Haptic Bathhouse by Brandon Stone

HAPTIC BATHHOUSE by Brandon Stone

HAPTIC BATHHOUSE

Brandon Stone June 1, 2017

A thesis submitted to the FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY AT BUFFALO, STATE UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARCHITECTURE

Department of Architecture and Planning

ACKNOWLEDGE MENTS This book is dedicated to those who provided their unwaivering guidance, support, inspiration and wisdom throughout this process. I could not have done this without your help. Mark Shepard Omar Khan Brian Stone Leane Stone Caroline Niederpruem

CO NTE NTS

A C K N O W L E D G M E NT S

THE STUDY

Thesis Statement

vii

The Approach

L I T E R AT U R E R E V IE W

Tension Between the Senses

Physiology of Touch

Psychology of Touch

Physiology and Psychology of Touch within Architecture

P R E C E D E N T A N D P ROGRAM

Functional Tactility in Architecture

Atmosphere and Climate in Architecture

Interactivity in Design

Program as a Catalyst for Engagement

Typology of the Bath House

P R O G R A M M AT IC RE L AT IONS HIP WIT H TACT IL IT Y

Program Analysis

Re-Interpretation of Program in Relationship to Tactility

Prototype Space

M E A N S O F C O N S T RUCT ION

Bath and Body

Programming the Body

Material Connections

Exploring Functional Tactility

Exploring Climatic Conditions

H A P T I C B AT H H OUS E

Site and Space

Site Plan

Site Section

Site and Space

Renderings

CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

iii

THE STUDY

“The eyes want to collaborate with the other senses. All the senses, including vision, can be regarded as extensions of the sense of touch; the senses are specializations of the skin. The senses define the interface between the opaque interiority of the body and the exteriority of the world.”

- Junhani Pallasmaa ‘The Eyes of the Skin’

THESIS STATEMENT Tactility (n): Responsiveness to stimulation of the sense of touch. Haptic (adj): Relating to the sense of touch, in particular relating to the perception and manipulation of objects using the senses of touch and proprioception. The bias that vision holds over the profession of architecture suppresses all of the other senses. In Greek antiquity, optical refinements were implemented to create the illusion that a structure was visually perfect. The hegemonic eye, with its ability to absorb information faster than any other sense, has allowed designers to create buildings that “look” good, but might not necessarily “feel” good. Pallasmaa counters that “touch is a parent of our eyes, ears, nose and mouth.” Tactile sensations can affect a person’s social behavior, self-perception, enjoyment and comfort within a building. It not only refers to one’s sense of touch through material contact, but also sensations felt through atmospheric conditions. Three dimensional space can be deceiving through our lens of vision. However, the tactile and haptic sensations that we experience do not misguide us. It is important to explore how tactility can be leveraged to enhance our perception of space, while diminishing the ocular-centric bias that we hold today.

vii

Fig. 1 - Therme Vals designed by Peter Zumthor

viii

THE APPROACH A thermae bath or natatorium leverages materiality to alter atmospheric and tactile conditions as a means of affecting one’s comfort. This provokes us to ask questions such as; How does the foot interact with the floor? How does the body react to changes in temperature? Can edge and surface conditions become altered at multiple scales to potentially change one’s perception of space? Atmospheric conditions within the thermae vary greatly. Some spaces may be hot, while some are cold. Some may be humid while others dry. The advantage of a space like this is that the method by which one “touches” space is in solid, liquid and gaseous forms. These three states of matter provide us with an opportunity to alter certain functions within a building to serve new purposes. One approach would be to implement materials at different scales to suggest different programmatic functions. Could a material at one scale suggest a boundary condition around the edge of the bath, while a different but similarly scaled material invite one to sit upon it? Could a material at a certain scale provide stability for the foot when walking on a slippery surface, whereas at a different scale that material might serve as a warm entity for one to lie upon, assisting in drying off? The body could play an important role in shaping the space as well. Certain areas of the body could start to become targeted to help enhance the experience within a space. Based off of these targeted areas, informed decisions about program and placement of elements would start to become obvious. The extrapolation of these ideas demands that studies be performed both at the material and programmatic level. The goal of this research is to develop a series of spaces that do not rely on one’s sense of sight as a major sensory component. The thermal bath is a program of pure function. It is a space of tactility where one’s skin comes into direct contact with very warm or very cold elements. This thesis’ intent is to discover how one’s perception of space could become enhanced, or even completely changed purely through haptic and tactile sensations.

