it may be at the expense of those just outside the reserve.

It takes between eight and ten years for a Yellow-spotted turtle to mature and start sunning themselves, as the head start programme began in 1996 it would be expected that more turtles will now be mature and sighted on logs and branches near the river bank (Bodmer et al 2009). However, a larger percentage of sightings at Ungurahui were of turtles swimming, this could be due to the greater abundance of turtles at this location making them more likely to be seen when swimming or sunbathing, it could de due to the high water levels for the season and the lack of exposed branches near the river bank for turtles to use to sunbathe or it could be a contributory factor of having more volunteers taking part in the survey and increasing the probability of a sighting being made.

Due to the high water levels and frequent rain storms fewer eggs were found and removed to the safe beach at Ungurahui guard station as turtles will not lay their eggs in such wet conditions.

However it is hoped that those which were recovered will successfully hatch and contribute to the ever increasing populations of Yellow-spotted and Giant Amazonian turtles. Searches were also conducted by park guides during the day rather than in the evening, any nests discovered during this search were flagged for collection later on.

However on a number of occasions on return the nests had been emptied by poachers. Future searches could be conducted during the day but nests should be emptied and returned to the safe beach immediately upon discovery.

The observed population structure and group size was similar to previous years.

Adults again dominated the demographic of both Pink and Grey River Dolphins, although greater percentages than last year were recorded as adults: 86% of Pink Dolphins, showing an increase of 27% and 76% of Grey Dolphins, an increase of 13% (Bodmer et al 2008). This could be a shift to an older demographic as adult dolphins may be more likely to enter the reserve from surrounding areas or it could be that juveniles are more wary and harder to spot.

As expected the majority of sightings were of solitary or paired dolphins:

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accounting for 91% of all sightings of Pink Dolphins and 71% of all sightings of Grey River Dolphins. The largest pod of Pink Dolphins consisted of 7 and for Grey Dolphins the largest pod was of 6.

Such group sizes corresponded with the activity of the dolphins, 87% of Pink Dolphins and 62% of Grey Dolphins were swimming when sighted when they would be expected to be alone or in pairs. Larger group sizes would be depend on factors such as the activity of the dolphins, water level and precipitation and habitat type (Trujillo & Diazgranados 2002, quoted in Bodmer et al 2008).

survey is only an indication. The most common species of fish caught using a net regardless of habitat were those referred to locally as the Carachama and Shuyo, making up 60.2% of biomass caputured in the rivers and 96.2% of biomass in the lake. This is comparable to 2007 when the Carachama was also the most common fish caught in the Samiria river basin alongside the Red-Bellied Piranha, making up 68% of biomass captured in 2007 (Bodmer & Puertal 2007, Monitoring Wildlife Populations).

Although the Red-Bellied Piranha was not as common this year its presence was clearly evident as a proportion of fish caught in the net had been consumed within the hour the net had been left so that only their head and bones remained.

To ensure that the same dolphin was not identified twice the activity and direction of movement of each dolphin had to be monitored carefully. Use of underwater cameras or of sonar detectors such as hydrophones could also aid in the prevention of duplicate results and in the detection of the more wary juvenile dolphins.

Acoustic recordings of dolphin vocalisations, made on hydrophones, could be related to specific behavioural activities. The use of technology may help in documenting the demographic structure and behaviour of both Grey and Pink River Dolphins. The suspected influx of dolphins to the reserve from surrounding areas may have a consequential effect on the abundance of particular species of fish, the large numbers of Pink River Dolphins seen may be due to an abundance of prey species or it may have a consequential negative impact on prey species. Quantitative data on water quality in terms of nutrient content, pH, and turbidity could be measured to aid in confirming the health of this aquatic ecosystem.

Although previous studies have shown the Cichlidae as dominant families in the reserve, two species belonging to this family: Acarahuazu and Bujurqui, were those with the lowest species richness in this survey. The shallow waters of the dry season favour other species such as the Carachama (Bodmer & Puertas 2007, Monitoring Wildlife Populations).

As in previous years the catch per unit effort (CPUE) increases in all habitats during the dry season as water levels fall and fish become concentrated. Due to the shrinking habitat as the water level fell, the largest CPUE was found in the sampled Cocha at 8.76kg/hr indicating a much greater abundance of fish in comparison to the rivers with the Samiria River having a CPUE of 2.92kg/hr almost the same as that in 2007 of 2.96kg/hr (Bodmer & Puertas 2007, Monitoring Wildlife Populations).

Although an abundant habitat does not necessarily convert to a diverse habitat; with a lower diversity index in the Cocha of 2.33 compared to 3.91 in the rivers and the highest at 5.05 in the Samiria

7.6 Fish The distribution and diversity of fish fluctuates largely with the wet and dry season as such data from this 20 day

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River, despite having the lowest abundance. This could be explained by the dominance of the Carachama and Shuyo in the Cocha; as competition for resources becomes greater as the habitat shrinks in the dry season, these two species out-compete others for available resources and thus a smaller diversity index is seen.

influence fishing effort as such only fishing effort using nets was calculated and compared.

8. Conclusion Populations of all key species surveyed were similar or higher than previous years data indicating that the abundance of these species are at healthy levels and thus the reserve is successful at conserving biodiversity.

The abundance and diversity seen across habitats during this dry season is an indication of the good health of the aquatic system in this area of the reserve.

Results in this report refer to the 20 day period in which BSES participated and stands alone as a valid indication of population abundance and the diversity of the region. These results will be collated with data collected from further monitoring activities, that have taken place through out the year within the reserve. Enabling a more reliable conclusion and one where seasonal, regional and annual data can be compared. It is expected that results from such a large sample will mirror those found in this report.

An unavoidable problem with surveys of fish species using nets was the decimation of caught fish by piranhas.

Damaged fish led to inaccurate estimations of mass and length in some fish. Casting more nets may lead to a greater catch and lessen the proportional impact of the piranhas on data collected. Data would also be more comparable had sampling effort be divided equally across habitats, 10.37 hours were spent fishing on the Samiria River compared to 7.67 hours in the Cocha and 5.90 hours on the Yanayacu Grande River. Whilst the nets were cast fish were caught using rods, red meat was generally used as bait but occasionally biscuits or smaller fish were used. Consequentially the Redbellied piranha, White piranha and Carachama were the favoured fish that were caught using a rod.

The abundance of piranha in the Samiria River could account for the higher CPUE recorded here when using a rod in comparison to other habitats due to the use of meat as bait.

Either the same bait should be used for consistency and a more accurate comparison of fishing effort using a rod across habitats could be made or a greater variety of baits should be used to get a better indication of diversity of fish in different habitats. Differential skill of individuals using rods would also

New data is required each year to facilitate understanding fluctuations of wildlife populations and aid the reserve with conservation strategies.

It is evident that species such as the Black Caiman and the Yellow-spotted River Turtle are recovering but this recovery could be at the detriment to other species as competition for resources intensifies.

Understanding species interactions could be crucial for future conservation strategies.

Be it hunting pressure or petroleum exploitation, demand for natural resources is unlikely to fall in the coming years.

Since involving local communities with the management of the reserve poaching and hunting pressure within the reserve has fallen with a consequential rise in animal populations; such involvement has only had a positive impact on biodiversity

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conservation (Bodmer et al 2009). The involvement of groups like BSES with the completion of surveys and collection of data, when managed in a sensitive manner, can have socio-economic benefits. Long term success of the reserve will require that it can be managed in a way with socio-economic considerations whilst maintaining the great diversity of flora and fauna found within its boundaries.

-

-

-

9. Future Work The six surveys completed focus on key indicator species which are used to make a judgment on the success of the reserve. There is scope to complete more detailed surveys, using various technologies or alternative sampling techniques.

As they stand these surveys are appropriate for delivering a body of data that can be compared year on year to aid in the understanding of population recoveries and interactions.

Developing these surveys, be it using motion cameras, sonar detectors or longer surveys over a wider geographical range, may lead to a greater understanding of specific species and therefore contribute to the management strategies employed by the reserve. The diversity of species in the reserve is immense matched only by the enthusiasm and interest of those working in the reserve. The possibility exists to extend surveys to include data collection on reptiles, amphibians, birds of prey or wading birds and invertebrates.

-

-

All surveys conducted, be it formal or informal, heightens awareness of the importance of the reserve to continue in its protection of this ecosystem and its inhabitants.

10. Acknowledgments Numerous people and institutions contributed to this study in various ways, all dedicated to the conservation of biodiversity in this incredible ecosystem.

Great thanks to Dr Richard Bodmer for coordinating on site activities and providing the infrastructure and expertise to complete this expedition, his continuous work in the reserve is essential in understanding and protecting biodiversity. Thanks to the Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve

The scope for further study was highlighted by students own informal projects which included surveys on: -

Butterflies in disturbed and none disturbed areas.

The diversity shown in encounters with the enormous Morpho species to much smaller less conspicuous species like Taygetis Andromeda.

Infiltration rates of top soil in disturbed and none disturbed areas which could have an impact on the growth of species of plant.

The rate of fall in river depth during the dry season. The continuous collection of such data may be important as the impacts of climate change begin to appear across ecosystems.

Describing the amazing adaptations of camouflage of species of frog highlighting the importance of protecting the habitats in the reserve which in turn ensures the survival of such species.

No botany surveys were completed but an account of the medicinal plants used by local people was made emphasizing the importance of the rainforest as a resource of materials.

Birds of prey, the apparent lack or overlap of territories, an indication of the abundance of food for such top predators.

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Authorities who granted permission for entry into the reserve and for research activities to take place.

Freitas, Franco Santana, Jose Manuel Saenz, Bryan Torres and Karen Vela.

Thanks also to local guides: Manuel Huayllahua, Jesus Palla, Carlos Caritimari, Santiago Cariajano, Victor Manihuari, Johny Dahua and Teddy Yuyarima.

The expedition could not have gone ahead without the hard work and expertise of all leaders on board. Chief leader Ewan Laurie managed a safe and successful expedition with thanks to Deputy Chief Leader and Health and Safety Officer Malcom Bell, CARE Leader Abbie Garrington who helped guide all to appreciate the extraordinary ecosystem in which we were working.

Young Explorers were educated in field skills techniques and ecology of the area by Science leaders Theresa Meacham and Chris Stubbs. Thanks also to Jungle leaders Andrew StokesRees, Torstein Lover and Tom Sargeant Fire leaders George Bullard, Karina Tarling and John Lowry and finally Dr Georgina Standen and Dr Andrew Boyd who ensured everyone made it through the expedition and returned home healthy.

Special thanks to all Peruvian staff on board the Lobo de Rio, Nutria and Pithecia who made the 4 weeks spent on board an enjoyable experience, navigating all boats to locations, often during the night, so that the research timetable could go ahead and for providing everyone on board with delicious and nutritious food 3 times a day. Thanks to Werner Souza Davila, Rolando Cabrera Isuiza, Eli Mosquera Ochoa, Franklin Ramos Gadea, Gimia Macahuachi, Priscella Macahuachi and Danis Valera.

Thanks also to Victor and Rosa at the Piscana hotel who provided great hospitality and a welcoming breakfast after weeks spent in the rainforest.

Thanks to the long hours spent by BSES staff managing the expedition with much gratitude to William TauntonBurnet, Patrick O’Hara and Dorothy Tomalin who’s hard work ensured that the expedition was well equipped with leaders, Young Explorers and kit.

The enthusiasm and dedication of Young Explorers continued from their fundraising in the UK to the completion of surveys and collection of data in the field under challenging conditions.

Thanks goes to the following Young Explorers who should be proud of what they have achieved over the course of this expedition. Caiman Fire: Nick Baxter, Issachar Dieng, Elizabeth Emmerson, Jack Flanagan, Ali Gardner, Becky Harris, Brittany Harris, Adam Jackson, Linn Klausen, Rose Leeson, Riana Mallon and Ralph Wainer. Wild Fire: Dan Brydon, Laura Collins, Katherine Edgar, Arabella Fox, Sally Gittings, Alex Helliar, Sophie McDonald, Amalie Rieber-Mohn, Catherine Stuttard, Phoebe Tickell and Ben Toms.

Ucayali Fire: Daniel Betney, Sarah Edwards, Als Everest, Daniel Hughes, Lorna Johnston, James King, Anna MacDonald, Emily Patterson, Jack Pitts,

Data could not have been collected without the expertise of the professional ecologists and local guides whom we accompanied on 20 days of survey work. Their remarkable ability to detect animals deep and hidden within the forest canopy and the fleeting appearance of aquatic life as they surfaced was invaluable; ensuring not only that a large volume of data was collected but that such appreciation and knowledge of these species was shared.

Enormous thanks to the following professional ecologists and students of the University of Iquitos: Claudia Rios, Mari Inga, David Bendayan, Betty

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Daniella Rabaiotti, Kayana Terrelunge and Hannah Thomas. Tribe Fire: Grace Boardman, Annabel Clark, Sophie Edgell, Anastasia Kim, Aaron Le Flohic Gillies, Megan Lister, Carly Madgin, Joanna Rothwell, Katie Sanderson, Ricardo Weekes Johnson, Samuel Whitaker and Tim Wilson.

Bodmer, R., & P. Puertas (2007).

Impacts of Displacement in the PacayaSamiria National Reserve, Peru. In: Kent H. Redford and Eva Fearn.

Protected areas and human displacement: a conservation perspective. WCS Working Papers: Nº 29. WCS, New York. Pages 29-33

Special thanks go to Nick Baxter, Catherine Stuttard, Rose Leeson, Phoebe Tickel, Ali Gardner, Katherine Edgar, Aaron Le Flohic Gillies, Joanna Rothwell, Daniella Rabaiotti, Jack Pitts, Sophie Edgell, Grace Boardman and Annabel Clark who helped in the analysis of data collected.

Bodmer, R. & Puertas, P. (2007) Monitoring Wildlife Populations in the Samiria River Basin, Peru. Report for BSES. Collaboration with WCS, DICE, WWF, UNAP, INRENA & PSNR Authorities.

Bodmer, R., Puertas, P., Antunez, M., & Fang, T. (2008) Field Report.

Monitoring Indicator Species in the Samiria River, Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve.

Collaboration with WCS, DICE, INRENA, PSNR Authorities, BSES & FundAmazonia.

Apologies are made for any names or institutions which have been accidentally omitted. Finally enormous thanks go to those who have been kind enough to make donations to BSES enabling such worthy expeditions to take place.

Bodmer, R., Puertas, P., Antunez, M., & Fang, T. (2009) Wildlife Conservation in the Samiria River Basin of the PacaySamiria National Reserve, Peru. Report for 2008.

Collaboration with WCS, FundAmazonia, DICE, INRENA, PSNR Authorities, Earthwatch Institute, BSES & Operation Wallacea.

11. Literature Cited Aquino, R., R. Bodmer y J. Gil. (2001) Mamíferos de la cuenca del río Samiria.

Ecología poblacional y sustentabilidad de la caza. Junglevagt for Amazonas, AIF – WWF/DK y Wildl1ife Conservation Society. Lima-Perú. 116 pp

Buckland, S.T., Anderson, D., Burnham, K. and J. Laake (1993) Distance Sampling: Estimating the Abundance of Biological Populations. Chapman & Hall, London.

Bodmer, S. T., Lozano, E. P., and Fang, T. G. (2004) Economic Analysis of Wildlife Use in the Peruvian Amazon. In: People in Nature: Wildlife Conservation in South and Central America (Eds. K. Silvius, R. Bodmer & J. Fragoso).

Columbia University Press, New York.

Pp 191-208.

Da Silveira y J. Thorbjarnarson (1999) Conservation Implications of Commercial Hunting of Black and Spectacled Caiman in the Mamiraua Sustainable Development Reserve, Brazil. Biological Conservation. 88. 103 – 109

Bodmer, R., Fang, T., & Puertas, P. (2006) Wildlife Populations in the Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve, Peru.

Report for WCS. Collaboration with DICE, WWF, UNAP, INRENA & PSNR Authorities, BSES & Earthwatch Institute.

Hostetler E. M. & M. B. Main (2001) Florida Monitoring Program: Point Count Method to Survey Birds. University Florida: Institute of Food and

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Agriculture Sciences.

Florida: US 8 pp.

Gainesville

–

availability in an eastern Amazonian Forest.

American Journal of Primatology. 69. 142-157.

Gonzalez, J. (2004) Human use and conservation of economically important birds in seasonally flooded forests of northeastern Peruvian Amazon. In: People in Nature: Wildlife Conservation in South and Central America (Eds. K. Silvius, R. Bodmer & J. Fragoso).

Columbia University Press, New York.

Pp 344-361.

Thomas L, S. T. Buckland, K. Burnham, D. Anderson, J. L. Laake, D Boechers & S. Strindberg. (2002) In: Encyclopedia of Envirometrics. A. H. Shaarawi & W. W. Piegorsch (Eds). 1: 544-552.

Trujillo, F. y M. Diazgranados. (2002) Delfines de Río en la Amazonía y Orinoquia: ecología y Conservación.

Fundación Omacha. 43 pp

National Report.

(1997) Biological Diversity in Peru.[Internet], Available from: http://www.cbd.int/doc/world/pe/pe-nr-olen.pdf. [Accessed October 2009].

WCS-DICE. (2004). Conservación de fauna silvestre en la cuenca del Samiria, Reserva Nacional Pacaya – Samiria, Perú. Technical Report. WWF/DICEWCS. 80 pp

Ojasti, J. (2000) Manejo de Fauna Neotropical.

F. Dallmeier (Ed).

Smithsonian Insitution, U. S. Fish & Wildlife Service, WWF y UNESCO. 290 pp.

Ortega, H. & Vari. (1986) Annotated checklist of the freshwater fishes of Peru.

Smithsonian Institution.

Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology.

Number 437. 25pp.

Pullin, A., S. (2002). Selecting Protected Areas. In: Conservation Biology. Cambridge University Press. p157.

Queiroz, H. (2000) Natural history and conservation of pirarucú, Arapaima gigas, at the Amazonian giants in muddy waters. Thesis doctor of Philosophy, University of St Andrews.

225 pp.

Rodríguez, J.V., F. Rojas, D.E. Arzuza y A. Gonzales. (2005). Loros, pericos y guacamayos neotropicales.

Serie libretas de campo 2. Conservation Internacional. 148 pp.

Stone, A. (2007). Responses of squirrel monkeys to seasonal changes in food

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12.1 Appendix A

Map 1: Map of the Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve, bounded by the River Maranon and Ucayali.

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.

12.2 Appendix B

Map 2: Showing the regions of hunted zones in the Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve.

Circled are the sampled areas at Ungurahui and Yanayacu Grande, which both fall into the lightly hunted zone. (Bobmer et al 2007).

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12.3 Appendix C

A

B

Map 3: Partial View of the Samiria River Basin. Study locations are indicated by A and B. (Bodmer et al 2006).

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12.4 Appendix D

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12.5 Appendix E SCIENCE EQUIPMENT LIST AMAZON 2009 The following items were present at each study location.

ITEM

QUANTITY

Latin American Insects and Entomology by Hogue, C.L ISBN # 0520078497 A Field Guide to the Families and Genera of Woody Plants of N.W South America by A.H. Gentry ISBN # 0226207218

1

Birds of Peru by Douglas.F.Stotz ISBN # 0713686739

1 1

Reptiles and Amphibians of the Amazon An Ecotourists Guide by R.D. Bartlett. ISBN # 0813026237 Hygrometer

1

1

Rain Gauge

1

Clinometer

1 1 1 2 2 1 1

Nitrate test strips 10m roll of parachord 5M DBH (Tape measure without casing) Hanging Butterfly traps Roll of masking tape Dissection kit Specimen pots Hand lens Hygrometer Fishing rods Fishing nets and weights (1 green gill and 1 white gill net) Small sweep net Protective gloves for emptying butterfly traps Tape measure 20-30m

10 5 1 1 2 1 1

GPS

1 4

Laptops

2

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A b u n d a n c e , in d iv id u a ls p e r k m * 1 0

12.6 Appendix F Following are enlarged graphs and figures showing the analysis of data collected.

14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Species

Figure 1: Abundance of terrestrial mammals and game birds at Yanayacu Grande.

Species number corresponds to those shown in table 1.

No

Common name

Scientific name

1

Squirrel Monkey

Saimiri boliviensis

Abundance Ind/km X 10 12.36

2

Howler Monkey

Alouatta seniculus

9.94

3

South American Coati

Nasua nasua

5.84

4

Saddleback Tamarin

Saguinus fuscicollis

5.47

5

Cebus albifrons

4.72

Aburria cumanensis

1.80

7

Brown Capuchin Blue Throated Piping Guan Monk Saki Monkey

Pithecia monachus

1.43

8

Woolly Monkey

Lagothrix lagothricha

1.24

9

Red Squirrel

Sciurus igniventris

1.24

10 11 12 13

Razor Billed Currasow Tinamou Black Squirrel Ocelot

Mitu tuberosum Tinamus major Sciurus sp.

Leopardus pardalis

0.99 0.93 0.81 0.06

6

14 Spix’s Guan Penelope jacquacu 0.06 15 Tayra Eira barbara 0.06 16 Giant Anteater Myrmecophaga tridactyla 0.06 Table 1: Abundance of terrestrial mammals and game birds at Yanayacu Grande.

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A b un da nc e, ind iv id ua ls pe r k m * 10

14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Species

Figure 2: Abundance of terrestrial mammals and game bird at Ungurahui No

Common Name

Scientific Name

1 Howler Monkey Alouatta seniculus 2 Squirrel Monkey Saimiri boliviensis 3 Saddleback Tamarin Saguinus fuscicollis 4 Brown Capuchin Cebus albifrons 5 Woolly Monkey Lagothrix lagothricha 6 Tinamou Tinamus major 7 Monk Saki Monkey Pithecia monachus 8 South American Coati Nasua nasua 9 Black Squirrel Sciurus sp.

10 Red Squirrel Sciurus igniventris 11 Spix’s Guan Penelope jacquacu 12 Arboreal Sloth Bradypus variegates 13 White Faced Capuchin Cebus apella 14 Razor Billed Currasow Mitu tuberosum 15 Blue Throated Piping Guan Aburria cumanensis 16 Brown Agouti Dasyprocta fuliginosa 17 Night Monkey Aotus sp 18 Red Brocket Deer Mazama americana 18 Peccary Tayassu sp.

20 Tamandoua Tamandua tetradactyla 21 Tayra Eira barbara Table 2: Abundance of terrestrial mammals and game birds at Ungurahui.

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Abundance Ind/km x 10 12.06 9.73 9.21 8.50 4.35 2.21 1.75 0.84 0.78 0.71 0.64 0.39 0.39 0.32 0.26 0.26 0.19 0.13 0.13 0.06 0.06

Common Caiman 42%

Black Caiman 58%

Figure 3: Composition of species seen at Ungurahui

Black Caiman 18%

Eyes Only 52% Common Caiman 30%

Abundance, individuals/km

Figure 4: Composition of species seen at Yanayacu Grande.