LITERATURE REVIEW

“I think it is appropriate to challenge the hegemony of vision in the ocularcentrism of our culture. And I think we need to examine very critically the character of vision that predominates today in our world. We urgently need a diagnosis of the psychosocial pathology of everyday seeing -- and a critical understanding of ourselves, as visionary beings.” - David Michael Levin ‘Modernity and the Hegemony of Vision’

“We in the Western world are beginning to discover our neglected senses. This growing awareness represents something of an overdue insurgency against the painful deprivation of sensory experience we have suffered in our technologized world.” - Ashley Montagu ‘Touching: The Human Significance of the Skin’

TENSION BETWEEN THE SENSES Our modern day sense of spatiality and sensory reality has been dominated through our lens of vision. A number of philosophers and theoreticians, such as David Michael Levin, have become concerned with the hegemony of the eye, or ‘ocularcentrism’, and the tension it causes between our other senses. This ‘ocularcentrism’, in today’s culture suppresses the senses that are necessary for our understanding of our spatial existence. Architecture in modernity projects retinal images for the purposes of immediate persuasion instead of creating embodied representations of the world. Flatness of surfaces and materials, uniformity of illumination, as well as the elimination of micro-climatic differences further reinforce the tiresome and soporific uniformity of experience. (Hapticity and Time). Advances in technology have allowed us to become so efficient with our use of conditions within a structure that there is a universal scarcity of sensory experiences within architecture. Every interaction that one has with the environment employs the use of all of the senses. Pallasmaa asserts that ‘all the senses including vision, are extensions of the sense of touch: the senses are specializations of the skin, and all sensory experiences are related to tactility.’ Touch is the first sense to develop within a person. It is essential to us in our ability to gather information and in our ability to manipulate the environment. If this is the case then why has vision become such a dominant sense in both architecture and Western culture in general? One argument is that vision has the capacity to absorb information at an unbelievably fast pace. Ashley Montagu believes that the ‘western consciousness’ is starting to realize that other senses are being neglected. These neglected senses, specifically our haptic modality of touch, engage and unite us with spaces instead of creating a detachment and controlling view of it. According to Pallasmaa, architecture is usually understood as a visual syntax, but it can also be conceived through a sequence of human situations and encounters. Authentic architectural experiences derive from real or ideated bodily confrontations rather than visually observed entities (Hapticity and Time). These bodily confrontations are only experienced by way of touch. The “touch” of sight can inform how one views a space from a distance, but in order to truly understand the conditions within a space, the tactile sense needs to be implemented to allow us to have new sensory experiences that are more intimate with the body.

PHYSIOLOGY OF TOUCH Pallasmaa believes that touch is the “sensory mode which integrates our experiences of the world and ourselves. It is a parent of our eyes, ears, nose and mouth” (Pallasmaa, “The Eyes of the Skin” 12). This ‘sensory mode’ can better be described as one where sensations are aroused through the stimulation of receptors in the skin by forces of pressure, warmth, cold and pain. Some attributes associated with touch are roughness, warmth, cold, pressure, size, location and weight. The localization and density of these sensations guide us in mapping out what parts of the human body respond to external stimuli most in an environment. Eastern civilizations such as China and Japan practice ‘energy methods’ of touch that all involve the stimulation of body points to move energy throughout the body. Practitioners have discovered a series of meridians, or sensory channels, within the body. These channels and systems have corresponding points on the surface of the skin, which can be pressed or punctured to affect the workings of internal organs or enhance pain tolerance. ‘Meridians’ can be described as road maps that allow energy to both enter and exit the body. Acupressure, also known ‘shiatsu’ or ‘finger pressure’, employs prolonged pressure by the fingers that move along the meridian lines to reduce stress and slow the heart rate. Reflexology, which is another energy method, involves massaging methods that transmit energy from a point that is touched across a network of nerves to other parts of the body (Field 124). For example, touching a certain part of the heel affects the lower back. The feet and hands are considered the connection to the rest of the body.