3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 Black

Common

Dwarf

Species Ungurahui

Yanayacu Grande

Figure 5: Abundance of species seen at the different sites.

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In d iv id u a ls p e r p o in t

16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Blue & Yellow

Chestnut Red Bellied Fronted Species

Red & Green

Scarlet

Figure 6: Abundance of macaws at Ungurahui.

20

Individuals per point

18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Blue & Yellow

Chestnut Fronted

Red Bellied Red & Green

Scarlet

Species Individuals at Sunrise

Individuals at Sunset

Figure 7: A comparison of the abundance of macaws at sunrise and sunset.

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F re q u e n c y o f g ro u p s s e e n

300 250 200 150 100 50 0 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 No. of Macaws in group

Figure 8: Frequency of group sizes for the Blue and Yellow Macaw.

F re q u e n c y o f g ro u p s

25 20 15 10 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 121314151617181920212223 No. of Macaws in group Figure 9: Frequency of group sizes for the Chestnut Fronted Macaw.

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F re q u e n c y o f g ro u p s s e en

25 20 15 10 5 0 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10 11 12

No. of Macaws in Groups Figure 10: Frequency of group sizes for the Red Bellied Macaw.

60

P o p u la tio n d e n s ity I n d iv id u a ls / k m 2

50 40 30 20 10 0 Ungurahui

Yanayacu Grande Location

Yellow Spotted Giant Amazonian

Figure 11: A comparison of population density of Yellow Spotted (Podocnemis unifilis) and Giant Amazonian Turtles (Podocnemis expansa) at Ungurahui and Yanayacu Grande.

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On Land 4% Sunbathing 27%

Swimming 69%

Figure 12: Behaviour of sighted Yellow Spotted Turtles (Podocnemis unifilis) at Ungurahui Swimming 35%

Sunbathing 65%

Figure 13: Behaviour of Yellow Spotted Turtles (Podocnemis unifilis) at Yanayacu Grande

A b u n d a n c e ( in d /k m )

4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 Pink

Grey Species

Figure 14: Abundance of dolphins at Unguahui.

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P o p u la t io n D e n s it y ( in d / k m 2 )

60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Pink

Grey Species

Figure 15: Population density of dolphins at Ungurahui.

Juvenile 24%

Adult 76%

Figure 16: Population structure of Grey River dolphins (Sotalia fluviatilis). at Ungurahui.

Juveniles 14%

Adults 86%

Figure 17: Population structure of Pink River dolphins at Ungurahui.

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70 60 S ig h tin g s %

50 40 30 20 10 0 1

2 Grey

3 Pink

4

5

6

7

Composition of group

Figure 18: Frequency of sightings of dolphin pods in the Samiria River at the Ungurahui location.

100 90 80 S ig h t in g s %

70

Swimming

60

Fishing

50

Playing

40 30 20 10 0 Grey

Species

Pink

Figure 19: Behavioural activities of sighted pink and grey river dolphins.

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Family Osteoglossidae Prochilodontidae Anostomidae Characidae

Serrasalmidae

Loricariidae

Cichlidae

Species Osteoglossum bicirrhosum (Vandelli, 1829) Prochilodus nigricans (Agassiz, 1829) Schizodon fasciatum (Spix, 1929) Triportheus elongatus (Spix, 1829) Serrasalmus sp.

Pygocentrus nattereri (Linnaeus, 1766) Serrasalmus rhombeus (Linnaeus, 1766) Mylossoma duriventris (Cuvier, 1818) Mylossoma sp.

Myleus rubripinnis (Müller y Troschel, 1845) Ancistrus sp.

Hypostomus emarginatus (Valenciennes, 1840) Liposarcus pardalis (Castelnau, 1855) Liposarcus sp.

Local name Arahuana Yaraqui Boquichico Lisa Sardina Piraña Piraña alargada Piraña Piraña roja Piraña blanca Palometa Palometa Curuhuara

Carachama ancistrus

Astronotus ocellatus (Agassiz, 1831) Aequidens tetramerus (Heckel, 1840)

Carachama Carachama Carachama

Acarahuazú Bujurqui

Table 3: Known species of fish caught at Yanayacu Grande location

Other,38 Caramacha, 11

Sardine, 18 Pirana blanca, 23 Boquichico, 30

Carachama, 191

Lisa, 40 Shuyo, 63

Figure 20: Composition of species of fish caught in all rivers using a net, figures show absolute numbers caught alongside the local common name.

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Other, 10 Acarahuazu, 4 Sardine, 7

Shuyo, 143 Carachama, 114

Figure 21: Composition of fish caught in the cocha using a net, figures show absolute numbers caught alongside the local common name, 30

20 15 10 5

Li s

Species

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Bu ju rq ui

Ca tfi sh

pi ra na

ar illo

be llie d

am

Re d

a

ca ch et e

bl an ca

in e

Pi ra na

Sa rd

ch ico

Li s

a

Bo qu i

Sh uy o

a

0 Ca ra ch am

Total biomass (kg)

25

Figure 22: Biomass of fish captured using a net in all rivers.

50 45 T o ta l b io m a ss (kg )

40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Shuyo

Carachama

Sablo Species

Sardine

Pantometi

Figure 23: Biomass of fish captured using a net in the cocha.

Number of Captures Time (hours) Biomass (kg) CPUE (kg/hr)

Yanayacu Grande River 52

Fishing method: rods Samiria All Rivers River 40 95

Cocha 15

6.98

4.10

11.08

2.58

6.515 0.933

7.090 1.729

13.605 1.228

2.697 0.111

Table 4: Variation of captures according to habitat and fishing method.

Number of captures

Yanayacu Grande River 235

Fishing method: nets Samiria River All Rivers

Cocha

179

414

279

Time (hours)

5.90

10.37

16.27

7.67

Biomass (kg)

39.785

30.290

70.075

67.210

CPUE (kg/hr)

6.74

2.92

4.32

8.76

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Table 5: Variation of captures according to habitat and fishing method.

10 9

C P U E (k g /h r)

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Yanayacu Grande River

Samiria River

All Rivers

Location

Rods

Cocha Nets

Figure 24: Fishing effort according to habitat and fishing method.

Diversity Index (H’)

Habitat at Yanayacu Grande Site Yanayacu Samiria All Rivers Cocha Grande River River 3.436 5.053 3.912 2.333

Table 6: Diversity Index (H’) according to habitat Species Min

Total length Max

Average

Reference of minimal length of captures 20 cm INDERENA, Colombia, 1987 45cm. R.M No 147-2001-Pe

Astronotus 13.7 27 20.3 ocellatus Acarahuazu Colossoma 15 42 28.5 macroponum Gamitana Mylossoma 10 44 27 19.2cm Barthem y duriventris Fabre. 2002 Palometa Prochilodus 10 36 23 25cm R.M No nigricans 147-2001-Pe Boquichico Table 7: Comparison by length and reference size according to the current laws of abundance and economically important species in the Samiria river basin (Bodmer et al 2007)

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14 F re q u e n c y o f s p e c ie s

12 10 8 6 4 2 0 16.7519.49

14.0016.74

19.50 22.24

22.25 - 25.00 24.99 27.74 Length (cm)

27.75 30.49

30.50 33.24

Figure 25: Frequency of captures of Boquichico (Prochilodus nigricans)

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33.25 36.00

CARE: Creating Awareness in the Rainforest Environment – Abbie Garrington The Amazon 09 expedition, like Amazon 08, chose to run a set of activities we called “CARE,” which put environmental ethics at the heart of everything we did during our time in the Amazon. The remit of the course is broad, and this year we were particularly keen to develop our understanding of the social and environmental role of the indigenous Cocama-Cocamilla community of the Pacaya Samiria National Reserve. In one way or another our whole team, including both YEs and leaders, got involved in CARE activities. This commitment across the team resulted in some really productive exercises, linking up our scientific, adventure and leadership work to fundamental questions such as “Do we have a right to be here in the Amazon?” and “What can we do on a personal level to become ambassadors for this fragile ecosystem?” BSES have decided that the CARE course will in future be adapted to help create an environmental awareness programme within each expedition it puts into the field. Following this year’s closer engagement with the Cocama-Cocamilla community of San Martín, the Amazon 10 expedition will feature an extended stay in the village. We’re really proud that Amazon 09 has played a part in these developments.

CARE Course Philosophy The CARE course was designed to develop Young Explorers’ awareness of the environment and their roles and responsibilities within it, through a close look at the particular environment of the Peruvian Amazon. Through this, it was hoped that YEs would develop environmental awareness as a set of skills and as a way of living – something that they could take back into their home communities postexpedition. The course made use of journal writing, creative writing, drawing, photography, filmmaking and debating – activities intended to aid personal reflection on expedition experiences. We also aimed to build on YEs’ skills, so that they were able to communicate their experiences to others – funders, schools, family and friends – on their return home.

The course aimed to make a link between awareness of the environment, and responsibility toward that environment – a duty of care.

The CARE course supported the scientific, adventure and personal development aspects of the expedition. In a BSES review of 2001, Anna McCormack and Pete Allison reported that: “The single biggest challenge for BSES is to keep up with the young people’s expectations regarding environmental issues” (1). The CARE course was designed in response to this report, recognising the importance of environmental awareness in an expedition that gained access to a protected national reserve. In interviews with YEs conducted for their review, McCormack and Allison reported that 96% of respondents “commented that the environmental and cultural aspects of the expedition did / could have enhanced their overall experience and potential to develop” (2). The CARE course therefore aimed to fill a gap that had been identified

by YEs themselves. The course addressed the recommendation made by McCormack and Allison that “in striving for environmentally sound practice we must examine and help others to examine their underlying assumptions and paradigms regarding who they are and the way in which they relate to the world in which they live” (9). The course was designed to help and encourage our YEs to take care of themselves, others and their world.

Reference: Anna McCormack and Pete Allison, “Environmental and Cultural Ethics on Overseas Expeditions” in P. Drake. Ed. Leadership and Overseas Expeditions for Young People. London: Young Explorers Trust, 2001.

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CARE Course Aims

John Muir Award

The course was designed to enable all YEs to:

All YEs and leaders on the Amazon 09 expedition were registered as taking part in the John Muir Award scheme, which is the main educational initiative of the John Muir Trust. The JMT aims to protect wild land in the UK, and to encourage groups of all ages and backgrounds to get out into the wild, learn from it, conserve it, and tell others about it. Work undertaken within the CARE course contributed towards everybody’s John Muir Awards.

A full report of our activities has been submitted to the JMT.

•

•

• •

•

•

•

increase their awareness of the environment of the Peruvian Amazon, their role within it, and their impact upon it develop skills and behaviours of environmental awareness, both in the Amazon environment and beyond reflect on the notion of personal environmental responsibility gain or develop writing, drawing, photography and filmmaking skills for the specific purpose of thinking through their relationship to and responsibility for their immediate expedition environment return to the UK with an increased environmental awareness, with a particular emphasis on careful observation return to the UK with defined intentions for putting these new values, beliefs and skills into practice return to the UK with plans to share expedition experiences by using new or improved writing, drawing, photographic and filmmaking skills

Question why?

The benefits gained from taking part in the John Muir Award, as set out in the Award handbook include: • • •

•

Focus on what you can do not what you can’t.

Challenge and adventure, from being in wild places Environmental awareness, from exploring such areas Knowledge and skills gained from experience in the outdoors and involvement in conservation activities Shared experiences with friends, colleagues and role models

Be courageous in the face of adversity.

Respect each other and the environment .

Find a way to commune with nature.

Take every opportunity.

Explore and discover who you

How to make John Muir Happy Be yourself and enjoy being you!

Share

Appreciate what is around you.

Protect and conserve Educate others

Work as a team

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Inspire others

• •

•

• •

Opportunities to take responsibility for change at a local or national level Teamwork skills, from planning, decisionmaking and completing expeditions, conservation projects etc.

Confidence and communication skills from sharing experiences and knowledge with a wider audience Material to include in C.V.s and Records of Achievement A nationally-recognised certificate for each John Muir Award level attained (2)

activities. Some of the environmental debates we held spilled over into free time, and the leader team often reported that very interesting and wellinformed discussions about environmental issues were going on around the place. Whenever we were on our base camp boats, we were busy with something new.

Our achievements included: • •

Reference: John Muir Award Information Handbook, available online at www.jmt.org •

•

• •

•

•

•

•

What We Achieved Our YEs were a very talented bunch. Some came along with existing skills in writing, drawing and photography, and began these activities spontaneously – they didn’t need the leader team’s help to get going! Others discovered new talents they never knew they had, following encouragement from leaders, and from fellow YEs. Everybody, including leader team and our Peruvian colleagues, were willing to have a go at all sorts of creative BSES Expeditions 72

•

A full Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) for our expedition Workshops on nature drawing, in which we sketched our immediate environment from our base camp boats Workshops on figure drawing – Danny and Amy volunteered to be our models, and we learnt the basic skills of drawing people Filming sessions which contributed towards our expedition DVD, and to our records of the boat facilities and landscapes at our locations Sessions on journal writing, where we shared our writing with one another A discussion session on nature poetry, where we analysed some work by famous poets, and then had a go at writing our own Amazon Haiku poems Planning sessions for this Expedition Report, where we pooled our ideas and assigned tasks An Expedition Exhibition, where we set out our drawings and writing for fellow YEs and Peruvian colleagues to see Clay modelling inspired by our local environment in the wild camp (with clay dug out of the ground nearby!)

Debates and discussions about the ethics of expeditionary travel, which resulted in YEs drafting a list of interview questions for our Cocama-Cocamilla colleagues. Rose and Sophie chaired this interview, Bella and Sally took notes of the responses, and many interesting questions came from other YEs during the discussion section of the event. Victor, Teddie and Johnny, colleagues on our Cocama-Cocamilla panel, all commented on how well-informed and interested our expedition team was about the issues facing people now living in the Pacaya Samiria A “Treasure Hunt” in San Martin, where we aimed to be as observant as possible about the village and the surrounding environment, and to interact positively with residents of the village. Those winning the hunt (collecting photos and conversations, playing games with local children) won a

round of ice creams from Andrew on our return to Iquitos Both boat groups showed real enthusiasm for getting creative on this trip, and some great abilities were discovered. It was a pleasure to see people who thought they “couldn’t” draw giving it a go; to see Sally read a novel for the first time; to catch Jack writing poetry, while Brittany sketched Iss; to overhear Ralph and Linn in a heated debate about ethics; to see some great journals from Lorna and Phoebe, and to know that sketches, photographs writing and films were heading home to help us share our experiences with other people who did not have the good fortune to be with us on our fantastic expedition. You can see some of our creations on the following pages, as well as throughout this report.

My thanks are due in particular to John Lowry, who oversaw the CARE activities on Boat 2 (Tribe and Ucayali) with great energy and enthusiasm, and to Andrew Stokes-Rees, who made the wild camp a place where CARE activities could happen.

Interview with Cocama-Cocamilla Colleagues Johnny, Teddie and Victor Interview performed by Rose and Sophie, and translated by Claudia (Peruvian scientist) on nd Sunday 2 August 2009. Minutes taken and written up by Arabella and Sally.

Introduction During the time that BSES spent in the PacayaSamiria reserve, there were a number of things that both young explorers and leaders wanted to find out about the local Peruvian people. These are people who used to live in the area before it was made into the reserve and were forced to leave when it was created. They now live largely around the periphery of the reserve and, due to a change in management strategy, are now working with the reserve to manage it. Below are the details of an interview carried out by BSES with the local people. The interview was translated by Claudia, one of the Peruvian scientists.

Interview Q.) Firstly, can you introduce yourselves and explain what ethnic group you are part of?

A.) Victor, Teddie and Johnny come from the Cocama-Cocamilla people.

Q.) Before the reserve was created, when you were part of the original community here, did you have any contact with the outside world?

A.) All three say that they had no contact with the outside world.

It is important for the Cocama-Cocamilla people to know about the old way of life and how people used natural resources, and to combine this knowledge with their new way of life

Q.) Having experienced both living in this area as part of an original community and now being part of the management of the reserve, which lifestyle do you prefer?

A.) Teddie preferred life in the original settlements because there was a great community within his own group and also between groups, and their lifestyle was not as controlled as it is now.

Johnny says that his father was born in the area and now works at the guard station and that he also preferred life before the reserve was created as there was more of a community and also there was a greater availability of natural resources, such as fish and mammals, which are now limited as they are protected.

Victor adds that it is important to know about their old way of life and how they used natural resources and to combine this knowledge with their new way of life.

Q.) How do you feel about leaving the reserve?

A.) (All look upset) All three say that they feel there was, and still is, poor co-ordination between the BSES Expeditions 73

locals and the government, and that the government does not understand their way of life.

Q.) What do you feel are the positive and negative aspects of the Pacaya-Samiria reserve?

A.) Victor says that a positive aspect is that the reserve has been split into two areas, the core area and a buffer area. This allows the people to shift between the two areas so that the resources can be used in a more sustainable way. Johnny agrees with him and adds that he felt it was a good thing because one big community has been created from 70 separate groups. Together this collaborative community work together to eliminate poachers and other illegal activities. However, all three men agree the essential negative aspect is that they are unable to use the land as readily as before e.g. there is now limited fishing.

The government is interested in using the rainforest for money, but for the locals, it is their culture Q.) Do you feel that the conservation carried out on the reserve is important?

A.) All three agree, as they believe in protecting their former habitat.

A.) Victor believes it is extremely important to know and appreciate where medicines come from. He adds that he is currently working on a project about the benefit of natural medicines.

Q.) What can be done around the world to save the rainforest?

A.) Johnny says that the solution is to organise meetings between former indigenous communities and other organisations, such as the government, so that the others can learn what living in the forest is like. The government is interested in using the rainforest for money, but for the locals, it is their culture. The locals want to be able to teach their children how to use the forest and to appreciate it.

Victor and Teddie agree. Victor adds that the former indigenous people want to manage the land, but need training to do so in a sustainable way, which currently is not properly provided.

Q.) What can we do to help when we return to Great Britain?

A.) All the locals agree that the best thing that could be done is to talk about the Pacaya-Samiria reserve and its benefits, and pass on our knowledge of the area to other people, making them more aware of the reserve.

Q.) What do you think to the claims of the oil companies who are looking to exploit the land of Peru that there are no longer uncontacted indigenous tribes living in the rainforests (a debate currently raging in Bagua province in particular)?

A.) Together Johnny and Victor conclude that the oil companies are wrong about these tribes; they do not want to believe in these uncontacted tribes. This is because they want to exploit the land, resulting in the pollution of the water in the rivers and disruption to the entire ecosystem – the main issue being that the government cares only about money and not the people in the reserve.

Q.) Who do you believe is on your side supporting your rights as former residents of the reserve?

A.) Teddie says that there is support from many organisitions who work from within the reserve.

However, this support is temporary. This temporary support is often not felt by the local people as they still don’t have enough resources such as food and boats.

Q.) Do you believe that Westerners should leave the forest alone?

A.) There is a mixed reaction to this question as some feel that Westerners provide useful resources such as medicines. Others think that Westerners take the forest for granted.

Victor, as photographed by Chris Q.) Is tourism good as long it’s not damaging the environment?

A.) All the locals agree that tourism can be good for the area as long as it is performed in a sustainable way. This is because it brings money into the area, allowing the people to have more resources such as boats. It also creates more jobs for people in local communities.

Q.) Are you glad you had a chance to share your views with us?

A.) All three thanked us for asking for their opinions.

Q.) How do you feel about Westerners using the forest to create new medicines?

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CARE Submissions Extracts From Grace Boardman’s Report to Funders The 30 hours of travelling shattered into insignificance as the plane hit the tarmac in Iquitos.

We stepped off into 80% humidity, which immediately triggered the intense perspiration, which we would come to know and love over the next five weeks. A bus ride to Iquitos gave us a quick glimpse of life in Peru-dusty, bustling streets filled with tuc-tucs and street vendors. We were instantly charmed by the contrast from the modern, technology dependent country we had left far behind us at Heathrow.

The next couple of days were spent sorting and packing our equipment – we had to ensure that both boats had access to everything they would need in order to be self-sufficient during the trip. Finally, we were ready to head out into the sheet of green, which we had only been able to observe from a distance until now. The kit was loaded onto boats and we began our journey upstream, quickly realising that we were becoming engulfed in the isolation of the jungle as we picked up speed. Soon the green banks were all we could see from our transport boat, which was transporting us to the Pithecia – a permanently moored vessel which was used as a research station in the Pacaya Samiria Reserve. Once on board, we headed to our rooms and began the process of settling in.

“Woken by Howler monkeys this morning...have seen toucans, monkeys, dolphins, herons and woodpeckers. Now the sun is setting as I sit on deck watching the dolphins leap.”

Having spent the first week living on the Pithecia, Tribe were about to get a shock to the system; it was our turn to head out on a five day and night expedition into the forest itself. We packed hammocks, tarpaulins, a change of clothes and a medical kit and headed out 6km in canoes to ‘Jungle Camp’ (‘I’m A Celebrity’ eat your heart out!).

It didn’t take long for us to feel completely at home in the Jungle, as we managed to recreate many of our ‘mod-cons’ from home, jungle style! It quickly became apparent that Tribe excelled at teamwork, we worked together to get camp set up and dinner cooking before anyone had time to get tired, and by the end of night we had a toilet, hammocks, a seating area, a jetty down to the water, a fire and a two-course dinner under our belts.

travelling upstream to a point on a Cocha where we set up camp for the day. We spent time swimming in the Cocha and bird watching, then in the evening packed up to return to main jungle camp in the dark, on a moonlit canoe trip. For me, this was one of those days that will remain with me forever – the idyllic setting, incredible people and fascinating wildlife was almost too good to be true, and if I hadn’t been there myself, I would not have believed such a place to exist.

“On our last night in the jungle Tribe tried out our newly constructed rope swing and toasted marshmallows – a fantastic evening followed by an awful night’s sleep-thanks to the mosquitoes!

Apparently I was unwakeable this morning as a result, despite being shaken, pinched and shouted at! After a delicious chocolate custard breakfast we drifted back to the Pithecia...between us, a broken finger, split lip and chipped tooth, and stitched hand.

We are a true Tribe!”

Night Time in the Jungle Night-time in the jungle – It’s all fun and games – Washing up after dinner; Giving Caiman silly names When bedtime comes around There’s a mix of delight and dread, For we’re all completely shattered But no-one wants to wake up dead!

With morning comes relief, And a whole new day to tackle But please, I beg, be careful: Do not anger the deadly rattle!

Jack Pitts

One of my favourite parts from the trip was spent BSES Expeditions 75

3 Haiku Incessant buzzing, smoky sunbeams, dappled light.

This is jungle camp.

Paddles splash gently, through water we glide, until we hit another tree.

Trees shake as they jump the machete man points up and monkeys fill our view.