Much of what the Eastern cultures practice and believe in are precursors to modern scientist’s research. E.H. Weber, an influential physiologist in Leipzig, developed the ‘compass’ test which he used to determine the smallest discriminable distance between two points of contact on the skin. The application of these methods led to important findings regarding the spacial acuity of the skin (Krueger 3). It revealed that there was a large variation of spacial acuity throughout the body. This is important when determining which areas of the skin are most sensitive to touch. Those areas that display a particularly high resolution of spacial acuity are the fingertips, face, lips and tongue. Whereas the back, upper arm and leg have a very low sensitivity to touch. The establishment of ‘sensory spots’, based off of Weber’s research, was discovered by a series of physiologists; Blix, Goldscheider and Donaldson, all in a three year span. A sensory spot is a tiny area of the skin that elicits a sensation when touched by a needle (pain), a hair (pressure), or by the tip of a temperature controlled device (warmth or cold). This technique led to the construction of punctiform maps of the skin based on the four different types of touch (Krueger 4). Among the different types of touch, the body is most sensitive to changes in warmth and cold. It is much more responsive to cold temperatures than warm (Krueger). When proper care is exercised, the degree of heat that can be applied to the skins surface can exceed 340º F without any adverse effects (Wood 28). This is due to the fact that there are many more cold spots than warm spots on the skin, which enables us to be less sensitive to heat. The body has about 29 times as many cold spots than warm spots on the surface of the forearm. These spots of interaction affect us at a psychological level when hot and cold is applied to them. The continuous application of moist heat acts as a relaxant to the surface of the body, whereas when cold is applied persistently to any part of the body it acts as a very powerful depressant (Wood 30).

PSYCHOLOGY OF TOUCH Touch is both the first sense to develop and a critical means of information acquisition. It remains the most under appreciated sense in behavioral research despite its importance to both our intrapersonal and interpersonal lives. There are two types of touch that impact us at a psychological level. Those being passive and active touch. Active touch allows us to gather information about a particular object. For example, if one touches a coin, they can measure the depth of its grooves and its surface conditions. Passive touch enables us to touch objects from a distance. For instance, if one brushes a coin with a feather. This act would only allow one to feel the grooves through the feather but it would not allow one to explore any of the other valuable characteristics of the object itself. Ackerman, Nocera and Bargh are interested in the three dimensions of haptic experience that Krueger is also fascinated in. Those being weight, texture and hardness. These three factors have the ability to non consciously influence judgements and decisions about unrelated events, situations and objects (Ackerman, Nocera, and Bargh 1712). It is important to understand why our sense of touch might influence judgements or direct our impressions of objects being touched or untouched. Ackerman, Nocera and Bargh describe what is called the ‘scaffold’ for the development of conceptual knowledge. Physical-to-mental scaffolding is reflected through the use of shared linguistic descriptors, such as metaphors (Ackerman, Nocera, and Bargh 1712). This is why a texture being rough or smooth is metaphorically associated with idioms such as; ‘having a rough day’ and using ‘coarse language’.

In a series of experiments, Ackerman, Nocera and Bargh studied the effects of rough and smooth textures on people and their social coordination. The first experiment employed the use of a rough and soft puzzle that participants were told to solve. The results indicated that the participants that completed the rough puzzle rated the interaction as less coordinated (more difficult and harsh) than did participants who completed the smooth puzzle. Participants that were classified as pro social/ cooperative chose to complete the smooth puzzle 70.6% of the time. Those who were classified as individualistic chose to complete the rough puzzle 75% of the time (Ackerman, Nocera, and Bargh 1714). The last two experiments tested haptic experiences with hardness. In one study, participants were told to sit on either a hard or smooth chair while completing a series of tasks. First, they were to negotiate with an â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;employeeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; on the price of a car. It was discovered that those who sat in the hard chairs judged the employee to be more stable and less emotional. The second study dealt with a re-negotiation of prices. It was expected that those who sat in the hard chair would be less willing to change their offer price. This was in fact the case. Among participants who made a second offer, hard chairs indeed produced less change in offer price. This experiment proved that hardness does in fact produce perceptions of strictness, rigidity, and stability, reducing change from oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s initial decisions, even when the touch experience is passive in nature (Ackerman, Nocera and Bargh 1714). This series of studies suggested that our haptic mind-set can be triggered over all areas of the body. It is not just limited to the hands and feet. Could simply changing the texture of a space affect how one interacts with others within it?

PHYSIOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY OF TOUCH WITHIN ARCHITECTURE It has been made clear that both the physiological and psychological relationships between tactility and people cause one to experience space in different ways. Can these factors be leveraged to the benefit of our architectural experience? If the human body is most sensitive to external stimuli in the form of hot and cold, then could one start to alter the atmospheric conditions to control how one feels within a space? Philippe Rahm has experimented with spaces that play with notions of interior environments where one is no longer occupying a surface, but rather an atmosphere. Can the consideration of texture enable us to create spaces that affects one both physiologically and psychologically through smooth and rough surfaces? Can surfaces become hot and cold to enable us to perceive that space in a new way? The eastern civilizations spoke of these meridians that allow us to affect certain parts of the body through the stimulation of other parts. Ackerman, Nocera and Bargh contest that one can indeed affect the way one perceives space through changes in hardness and texture. At another scale can hardness and texture be utilized to affect one’s mood and how they ‘feel’ within a space? These shifts of perception through tactile sensations would allow us to experience architecture in entirely new ways.

PRECEDENT AND PROGRAM

Fig. 2

Fig. 3

Fig. 4

FUNCTIONAL TACTILITY IN ARCHITECTURE

Fig. 2 - The particular focus of tactility within the context of architecture, and how it affects us both physiologically and psychologically, has not been employed to the benefit of all occupants within a space. It has traditionally been used as a means of way finding for the blind, or as a means to suggest boundary or edge conditions within a space. This is not to say that there is anything wrong with the application of tactility in this particular manner, but rather an observation. Hazelwood School, located in Glasgow, Scotland, is a school that was designed for those who have a deficiency of the senses; blind children in particular. The architects, Alan Dunlop and Gordon Murray, designed surfaces that provided tactile cues for those circulating throughout the space. On the vertical surfaces, the alteration of texture within a series of wooden panels provides one with the ability to place themselves in space. On the horizontal surfaces, in particular the ground, a louvered metal system allows those who are impaired to recognize where the boundary conditions of hallways are. Fig. 3 - Similarly, many subway stations including the Nagoya Diagaku Station located in Japan, employ a panelized textured floor surface that provides both visual and tactile sensations to warn passengers of the edge condition and change in elevation on the subway platform. Both Hazelwood School and the Nagoya Station require the use of oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s hands and feet for tactile experiences. Fig. 4 - A more intrusive method of tactility within the urban fabric is the introduction of spikes on both surfaces and furniture within our cities. This intervention is used as a method of dissuasion for those who loiter. By creating a hostile architecture, the impression of those who would benefit from these spaces otherwise changes.

Fig. 5

Fig. 6

Fig. 7

ATMOSPHERE AND CLIMATE IN ARCHITECTURE

Fig. 5 - Atmospheric and climatic architecture affects us primarily at the physiological level. It acts upon our skins sensory mappings of hot and cold and has the ability to control our perception of comfort within a space. Philippe Rahm’s ‘Domestic Astronomy’ is a prototype of a potential space where one no longer occupies a surface, but rather an atmosphere. Leaving the ground, function and furniture rise up and disperse, evaporating in the atmosphere of the apartment, stabilizing according to certain temperatures in relation to the body, clothing, and activity. The outcome of the creation of a space such as this results in a space that is no longer used as a shelter from the environment, but rather a space consisting of its own atmosphere that requires one living within to change their way of life. Fig. 6 - The Rain Room, designed by Random International, is an installation rather than an architectural intervention, but it still plays with the idea of creating space through tactile experiences, or lack thereof. The room blurs the boundaries of the space, creating an environment that no longer exists within the context of an interior space. This demands us to rethink our perceptions of environmental conditions and how they affect us. Fig. 7 - The Blur Building, designed by Diller, Scofidio and Renfro Architects, is an entire structure of atmosphere. Both man-made and natural fog are employed to impair ones sense of sight. The structure is one of ‘low resolution’ where there is nothing to see but our dependence on vision itself. This structure wasn’t made to address tactile connections between space and user. Its purpose was to address the bias of our eye within architecture and our reliance on it as a gatherer of information.