Jack Pitts

The Amazon Out here I feel so happy Although it does not show Birds are tweeting round me As the river flows so slow I am so many miles away from home And it seems like another world to me This place is so magnificent I only wish I could show my family Monkeys in the tallest trees Macaws in the highest skies Birds on the riverside Unbelievable I’m seeing this with my own eyes

All the Land’s a Sea Clouds of speckled green, and All the land’s a sea of purple Earth and the tall mist Rises in furlongs of deep blues and Aquamarine, Around, above, below, between The tall, the strong, the weak-kneed Gather, harvest, plunder We are speckled green, and Earth sea.

Jack Flanagan If You Wanna Be Somebody If you wanna be somebody, If you wanna go somewhere, You better wake up and pay Attention.

Here’s a place to sit back and Retrace, to think about my happy And sad times in my life, to make Sure I always brace myself for My future.

So many people I’ve started to trust, Just to be able to understand me and My life, is always a must.

My confidence has grown and also My self-esteem. I truly believed That I wasn’t able to success, but I am capable.

This trip has made me think I really Don’t want to waste my life thinking I wish I had achieved that and I Will achieve anything I want to just Like everybody else.

When I go home to share my stories I only wish I wouldn’t feel sad As I know she will not be with us So my happiness makes me feel so bad Anon.

A Typical Day In The Amazon It’s hard to describe a typical day in the Amazon as one day can be so different and varied from the next. For example, a day at wild camp is radically different from a turtle survey; however, I will try my best to capture the idea of a typical day. The day begins with breakfast at around 7 o clock and the wildlife begins to buzz at around this time also with river dolphins surfacing next to the boat and howler monkeys crying their long, rumbling burp. After a cold shower and some hurried organisation, the science surveys begin in the early morning and last through till lunch. The surveys involve identifying animals (such as turtles, monkeys, macaws and river dolphins) and marking the location and time of sighting. After lunch, a period of relaxation occurs where the midday heat is at its most intense and so most retreat into the shade. During this time, the young explorers have the opportunity to enter data into the laptops, play cards, socialize, swim in the river or take part in any other game they have thought up. In the evening, the mosquitoes arrive and so a generous application of DEET is required to avoid being eaten. Formal briefings and group events also take place during this time and the caiman surveys leave at 8 o clock. It starts getting dark at around 6 o clock so unlike in Britain, most people are in bed by 9:30. In the Amazon, no day is typical as those on macaws need to be in the canoes by 5:30 whereas at wild camp the day may be spent fishing, building, or using the rope swing.

Just always remember, everything Is possible if you just work hard for it.

Becky Harris BSES Expeditions 76

Entertainment and Improvisation – Alex Helliar Not a moment of boredom was had on the expedition due to the plethora of different activities and events that ran throughout the four weeks.

Activities include the usual: cards, singing and swimming but also more outlandish were done things such as yoga, creative classes and tattooing.

keystone of the Peruvian attack teased and taunted with his quick footwork and silky skills. Goals were scored at both ends, a game of cat and mouse ensued; when one team scored and went ahead the other would respond quickly with a goal of their own.

Perhaps the most memorable of these was the clash of two countries in the football game BSES FC vs Peru. Representing BSES: Tor, Chris, Alex, Dan, Ewan, AJ and Ralph; each with a personalised name and number emblazoned on their backs. It was a scorching afternoon and what better way to cool of then diving around in the mud, of which there was plenty. The crowds turned out to cheer on their respective teams; there was a great air of excitement.

The mighty Tor sustained a sprained ankle in the fray but in true Norwegian style battled on to the end. Alex got a bucket load of mud in the eye and was sidelined for five minutes, later to find he had parasitic worms in his eye. At 2-2 it looked like proceedings could be heading into extra time, but the Peruvians got a break through goal which turned out to be the winner, 3-2 to the Peruvians.

A great time was had by all, both players and spectators alike. Plastered in mud, from head to toe, all those involved had a very refreshing and enjoyable swim in the river to cool off.

It was a close encounter, with the ball yo-yoing from end to end. Ralph put in a magnificent display in goal, literally putting his body on the line by making several saves with his face. The rest of the team really put their hearts into it but found the slippery terrain difficult to adjust to. At the other end Manuel was a rock at the back, whilst Santiago, the BSES Expeditions 77

Wild Camp Report For many explorers of the Amazon rainforest a selfsufficient journey through a wetland jungle area is the ultimate adventure. It is a time of challenge and discovery; a time when expedition teams live entirely by their own energy and resourcefulness with little respite from the weather, the wildlife and the demands of handling all one’s equipment. In such an experience, the team’s trust and interdependence becomes paramount as each mile of canoeing and trekking presents new difficulties.

From spearing fish for an evening meal, to crossing a broad swamp, the experience is equally demanding as it is rewarding.

The 2010 team spent the wild camp phase exploring the Yanayacu Grande stream. This is an isolated medium-volume river flowing heavily eastward into the Samiria. Its broad floodplain creates an intricate network of tributary streams, lagoons and flooded jungle area. In short, it is a canoeists paradise.

In four weeks, only eight Cocama-Cocamilla indigenous were encountered in this region. We have found no record of previous non-indigenous groups travelling into this region and accordingly the explorations of the Yanayacu were launched with virtually no prior knowledge of the water system, wildlife populations or terrain type.

Each fire entered the region with slightly different objectives and directions of exploration. In the first week the water level allowed for canoe travel into one area of rainforest that remained flooded by two meters of water.

Due to the complex demands of this phase, each young explorer received training and practice in a number of skill areas. Most importantly were the canoe training, machete work and campcraft.

Numerous members of the expedition team excelled in the practice of jungle campcraft.

As a result of their efforts and enthusiasm, the time spent in the Yanayacu was probably among the most unique and memorable wilderness experience many of us will ever have. To paddle by moonlight hundreds of miles from nearest civilisation, spear fish for cook on a bamboo grill, bathe in a pristine lagoon and then wake to monkeys and humming birds curiously inspecting the camp, this is to live in touch with nature as few will ever experience.

– Andrew Stokes-Rees

YEs’ Summary of training and activities Emergency procedures The emergency procedures for medical information and evacuation were explained on the boat upon arrival to the rainforest environment.

Fire making We were taught how to make a fire by the leading team and the local Peruvians by using timber and tinder from the surrounding environment.

Water safety The purification of water had been explained and then re-iterated to us on camp. The only use of water purification we used was a rolling boil but iodine or chlorine had been used in other parts of the expedition.

Machete use The safe and correct way of using a machete had been explained primarily at the briefing weekend but it was re-iterated during the camp. Machete use is an important skill which we acquired. In this area it is used abundantly to collect wood for fires, to check for dangerous/venomous

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animals, to make gadgetry and bedding and to kill food.

Canoe practice Canoeing played an important role in the only form of transportation and water exploration during the five days at camp.

We paddled in tandem canoes with three to a boat. The current was fairly slow and there are few obstacles along the section of the river we used.

Setting up hammocks, bashers and mosquito nets The setting up of hammocks, bashers and mosquito nets had been explained at the briefing weekend and then again on jungle living. This skill was advanced quickly by attempting different setups and adjustments to increase comfort levels.

Jungle navigation skills Our navigation skill was acquired during this part of the trip more heavily than others.

Jungle navigation is perilous and must not be taken lightly. We learnt about hand railing and the correct use of a compass.

Kit list Group kit: Sat phone, radios, lanterns, mosquito nets, hammocks, GPS, first aid kit, plans and forms, throw backs, bailers, wire, twine, plastic sheets, tarp, rope, canoe repair, shovel, mattock, candles, gaffer tape, kerosene, machetes, wash basin, water carriers, group pots and pans, ladles, and food barrel.

Personal YE kit: Sleeping bag, spoon, bowl, cup, penknife, first aid kit, 2 sets of clothes, boots, toothbrush and soap etc, journal, whistle, compass, bottle, sun block, hat, binoculars and camera!

The kit was explained the night before we left for wild camp. This skill to pack lightly and efficiently has been significantly increased during our time in such a harsh environment.

campsite or we passed by them. A constant awareness of these dangers including other dangers like drowning or getting lost has played an important role in our training.

The Yanayacu Grande River The Yanayacu is a black water tributary that flows into the Samiria at about 1km per hour. It truly feels like the wild since it is a mere 30 meters wide and the banks are thick vegetation that prevents you seeing further than 2 meters at best. It supports a wide array of aquatic life; dolphins, manatees and wide array of fish. The locals even warned us of the lively Boa Constrictor population in the water and on the banks. Activities Fishing Fishing played an important part of our survival as fish was our main source of food. Fishing was attempted at least once a day from the local ‘cocha’. It is a thoroughly enjoyable part of the expedition and can be very relaxing.

Clay making We were able to be creative with clay making as clay was abundant in the camping area. Turtles, caiman, dolphins and many other animals were created and then dried.

Gadgets Gadgetry although not essential can make life a lot easier and more comfortable whilst living in the jungle. Gadgetry appeared in the form of benches, machete racks and bedding accommodation.

Swimming There was a chance to swim and wash in the Amazon River every day. This activity was mainly for fun but it also played an important part of hygiene. A rope swing was even created and used on wild camp to enter the river with a splash!

Canoeing Canoeing skills were improved during the camp by participating in single man canoeing lessons. This then could be transferred to tandem canoeing. This activity was really enjoyable and relaxing. It played an important role in wild camps exploration and transportation sections.

Hiking We did one day of hiking which had us walking over many forms of terrain. The hike we did was approximately 8 hours long with an hour break in between. Although very tiring it was a really enjoyable part of the wild camp and enabled us to practice navigation skills in a large group.

Group mentality This is an important skill for the safety and in terms of the accomplishments that can be achieved. A positive attitude is required in times of hardship to keep the group going. A general awareness of your impact on the group has also been acquired whilst at wild camp.

Time keeping – day/night time hours The time keeping for daylight is important especially when removal from the base camp. Good navigation skills helped us always return to the camp before dark.

Hazard perception/Risk assessment The awareness of the dangers around us really was knocked into us as many venomous animals passed through the BSES Expeditions 79

Wild Camp Issues, Challenges and Tips The first challenge was the paddle up the Yanayacu to our wild camp location. A good breakfast and sleep is essential if you want to enjoy this journey.

The main issues with living in the jungle are the insects and sleep. Bring 100% DEET (and use liberally) and hydrocortisone cream. Try not to scratch your bites while camping to reduce the risk of infection. At wild camp it is near impossible to keep cuts clean so bring lots of antiseptic and dressings.

Washing is merely a dive in the river and usually after climbing the muddy banks you end up dirtier than you started. Wet wipe washes are the most effective way of keeping clean.

It is very challenging to remain group minded throughout wild camp. It was especially tough during the day hike to Cocha Yarina. Many people had welly breaches from the swamp areas. A person with wet feet is not a happy one so try to keep the mood light by singing songs and telling jokes. This should keep their mind off the squelching sounds coming from their wellies!

Also, keeping a sharp eye out for hazards at the camp is also important. We had multiple cases of tarantulas and poisonous snakes entering the camp. It is a good idea to check your bed before sleeping. This will also ensure a good night’s sleep since you won’t have any stray mosquitoes in your net.

Many YEs experienced a “sense of humour failure” at some point. A combination of poor sleep, bad hygiene and insects will put a strain on your temper.

The best way to deal with your frustration is to rant, either to a friend or your diary. Failing that, try to remove yourself from the group to calm down. Good food is often a fail safe way cheer up an unhappy camper.

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Medical Report - Georgina Standen & Andy Boyd As our esteemed leader (that’s you, Ewan) mentioned in an interview in a recent BSES newsletter, a slick, motivated medical team is essential for the success of any expedition. We hope we provided something along those lines…

Things kicked off with the briefing weekend and the opportunity to meet 60 increasingly terrified faces as details of all the tropical diseases, venomous creatures and life threatening injuries that could face us whilst in the jungle were discussed.

Questions were fired from every direction on which antimalarials to take, whether iodine was better than chlorine, and of course the odds of surviving the trip! Somehow no one was put off, and after a few persuasive words to insurance companies everyone was deemed medically fit to travel.

Gee then had to get to work using her best feminine wiles (and possibly a few beers) to entrap another medic to come along with her, which was finally achieved about 3 weeks before the departure date despite protests that, ‘mountains are more my thing’.

With Boydo on board ordering the last minute supplies for the medical kit, Gee was set to hit Iquitos, on what she naively thought would be a bit of a holiday before the main expedition arrived, with just a little reconnaissance trip to the local hospital.

After a week of 12 hour ‘planning’ days, an incident with some local thieves and becoming the first casualty of the expedition, Gee felt sorely in need of a week on the beach.

She had unexpectedly increased her repertoire of skills to include ship engine inspection, ascertainment of life jacket (sorry, buoyancy aid!) safety, and assessor of on-board yoga area requirements! Needless to say, all communications were conducted in Spanish, even down to obtaining the right antivenom for the right snake and understanding how to administer it. Of course the beach would have to wait for the following year; 60 people needed meeting and greeting after a gruelling flight, and the expedition began.

Briefings continued as we chugged slowly up river, and everyone was subjected to a crash course on basic first aid, how to treat a snake bite and what a casualty evacuation involved. Less sexy issues sun exposure, water intake and hand washing were also covered but strangely didn’t attract the same level of interest and excitement!

Thanks in part to the thorough preparation described above, and in part to the maturity and common sense displayed by YE’s and leaders alike, there were remarkably few issues requiring intervention from the expedition doctors. However, no BSES expedition would be complete without a few exotic medical problems, and Amazon 2009 was no different!

The commonest complaints were, unsurprisingly, insect bites. Everyone was affected to a greater or lesser extent, but special mention must be extended to the members of Ucayali Fire who were the jungle camp guinea pigs, and returned with a truly unenviable collection of mosquito bites incurred during a night in (allegedly) inexpertly hung hammocks.

Next up were heat and sun related issues (sunburn, sunstroke and heat exhaustion) - proof if it were required that the no sunbathing policy wasn’t just to stop you all getting a ‘healthy’ tan to take home!

Very few people complained of upset stomachs.

Perhaps there were others who kept their symptoms to themselves, but it’s testament to the scrupulous hygiene of the kitchen staff that the number of people complaining of constipation actually outnumbered those with the opposite problem. We

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trust you’re all ticking over regularly now.

Other problems encountered included ear infections, allergic reactions, medication side effects, blisters, eye injuries, soft tissue sprains, burns, wound infections and fungal infections.

On the exciting/scary front, a couple of mentions are due - one YE was ill enough to warrant evacuation for hospital treatment in Iquitos, but thankfully made a full and rapid recovery and was able to rejoin the expedition a few days later. At about the same time, a certain member of Tribe Fire, in a desperate bid to outdo a fellow YE who had just sliced his hand open with a penknife, decided to fall on his own machete, incurring a nasty wound to his lip and tooth. Thanks to the steady hand of his surgeon (!) and assistant (thanks Dan) he was back to eating seconds at every meal within a few days. We have it on reliable authority that his planned career as a male model has not been compromised.

mind, causing you to smile; and when people ask you why you’re smiling, you’ll probably just say “oh, nothing really”, they wouldn’t understand, they weren’t there.

My enduring thanks go to everyone at BSES, in Peru and elsewhere who made Amazon 2009 reality and thanks to all of the Amazon 2009 team for letting me share it with them.

Ewan Laurie Chief Leader

In summary, the expedition doctors would like to thank you all for keeping our workload so light, to the extent that we were able to fully immerse ourselves in all of the expedition activities.

Conclusion The BSES 2009 Amazon expedition was an incredible success, with high quality, important science being delivered in conjunction with a taxing and interesting adventure schedule. It was also great fun!

Young Explorers and leaders alike grew in various ways, learning new skills, forming unbreakable friendships and finding out more about the sort of person they wanted to be and the sort of world they wanted to live in.

There may never be an obvious moment when Amazon 2009 YEs recognise an achievement in later life that they might not have reached without this trip. It’s the little things that change, but they add up to creating capable, dependable, resourceful, confident and interesting people. The sort of people we’ll need to lead us through the rest of this century.

It’s too difficult to pick a particular memory that will remain with me the longest. I’m certain that all who were there will remember bits of it for the rest of their lives. Every now and then, probably unprompted, a vision of someone falling out of a canoe, or a pink dolphin breaking the surface of the river, or perhaps the exhilaration of flying through the air on the wild camp rope swing, will enter your BSES Expeditions 82

Appendix YE Personal Projects Natural Resources: Are they worth it?

- Sarah Edwards When the Amazon is mentioned, it is most likely that the word “trees� springs to mind as the only natural resource of Peru. In fact, before taking part in the BSES Amazon Expedition this is what I believed also. However, there are many different resources found in Peru that I never would have associated with the country such as silver, gold, crude oil, coal and natural gas. Unfortunately, the extraction of these resources causes untold damage to the environment and to the indigenous people, for example the current riots occurring in the northern region due to oil exploration and the constant threat of deforestation.

The Peruvian Amazon covers around 53.7% of Peru and holds over 70% of the living species of the planet including rare species such as the giant river otter, the jaguar and the black caiman. However, the rainforest is under threat of an increase in deforestation and degradation. Deforestation in particular will have a great effect on the future of our planet as trees in tropical rainforests store huge quantities of carbon in their tissues, which helps reduce the levels present in the atmosphere. The loss of tropical rainforests as well as the increased burning of fossil fuels has already resulted in an increase in the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and the resulting greenhouse effect, thus the planet cannot afford to lose any more of the rainforests.

Since 1999, the Peruvian Amazon had an average deforestation rate of about 645 square kilometres per year, with 2% occurring with natural protected areas and 9% occurring in indigenous territories.

Between 1990 and 2005, the total forest cover of the forest has decreased from 70,156,000 hectares to 68,742,000 hectares; this is a total loss of 1,414,000 hectares. Deforestation and degradation are mainly the result of development activities, such as logging, commercial agriculture, mining, gas and oil operations, and road construction.

Causes of deforestation in the Amazon Cattle ranches Small-scale, subsistence agriculture Large-scale, commercial agriculture Logging, legal and illegal Fires, mining, urbanization, road construction, dams

6570% 2025% 5-10% 2-3% 1-2%

Cattle-ranching is an important source of farming activity in many Amazonian countries like Brazil, Colombia and Peru just to name a few. The export to beef to developed countries such as USA, BSES Expeditions 83

Canada and Japan is extremely profitable and brings in valuable revenue to poor South American countries. As a result, the Amazonian governments encourage cattle ranching by offering financial aid and tax rebates to cattle ranchers. This has resulted in extensive areas of the tropical rainforest being burnt and cut down so that grass and pasture can be grown for cattle.

In agriculture the slash and burn system is typically used to clear the forest to grow pasture to cultivate crops for subsistence and commercial agriculture.

The slash and burn system refers to the process of cutting down a forest, burning the trees, and then using the cleared land to grow crops such as bananas, maize or even rice. This system can be used to convert vast amounts of forest into largescale industrial farms or can be used on a much smaller scale by poor farmers. Slash and burn agriculture is ultimately a permanent conversion that leads to a rapid decline in the fertility of the land, thus resulting in more land needing to be cleared to produce crops and more forest lost. This use of fire coupled with climate change, is having a dramatic impact on the Amazon. Recent studies suggest that the Amazon rainforest may be losing its ability to stay green all year long as forest degradation and drought make it dangerously flammable.

There is an increasing demand in the USA, Canada and Japan for the valuable wood of mahogany trees, which can still be found in commercial quantities in the Peruvian Amazon. Currently, most logging being carried out is illegal as the amount of wood in the legal logging areas has depleted. Some loggers are beginning to remove this “red gold� from the nature reserves of the country. Unfortunately, the guards of the nature reserves are unable to arrest the loggers or even remove the wood from their possession. This was even witnessed by our expedition in the Pacaya-Samiria nature reserve.

Native reservations for isolated tribes are also under threat as a result of the knowledge that, traditionally, natives take care of the trees on their land, thus more and more loggers are entering the land in search of valuable wood that is not available in legal areas. Logging also has an adverse affect on another resource of the Amazon - the fish. There is as increase in the sedimentation found in the rivers and lakes resulting in a decline in the fish population due to logging as there are no roots to bind the soil together,.

floodplain forests, and using heavy machinery to expose potential gold-yielding gravel deposits. The miners use liquid mercury to separate gold particles from river sediments. Mercury, a heavy metal, bonds with gold. The amalgam is heated, the mercury is burned off and pure gold remains. In the process, about half of the mercury escapes as vapour, which is inhaled directly by gold refiners or is returned to the earth with rain. The rest of the mercury, in the form of residue or ash, is generally dumped into rivers by miners.

Mercury contamination and, again, increased river sedimentation can be a problem downstream from operations, while mining roads can open remote forest areas to settlers and land speculators. The shantytowns that spring up in areas believed to hold gold deposits increase pressure on forests for building material, bush-meat, fuel and agricultural land. Recently there have been a lot of problems revolving around oil exploration carried out by

American companies such as Hunt Oil Company.

This is due to the introduction of the 1090 decree which allows for corporate exploration and exploitation in the Amazon. Indigenous groups fear that this exploitation of the natural resources will damage their local environment and their way of life.

Other groups do not want their ancestral land to be used without financial gain of their own. As a result, there have been many protests and riots occurring all over the country, unfortunately even causing the

A further source of deforestation and environmental degradation in the Peruvian Amazon is gold mining.

Peru's forests are home to alluvial gold deposits that are pursued by large-scale operators and informal, small-scale miners. Both kinds of operators rely heavily on hydraulic mining techniques, blasting away at river banks, clearing BSES Expeditions 84

deaths of both indigenous citizens and police officers. While this fossil fuel can be extracted in an environmentally-friendly way, governments and oil companies usually opt for expediency over consideration for the environment or the interests of local people most affected by production.

Oil development activities include several contaminating processes. Firstly, exploratory wells are established in the area, each producing an average of 4,000 cubic metres of drilling wastes including drilling muds, petroleum, natural gas and formation water from deep below the earth’s surface. These wastes are then usually deposited into open, unlined pits called separation ponds, from which they are either directly discharged into the environment or leach out as the pits degrade or overflow from rainwater.

If commercial quantities of oil are detected, the production stage starts. During production, oil is extracted in a mixture with formation water and gas and separated in a central facility. At each facility, over 4.3 million gallons of liquid wastes are generated every day and discharged without treatment into pits. Roughly 53 million cubic feet of “waste” gas from the separation process are burned daily without temperature or emissions controls.

Other wastes, such as heavy metals, volatile organic compounds, and hydrocarbons still exist at levels above the safety limits set by Peru due to oil spills from broken pipelines and leakages that have not been properly cleaned and continue to threaten the surrounding indigenous communities, who have long fought against the oil companies. The oil runs into the rivers when it rains and thus contaminates the rivers, which are the only source of food and water for many indigenous communities.

Another natural resource found in the Peruvian Amazon is natural gas, with one of the largest concentrations of Peru's natural gas production being the Camisea project. The Camisea project, which has been operational since August 2004, consists of several natural gas fields located in the Ucayali basin of south-eastern Peru. Analysts estimated that the area contains around 8.7 Trillion cubic feet of proven natural gas reserves and 410 million barrels of associated natural gas liquids. The project consists of two pipelines, one for natural gas and one for natural gas liquids and will act as the distribution network for natural gas in Lima and Callao. The pipelines make natural gas available for domestic consumption, industrial purposes and for export. The natural gas extracted is also used to generate electricity that is distributed throughout Peru. By tapping into a stable, low-cost source of energy, the project has provided direct benefits to electricity end-users and improved the competitiveness of the Peruvian industry as well as providing employment opportunities and foreign investment. However, as always there is a catch and unfortunately, the Camisea Project cuts through a diverse environmental “hotspot”, disrupting the species that live there.

There are many disadvantages to the extraction of the natural resources of Peru, yet these would not be so great if research was carried out to find new, greener ways to carry out extraction that would prevent damage to the environment and the local people. The value of these commodities is too high to be ignored in the current global financial climate and this has been recognised by many of the world leaders, who agree that immediate action needs to be taken. However due to the many pressing issues, domestic and foreign, the destruction of the Amazon is not a high priority and continues to be overlooked. I only hope they will take action before it is too late.

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Amazon Kingfisher

Aves Del Amazon – Sam Whitaker Great Egret The Great Egret is most common in marshes and lake margins. It is usually outnumbered by Snowy and Castle Egrets. It is large, long necked white Heron with yellow bill and black Tarsi and toes.

Breeding birds have long white plumes on lower back. The Voice of the Egret is that it calls often in flight, series of groans.

The Amazon Kingfisher is large with a very heavy, thick based bill that merges with forehead producing a “flat headed” profile. The Male has a broad chestnut breast band; the breast of the female has a narrower green breast band, often broken in the centre of breast.

The Voice of the Kingfisher is song, descending and decelerating squeaky series of notes.

Anhinga The Anhinga is much less social than Cormorants and is very common only less than 500m. The bird can lower its body while swimming so that only head and neck are showing. Also, unlike a Cormorant, the Anhinga also soars and it may be mistaken for a raptor, but note the long thin neck and bill. The male is largely black.

Head, neck and breast of female are more “fluffy”.

Black Collared Hawk The Black – Collared Hawk is closely associated with water and it is always found along rivers or at edges of marshes. It may soar, but it often perches low over the water and drops down to capture its prey. It is a very attractive hawk and the juveniles are much browner than the adults. The Voice is a deep growl that trails off. The younger birds give whistled screams.

Vulture The Black Vulture soars with its wings held flat, alternating with short bouts of rapid “choppy” wing beats; also, the body does not rock from side to side while soaring. Also, it may soar to great heights and often congregates in large groups while soaring. The Black Vulture stands more upright than other vultures and is much more agile on its feet. They are often seen at relatively large carcasses in large groups.

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Flowers and Seeds in Pacaya-Samiria - Joanna Rothwell Introduction The Amazon Rainforest is one of the most bio-diverse habitats in the world. It is often referred to as the lungs of the planet and is thought to contain many medicinal remedies as yet un-discovered by scientists.

Here in the Pacaya-Samiria reserve there are many studies taking place on the local animal population but very little is known about the plants. This amazing ecosystem is mostly un-studied so I have decided to try and learn more about the workings and reproduction of a selection of plants. My key question therefore is ‘How do plants disperse their seeds in the Pacaya-Samiria reserve?’ I will therefore study and dissect flowers and seeds to discover their inner-workings and method of pollination.

Method During my time the Pacaya-Samiria reserve I have taken part in many transects and excursions into the rainforest ranging between 3 and 5km. These transects were based from the Pithecia (0550,9450) on the Yanayacu Grande river, and the Lobo de Rio (0552,9442) on the Rio Samiria, and were conducted in August 2009. During these transects I looked for both flowers growing at ground level and flowers & seeds on the ground which had fallen from the canopy above. Then on my return to the boat I was able to draw and dissect them. I also took photos of any flowers or seeds that I was unable to draw because of difficulty transporting before the flower wilted and then drew from the photos.

Here you can see how the shape of the flower draws the insect further inside to maximise the amount of pollen landing on the insect.

Here you can see the bright colours used by the flowers to attract butterflies, bees etc.

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This is a good example of multiple anthers.

Results - Pollination Most plants are pollinated by insects which they attract with bright coloured flowers and sweet nectar. When the insect brushes up against the anther (male part of plant) pollen rubs off, sticking to the insect. The pollen is then carried by the insect to the next flower where it rubs off on the stigma (female part of plant) before traveling down to the ovary where it grows into a seed.

These are examples of stigma waiting to be fertilised.

Fertilisation BSES Expeditions 88

Once a flower has been fertilised, seeds form in the ovary and the ovary swells and ripens. The petals form a bud around the seed which will eventually dry out and burst open, releasing the seeds into the environment, where they are dispersed in a variety of ways.

Here the flower has formed a bud enclosing the seed inside so we know the flower has been fertislised.

Here the petals have folded down away from the seed implying they are no longer needed and the plant has been fertilised and is ready to disperse its seed.

Types of Seed Dispersal Eating Many of the seeds and flowers have been found on the forest floor indicating that they have fallen from the canopy above. According to local Peruvian scientists the seeds are often eaten by birds and monkeys who will then excrete them as they move through the rainforest therefore dispersing the seeds. Examples of monkeys seen on the terrestrial transects include; wooly monkeys, capuchin monkeys, howler monkeys, saki monkeys, squirrel monkeys and tamarins. On the macaw survey there have been sightings of yellow and blue macaws, chestnut macaws, red bellied macaws, scarlet macaws and red and green macaws. Other possible consumers include sloths and squirrels as well as animals on the ground such as deer and peccaries.

This seed has formed into a fruit to be eaten by animals and birds.

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This is a hard seed with an inner texture like coconut probably designed to be eaten. It is known locally as Coquillo and is inedible to humans.

Wind Some of the seeds found are very light and have a large surface area suggesting that they are designed to be caught by the wind and blown to a new destination where they can reproduce. This is often difficult within a rainforest as there is usually little or no wind below the canopy.

This seed has four ‘sails’ and is very light.

It was not found with any similar seeds suggesting it was blown from another area.

Explosion - A few trees will spread the seeds themselves, once the seed is ready to be dispersed; the ripening fruit explodes spreading the seeds over a wide area. Unfortunately I was unable to find any examples of this fruit.

Conclusion For future studies I recommend carrying out surveys in both the dry and wet season so plants that only flower in the wet season are not excluded from study. Also the seeds and flowers I have studied have all been found on the forest floor so a more complete study should include studies of the canopy so the trees they come from can also be studied.

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Multi-media Diary Project by Grace Boardman at Wild Camp

Wild Camp Our Wild Camp was split over five days, with the first spent travelling upstream from the Pithecia in five canoes and two Helios’. We paddled 6km, reaching our destination, “Base Camp”, at about 12:00, having set off just after 8:00 am. The first task was to off load the boats and organise lunch, for which we split into groups in order to utilise our time most efficiently. We quickly learned that it was very important to be able to prepare food promptly, as it was a great moral boost and gave the group a chance to regain some much needed energy.

Next, we prepared our sleeping arrangements, with half the Fire choosing to spend the night in hammocks and half opting for the canopy floor.

Mosquito nets went up as the DEET went on, and before we knew it, it was time to prepare dinner. It was quickly becoming apparent that what we took for granted at home was not something that was as readily available in the Jungle. Perhaps the most poignant reminder of this was the fact that in order to eat, the river water we used had to be brought to the boil first, in order to destroy the bacteria which had the potential to make us unwell. This process could take about an hour, as the fire had to first reach a high enough temperature. We therefore had to start preparing dinner about two hours in advance.

siesta in a clearing, before heading back to the canoes and camp.

Day three began bright and early with another canoe trip planned for the day. We paddled upstream once again, mooring up in a Cocha and creating a second ‘camp’ where we relaxed and started lunch. We planned to have a moonlit canoe back to Base Camp later in the evening, so decided to prepare dinner where we were. The group once again split into several subgroups, so that we could prepare dinner efficiently. I assisted in the catching and gutting of fish, and we managed to attract a large caiman in the process! I then helped to prepare the fish and we were ready to head off after dinner in good time, as everyone helped clear the camp. The moonlit canoe back to base was one of the highs of wild camp for many people; the peace and quiet was breathtaking and really helped us to appreciate the jungle on a whole new level.

Next morning began with pancakes and a plan to have a ‘jungle skills’ day. We began by organising a video documenting the different levels of habitation for the fauna of the forest and managed to incorporate some tree climbing in the process. In the afternoon we put some time aside to produce some ‘jungle jewellery’, and also had our first two casualties of the trip; Tim slicing his hand with a penknife, followed promptly by Sam getting hit in the face with a machete! Tim’s injury was quickly rectified (without anaesthetic,) by Doc with three stitches. Sam’s unfortunately meant that he had to leave us on the last night and head back to the Pithecia with Doc and Mal so that he could have access to anaesthetic and extra medical kit.

Thankfully both were fine. The rest of the fire enjoyed a last night on the new rope swing, then marshmallow toasting before bed. The last day dawned and we awoke to chocolate custard for breakfast…Yum! We headed back to the Pithecia bright and early, after a fantastic week in the jungle.

The first night was generally spent comfortably, despite a few vicious mosquito bites! The next morning we awoke to a hot breakfast with a view to paddling and walking through the jungle, hoping that we would encounter some animals on the way.

We set off in canoes through the flooded canopy, manoeuvring around branches which would usually tower five metres above us. Eventually we reached solid ground where we clambered out of canoes and through the jungle, spotting plenty of monkeys and birds en route. We stopped for lunch and a BSES Expeditions 91

Method Using a video camera, I will conduct informal interviews of the Y.E’s involved in different activities over the duration of the Wild Camp. I hope to give a flavour of the extent of different activities we carry out by showing, for example, individuals catching, gutting and cooking fish whilst others prepare the fire or set up the tarps. On different days I will probably aim to focus on a different aspect of camp life in order not to allow the documentary to become boring. Later on in the process, either on arrival in England or on the journey back to Iquitos, I will edit the film so that the different scenes run into each other seamlessly, and edit excess material. I may also choose to edit in photographs which further explain the activity being discussed.

insured a deep sense of trust and security during our little adventures.

When many such interesting days came to an end, they mingled with us during celebrations such as Peru’s Independence Day, which many YEs kindly respected by saluting the nation’s flag.

I hope that my project gives a unique and interesting insight into the feelings and practical activities which we as Young Explorers are involved in. Through the use of film, I believe a much more accurate impression of our trip can be created for those at home, to help them to understand and appreciate our experiences whilst in the Amazon.

A Description of the partnership between YE and local staff - Ralph Wainer Verbal communication was kept at a minimum, as most Peruvian leaders only spoke their mother tongue yet we all got to know each other surprisingly well. As natives to the Rainforest, they were interviewed on ethics and ancestry with the help of a kind translator so all YE were able to understand their upbringing and their interest in the rainforest. (Please also refer to written account of the interview.) Surprising to some, most Peruvians expressed their accordance concerning the integration of their families into modern society (the jungle in Iquitos being the main bridge to the modern world) and the Peruvian government’s decision to allow the natives more independence and responsibility concerning wildlife maintenance in the jungle. Regrettably, the flow of information was merely one-sided, and the Peruvians, who all expressed a desire to visit Europe, remain unaware of how we initially saw the jungle, although all our views about the rainforest have undoubtedly changed.

Keeping the report brief – we all got on well with each other despite the linguistic barriers which we partially managed to overcome after some funny Spanish lessons with Peruvians and I doubt that anyone could forget the captain's hilarious singing and guitar playing as well as dances and quiet moments we witnessed together.

The YEs and British leaders would all wish to extend their sincere gratitude.

Their knowledge of taxonomy and jungle living greatly increased the quantity learnt during our stay.

With ease they navigated through the jungle, made benches and fires out of vines and bamboo and BSES Expeditions 92

Fishing Techniques: Tried and Tested - Alex Helliar and Dan Brydon Introduction Across the planet but especially within the Amazon fishing has been utilised for centuries; both as a tradition but also as a means of providing food.

Over the years techniques have come and gone, but certain methods have stood the test of time.

What follows is an explanation and summary of the most prominent fishing techniques used in the Peruvian Amazon today.

Techniques Spear- The spear is a lightweight piece of wood, with spiked metal barbs on the tip (often made from umbrellas), but can be whittled. Although this technique is thought of as a tradition, in the right hands it is an effective fishing tool. The pros of the spear are: large fish can be caught, can be made from local resources, little effort is required and there is a low chance that the fish will escape. It does however have a few setbacks, these are: requires patience, limited to the skill of the user and in general lower numbers of fish are caught.

Rating: 6/10 Rod- The rod is probably the most widely used implement used in the world today for fishing and it’s easy to see why. The rod requires only a little skill, it doesn’t disturb and scare the fish away and a good number of fish can be caught in a small time frame. The problems with it arise from needing bait which can be difficult to procure, a line and hook are needed which aren’t readily available in the forest, hooks can easily become snagged, larger fish tend not to be caught with a rod and the fish are prone to escaping once hooked. The benefits of this technique however definitely outweigh its limitations.

Rating: 7/10

Rating: 9/10 Poisoning water - Although we never witnessed this technique first hand whilst on the expedition, it is still used, but more by the tribes that live in the forest. It involves beating a certain type of plant into the water which deoxygenates it, causing the fish in the area to die and rise to the surface. This method is certainly effective and gives a high yield of fish.

As well as this no external resources are required which makes it effectively cost free. Locating the poison does require effort as does beating it in the water. Unfortunately this technique is fairly destructive on the environment as not only does it kill the fish through deoxygenating the water, it also kills any other species that are present.

Rating 7/10 Smaller Portable Net - Constructed from similar materials to the larger stationary net, it differs not only by being smaller but also of a circular shape.

The net is attached to the thrower’s wrist and upon release spreads out into a circle and on contact with the water encloses the fish beneath it. This method is capable both of catching many fish but also large ones as well (up to 20kg). It is limited however because it can only catch fish that are near to the water’s surface meaning that only a few species can be caught. Also skill is required in throwing the net correctly so it fans out and because of the materials required in construction it is both expensive and resource costly.

Rating 7/10 Bucket - This method isn’t really used by the people of the Amazon but fishing with a bucket was attempted by YEs and Leaders alike during the expedition, largely to no avail. Due to its limited size the bucket is only really capable of catching the small fish that swim in shoals near the surface, ideal for bait. With good use it just about manages to do this, although fishing anything larger with a bucket is simply impractical. Other downsides of the bucket are: it is difficult to use, made from plastic and disturbs the fish when it is trawled through the water.

Rating 2/10

Large stationary net - Although not often used, the large stationary fishing net is actually very effective.

At about 20m long the net requires a large amount Conclusion of rope, metal weights and floaters and so is resource costly. It more than makes up for this by its Although all of the techniques have both pros and sheer capacity to catch large amounts of fish. A net cons, overall we feel that the large stationary net is can be laid in the water with minimal effort and an the most effective method for catching fish. This is hour later it could’ve caught up to 50 fish, both large largely down to the amount of fish that can be and small. Other than its cost and need for caught within a limited time frame and with little resources, the downside to this type of net is that it effort. It does have a high demand on resources, isn’t environmentally friendly (catches anything and and it can (although not very often) damage other everything), but most caught fish can be returned to aquatic wildlife but its effectiveness more than the water alive if desired and it occasionally needs outweighs these problems. repairing.

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Butterfly Survey:Investigating Distribution between Disturbed and Undisturbed Terrain At Hungurahui; in Pacaya-Samiria Reserve - Jack Flanagan 1. Abstract The objectives of the study were to investigate the biodiversity of butterflies at the confluence of the Hungurahui-Samiria rivers in the Pacaya-Samiria reserve, Peru. The investigation took place in two zones: zone 1 in disturbed, deforested terrain and zone 2 under canopy in undisturbed jungle terrain.

The survey found that the raw numbers between butterflies were very similar, though the species diversity varied greatly; at zone 1 only one species appeared regularly while at zone 2 no particular species, as reflected in the calculated diversity index.

When investigating the effect of weather on total numbers of butterflies; the survey found that the butterflies preferred sunny/clear weather and that rain & cloud weather decreased the abundance of butterflies.

2. Introduction The survey took place on the Hungurahui tributary (050450, 040230); in the Pacaya-Samiria reserve.

The aim of the survey was to assess the distribution and relative abundance of species in that area, as well as to compare the total numbers between the two zones, where two butterfly traps were placed; one in an often disturbed, clear space of terrain near the river and the other deeper within the forest, away from the river and under thick canopy. The effect of weather on the total abundance of butterflies between zones was also investigated.

Map 1: Showing Pacaya-Samiria reserve around Hungurahui river. The guard station in the disturbed area is indicated by PV3 Hungurahui (Cited in Bodmer, 2008).

The location was chosen incidentally as it was the base for all BSES surveys on the river. The actual zones for the traps were decided on the 27/07/2009; and the traps erected. The zones exact location was maintained throughout the survey.

The area did not flood or the terrain shift (e.g. mudslide) to affect the results.

3. Methodology 3.1 Description of Procedure The traps were set up identically, with the highest end of the net at eye level. The trap was tied with string from this point (at both zones this was done with a tree branch) and the platform was levelled.

Every morning (8:00 AM) the traps were both baited using a mixture of fermented banana (around a week old) and sugar. A fork of the mixture was used for each day; anymore seemed to attract a certain species of fly.

th

The survey was conducted between the 27 of July, th 2009 & the 4 of August, 2009. The experiment was continued in a different location, but the required bait was unavailable so it was discontinued.

2.1 Study Location The survey took place on the Hungurahui tributary that feeds into the Rio Samiria.

It should be noted that for the first two nights (27/07/2009 – 28/07/2009) the traps were baited, but both yielded no butterflies when checked in the morning, so in an effort to conserve bait; it was discarded.

Traps were checked at 17:00 PM; the butterflies were identified whilst within in the net: number, species and any other information were recorded.

The butterflies were then released.

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3.2 Diagram of Trap

3.5 Other Information • For figure 4 & 5 the average number per day was calculated for ‘Sunny’ days, so the number was relative to the other weather types.

• Time was a constant in the survey; as it remains at or very close to 9 hours between baiting the traps and them being checked.

• The Banana bait was used for every experiment; in the same quantity.

4. Results 4.1 Butterfly Key & ‘U’ Descriptions All unidentified species were given an abbreviation: U – Unknown, and a number to differentiate e.g. U3.

U1 – Black wings with upper white speckles (closed) U2 – Taygetis Andromeda – resembling; 5 vertical eyes down edge (closed) U3 – Similar to U2 bar a thick white stripe bisecting wing (closed) U4 – Similar to U3 bar a second white stripe closer to the outside of the wing (closed) U5 – Plain Brown wings (closed) U6 – Pure Black wings, with eye patterns similar to U2 (closed) U7 – Similar to U4 but with a third stripe & only 3 large eyes (two on the lower wing and one on the first) each eye has an electric orange on its outer layer, and then three layers composed white-blackwhite.

3.3 Photo of Trap

The above photograph shows the make of trap that was used and the approximate distance it was hung from the ground. This does not show the correct location.

3.4 Diversity Index In order to calculate and compare the butterfly diversity of species the Diversity Index was used.

The index was developed by Edward Hugh Simpson. The formula follows:

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Butterfly sketch by Lorna Johnston

4.2 Analysis Trap 2 Species Frequency

Trap 1

U7

U5

U4

U3

Morpho Peleides Limpida

U2

12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Hamodryas Ioadama Saurities

Num ber Caught

Absolute Num ber caught for both Traps

Species

Trap 2

Figure 3: Bar chart showing species variation in Trap 2.

Weather variation and No# Caught

Figure 1: Pie Chart showing comparison of absolute numbers of butterflies captured.

8

No# Caught

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Sunny

Trap 1 Species Frequency

Clear (temporarily)

Rain

Weather Description

20

Figure 4: Bar Chart for No# Butterflies caught under different weather conditions (Trap 1)

18 16 14 12 10

Weather Variation and No# Caught

8 6 4

U 5

U 4

U 3

U 2

U 1

0

No# Caught

2 C at on ep D he an le au M s ex gi ic lip H an am pu a ad s th ry er as si pp Fe us br ua Fe Ta re yg nt et in is a An dr om ed a

Number Caught

Clear - all day

Species

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Sunny

Clear - all day

Clear (temporarily)

Rain

Weather Description

Figure 2: Bar chart showing species variation in Trap 1.

Figure 5: Bar Chart for No# Butterflies caught under different weather conditions (Trap 2)

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4.3 Diversity Index Results Trap 1: 2.82 Trap 2: 5.23 5. Discussion 5.1 Comparison of Absolute Numbers Analysis The data shown in Figure 1 suggests that butterfly abundance, in terms of numbers only, does not differ depending on the terrain.

Conclusions The reason for this may be because of the short distance between traps; the same flora/food source would have been available and so it could be that an even number of butterflies occupied the territory that the traps were in; that they don’t have an extremely specific (10 meters) location in which they live.

A suggestion for a further survey might be to bring the traps deeper into the forest; indicated by the visible suggestion of new butterfly species or else by an arbitrary but repeated distance (setting traps at 20 meter intervals).

5.2 Species Frequency Analysis In figure 2, the unidentified species U2 is extremely abundant relative to the other species, whilst those other species appear sporadically.

In figure 3, the species are more evenly spread, though U4 appears far more then U2. As well as this, the two species that were identified appeared only once each.

It is notable that the U species which resemble one another ( 2, 3, 4 & 7) are all the most common.

Conclusions Generally, the resembling U species are the dominant in the area; though U2 appears in greater numbers in Trap 1 (where the land is clear and disturbed) where few other do. This reflects in the diversity index: zone 1 (where there was trap 1) has a very low diversity. Hence it is possible that U2 can survive in a more hostile environment (less coverage from predators; fewer floras) and so is more common in that area as a result.

as a food source and those necessary for reproduction. For the Morpho; a particularly large and vivid member of the family; it is unlikely It would survive long in the open, unprotected terrain associated with zone 1.

It appears that the U2, U3, U4 and U7 are the more versatile species (perhaps because they all closely resemble each other; thus share the same adaption advantages) and so are more successful in both zones.

A further survey might, if possible, measure the length and wingspan of the caught butterflies, to test whether size is a factor in their abundance in a particular area (e.g. the small U2 species in comparison with the large Morpho variety; the difference in numbers). Also, investigation into preferable baits might yield more reliable results; as some butterflies may not be attracted to either the smell or visual of the banana bait.

5.3 Number of Butterflies Caught Relative to the Weather During Trapping Period Analysis In both zones; the day of rain achieved the least results, though it is only just below the average in Figure 5.

In Figure 4, the clear & sunny results are visibly higher on the bar chart, while the rain and clearonly-temporarily days have the lower results.

In Figure 5; there appears to be no distinct result, bar the larger number on the clear (temporarily) day. However, this is remembering this is for only one day, and so it may not accurately reflect the butterfly abundance in that area, relative to the weather.

Conclusions The reason why the lower results were achieved on the day of rain may be because the butterflies are less likely to be mobile on that day; it would cause a relatively substantial loss of energy. However; Figure 5 has a result only just below the average; which may be down to the canopy protection; allowing them to move; but hampered, still: lowering their abundance.

The results for clear/sunny days seem to indicate that butterflies prefer these conditions to move and feed. It may increase the frequency of predation; but this is conjecture with these results. That the results are lower when it is only clear for some of the day suggests they have a preference for sunny weather, perhaps because it improves metabolism; increasing the abundance on preferable days. In zone 2, the lack of distinctive results suggests that

However at zone 2: the diversity index is much higher; seen in the graph as variety of different species including a butterfly of the Morpho family.

The area may support a larger variety of butterflies due to its coverage (from roaming predators and those in the vicinity) as well a larger variety in plants BSES Expeditions 97

canopy lessens the severity of weather effect on butterfly abundance.

inspirational. Everyone who accompanied me – for making sure I never got lonely or felt out-of-place.

If the survey had been longer, the results would have been more reliable and a more distinct correlation may have been seen between differences in weather and butterfly abundance in zones 1 & 2.

Engineering in the Jungle - Brittany Harris

6. Final Conclusions The survey found that in areas of high predation; only certain species survey in numbers: the U2 species is small and adapted to Batesian mimicry and therefore survives in an area (zone 1) of potentially high predation. Therefore, zone 2; where there was large canopy coverage; supports a higher diversity of butterflies; including, as yet, one subspecies of the Morpho family, and contain a less distinctive dominant species.

In terms of species frequency; the U species who resembled each-other (U2, U3, U4 & U7) were the most successful; perhaps due to their small size and their adaptive mimicry. Meanwhile; more auspicious (those more likely to be targeted by predators) species (e.g. Morpho, Danous) come in a smaller abundance. This appears in the diversity index; where zone 1 has a low number; showing a low diversity (dominating by the U2 species) and zone 2 has a relatively high diversity; perhaps because of the canopy and floral diversity; providing food; locations for reproduction and shelter from weather and predation.

Back home we are surrounded by products of engineering; the houses we live in, the roads, the cars; but what about in the Peruvian jungle? There are no big cement bridges or sky scrapers, but there is a more delicate, more intricate system of engineering going on right here!

In the jungle I came across two categories of engineering. Structures built by humans in the jungle using only natural resources; and those structures built by mother nature and the creatures that inhabit this utopia.

Human Mostly the human built structures were our camps but we did find a poachers camp that had been cleverly designed to assist the illegal hunting and smoking of Tapirs and their skins.

In the image (below left) you can see the smoking rack over a fire and a palm leaf shelter above. All of this is made from materials you find in the forest; such as vines, leaves and trees.

The investigation in weather to total butterfly abundance found that butterflies prefer sunny/clear weather, perhaps because it speeds up the metabolism, and that they are deterred by rain. The results were less distinct at zone 2; where canopy protection may prevent the effects of weather from being as heavily felt.

7. References Bodmer, R., Puertas, P., Antunez, M., and Fang, Tula. (July- August 2008) Field Report: Monitoring Indicator Species in the Samiria River, PacayaSamiria National Reserve.

8. Acknowledgments Thanks and gratitude go to: BSES, British Schools Expedition Society – And all those involved for organizing the whole trip, and providing the equipment. Stephanie Law – For allowing me to do the survey, and providing help where it was needed (especially when writing it all up). Jessica-from-thekitchens – for providing the banana and sugar; and only laughing’ when I left. Riana Mallon – AKA my Beautiful Assistant, whose dedication and determination to see the survey through was BSES Expeditions 98

Here (above right) you can see one of the benches the Peruvians knocked up (in all but 20 minutes) for us at one of the camps. I would like to say we helped but I fear we would have slowed them down.

We were told by Victor (one of the legendary Peruvian guides) that these skills are passed down through the generations, he was taught by his grandfather and him by his father. It is assembled using only lengths of wood cut from trees and vines/bark strips found anywhere in the jungle.

These are some of the skills and traditions I think it is so important to preserve and continue; while technology has its uses, the old knowledge it much handier in an environment such as this.

Natural On entering the jungle I was greeted with all manner of breath taking sounds and smells, but what really caught my eye was the vast amount of natural feats of engineering, which relate to designs we use in some of our structures.

These basic skills make living in the jungle much more pleasant than you might imagine, and I am pleased to say that I have learnt a lot from the Peruvians handy work and later in the trip a group of us managed to fashion a ladder up a truly peculiar tree, to access a hide.

However, the engineering is not contained solely in the jungle. This is an image of a small Peruvian boy of about 12 who was fishing near the boat. His canoe is made from one tree, hollowed out. We saw many of these boats in our time there, and though they look unstable they last a long time (10 years apparently) and are ideal for spear fishing.

Buttress roots You don’t believe it until you see it. They can be just massive. The reasoning behind them is; the trees must have shallow roots to access all the nutrients in the soil, but this is tricky when the tree is almost 40ft tall. So to prevent the tree from toppling in the insane storms you get here, they adapted their roots to form buttresses. This increases their base size and so give a larger area for their centre of mass to move around over. This design was used in many th 12 century castles.

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genius little system and if the nest is still active, and you break the tunnel the termites will swarm out and fix it in a matter of minutes.

Their nests are also an interesting engineering design. It is similar to a bees hive except the hollows inside appear to have no regular shape at all. The termites chew up dead plant matter and spit it out to build these huge termite hives. The largest I have seen has been near two meters long and over half a meter wide.

Ant roads The jungle floor is covered in decomposing plant matter and roots. So for an ant it can be quite a struggle to transport leaves and such things to the nest. To make this job easier they clear roads. This seems like a sensible thing to do but after having trudged through the undergrowth it is quite a shock to see the things that these ants move to create these direct roads, rather like the Romans. Some of these tracks are clear all the way down to the claymud that is hidden beneath many leaves. If one were to disrupt the road or track, the ants will scurry around franticly to pick up the scent and fix the track, ready for the next battalion to come storming down. Ants are among the finest civil engineers any country ever had, and there is much to be said for their persistence to fix things, even when certain people keep messing up their roads.

(Above- another root system designed to give the tree extra stability and take in more nutrients from the top soil) Termite underground Most people are aware of the London underground system; however the termites have devised a similar system of travel. The tracks on the tree as seen below are in fact tiny tunnels built out of the wood. The termites run up and down these to and from the nest, protected from the birds. This is a BSES Expeditions 100

Group Morale on Wild Camp - Katie Sanderson It is fair to say that in the jungle if one looks hard enough and in the right places, you will begin to notice just how clever and well designed mothernature is! There is so much to see in the dense wilderness, mammals and reptiles, that often the really clever, really intricately designed bit of nature get lost.

One of the highlights of our time in the Amazon was a 5 day stay in the jungle where we camped out, canoed about and walked transects through the forest. As this is a strenuous time where we are pushed out of our comfort zone I thought it would be interesting to look at how everyone felt at hourly intervals of the camp. This way I could track how peoples moods were affected by the different activities we undertook and how the varied at meal times and as bedtime approached.

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Tribe Group Morale on Day 1 of Jungle Camp

Data Collection

10

Av. Group Morale

9 8 7 6 Average

5 4 3 2 1

o' clo ck 8 o' clo ck 9 o' clo ck 10 o' clo ck 11 o' clo ck 12 o' clo ck 1 o' clo ck 2 o' clo ck 3 o' clo ck 4 o' clo ck 5 o' clo ck 6 o' clo ck 7 o' clo ck 8 o' clo ck

0

7

I had a pre made table for each individual with a column for every hour into which I recorded everyone’s results. At the beginning of the camp data was collected every hour but by the end mood levels were being affected by my constant barrage of questions. I have now inputted the average of these results into a graph to see the highs and lows at different points.

Time (hours)

Day 1

Day 3 As a group we decided not to change camps but to make a day trip to a lagoon and have a nocturnal canoe home. So we canoed until 1 before reaching our destination and had lunch. We all went for a swim with some races at 3 and had a general relax until another canoe at 5 to watch the sun go down.

Dinner was served at 6 before canoeing back to camp arriving at 8.

Av. Group Morale

6 5

Average

4 3 2 1

oc k

oc k

o' cl 7

6

5

o' cl

o' cl

oc k

oc k

oc k

o' cl 4

3

o' cl

oc k

oc k

o' cl 2

11

12

1

o' cl

o' cl

oc k

oc k

oc k

o' cl

10

o' cl

oc k

oc k 9

o' cl

o' cl 8

7

o' cl

oc k

0

Time (hours)

Tribe Group Morale on Day 3 of Jungle Camp

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 oc k

oc k 8

o' cl

oc k

o' cl

7

o' cl

oc k 6

o' cl

oc k 5

4

o' cl

oc k

oc k 3

o' cl

oc k 2

o' cl

oc k

o' cl

1

o' cl

oc k

oc k

o' cl

12

10

11

o' cl

oc k

oc k

o' cl

9

o' cl

8

7

o' cl

oc k

Average

Time (hours)

Tribe Group Morale on Day 4 of Jungle Camp

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Average

o' clo c o' k clo ck 9 o' c 10 loc o' k clo 11 c o' k c 12 lo c o' k clo c 1 o' k clo ck 2 o' clo c 3 o' k clo ck 4 o' clo c 5 o' k clo ck 6 o' clo c 7 o' k clo c 8 o' k clo ck

There is a slight increase shown on the graph after breakfast and a big increase at break time at 11.

There is also another obvious high at lunchtime and also when we went swimming and had dinner in the early evening. Everyone ended on a happy note for bed.

7

7

Breakfast was served at 7 and we left for our days activities at 7.45. We canoed until 9 before beginning our trek through the jungle. We took a break and ate flapjacks at 11 o’clock and then stopped again for lunch at 1. We returned back to camp for 5, with another swim at 6 followed by dinner at 7.

9 8

8

Day 2

10

Av. Group Morale

You can see by the graph that the mood significantly increases when we set off at 9 o’clock and then steadily rises as lunchtime approaches.

The mood stays relatively the same as the day progresses with another rise at supper time and just before bed. Swimming also induced a higher morale rating as everyone cooled off in the heat.

Tribe Group Morale on Day 2 of Jungle Camp

Av. Group Morale

On our first day we left around 9 o’clock and canoed all the way to our base camp, arriving at 1 o’clock.

The canoe was hard work and everyone was rewarded when lunch was served at 2. We then had machete training and began adding to the camp with a pontoon and a new hammock area. The whole group enjoyed a cooling swim at 6 o’clock before dinner at 8.

Time (hours)

The day got off to a rocky start as it was a sad day for a member of our group and this was reflected in the team’s group morale. By swim time at 3 everyone is happy again, and especially when

BSES Expeditions 102

reached a normal temperature again. Swimming also relaxes people and is a fun activity so gets the endorphins going.

canoeing back in the moonlight. Dinner time at 6 also caused a higher level of morale.

Day 4

Sleep Today was a base camp day where we stayed in our clearing and did science work on video cameras looking specifically at the life cycle of a leaf. We climbed trees in the morning and then had lunch at around 12. We also had several injuries on this day though with Tim slicing his hand open with a knife at 11 o’clock and Sam cut his lip with a machete at 1 o’clock. He was immediately rushed back to the boat hence the reason I have missing data for him and Andy. The rest of the group had time to relax until 4 and have a go on a rope swing at 6 with dinner at 7.

People’s mood generally started off well if they had had a good night’s sleep and felt well rested. You can see in the graph on the right how Tim’s mood differs from day 3 to day 4 as he slept differently.

On day 3 he slept appallingly in a puddle of rainwater whereas on day 4 he had a great night’s sleep so woke up feeling a lot happier. There was also a correlation between people’s moods getting higher as bedtime approached the night before and as everyone settled down to sleep on a relatively comfy roll mat or hammock.

There is an obvious lull in group morale highness when the injuries began occurring and a huge leap down to an average of 6 when we lost two members. By the rope swing happiness was restored and everyone spent their last night in the jungle on a high with a good dinner before bed.

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Average

7 o'clock

There is a steady increase in mood as we progressed home and the end got nearer and nearer. At 10 o’clock we had a flapjack break which was portrayed slightly in the graph.

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 k

k 7

o'c

lo c

lo c

ck

o'c 5

ck

o' clo 3

oc

o' clo 1

k

o'c l

11

o'c

lo c

lo c o'c 7

k

Tash

k

Mood

One of the most obvious correlations I noticed was between mood levels and meal times. The graph on the right clearly shows that at lunchtime happiness levels significantly increased. Tash’s readings go from a 5 to a 10 once she has had a meal to eat.

This was the major factor affecting mood on the trip as even when receiving a small flapjack everyone’s scores went up.

9 o'clock 10 o'clock 11 o'clock 12 o'clock

Tash's Mood on Day 1 of Jungle Camp

Major Factors Affecting Morale Food

8 o'clock

Time (hours)

9

This was our last day of the trip and we reached the boat at 1 o’clock. The canoe home was not strenuous at all and we all drifted happily downstream following the current with no effort needed whatsoever.

Av. Group Morale

Day 5

Tribe Group Morale on Day 5 of Jungle Camp

Time (hours)

Minor Factors Affecting Mood Swimming Another factor was cleanliness and temperature levels. As people got dirtier and hotter as the day progressed their mood went down but when people had a swim and a wash they had an obvious increase. This is understandable as it is natural to feel a lot better when you have had a wash and

There were obvious correlations that could be easily spotted on an average graph but there were also different, more personal situations that affected people more individually. For example there were anniversaries of family member’s deaths and several accidents that caused a lot of pain. These might not necessarily affect the whole group’s

BSES Expeditions 103

morale but to that individual person they caused a decrease. Obviously some events were more major then others so caused the whole group to become upset, such as when Sam cut his lip and had to be transported back to the main boat for stitches on day 4.

Another factor that I noted was how people become happier when they got closer to the destination or termination of their activity. This also relates to another factor which was how interested people were in their activity. For example canoeing cause a higher mood among certain people who really enjoyed it, whereas in others who weren’t quite so thrilled didn’t have so much fun.

Factors Affecting Survey •

•

•

•

Towards the end of the camp it became too annoying to ask every hour how people were feeling so I began to ask at the end of everyday in correlation with certain activities. This caused my data to be less reliable but it was collected in an easier, friendlier manner.

People within the group had different ideas of what the scale meant as it didn’t give much scope within the 10 levels. Therefore if people were in a “good” mood they might have a different reading when actually they were feeling the same amount of happiness.

There were injuries that have been previously mentioned which meant that some people could not complete the wild camp so I am missing data for them. This caused the average to differ as there were less readings but I don’t think this affected the overall survey too much.

It was harder to find the time to ask the leaders for results so their results were even more unreliable as there were bigger time gaps whilst collecting their data.

Conclusion I have come to the conclusion that food is the major factor of mood as it caused reliable increases in every graph. This is fairly self explanatory as food obviously gives the body more energy making people feel a lot better.

change. It also made me think more about how I was feeling at different times and what makes people happy.

Legislation in the Samiria Reserve - Anna MacDonald

Pacaya-

Is Legislation the foundation for conservation?

Our primary aim on the BSES Amazon expedition 2009 is to collect data by research in order to aid the preservation and conservation of such a biologically precious and beautiful environment.

Whether it is re-burying fertilised turtle eggs or recording the size of caiman, everything has an individual aim and will have an impact on the future.

The Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve, where our research projects are based, is spread over an area of 2,080,000 ha in the north-eastern Amazon region of Peru.

However, as well as conserving the area, methods of protection should be considered. Legislation is a factor in all environments especially those which are classified as National Reserves. Lawyers around the world work purely for one reason; to safeguard reserves such as the Pacaya-Samiria. Therefore it is practically impossible to provide a detailed report.

This compact piece aims to provide a brief overview of the Peruvian laws concerning the reserve, the enforcement of these laws and any up and coming issues.

Basic Law of the Amazon National Park The Basic Law report addresses the laws affecting protected areas of the Peruvian Amazon Rainforest.

The laws outside of national parks differ completely.

Consider the three-zone model shown in figure 1. If this was the shape of the Amazon then the laws are based on the following: -Amazon- permission for logging, mining and tourism -Perimeter zone-transition but limitation of resource extraction -National Park- policies developed on principles of biodiversity The Union of Conservation for areas of Natural Protection (SINANPE) places the national parks/reserves in four categories: National Parks, National Sanctuaries, Historical Sanctuaries and National Reserves. Pacaya-Samiria is a national reserve. They are considered to be unique as the law deems them practically intangible. Management is also cautious not to treat the reserve as a park therefore their enforcement is not as forceful to prevent against revolt of the local people.

The other major factors that I looked into caused other obvious changes. When these events were placed at even time intervals during the day it meant that people’s mood stayed fairly constant throughout. It was on these days that the more minor factors came through a lot more.

I found it really interesting looking at how people’s moods differed and what events caused moods to BSES Expeditions 104

It should also be considered whether adaptation of the Amazon is what is best for the environment. An example is the 1967 Hudson institute for construction of an Earth dam across the lower Amazon. It provided several benefits -Improved access to high land -Facilitation of deep draft shipping -Stabilisation of the delta Legal Endorsement to Local Participation for Pacaya-Samiria Reserve Law of the Medium Environment Decree Legislation th No. 613, 8 September 1990 To establish that the community area has the right to participate in the identification, consideration, security of the natural areas and an obligation to collaborate in any acquisition of the area. Also to recognise the right of community rural property but also the need to participate in this according to the objectives in the natural areas of citizenship.

Law on Areas of Natural Protection Law no. 26834, th 4 July 1997 To establish that in areas of evident and direct permit use of the local population, the priority should go towards use by the traditional systems by native and rural communities.

Law on the Conservation use to support Biological th Diversity Law no. 26839, 16 July 1997 Recognise the importance and value of innovation in practice as the rural community and local association of biological diversity.

Strategies for National Areas of ProtectionGoverning Plan, Supreme Decree No. 010-99-AG Declaration management of the ANP and the processes involved to implement appropriate mechanisation and participation from the local population. Also establishment in areas of planning, management and evaluation of monitoring.

Regulation of the Law of Areas of Natural th Protection, Supreme Decree No. 038-2001-AG, 26 July 2001 To establish the use of rural communities and natives to adjust natural resource use in the ANP and implicate the possibility to use the wild flora and fauna. The equality of the administrator by the founder of local communities for development of minor activities use of natural resources.

for protection of biological diversity. For a strategy of management the local’s proposition fortifies local participation for management protection of natural resources.

Although the laws above may seem slightly similar and tedious each one contains an individual clause which makes it unique and essential. Many focus upon the relationship between the inhabitants and the environment and what both can do for each other. In 2000 local management groups were given permission to use a limited amount of resources legally and with reserve administration approval.

There are 95,000 people living around the boundary of the reserve. In addition to the above basic laws each resource has accompanying its possible extraction and exploitation a management plan and law manifesto supported on both a national and local level- supposedly.

Enforcement In Amazonia by Betty J. MeggersMan and culture in a counterfeit paradise it is claimed that ‘Legal procedures are incompatible with realities of Amazonia’ and I was keen to find out whether she or the claim was mistaken. As we are based in each location for just 2 weeks it was difficult to find distinct evidence as to enforcement.

However, I managed to arrange an interview with two Peruvian students to question the enforcement of the legislation. They provided me not only with their personal opinions but also on further information and evidence.

It was raised that people in villages are rarely aware of the detail and depth of the governing law of the reserve. Considering the distribution of these it is unsurprising. However, work should be, and is being, carried out to increase the responsibility of these communities and create an understanding of the value of these resources. In addition to this the lack of education continues to widen the problem.

Very few children finish high school causing a lack of awareness. Overall the message coming from this point was that if appreciation and education was increased governing laws could be effective.

Enforcement is also hindered by the problem of financing. No strategy can be implemented without financial support. An example of this are the regular guard houses based along the riverside. Due to difficulty affording regular staff there is still a large problem of entering the reserve without permission.

Financing is something that is unlikely to be increased as there has only been an environmental Master Plan of the RNPS, Resolution Jefatural No. minister in government for the last 2 years! Change 170-2000-INRENA is difficult to predict.

Define between the objectives of conservation Many guides witness infractions but are unable to management of natural resources and economic prevent them occurring. They can confiscate but not interests of the local population. Also control enforce. Often even confiscation is not feasible due strategy protection of power of the local population to safety fears. The current policy is intended to be BSES Expeditions 105

tolerant and due to the numerous settlements previously hunting and logging it is difficult to slow down tradition.

An example of lack of enforcement was provided by a Peruvian student on board the Lobo. On one transect three illegal peccary skin hunting camps were found; and nothing had prevented those occurring. We also saw evidence of issues first hand. Along transects we saw obvious logging; we stayed at a hunters camp on our wild camp and saw hunters whilst on turtle surveys. Although it is personally infuriating to not be able to prevent it at that particular moment questions should be asked as to how these activities are not being restricted in a reserve. This question can occasionally be answered by the loophole that exists in the law allowing some hunting with a permit: a serious weakness in enforcement.

However, there are positives coming out of increased enforcement of legislation. In recent times organisations have intensified their promotion and development of conservation law with the main objective being to help people understand the primary relevance. For each individual resource there is a management plan and a law manifesto which are being introduced to local people. On the other hand the law merely consults and informs the majority of the management plans.

During the 1950s-1970’s the black caiman were over hunted and attempts have been made to recover the population in the Samiria River. The ‘Wildlife Conservation in the Samiria River Basin of the Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve, Peru’ report for 2008 suggests that the population of black caiman has steadily increased between 1996-2004.

This suggests that enforcement is strong enough to be having a positive effect on fragile species.

Overall enforcement is difficult to assess but the factors which affect the Reserves ability to enforce suggests that certain problems need to be assessed. Finance and promotion are particularly prominent in their absence but legal schemes working alongside local management appear to be efficiently affecting the wildlife populations’ ability to survive and bounce back.

Recent Issues Similarly to many national areas of protection, the Amazon as a whole is constantly at the centre of discussions and debates. As well as laws which concentrate their attention on local exploitation there are those which prevent foreign issues from arising.

the 1090 decree which is allowing for corporate exploration (and possibly exploitation) of the Amazon due to the ‘free-trade’ agreement with the USA. This completely contradicts the 1979 Peruvian constitution which stated that “The community lands of the natives and peasants are unsizeable and imprescriptable.” It also declared that indigenous people should be consulted first and asked for permission in advance off any actions carried out within the reserve.

As expected this has caused internal problems for Peru. Alert Pizago (president of the inter-ethnic th association) called a national strike in June. On 12 June 2009 more than 10,000 people marched into Lima with the slogan “the jungle is not for sale”.

Following the larger strike 31 people were killed at a road block on ‘Devil’s Curve’. Also more worryingly for the indigenous people’s rights, an arrest warrant was issued for Pizago on charges of sedition, rebellion and conspiracy. He left Peru for Nicaragua th as soon as his request was granted on 7 June 2009.

Summary Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve is the largest protected area in the north eastern Peruvian Amazon. The results of ‘Wildlife Conservation in the Samiria River Basin of the Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve, Peru’ report for 2008 suggest that the reserve is making a good attempt at protecting biodiversity. Nonetheless I believe that more can be done by Peruvian law to protect the unique environment situated in their country.

The law is endeavouring to work satisfactorily alongside the communities. Increased responsibility and allowances handed to the inhabitants has undoubtedly enhanced protection as well as the system. However, from primary sources I would suggest that more enforcement is necessary before it can be claimed that the Peruvian legal system is efficient at its purpose. It has also been predicted by a source that it will be 20 years before the management plans become firmly implemented as sustainable. First hand examples of logging for specific tree types are particularly worrying considering the short amount of time we have spent here. Yet, contrastingly, increased sightings of black caiman are encouraging. Therefore I would conclude that the law is slowly working to improve protection of the ecosystem that we have been lucky enough to experience; but awareness and education of the problems around the globe can only aid Peruvian legislation to become the foundation of this reserve.

Many indigenous people feel that their needs are being ignored by the Peruvian government due to BSES Expeditions 106

demand in the old world for these tropic remedies and began the first conservation crisis for a medicinal plant; however, this was supplanted by the Dutch and British by planting seedlings in India, Sri Lanka and South East Asia lowering wild harvesting. The exploitation of the Amazon All the drugs we use today have their origins in rainforest has continued since then, highlighted by animal, plant or mineral resources. There have the finding of natural rubber causing slave-like been new world archaeological remains of plants concentration camps for natural latex. The history of used as medicines dated as far back as 8000 BC. the medicinal plants in the Amazon rainforest has This usage continues into today as human-plant taught us many lessons and set a base for the interdependence is in over 80% of the world’s construction of a prevalent industry in discovering population. Local people of the Amazonian then designing new drugs for both the new and old Rainforest and other such worlds worth multiple areas, more specifically the billions of pounds. indigenous tribes, use plant There are multiple ways to derived medicines for: extract the useful chemicals fevers, fungal infections, trapped within the animal, burns, gastrointestinal plant or mineral resources. problems, pain relief, A common method is the respiratory problems, use of aromatic teas, this is wounds, antidotes to toxins when the botanical material and for many other minor is added to hot water, it is and major ailments. By covered and then ingested. knowing what the rainforest This extracts the chemicals holds and how we can through steam into the skin benefit from it then maybe and nose and the liquid the issues that have been swallowed alleviating the crippling the Amazon can ailment, often a respiratory end. problem. Non-aromatic teas also use botanical material The first officially recorded but this is added to water at use of plants as the primary room temperature or boiling healthcare is around five water. Garrafadas is an millennia ago by the alcoholic remedy whereby a Chinese and Indian single or mixed species is Ayurvedic.

Before prepared in alcohol then medicinal care could evolve sold in the bottle, plant and erupt, both new and material can then be added old worlds had to meet; this to the alcoholic beverage occurred as recently as 500 and the infusion left for years ago, the first voyage some days. A bath is being in 1492. The complex another repeated method in medical systems of the old indigenous tribes and world, exampled by the Spanish royal family that copied by Western culture, the absorption routes had a botanical apothecary that was the foundation are through the respiratory tract and through the of their entire healthcare, had a depth of pores in the skin. The saps of trees can be pressed understanding in medicine. Also, the multifaceted and the botanical material is then used medically. vast compilation of knowledge of medicinal plant An example of this is the sap of a ‘Spreng’ tree from the new world spreading from the Arctic to the which is used as an antiepileptic agent; in fact it is Tierra del Fuega containing the empires of the an acid within the sap which is the major part of the Arctic, Maya and the Inca. Both worlds have handed anticonvulsant agent. This example shows exactly their information down over generations utilizing the how the discovery of these plants further medicinal state-of-the-art knowledge of the time. When the care throughout the world; the knowledge that this first medicines started to cross from South America specific acid has this property can be then to the old world the progression of an increase in combined with other agents to create a remedy that healthcare could occur. The first of these plants to doesn’t require the destruction of large areas of the travel the oceans was Cinchona bark which was rainforest and can be made and obtained at a vastly seen as a cure for all fevers (mentioned later). The lower expense than otherwise. Syrups are used in a discovery of these incredible plants caused great similar fashion to teas but the medicinal plant is BSES Expeditions 107

Medicinal Plants of the Amazonian Rainforest - Daniel Betney

cooked with sugar then added to a small portion of water, these are also used for respiratory diseases as the vapours produced are ingested down the nasal tract and into the lungs. The latexes of various tree species are ingested directly from the tree, these remedies are called exudates. Two examples of these are the amapĂĄ and sucuuba trees that are both used as tonics and pulmonary fortifiers as well as anti-inflammatory. These methods are in common use by the indigenous tribes and the local populace as more modern medical care is difficult to obtain as transport to these remote areas takes too long and is too expensive. Many of these tribes will very rarely see a doctor and so the botanical remedies are used instead.

A grand tree falls into a stagnant pool and remains there for days. A local with a rampant fever decides to drink copiously from the pool for multiple days.

He hadn’t realised that the tree that had fell was the Cinchona tree and by drinking the mysterious infused liquid he had stopped the symptom of a fever. What the local was suffering from was malaria, a certain death sentence at these times that had ended the life of thousands of lives including Alexander the Great. The discovery that the bark of a Cinchona tree could cure malaria and was also found to stop many other fevers was a ground-breaking revolution that has saved many lives. The testing of plants and combining them with other material and releasing the chemicals within by the methods stated above the indigenous populace found that by chewing coca leaves it would numb the tongue and as a result reduce the appetite; by feeding ergotized grain pregnant animals would cause an abortion; chewing or drinking tea leaves kept the user awake; and swallowing latex from an unripe capsule of opium poppy allayed pain.

Turbidity vs. Rainfall - Timothy Wilson

into the river, and so erosion increases. This leads to an increase in the concentration of sedimentary particles in the water, and so the euphotic zone level is closer to the surface.

As the wet season changes to the dry season, there will be less rainfall and so I predict that the euphotic zone will be deeper due to a decrease in erosion.

I also predict that when there is no rainfall during the day, the depth of the euphotic zone will increase, but it will decrease when there is a lot of rain during the day. Therefore, the change in turbidity between the morning and evening will depend on the amount of rainfall between readings.

Apparatus I will use a sekki disc to measure turbidity and a rain gauge to measure rainfall.

Method I will lower the disc into the water every morning and evening until it disappears out of sight, and I will then read off the string to find where the water has reached, noting down the depth. The rain gauge will be read every evening to find how many millimetres of rainfall there have been during the day and previous night, and I will empty it after use.

Control To keep this a fair test, there will be some control variables. I will take the turbidity reading at the same time each day (6:30 in the morning and 5:30 in the evening) at the same spot on the river to reduce the number of factors affecting the readings.

Likewise, the rainfall will be measured at 5:30 every evening so that there is the same time period between readings.

Aim I intend to find out whether the amount of rainfall each day on a spot on the Samiria River (Peru) affects the turbidity of the water. I also intend to investigate the effects of the change from the wet season to the dry season on the turbidity, and the changes between the morning and evening depending on the amount of rainfall.

Prediction I predict that when there is more rainfall, the depth of the euphotic zone will decrease. This is because increased rainfall induces greater runoff of water BSES Expeditions 108

Rain gauge

Sekki disc

generally follow an upward slant. However, the dotted lines show where there has been rainfall, and it is here that the lines slant down again. This Rainfall (mm) demonstrates that when there is rainfall, the depth of the euphotic zone decreases, as predicted, due 8.5 to an increase in erosion. When there is more 0.5 rainfall, the slant of the line is must steeper because 4.0 there is a lot more erosion.

Results Day

Depth of Euphotic Zone (m) a.m.

p.m.

Difference

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

0.52 0.51 0.51 0.49 0.48 0.51 0.50 0.53

0.55 0.51 0.53 0.52 0.49 0.52 0.51 0.54

0.03 0.00 0.02 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01

9

0.56

0.57

0.01

13.5 0.0 2.5 0.0 0.0

The second graph makes it evident that when there is more rainfall, the change in the depth of the euphotic zone between the morning and the evening also increases. As predicted, it is clear that when there is a lot of rainfall, there is a lot more erosion and so there is a higher concentration of sedimentary particles in the water, and vice versa.

0.0

Depth of Euphotic Zone

0.58

Conclusions

0.56 0.54 0.52 a.m. p.m.

0.50 0.48 0.46 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Evaluation

Day

If this experiment were to be repeated, I would make the results more accurate by taking at least three readings at a time, and then calculating the average. This would provide results closer to the true value, and this is very important because the range of the data is so small.

Difference in Depth of Euphotic Zone Between a.m. and p.m.

0.035 0.030 0.025 0.020 0.015 0.010 0.005 0.000 0.0

2.0

4.0

6.0

8.0

10.0

12.0

Rainfall (mm)

Depth of Euphotic Zone p.m. (m)

1. When the amount of rainfall increases, the depth of the euphotic zone decreases.

2. Over the change from the wet to the dry season, the depth of the euphotic zone increases.

3. When the amount of rainfall during the day increases, the difference in the euphotic zone level also increases.

0.580 0.570 0.560 0.550 0.540 0.530 0.520 0.510 0.500 0.490 0.480 0.47

0.49

0.51

0.53

0.55

14.0

I would also take turbidity readings just as it is starting to rain and after the rainfall, in order to investigate the direct effects of that specific period of rainfall. I could then compare the changes with the amount of rainfall as well as the length of time it has been raining. However, this was not possible in this case due to lack of time.

The readings in this investigation have to be taken by sight and so there is room for human error.

However, there appears to be no way of making this more reliable, so the results are as valid as they can be since each reading was taken by the same person. Also, by taking the readings at the same time each day, this ensured that the lighting conditions were similar in order to remove human error due to visibility issues as far as possible.

Depth of Euphotic Zone a.m. (m)

Overall, this experiment has been very successful Interpretation These graphs all show strong trend since the results all follow the trend lines (with no lines. The first graph shows that over the change anomalies), and the lines of best fit are supported from the wet season to the dry season, the depth of by scientific theory. the euphotic zone increases since the lines BSES Expeditions 109

the length and width of the main trunk preventing invasion from this likely target.

Tree Defence Systems Annabel Clark Introduction The Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve in Peru encompasses 5,137,000 acres, situated at the head of the Amazon River, 100 miles west of Iquitos. The reserve is triangular shaped between the Ucayali and Maranon Rivers. Within this area there are many different species of trees, each with their own adaptation for protection.

Method I carried out my project during our terrestrial transects through the forest and also studying the flora carefully from the water. I took pictures of different species and then identified them when I got back to the boat. This then gave me a clearer idea of the protection measures used by the trees.

Our local guides were also helpful and I talked to them about the varying methods of defence the trees use within the jungle.

Bark The bark is dead tissue, with very few nutrients in it to deter herbivores from eating it. Hardly any animals eat the dead bark off a standing tree except for termites. However this bark is acting as a protection barrier as just below the surface is an area of nutrientrich tissues known as bark cambium. In a healthy, living tree the defences within this area are active, resisting animal invasion. If the tree fails to form a thick enough layers of resin or the latex pressure falls then the tree is quickly invaded with insects and beetles.

Leaves As the leaves of the tree mature they become tougher and thicker to resist insect attack. There are many different varieties to this form of defence.

Some plants cover their leaves in a thick, waxy cuticle while others have evolved spines or thorns.

The trunks of many trees in the Amazon rainforest are covered in sharp spines to prevent animals from reaching their flowers, leaves or fruits. This protection often only starts above the high water level mark left from the wet season.

Spines

The presence of spines on many trees within the Amazon rainforest helps to limit their loss of foliage from herbivorous mammals in the jungle. This protection measure also deters rodents from scavenging for fruit seeds and foliage higher in the canopy. The thorns and spines are situated along BSES Expeditions 110

Chemicals

Ants Some of these plants have formed symbiotic relationships with other animals such as ants to act as a defensive measure. However, this also brings benefits to the ant and tree. The tree provides a safe environment for the ant to travel and also feeds the ant on its seeds. The tree benefits as the ants offer seed dispersal. Plant species provide seeds with an attached fat body called an elaiosome. The ant colonies eat this elaiosome and discard the seed underground allowing it to grow in a good germination site. The ants also provide protection for the tree as when a foreign object or animal invades the plant, ants swarm on it deterring the animal from further invasion. The ants can produce a harmful bite.

(I mage taken from www.treesforlife.org.uk) The chemical defences within a tree are very effective. Some plants use the same physical defence technique as a spine but they cover their leaves in stinging hairs that cause an immediate burning sensation onto the area of skin it has touched. A lot of the plants taste unpleasant to deter herbivores on their first bite. A few have chemicals which react inside the animal’s intestine making it unwell and warning it not to eat that plant again. All trees of the forest have different chemicals to protect themselves. This therefore acts as an individual defence and a communal one, as a whole are of forest could not be wiped out because different animals are affected by varying chemicals.

Plants produce fungicides, insecticides and pesticides to deter predators. Many of these are common to us such as strychnine and cyanide. An example of this form of defence is the Rubber tree which forms latex to stick the mouth of its predators together. When a rubber tree is damaged or the outer bark is broken it produces latex, which oxidises on exposure to air forming glue.

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Water Depth Research Rose Leeson In order to try and understand the seasons of the Amazon and where all the rain goes I undertook a research project into the rate at which the river’s level will drop as the rainforest enters its dry season. th

On the 27 of July I taped a nearby tree that stood in the water at the location of the Lobo de Rio, the confluence of the Hungurahui river and the Samiria river (Grid Reference: 050450, 040230). I taped around the tree at the point of water level and for the days following this I measured the distance from the tape to the surface of the river to see how far the river had dropped.

Date 28/7/09 29/7/09 30/7/09 31/7/09 1/8/09 2/8/09 3/8/09 4/8/09 5/8/09

and the temperature falls this warm body of water vapour meets a body of cold air which causes the water vapour to condense and result in a tropical rainstorm. This all happens within the river basin and so the convectional rainfall had no net effect on the level of the river and the rate at which it dropped.

So from this I can conclude that it was not the local weather patterns that had an effect on the dropping water levels but instead the absence of runoff from the Andes mountain region. In contrast, during the wet season Glacial melt occurs in the Andes causing more water to enter the Amazon basin.

Furthermore evaporation of the Pacific Ocean increases and causes more precipitation to fall on the Andes; again this additional water enters the Amazon basin causing the river levels to rise.

Distance Dropped (cumulative) /cm 23cm 30cm No data collected 82cm No data collected 140cm 160cm 195cm No data collected

By the middle of the expedition (swap over day) the river had already dropped 2 metres. Unfortunately the data collection couldn’t be continued as the marker was lost. However despite this after 20 days an estimate was taken by using the steps created for our mooring. As the river level dropped more steps were needed to be created in order to maintain access to the guard station and transects.

The estimate taken was 4.55m after the 20 days.

Rate of river fall for the first 9 days = 21.667 cm per day Estimated rate of river fall for the 20 days = 22.75 cm per day Rainfall and storm data was also collected on the Lobo de Rio and the Pithecia at the confluence of the Yanuyacu river and the Samiria river (Grid Reference: 050100, 050050). A three day rainstorm during Caiman’s Wild Camp and heavy rainfall when travelling upriver at the start of the expedition still saw the river level to continue to fall as marked by better results on the turtle surveys and turtle egg collection as the beaches and banks become more visible. Therefore the majority of rainfall must have been convectional. Convectional rain occurs when during the day high temperatures cause a large volume of water to evaporate, as evening comes BSES Expeditions 112

Adaptations of Amazonian Frog Species - Danielle Rabaiotti Frogs are the largest group of the 3 main groups of amphibians. These are frogs (which includes toads) salamanders and the little known caecilians. 8 of the world’s 20 groups of frog are found in and around the Iquitos area in Peru and this project will describe some of the adaptations of those frogs to their environment and the rainforest habitat around them.

Protection from Predators Many frogs use the typical method of camouflage to protect themselves from predators, being varying shades of black and brown in colour. The master of this is the Crested Forest Toad (Bufo margaritifer) which impersonates a leaf, sitting in the leaf litter on the forest floor. Many species of tree frog are green to match the colour of the leaves upon which they live. For example all species of hatchet faced tree frogs are green and almost transparent, making them almost impossible to spot in the low leaves and foliage where they spend their lives.

Many species of tree frogs even change colour depending on whether it is night or day.

The Cane Toad (Bufo marinus) has a brown drab colouration to camouflage it amongst the leaf-litter but also combines this with releasing a toxin from the two lumps behind their head (parotenoid glands) if caught by predators. This is foul tasting and also a hallucinogen so is enough to deter the majority of predators.

Most poison dart frogs, on the other hand, use a very different method to deter predators. Like the cane toad, they are poisonous, but their whole skin is toxic. This toxin is extracted from their food – ants, and in some cases is potent enough to cause muscle paralysis if ingested. Unlike the cane toad, however, they widely advertise that they carry a toxin by being a wide variety of very bright colours, warning predators not to touch them.

Some frogs are neither toxic nor camouflaged but use other tactics to put off predators if they are caught. Some tree frogs will curl up and play dead if caught by a predator and the smoky jungle frog (Leptodactylus pentadactylus) yelps loudly and produces a slimy mucus-like substance to help them escape from predators.

Frogs are one of the main foods for many animals in the jungle and all these techniques help frog species escape the many predators that feed on them, such as otters, birds, monkeys and even jaguars.

Breeding and Offspring Each species of frog has its own individual call that potential mates can recognise, which is very useful in the Amazonian environment where you find a large concentration of species over a very small area.

Most frogs lay eggs but different species have developed different ways of doing this in order to ensure the maximum amount of offspring survive to adulthood. The majority of these eggs will then hatch into tadpoles which will slowly metamorphose into froglets, growing legs and losing their tail. Amazon horned frogs (Cerotophrys cornuta) scatter their eggs over a large area in shallow water in order to prevent the young eating each other and unhatched eggs. Lepodactylids, the family including most jungle frogs, lay their eggs in a floating nest of mucus which is made by the male. This both protects them from predators and prevents them drying out.

The White Lined Leaf Frog Lays its eggs on a leaf above water, meaning the tadpoles hatch and then drop down into the water, preventing predation by aquatic predators on the eggs.

Some Poison Dart Frogs deposit their eggs on land and transport the tadpoles into the water to develop further.

Eleuthrodactylus – the group more commonly known as Rain Frogs as they are more active after rain (this is a bit of a misleading name – the majority of frogs are more active after rain)- take this a step further by laying small amounts of large eggs on land in moist places. These then hatch into fully formed froglets. This then gets rid of the need for water, protecting them from predators such as fish and water dwelling insects.

Some frogs use parenting as a technique to protect their young, staying with the eggs until they hatch instead of just leaving the young to fend for themselves. Casque Headed Tree Frogs (Trachicephelus jordani) brood their eggs on their back, where glands secrete a sticky substance causing them to adhere to the frogs back. They then develop into froglets and are carried round on the parents back until they are developed enough to leave and become independent. Common Marsupial Frogs brood their eggs in a pouch on their belly, protecting them from outside predators and fungus, dropping them into water when they hatch into tadpoles. Some species with pouches also lay eggs that develop directly into froglets.

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Some species of Tree Frog and Poison Dart frog lay their eggs in the pools of water that collect in the bromeliads high off the forest floor protecting them from predators, and bring them food to keep them alive.

Stubfoot Toad tadpoles have suction cups on their belly meaning they can cling to rocks and weeds, this allows them to live in fast flowing streams where there are no other tadpoles to compete with for food. All these adaptations help the frogs survive in the Amazon as there are so many species, including birds, fish and many insects that prey on the eggs and tadpoles of amphibians.

Environment and movement Most frogs have back legs that are much larger that their front legs, allowing them to jump a long way for their size, assisting with a wide breeding area as well as escape from predators. Many frogs also have webbed feet, helping them swim in water, and their powerful back legs also assist this. Tree frogs, along with other tree dwelling species, have suction cups on the ends of their feet and often very little webbing between the toads.

This suits their environment as it allows them to climb high up into the canopy where they live and there is little use for webbed feet as they have no need to swim.

Toads all have thick dry skin which allows them to live in much dryer and hotter areas without drying out. It also allows them to forage out of water for much longer periods of time than frogs, and means they can cross from puddle to puddle in the forest in the dry season.

Many species of frogs in the Amazon are nocturnal, at night the jungle comes alive with the call of frogs from hundreds of different species and they are often found on the upper side of the leaves of trees nearer to the ground. This allows them to stay cooler and escape many of the daytime predators such as monkeys. Most nocturnal species of frogs, especially Tree Frogs have very large eyes in comparison to the rest of their body, allowing them to see in the dark and hunt for prey.

Another advantage of camouflage is utilised by the Amazonian Horned Frog. This species will dig a hole in which it will lie in wait, camouflaged amongst the leaf litter. When prey goes past such as insects, other amphibians and even birds and rodents, the frog leaps out and swallows the prey whole. All of these adaptations help frogs to lives so successfully in the Amazonian environment.

Brown colouring acts as camouflage

Paratenoid glands secrete a toxin if caught by a predator

No webbing on feet as, as a toad it spends little time in the water

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(Bufo marinus)

Brown colouring camouflages these small frogs against predators

Large eyes help with night vision

Sticky pads help it to climb trees

No webbing on feet as it has no need to swim

The pads on its feet help it cling to the tree bark, aiding with its camouflage

This tree frog has amazing camouflage to avoid predators

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This Poison Dart frog has bright colours to warn predators of its toxicity

This Toad camouflages itself as a leaf to avoid predators. It is terrestrial so has thick rubbery skin to stop it drying out In conclusion frogs have adapted in all different ways to live and thrive in this jungle habitat. They are wide ranging in their characteristics and have evolved so that they can live all over the rainforest whether it is in the canopy, the huge Amazon River or on the forest floor. They

act as both predators and prey and occupy a very important niche in the jungle, feeding many different important and even threatened species. They are very well adapted to live in this jungle environment and this means if they start losing this important habitat, populations will decline rapidly.

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Aquatic animals – Als Everest Dolphins Background Throughout evolution dolphins have lost their hind legs and their forelegs have been modified into a paddle this then makes them more streamlined so less energy is lost to water resistance. Their tails have become broad and flattened into what are called flukes. This then helps them with speed, making them faster. A single or double nostril has been created called a blowhole; this is found on the top of the head. Up to one third of an individual dolphins body weight consists of a thick layer of fat, called blubber, lying under their hairless skin.

There are two types of river dolphins, Grey and Pink, the rest of the dolphin species are restricted to the marines environments, sea water environments.

Pink dolphins (Inia geoffrensis) are the most common type of dolphin to live in the Amazon.

These dolphins are the most widespread species in the whole of South America. The two types of river dolphin are found in the main channels and tributaries of Rio Ucayali and Rio Napo. The Pink river dolphin is restricted to freshwater channels in the Amazon and Orinoco river basins.

During the dry season they are confined to the main channels of deep rivers, although in rainy seasons the dolphins will pursue fish well into flooded areas of the forest and swamps. They reproduce seasonally, usually giving birth in the flood season and rarely in the dry season. Their pregnancy period tends to be approximately 10.5 months and a single young is produced once every two years.

This calf is then cared for by the mother for a further year.

The Grey river dolphin (Sotalia fluviatilis) is the second smallest cetacean in the world and this type is only rarely seen in Peru. Unlike the Pink River dolphin which has no distinctive fin the Grey River dolphin has a distinctively triangular dorsal fin. The Grey dolphin makes a much softer sound when exhaling compared to the explosive sound the Pink River dolphin makes when coming up to the surface. The Grey River dolphin feeds on Crabs, Prawns and Catfish instead of fish like the Pink River dolphin. They Grey river dolphin also locates its food at close distances with sonar clicks, just like the Pink River dolphin does.

Dolphin types found in the Amazon Pink river dolphins are the most shy out of the Grey and Pink river dolphins. The males reach nearly three metres, ten feet in length. The Pink dolphin has no distinct fin on their back and is actually a grey colour instead of a Pink as their name suggests. This species of river dolphin tends to occur either alone or in pairs; due to them being shy they hardly can be seen jumping out of the river.

This type of dolphin is most likely to be seen rising from the bottom of the river to exhale nosily at the surface.

The Pink dolphin mainly feeds on fish as well as other aquatic creatures in the river such as crabs.

These are mainly caught in the deep shady areas of the water generally near the banks or where tributaries enter larger rivers. To catch their prey they use their eyesight to locate the prey in clear waters. In darker murkier waters they emit clicking noises, usually thirty to eighty clicks per second, which are used as sonar and bounce off potential prey. The dolphins use the curve in their necks and their ability to flex their necks back and forth to scan the clicking over a larger area. Along with the clicking noises they emit they also make numerous other sounds including screeching alarm like call.

What do local people think of the Pink Dolphins, such as local lore’s?

The Pink dolphin as a species has received a lot of attention in the local people’s sexual fantasies. In most parts of the Amazon and Peru, these dolphins are treated with respect although this respect is

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usually through fear. The local people and tribesmen believe that these dolphins turn themselves into beautiful women and then proceed to seduce the local men and then drown them once they are seduced. The dolphins are also blamed impregnating the local unwed mothers creating children born out of wedlock. Neither the local people nor tribesmen are sure of the sources of these myths and folk tales, although they are useful function of protecting these endangered dolphins from being either hunted or poached. Also to try and stop these animals from being hunted they have been put onto the IUCN Red List as a threatened species in Peru.

his clawed fin. There is a rapid decline of the turtle population this is thought to be due largely to overharvesting the turtle’s eggs. Many adult turtles also die accidentally in fishing nets and boat collisions, both by local people. These nests are particularly venerable as once they are found by either local people or the poachers who then sell the eggs to the food markets or to tourists as memorabilia.

Turtle types found in the Amazon.

In the Amazon there are two types of fresh water turtles, these are yellow spotted turtles and Matamata. These species occupy a great variety of habitats in the Amazon Rivers. The yellow spotted river turtle is most often seen sunning themselves on logs in the water or on muddy beaches in remote and undisturbed parts of the Amazonian lowlands.

The yellow spotted river turtles are considered threatened in Peru by the IUCN red list. One of nature’s most bizarre turtles is the Matamata; this is because of the fleshy proboscis that extends from its snout. These turtles live in rivers, this is where they spend most of their time resting in one position on the bottom, and they then lay their wait for an unsuspecting meal which they then lunge for.

The Amazonian manatee

Turtles Background A turtle’s diet changes as they develop. Early in life they are carnivorous eating anything they can get their jaws on and around, like fish or crabs. As turtles grow their diet changes to herbivore and they start to eat aquatic vegetation. Turtles are long-lived animals and depending on their species typically live to 25 to 60 years in the wild.

Background The Amazonian manatee is a freshwater species that occurs mainly along the Amazon River and all of its major tributaries. The Amazonian manatee is approximately 2.8m long or 9ft when it is fully grown. Because manatees as a whole are shy creatures, its shy and nocturnal behaviour means it is extremely difficult to see or observe. Another reason why they are so hard to see is that it only feeds on aquatic vegetation in a quiet lake, it only ever rises in a vertical position to put only its snout just above the surface to enable it to breathe without being seen.

If turtles can make it through the dangerous juvenile stage, when they are small soft and venerable enough to be eaten, they enjoy a very high year-toTypes of Manatee found in the Amazon year survival. Up to 80% of an adult population There is only one type of manatee found in both the usually survives. As turtle nests are not guarded Amazon and Peru. The Amazonian manatee feeds many predators dig up the nests and kill the mainly at night when the lake is quiet hatchlings. All turtles lay their almost leathery eggs on land, usually beaches. The female then digs a whole in the sand, deposits the egg into the hole she has dug once doing this she then covers the hole and leaves. Once this has happened it is up to the hatchlings to dig their way out of the nests and navigate through the waters. Although the number of eggs laid per nest varies among the Peruvian freshwater turtle, this ranges from one egg to approximately one hundred eggs. Courtship in turtles can be very complex for certain species.

Mostly the male species swim backwards in front of the female they have chosen, stroking her face with BSES Expeditions 118

Birds of Pacaya-Samiria - Elizabeth Emmerson

Diving Birds:

Wading birds: Cocoi Heron, (Ardea cocoi) A medium sized Heron of the Ardeidae family, the regular diet consists of mice snakes, crabs, insects, worms and frogs, but has even on occasion been known to eat small caiman. This particular species is not endangered.

Rufescent Tiger Heron (Tigrisoma lineatum) The Brazilian name for this species can be translated as “cow heron”, in reference to the mooing sound of its call. This type of Heron is also of not endangered.

Night Heron (Nycticorax nycticorax), Night Herons may nest alone, or even in colonies, primarily on stick platforms in the trees, but also perhaps on the ground. Species from this Genus have suffered many extinctions.

Great Egret (Ardea alba) A member of the Heron family. It is this bird that appears on a New Zealand $2 coin. A very unvocal bird unless in breeding colonies. Conservation class of Least Concern.

Snowy Egret (Egretta thula) For a time, this species’ population was greatly reduced due to the demand of their plumes for hats. Now the numbers have increased and are of Least Concern.

Wattled Jacana (Jacana jacana) They are easily identified by their huge feet and claws which enable them to walk across floating vegetation in shallow lakes. The bird call of this species is a varying rattling noise.

Spotted Sandpiper (Actitis macularia) Females mate with more than one male. It is the males that are responsible for incubation, however if the female has only one mate she may help.

Unthreatened.

Horned Screamer (Anhima cornuta) Related to the duck and geese family, but with a bill similar to that of game birds. Although being relatively widespread in South America, they are now extinct in Trinidad and Tobago; however their status remains of Least Concern.

Jabiru (Jabiru mycteria) This is the tallest flying bird in the South and Central Americas. This species is classified as of Least Concern.

Sunbittern (Eurypyga helias) Their vivid eye-like markings are used in courtship or as threats, they may also use them to startle potential predators.

Least Concern.

Agami Heron (Agamia agami) Its preference for shade or cover means it is rarely seen at its best, but this may also be called the Chestnut-Bellied Heron. Not Endangered.

Boat-Billed Heron (Cochlearius cochlearius) A nocturnal bird that breeds in small colonies preferably in Mango Trees. Classified as of Least Concern.

Black Skimmer (Rynchops niger) Unusually, the eyes of this bird are cat-like in appearance. As soon as they are hatched chicks may leave the nest and lie in depressions, sheltered from the heat by their parents. Least Concern.

Anhinga (Anhinga anhinga) This may sometimes be called the Snakebird. It cannot produce its own waterproof oil and so feather can become waterlogged, reducing buoyancy, however thus making diving easier. This bird is not Threatened.

Neotropic Cormorant (Phalacrocorax brasilianus) This Cormorant gathers food by diving very briefly, between 5-15 seconds, underwater. Of Least Concern.

Amazing Kingfisher (Chloroceryle amazona) While hunting, they are often seen perching upon lower branches or small rocks before the dive quickly into their water after their small fish and amphibian prey.

This bird is not endangered.

Green and Rufous Kingfisher (Chloroceryle inda) The call of this kingfisher is like a ‘chipchipchip’ with a little twittering. Not threatened.

Ringed Kingfisher (Megaceryle torquata) Nesting is in a horizontal tunnel both parents excavate along a riverbank and the male and female take it in turns to incubate. This is a bird of Least Concern.

Songbirds:

Masked Crimson Tanager (Ramphocelus nigrogularis) This bird is bright red in colour with a black face, wings, and tail. This is of least concern.

White-tailed Trogon (Trogon viridis) They can be very fast fliers, but do not often fly great distances.

These species are not threatened.

Little Woodpecker (Veniliornis passerinus)Found in most wooded habitats of South America including Andes, these are generally very common and so their Status is of Little Concern.

Greater Ani (Crotophaga major) This may sometimes be referred to us the Black Cuckoo.

They feed on large insects and sometimes small lizards and frogs.

Yellow-Rumped Cacique (Cacicus cela) In Peruvian folklore originated as a rumour-mongering boy who always wore black pants and a yellow jacket. When he spread an accusation against an old woman who was a fairy in disguise, she turned him into a noisy, wandering bird. Thought to bring good news, and is not threatened.

Cuvier’s Toucan (Ramphastos tucanus) Normally found in pairs or small groups, they move through the forest, rarely flying more than 100m at a time. Of Least Concern.

Mealy Parrot (Amazona farinosa) These parrots can be known to interact with other parrot or even macaw species. Not Threatened.

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Scarlet Macaw (Ara macao) Often these birds are captured as pets, where they usually live for 30-50 years in captivity. Their populations are scattered, but within these they are common.

Blue and Yellow Macaw (Ara ararauna) May also be known as Blue and Gold Macaw, preferring to breed in Varzea forest. Many populations in the Americas and so are listed as Least Concern.

Chestnut Fronted Macaw (Ara severus) The largest of the ‘Mini Macaws’, with a lifespan of 30-80 years. Least Concern.

Red-Bellied Macaw (Orthopsittaca manilata) Their call is a reedy high pitched scream and likes to roost communally in the Mauritius palm if possible.

Listed as Least Concern.

Squirrel Cuckoo (Piaya cayana) Within its habitat it is quite common and little disturbed by human contact, unless of course large amounts of habitat are destroyed, and so are listed as of Least Concern.

Spix’s Guan (Penelope jacquacu) A game bird whose natural habitat is moist tropical lowland.

Common within its range and so of Least Concern.

Birds of Prey Survey – Nick Baxter During my time in this great reserve I have chosen to undertake my own personal survey on birds of prey. I have elected do this for two reasons. Firstly I have seen no other similar survey on birds of prey for this reserve so I was excited to possibly be the first. The second reason is that I have a good basic knowledge of birds of prey from working in the field of falconry with raptors from across the globe.

I have completed my surveys during turtle and dolphin transects because they provide a larger area of view for birds on the river. This consisted of motoring upstream on a pecce-pecce for 5km, then starting the transect as we drift back down stream to the starting point. Throughout transects I was observant for the main survey as well as my own.

The Peruvian guides were normally aware of my survey so they let me know if they saw a bird of prey before me. This was difficult at first because they told me the Spanish names which I then had to translate by asking Victor who spoke English and helped me identify the birds in a guide book.

The amount of birds of prey in this reserve first seemed unreal to me due to their close proximity and large numbers. It seems that territories barely exist.

This is because there is so much for them to each feed on that there is no need to compete. It is an entirely different case in Britain. There we have less animals on the lower food chain therefore animals in the higher food chain find it harder to sustain food and must compete for the best territories of prey.

During transects I also recorded the number of black vultures because I was fascinated by their vast numbers. However these are not true birds of prey so I have created a pie chart with vultures and one without. Away from transects we also spotted Harpy Eagles, Laughing Falcons, Snail Kite and King Vultures.

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Number of Birds of Prey seen

Number of Species seen including vultures Ornate Hawk Eagle 3%

Ornate Hawk Eagle 7%

Black Cara Cara 7% Yellow Cara Cara 10%

Black Vultures 59%

Black Cara Cara 18%

Black Collard Hawk 50%

Black Collard Hawk 21%

Yellow Cara Cara 25%

The most common bird of prey seen on transects was the Black Collard Hawk. I also often saw many of these whilst not on transects around the reserve.

I calculated the abundance of Birds of prey seen from transects using the following formula.

N Distance = Individuals per km

SPECIES

NUMBER SEEN

Abundance

Ornate Hawk Eagle

2

0.066

Black Cara Cara

5

0.166

Yellow Cara Cara

7

0.233

Black Collard Hawk

14

0.466

Black Vultures

40

1.333

Total distance covered through transects = 30km I have calculated the diversity of birds of prey (including vultures) using the following formula.

N (N-1) ∑n (n-1) And my Workings were 4556 1676 = 2.71

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Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) – Brittany Harris

Improvements to be made

Our aim here is to conduct science research for the Pacaya Samira reserve also to increase involvement and control by local communities. But while we are here we must aim to preserve the present forest and help it flourish. To do this we must ensure that renewable sources are conserved and help maintain the biodiversity. We must respect the local cultures, livelihoods and customs (even the truly funny ones such as cracking eggs one the birthday boy/girls head) and support the local businesses where we can.

It is impossible to run an expedition without having an impact on the environment. There will always be problems with litter, path erosion, impact to host cities and travel emissions. However a good expedition finds ways to minimise its effect on the environment and in turn try and give something back!

There are various ways to improve the sustainability of the trip and to minimise the environmental impact we have. For example; instead of having the generator on every evening we could install solar panels on the roof of the boat. This would reduce the disturbance to the wildlife around and be a renewable source of energy. A solar still could also be a useful addition; this would allow us to purify the water when we were settled instead of carrying tonnes of it up the river.

Encouraging the YEs and others to use biodegradable soaps and be more careful with the disposal of their waste will help to prevent water pollution. Purchasing supplies out in Peru, this not only reduces kit transported by plane but also supports local businesses.

These are some of the impacts we have on the environment as we take part in the expedition.

Hazard waste – take home and dispose of properly Transport emission – use public transport and minimise group size Sewage disposal –pump into river Domestic waste – minimise before travel dispose of in a land fill Living quarters – try to keep a sustainable camp and stay in hostels with environmental interests.

The first impact we make on this expedition is travelling: to the airport, on the plane, in the bus to Iquitos and on the boat up river to where we are based. This is tricky to minimise, perhaps paying a small fee to a worthy cause to compensate for the CO2 emissions and the only clear way to do it is cut the numbers travelling. When in Iquitos we have an impact on the city. We bring in money to local businesses but we also produce waster and pollution in living and travel.

During the expedition we try to minimise our impact on the environment around us. Personally we use eco friendly, biodegradable soaps and dispose of natural waste into the river where it can quickly break down, and non natural waste into the bins on the boat.

However it is clear that the best way to improve the environmental impacts anywhere at any time is to educate people. No one will want to turn out a spare light if they don’t see the reasoning behind it! On our return from Peru it is our goal to educate people about our work out here and how the things we do every day, like driving our car or leaving the kitchen light on, can have an effect on the other side of the world. The scientists here have worked so hard to document the changes to this delicate ecosystem and protect and preserve what is left, and encouraged us to educate other as to its present situation.

A table to describe the environmental impacts of our expedition is shown below:

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Activity

Impact

Output

Reduce size of party; fewer seats on plane and buses needed, fewer hotel rooms in Iquitos and food and supplies needed, and less sewage produced. Pay a subsidiary charge to compensate for CO2 emissions

Residence in Pascana, boat

Production of waste and pollution of water

Waste in to river or landfill

Persistent

Low

Stay in hostel already on a sustainability program. Be more meticulous about recycling waste.

Food waste boat

Production of food waste let into the river

Food waste into the river

Short-term

Low

Cook less food so there is less to throw away

Production of human waste

Human waste into the river

Short-term

Low

Little can be done.

Waste production,

Excess food and sewage buried.

Short-term

Low

Pack things in biodegradable packing. Purchase supplies in host country (support local businesses).

Landfill and air pollution

Into landfills/ burnt - air pollution

Long term

Low

Minimal packing and recycling

NA Incinerated

Sustainable Short term

Minimal

NA

Short term

Low

NA Educated to be quiet on transect, split into small groups, deforestation minimal and totally renewable.

–

Food and human waste in jungle Material waste disposal

Camping

Transects

Deforestation & Waste Disturbing wild life Deforestation

Medium

Mitigation

Pollution of atmosphere and water contamination

Waste human

Long term

Intensity

Travel by plane, bus, boat

on

Greenhouse gasses

Persistence

Environmental Impact Assessment.

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Los Cocama: A group of people in the Peruvian Amazon - Hannah Thomas History Los Cocama are one of three groups of people occupying the Peruvian Amazon, found in the area stretching from Iquitos down to the Marañón river.

Their first contact with the Spanish was in 1559, and the next outsider to enter the region was a Spanish governor travelling through the area in 1619. Since then, the Cocama have lost their physical distinguishing features due to intermarriage with the two other indigenous groups of the area, the Cocamilla and the Omagua. This has also resulted in a mixed culture with elements common to all the groups, for instance pronunciations and superstitions. The indigenous people of Peru are more modern than most, in that they do not wish to be seen as a separate people but as citizens of the country. During recent clashes over a free trade agreement with the US, Peruvians living in the cities have protested on behalf of the indigenous people to protect the rainforest. This demonstrates how all Peruvians feel united, especially against exploitation of the Amazon.

Lifestyle Traditionally the Cocama live in villages of approximately 40 houses, with each village being self-providing with a school, communal house and other facilities. Nowadays they can be slightly larger with some modern infrastructure such as electricity, and some villages have a doctor as well as - or even instead of - their shaman. Houses in the area of the Cocama are raised on stilts to cope with the seasonal rise in the rivers, and rarely vary from the traditional design. However, cooking used to be in a hearth, in three cooking pots made to specific designs and decorated in Cocama patterns, some of which show evidence of their Inca influence.

Modern houses though mostly have kerosene stoves. The Cocama are organised in a patriarchal system with submissive women, and each village is like an extended family.

Fishing and Farming The Cocama do not rely on hunting as a source of food. Blowpipes are not used any more either, old ones are simply kept as relics. Most villages have a few shops now, but fishing and farming are still the main areas of employment. When farming, low land which doesn’t flood is cleared for the crops. The men chop down the trees while the women remove the debris and burn it. Although the men can prepare the ground, only women can sow the seeds. Crops sown include yucca (a sweet root

vegetable), maize, camote (a potato), and plantain, a relation of the banana. The plants are all grown together, rather than separate fields for separate crops, and are harvested and stored mostly by women. This reflects the Cocama beliefs of women as earth mothers, and ensures a good harvest. Men can sow and harvest tobacco, but only those men who consume it.

As well as the food provided, some traditional drinks are made from the crops, of fermented maize and yucca. Sometimes they can even be turned into a paste which is then eaten. Fishing is carried out mainly by the men of the village. They use harpoons, spears or bows and arrows, and sometimes barbasco. Barbasco is a plant, which is strong enough to knock the fish out so they float to the surface and can simply be collected. Fishing is carried out in handmade canoes, using heartshaped paddles specific to the area.

Traditions Birth: After the birth of a child, the father is locked inside a house for two days to fast.

Zaköte: From the age of five the children of the Cocama start learning how to hunt and cut trees, but before this can happen they have their first hair cut. For zaköte the child’s hair is braided in

Demonstrating the infrastructure nowadays in Cocama villages, paved walkways and electricity. sections, one for each godfather. As they cut off their section, each godfather pays one or two sols, and the main godfather contributes up to ten sols.

This fund is then saved for the child’s future, as it begins to learn all the skills necessary to be a useful member of the village.

Festival of puberty: The first time a girl menstruates, for the first week she is on a strict diet of only yucca. At the end of the week she then has a bath, then paints her body and presents herself as an adult.

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Marriage: Girls can marry only after they have had the festival of puberty. The wedding is all organised by the parents of the bride. Once they have agreed for the girl to marry, she prepares herself to leave her family and move village. At the wedding, the husband is allowed to join the awa (married men), who are respected and held in high regard. The customs of the wedding differ depending on the ages of the bride and groom.

Burial: The Cocama bury their dead in common cemeteries. The corpse is taken from the house feet first, wrapped in cloths and blankets, and then buried with the head pointing east to the rising sun.

It isn’t typical to leave offerings in the grave.

Day of the Dead: Called Shamura Kwarachi by the Cocama. They offer gifts, especially if they know the dead particularly well. The gifts are personal objects rather than expensive gifts. The day of the dead is for each individual to commemorate life and honour the spirits.

Cultivation Festivals: The Cocama have parties in relation to principal cultivation festivals. The chief of the family invites many houses to participate in the work of the community, and organises the party.

Seed sowing coincides with the festival of San Juan. It has the same name and appearance of a Christian festival and other indigenous festivals.

Similarly, the Carnaval festival (also known as Umisha) is not unlike the Christian harvest festival.

It is very important, a festival of thanks and harvest.

Thanks are given for the abundance of food and resources and the harvest produced. There are other ancient festivals of war varying between village, and festivals for full moon or changes in the moon.

Beliefs The Cocama hold mostly pagan beliefs. They believe that demons, ghosts, tree, water and wind spirits are all interlinked with and intervene with daily human life. Some of these are: Ini jara – the major god of the Cocama.

Mui waso – serpent of the water, originating from the rain.

Karwara – controls the spirits of the water.

Kajara – controls the gods of the wood.

Tupa – God of the weather These beliefs are the basis of many shamans. The shamans are the lungs and heart of the Cocama, responsible for cultivating agriculture, the well-being of the community and the mediating and representing of the people.

To interpret the weather, the shaman of the Cocama use similar ways to that of the Omagua.

They believe that the gods bring the rain. Another

myth is that killing a land turtle will stabilize the clouds and bring rain the necessary places.

The shamans were also traditionally the doctors of the village, though this has changed recently. They used tobacco as a healthy herb, indispensable to their medicines. The shaman would prescribe it to be taken with water, in a potion or “injected”, when the skin is pricked then tobacco applied in some form.

For pain shaman would try to only treat the affected part, then apply a poultice-type medicine made of plants specific to the area, for instance for headaches apply Cukiwirata. A general remedy was a narcotic called Ayakuasca. While under the influence vision is blurred and Ikara appear to the drinker, which are conjures of spirits. The Cocama believe that your spirit goes to the sky when you die, and then comes back to another individual on Earth, so these conjured spirits can communicate to you from beyond the grave.

Medicinal Plants of the Tropical Rainforest - Ali Gardner There are around 60 different ailments that over 100 plant species found in the rainforest can be used to treat.

Ayahuma: Couroupita guianensis Condition to treat: - Itchy skin rash - Hallucinogen Method: Cut the fruit open and pour the pinkish liquid inside over the problematic area and rub into skin. You can also drink the liquid when mixed with water.

Itiminga: Condition to treat: - Snake bites - Diarrhoea - Urinal infection Method: Mash and drink with water. Also pour onto bite area The plant cordoncillo (Piper aduncum) is similar to Itiminga and can also be used to treat cuts, influenza and herpes.

Sorrapilla (Moss): Adiantum latifolium (Lam)

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Condition to treat: - Large cuts Method:Break off the moss, chew and stick onto wound, where it will help to stop bleeding and aid clotting.

I found this plant is very plentiful and growing on most trees we encountered

Renaquilla: Clusia rosea Condition to treat: - Fractures and breaks to help hold the bones in place - Disinfectant Method: Cut a notch in the bark and shave off the inner bark pieces, which are quite fabric-like. Collect the resin that oozes from the cut in the tree and use this to stick the bark to the skin like a cast. The resin is sticky, so helps hold the bark and therefore broken bones in place. Do not drink.

Huasai: Euterpe precatoria Condition to treat: - Urinal/kidney infection - Anaemia - Snake bite Method: Crush the roots, mix with water and drink Yarinilla: Cyathea sp.

Condition to treat: - Tumour Method: Cut bark down the middle and scrape out inner bark pieces. Rub onto skin.

Remo caspi de altura: Aspidosperma excelsum Condition to treat: - Malaria Method: Scrape off outer bark and collect shavings.

Eat as collected or mix with water.

This tree can also be used as timber, for e.g. building houses, as it is very strong

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Method: Crush the flower and leaves in water, boil and drink. This plant is currently being studied as it has many medicinal properties. Particular interest is in its potential as an antiviral

Liana: Condition to treat: - Back pain - Hallucinogen Method: Soak in water until the resin comes out.

Add water and drink

Ajo Sacha (false garlic): Mansoa alliacea Condition to treat: - Analgesic (painkiller) - Kidney problems Method: Mash up the leaves and root, add water and drink Catatua: Hura crepitas Condition to treat: - Leprosy Method: Leaves are rubbed on infected area OjĂŠ: Ficus insipida Condition to treat: - Indigestion - Intestinal parasite - Painkiller e.g. toothache - Leishmaniasis (From sand flies) Method: Drink sap with water and add orange juice and sugar for a sweeter taste Una De Gato: Uncaria tormentosa Condition to treat: - Snake bites - Rheumatism - Quick healing after giving birth - Healing wounds - Antiviral

Yarina: Phytelephas macrocarpa Condition to treat: - Diabetes - Leaves for snake bites, headache/migraine - Epilepsy - Anaemia - Kidney infection Method: Collect seeds/leaf from the fruit before it matures (unripe). Mash, boil and drink The large fruits from this plant can be used as jewellery

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called alchorneine, which are found in the bark of iporuru as well as several other species of Alchornea.

Tahuari: Tabebuia serratifolia Condition to treat: - Leishmaniasis (from sand flies) - Diabetes - Fungal infections - Influenza Method: Mash the leaf up and drink mixed with water. The bark of Tabebuia serratifolia contains more than 20 active compounds including lapachol, quercetin and other flavonoids. Its inner bark is used as a treatment for fungal infections.

Mishquipauga: Condition to treat: - Skin problems Method: Boil leaves in water and use the solution to shower in Achiote: Bixa orellana Condition to treat: - Burns- prevent scars - Headaches - Leprosy Method: Boil the leaves and drink the solution The seeds of the plant are also crushed and stirred in water to use as a dye Ipururo: Alchornea castaneifolia Condition to treat: - Rheumatoid arthritis (roots and bark) - Diabetes (leaf) - Muscle pain - Diarrhoea Method: Crushed leaves are rubbed on painful joints. Mash the bark or roots, mix with water and drink.

To prevent diarrhoea, take 1 tbsp. of Alchornea castaneifolia bark decoction before meals.

The anti-inflammatory properties of Iporuru are attributed to a group of alkaloids, including one BSES Expeditions 128

An Investigation into the Effects of Clearing and Recreational Activities on the Top-Soil Layer and Infiltration Rate - Sophie Edgell

2) The infiltration rate will be greater in the cleared area in comparison to the jungle area.

3) The vegetation cover will be a lot less in the cleared area (although this sounds obvious it will, hopefully, reflect the forest’s ability to regenerate after clearing has occurred).

3. Methodology A 10x10m area was measured so that 5x10m was jungle and 5x10m was cleared area.

1. Introduction I am looking at the effect of clearing woodland area in the Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve located in Northern Peru (way point: 525,417). Logging is an illegal activity which occurs in the park, even though it is prohibited. During a caiman transect one evening we saw a canoe slide past in the darkness which was transporting poachers and also saw cleared areas of woodland due to the illegal logging activities

Figure 2: A diagram representing the cleared and jungle area used for the investigation.

The cleared area was by the guard house and was used for football and volleyball matches. By using a random number table (to avoid bias) co-ordinates were selected to give 3 1x1m area of cleared land and 3 1x1m of jungle area, making 6 1x1m squares in total. Numbers were picked at random from the table (pointing with eyes closed) until 3 co-ordinates for each section were obtained.

Figure 1: An area of illegally cleared forest in the Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve One such area can be seen above. I am investigating this because it interests me but also because the area does clearly have a problem with logging.

I will do this investigation by looking at the top soil layer depth, colour, the vegetation cover and the infiltration rate because this will give an indication of a range of factors that are affected by deforestation.

If I was only to calculate one of these factors then the results would be less representative.

2. Objectives There are several hypothesise that I am hoping to prove: 1) The top soil layer will be smaller and of a darker colour in the cleared area in comparison to the jungle area.

In each area the spade was dug in so that the soil was still intact and it was levered out, enabling the measuring of the top soil layer with a ruler. This can be determined by the different colour of the soil with the colours being visible to describe. Although this is a qualitative measurement it is still relevant. The infiltration rate in each 1x1m square was calculated by pushing a piece of piping into the ground and filling it with 25ml of water. As soon as the water touched the soil the stopwatch was started and it was stopped once all of the water had infiltrated into the soil.

Equipment List 10m measuring tape Spade Ruler Water bottle Piping Stopwatch Measuring jug

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4. Results

Cleared

Top layer depth/c m

Vegetati on cover/%

0.70

8.67

Time taken for water to infiltra te ml/s 0.221

Colour and texture of top soil layer.

Darker brown, more compress ed.

Unclear 2.07 60.00 0.380 Lighter ed brown, less compress ed, looks more soillike and crumbly.

Table 1: Averaged results of data collected

other factor of vegetation increasing the soil cohesiveness. I also thought that the infiltration rate would be faster as I was also predicting that they the top layer would be shallower. However, it has a greater proximity to the clay layer so infiltration must occur sideways. This means that in the uncleared area the potential energy of the water as it infiltrates vertically is greater than in the cleared area so it occurs at a faster rate. It may also be due to the composition of the soil. In cleared areas you would expect less humus as humus is degraded at high temperatures and the soil in cleared areas is not shaded. Humus increases the water holding capacity of sandy soil but it also increases porosity and permeability of clay soils. In the cleared area there may be less humus therefore if the soils were clay based a lower amount of humus may also have contributed to the poor infiltration rate.

These results show that the uncleared area has a greater top soil depth and a greater percentage vegetation cover. The colour of the topsoil layer is darker in the cleared area and appears to be more compacted. Water is able to infiltrate more easily in the uncleared area.

5. Conclusion From these results I am able to accept hypothesises 1 and 3: that the top soil layer will be smaller in the cleared area and of a darker colour and the percentage of vegetation cover will be less.

The reduced vegetation in the cleared area occurs because the area is unable to regenerate itself to how it was before the clearing took place. This directly affects the top soil depth as there is less interception so precipitation falls directly onto the soil. This diminishes the nutrient rich top soil layer as it is washed away. It is darker in colour as recreational activities by the guardhouse, such as football and volleyball, compresses the top soil layer into the underlying clay.

I must, however, reject hypothesis 2 (that water will infiltrate at a greater rate in the cleared area) because the results show the opposite of my prediction. I thought that it would be faster in the cleared area as I thought that the vegetation in the jungle area would make the soil more cohesive, causing a reduction in the rate of infiltration. I did not take into account the compression of the soil due to the recreational activities. For the rate of infiltration the compression of the soil outweighs the

6. Future Work Future studies should consider using a greater volume of water to calculate the infiltration rate. On the boat resources were limited and only a small piece of piping (able to hold a maximum of 25ml) was available to use. The results still show the same trend but they would be easier to compare if they were larger. Human error slightly affects the results of this experiment, namely the description of the top soil’s colour as it is very subjective. This means it may not be fully reliable. The human error could be removed by creating a colour chart for different soil colours. This would make it more objective as it would be a semi-quantitative.

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Interview with CocamaCocamilla Colleagues Johnny, Teddie and Victor Interview performed by Rose and Sophie, and translated by Claudia (Peruvian scientist) on nd Sunday 2 August 2009. Minutes taken and written up by Arabella and Sally.

Introduction During the time that BSES spent in the PacayaSamiria reserve, there were a number of things that both young explorers and leaders wanted to find out about the local Peruvian people. These are people who used to live in the area before it was made into the reserve and were forced to leave when it was created. They now live largely around the periphery of the reserve and, due to a change in management strategy, are now working with the reserve to manage it. Below are the details of an interview carried out by BSES with the local people. The interview was translated by Claudia, one of the Peruvian scientists.

Interview Q.) Firstly, can you introduce yourselves and explain what ethnic group you are part of?

A.) Victor, Teddie and Johnny come from the Cocama-Cocamilla people.

a greater availability of natural resources, such as fish and mammals, which are now limited as they are protected.

Victor adds that it is important to know about their old way of life and how they used natural resources and to combine this knowledge with their new way of life.

Q.) How do you feel about leaving the reserve?

A.) (All look upset) All three say that they feel there was, and still is, poor co-ordination between the locals and the government, and that the government does not understand their way of life.

The government is interested in using the rainforest for money, but for the locals, it is their culture Q.) What do you feel are the positive and negative aspects of the Pacaya-Samiria reserve?

A.) Victor says that a positive aspect is that the reserve has been split into two areas, the core area and a buffer area. This allows the people to shift between the two areas so that the resources can be used in a more sustainable way. Johnny agrees with him and adds that he felt it was a good thing because one big community has been created from 70 separate groups. Together this collaborative community work together to eliminate poachers and other illegal activities. However, all three men agree the essential negative aspect is that they are unable to use the land as readily as before e.g. there is now limited fishing.

Q.) Before the reserve was created, when you were part of the original community here, did you have any contact with the outside world?

A.) All three say that they had no contact with the outside world.

It is important for the Cocama-Cocamilla people to know about the old way of life and how people used natural resources, and to combine this knowledge with their new way of life Q.) Having experienced both living in this area as part of an original community and now being part of the management of the reserve, which lifestyle do you prefer?

A.) Teddie preferred life in the original settlements because there was a great community within his own group and also between groups, and their lifestyle was not as controlled as it is now.

Johnny says that his father was born in the area and now works at the guard station and that he also preferred life before the reserve was created as there was more of a community and also there was

Q.) Do you feel that the conservation carried out on the reserve is important?

A.) All three agree, as they believe in protecting their former habitat.

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Q.) What do you think to the claims of the oil companies who are looking to exploit the land of Peru that there are no longer uncontacted indigenous tribes living in the rainforests (a debate currently raging in Bagua province in particular)?

A.) Together Johnny and Victor conclude that the oil companies are wrong about these tribes; they do not want to believe in these uncontacted tribes. This is because they want to exploit the land, resulting in the pollution of the water in the rivers and disruption to the entire ecosystem – the main issue being that the government cares only about money and not the people in the reserve.

Q.) Is tourism good as long it’s not damaging the environment?

A.) All the locals agree that tourism can be good for the area as long as it is performed in a sustainable way. This is because it brings money into the area, allowing the people to have more resources such as boats. It also creates more jobs for people in local communities.

Q.) Are you glad you had a chance to share your views with us?

A.) All three thanked us for asking for their opinions.

Q.) Who do you believe is on your side supporting your rights as former residents of the reserve?

A.) Teddie says that there is support from many organisitions who work from within the reserve.

However, this support is temporary. This temporary support is often not felt by the local people as they still don’t have enough resources such as food and boats.

Q.) Do you believe that Westerners should leave the forest alone?

A.) There is a mixed reaction to this question as some feel that Westerners provide useful resources such as medicines. Others think that Westerners take the forest for granted.

Q.) How do you feel about Westerners using the forest to create new medicines?

A.) Victor believes it is extremely important to know and appreciate where medicines come from. He adds that he is currently working on a project about the benefit of natural medicines.

Q.) What can be done around the world to save the rainforest?

A.) Johnny says that the solution is to organise meetings between former indigenous communities and other organisations, such as the government, so that the others can learn what living in the forest is like. The government is interested in using the rainforest for money, but for the locals, it is their culture. The locals want to be able to teach their children how to use the forest and to appreciate it.

Victor and Teddie agree. Victor adds that the former indigenous people want to manage the land, but need training to do so in a sustainable way, which currently is not properly provided.

Q.) What can we do to help when we return to Great Britain?

A.) All the locals agree that the best thing that could be done is to talk about the Pacaya-Samiria reserve and its benefits, and pass on our knowledge of the area to other people, making them more aware of the reserve.

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Birds of the Pacaya-Samiria Reserve - Lizzy Emmerson Wading birds: Cocoi Heron, (Ardea cocoi) A medium sized Heron of the Ardeidae family, the regular diet consists of mice snakes, crabs, insects, worms and frogs, but has even on occasion been known to eat small caiman. This particular species is not endangered.

Rufescent Tiger Heron (Tigrisoma lineatum) The Brazilian name for this species can be translated as “cow heron”, in reference to the mooing sound of its call. This type of Heron is also of not endangered.

Night Heron (Nycticorax nycticorax), Night Herons may nest alone, or even in colonies, primarily on stick platforms in the trees, but also perhaps on the ground. Species from this Genus have suffered many extinctions.

Great Egret (Ardea alba) A member of the Heron family. It is this bird that appears on a New Zealand $2 coin. A very unvocal bird unless in breeding colonies. Conservation class of Least Concern.

Snowy Egret (Egretta thula) For a time, this species’ population was greatly reduced due to the demand of their plumes for women’s’ hats. Now the numbers have increased and are of Least Concern.

Wattled Jacana (Jacana jacana)They are easily identified by their huge feet and claws which enable them to walk across floating vegetation in shallow lakes. The bird call of this species is a varying rattling noise.

Spotted Sandpiper (Actitis macularia) Females mate with more than one male. It is the males that are responsible for incubation, however if the female has only one mate she may help.

Unthreatened.

Horned Screamer (Anhima cornuta) Related to the duck and geese family, but with a bill similar to that of game birds. Although being relatively widespread in South America, they are now extinct in Trinidad and Tobago, however their status remains of Least Concern.

Jabiru (Jabiru mycteria) This is the tallest flying bird in the South and Central Americas. This species is classified as of Least Concern.

Sunbittern (Eurypyga helias) Their vivid eye-like markings are used in courtship or as threats, they may also use them to startle potential predators.

Least Concern.

Agami Heron (Agamia agami)Its preference for shade or cover mean it is rarely seen at its best, but this may also be called the Chestnut-Bellied Heron.

Not Endangered.

Boat-Billed Heron (Cochlearius cochlearius) A nocturnal bird that breeds in small colonies preferably in Mango Trees. Classified as of Least Concern.

Diving Birds: Black Skimmer (Rynchops niger) Unusually, the eyes of this bird are cat-like in appearance. As soon as they are hatched chicks may leave the nest and lie in depressions, sheltered from the heat by their parents. Least Concern.

Anhinga (Anhinga anhinga) This may sometimes be called the Snakebird. It cannot produce its own waterproof oil and so feather can become waterlogged, reducing buoyancy, however thus making diving easier. This bird is not Threatened.

Neotropic Cormorant (Phalacrocorax brasilianus) This Cormorant gathers food by diving very briefly, between 5-15 seconds, underwater. Of Least Concern.

Amazing Kingfisher (Chloroceryle amazona) While hunting, they are often seen perching upong lower branches or small rocks before the dive quickly into their water after their small fish and amphibian prey.

This bird is not endangered.

Green and Rufous Kingfisher (Chloroceryle inda) The call of this kingfisher is like a ‘chipchipchip’ with a little twittering. Not threatened.

Ringed Kingfisher (Megaceryle torquata) Nesting is in a horizontal tunnel both parents excavate along a riverbank and the male and female take it in turns to incubate. This is a bird of Least Concern.

Songbirds:

Masked Crimson Tanager (Ramphocelus nigrogularis) This bird is bright red in colour with a black face, wings, and tail. This is of least concern.

White-tailed Trogon (Trogon viridis) They can be very fast fliers, but do not often fly great distances.

These species are not threatened.

Little Woodpecker (Veniliornis passerinus)Found in most wooded habitats of South America including Andes, these are generally very common and so their Status is of Little Concern.

Greater Ani (Crotophaga major) This may sometimes be referred to us the Black Cuckoo.

They feed on large insects and sometimes small lizards and frogs.

Yellow-Rumped Cacique (Cacicus cela) In Peruvian folklore originated as a rumor-mongering boy who always wore black pants and a yellow jacket. When he spread an accusation against an old woman who was a fairy in disguise, she turned him into a noisy, wandering bird. Thought to bring good news, and is not threatened.

Cuvier’s Toucan (Ramphastos tucanus) Normally found in pairs or small groups, they move through the forest, rarely flying more than 100m at a time. Of Least Concern.

Mealy Parrot (Amazona farinosa) These parrots can be known to interact with other parrot or even macaw species. Not Threatened.

Scarlet Macaw (Ara macao) Often these birds are captured as pets, where they usually live for 30-50 BSES Expeditions 133

years in captivity. Their populations are scattered, but within these they are common.

Blue and Yellow Macaw (Ara ararauna) May also be known as Blue and Gold Macaw, preferring to breed in Varzea forest. Many populations in the Americas and so are listed as Least Concern.

Chestnut Fronted Macaw (Ara severus) The largest of the ‘Mini Macaws’, with a lifespan of 30-80 years. Least Concern.

Red-Bellied Macaw (Orthopsittaca manilata) Their call is a reedy high pitched scream and likes to roost communally in the Mauritius palm if possible.

Listed as Least Concern.

Squirrel Cuckoo (Piaya cayana) Within its habitat it is quite common and little disturbed by human contact, unless of course large amounts of habitat are destroyed, and so are listed as of Least Concern.

Spix’s Guan (Penelope jacquacu) A game bird whose natural habitat is moist tropical lowland.

Common within its range and so of Least Concern.

Diary Extracts - Phoebe Tickell 30th July - Transect As I write this I am sitting on a fallen tree in the heart of the rainforest – we have just completed a long transect through the jungle which is so dense; it is like stepping into a foreign, mystical world. Everywhere I look I see something new, different and unknown– and guides see things we couldn’t possibly spot… Distant shadows jump from tree to tree, reminding us that we are certainly not alone.

Trees stretch up to the clouds – long, branchless trunks with enormous roots supporting below. The floor is a mush of dead and mouldy leaves and branches and hardly any light reaches us. It started to rain and all you could sense was the sound of raindrops above. We have seen black and red squirrels and a gang of wooly monkeys ‘peleando’ – translates to ‘fighting’ – growling and gurgling at each other. A ‘pecari colorette’ (a type of wild boar) came crashing past us on our path. The scariest thing of all was when Santiago, the Peruvian guide infront who is leading, hopped over a fallen tree and suddenly yelped out, jumping a metre into

the air, simultaneously bringing down his machete with a thwack. A snake called the ‘Fer de Lance’, infamous for its poisonous bite had flown through the air and had come centimeters from biting him. It now lay, sliced in half, on the spot where Santiago had been standing. He was really shaken up which shocked me; you don’t really realize how dangerous it can actually be out here, especially when the sighting of a 20cm long tarantula is taken as a close up photo opportunity! It was about 30cm long and Bray told me that the smaller they are, the more deadly. He says that if it had bitten Santiago, after half an hour the bite would have swollen up and turned black and after a whole hour blood would start flowing out of your nose and eyes and ears. Ok so obviously a huge exaggeration. Might just steer clear anyway though, to be on the safe side. I ask Bray ‘what would you have done if it had bitten me?’. He replies ‘donde?’ (where) I say ‘on the leg’. ‘lo amputaria’ (I don’t think anyone needs a translation) A day in wild camp – 13th August I am precariously perched in the tree house as I write this, truly alone and listening to the sounds of the forest. This redefines the meaning of ‘meditation’. Something just moved in the nearby river with an echoing splash… A low hum fills my ears as curious flies gather around me (I hope this doesn’t have anything to do with lack of washing) There is a rustle somewhere above me and a lead falls gently past me. Every now and then there is a movement or strange sounding snort coming from somewhere below in the undergrowth reminding me that I have (non human) company… Danny and Pedro arrive and leave – they have been fishing for lunch on the bank a few metres away below, last time I checked they had almost 16 fish – enough for one each! Feast time! It always freaks me out a bit when the ‘dead’ fish are flapping around and moving, no matter how

BSES Expeditions 134

many times they get thumped on the head with a stone or machete…

It is now dark and we have feasted on a special meal of potato and red onion fishcakes with herbs and garlic – I helped take the meat off the fish with Abbie which was a bit of an effort, specially because the hot fish kept burning my fingers… But worth it, later I got rewarded with a big portion ☺ Lunch was a vegetable bolognaise ‘banquet bag’ cooked by Alex to ‘al dente’ perfection – hmm… We are all sitting on a tarp laid out on the ground – Andy has organized us all to read anything we like out loud – I read out one of these entries but got interrupted by a huge beetle which buzzed into my shoulder, aptly flicked off. There was so much fish left over we made salty ‘fishipops’ and I got through almost two… Have not felt this well nourished in weeks!! And then a mug of choc chip pudding which was thick and bitter but heart warming. It is almost impossible to write – so many insects keep being drawn to my head torch and flying into my face… And I am leaning on Danny’s back who keeps moving, grr. Andy is reading out a spooky story about a monster with no legs; I am going to lie back and watch the huge starry blanket of sky for shooting stars.

BSES Expeditions 135