Fig. 8

Fig. 9

Fig. 10

INTERACTIVITY IN DESIGN

Fig. 8 - The nature in which we interact with objects or space can often affect our perception of other elements. Meret Oppenheim’s famous ‘Object’ enables us to think about the implied use of everyday objects and how we interact with them. By altering the materiality of a tea cup and spoon from ceramic to fur, the notions of tactility, particularly within the mouth, become strained. The tension between vision, texture and touch results in a change in perception of the object. Fig. 9 - The Design Academy of Eindhoven’s students developed ‘Pin Gloves’ along a similar line of thought. This piece of apparel is lined with sharp quills that prevent the user from closing their hand. It causes tension between pain and security. Traditionally gloves have been used as a means of protection from the environment. This iteration flips the idea of protection and dares us to rethink the functionality of this every day piece of clothing. Fig. 10 - The ‘Living Breathing Wall’, designed by Behnaz Farahi, was developed to respond to one question; “how might we imagine a space that can develop an understanding of its users through their sounds and movements and respond accordingly?” The wall responds to tactile interactions through movement. Through this movement and through different interactions the wall changes shape. Could architecture that responds to touch affect the way we perceive it?

Fig. 11 - Ancient Roman Baths, Bath, England

Fig. 12 - ‘Therme Vals’ designed by Peter Zumthor.

PROGRAM AS A CATALYST FOR ENGAGEMENT

The introduction of program is integral when attempting to provide a context in which these tactile exchanges take place. A thermae bath or natatorium leverages materiality to alter atmospheric and tactile conditions as a means of affecting one’s comfort. The thermal bath, or large imperial bath, originated in Ancient Rome and was a facility used primarily for bathing. The material properties from which it was built allowed a series of tactile exchanges to take place. Traditionally, the baths were constructed from marble and situated on top of geothermal springs. This is because marble is a great conductor of heat and the springs would carry warm water to the surface, which would then be used for heating both spaces and baths. The typology of the bathhouse has not varied greatly from the past to the present. Peter Zumthor’s ‘Therme Vals’, located in Vals, Switzerland, employs the same technique of heating. The nature of these spaces allow for the exchange of tactile sensations in three different physical forms. The first being in a solid form, or the interaction with the space’s surfaces; whether it be by walking, sitting, or touching with the hand. The second form being liquid. The act of bathing or relaxing within water allows for the exchange of both sensations of hot and cold, as well as wet and dry. The final form of touch takes place through the gaseous state. The ‘sweat stone’, or sauna, allows one to interact with a space through the creation of steam. All of these interactions affect one both at a physiological and psychological level. It is critical to examine how the physiology and psychology of touch can be explored through the typology of the bathhouse to enable new tactile sensations.

Fig. 13 - Women in a traditional SentĹ? bath

Fig. 15 - Man in a traditional Onsen washing off

Fig. 14 - Men in a traditionalSentĹ? bath

JAPANESE BATH HOUSE Sentō (n): A type of Japanese communal bath house where customers pay for entrance. Traditionally these bath houses have been quite utilitarian, with a tall barrier separating the sexes within one large room, a minimum of lined up faucets on both sides and a single large bath for the already washed bathers to sit in among others. Onsen (n): A type of Japanese communal bath house that uses hot water from a natural hot spring. In general the word onsen means that the bathing facility has at least one bath filled with natural hot spring water.

The Sentō is the most common of communal baths in Japan. All Japanese bathhouses have a similar layout, with the attendant sitting at a bandai (horse shoe shaped desk) near the front entrance. From there, the person bathing circulates to the dressing room. Men and women are separated from each other by a 9-12 foot barrier. The bathing area follows suit, with a barrier dividing the space into two so that there is no interaction between men and women. On the far side of the bathing area there are normally three baths, each of varying temperature. Sometimes there is a ‘denki buro’, or electric bath as well. Many modern Sentō have a sauna with a cold bath inside. Etiquette within the Sentō draws parallels with Japan’s culture as a whole. Upon entering the structure one must take off their shoes. One must follow the proper procedures, as the bath house is a space of respect where the uninitiated can upset regular customers. Some practices that may be neglected include; not washing before bathing, introducing soap into the bath water and horseplay. Modesty plays an important role in Japanese culture and that is no different within the bath house. Some bath houses choose not to allow foreigners in as they are not accustomed or well versed in the rules that are demanded of them.

Fig. 16 - Sweat Lodge Exterior

Fig. 18 - Hupa Sweat Lodge Exterior

Fig. 17 - Sweat Lodge Interior

NATIVE AMERICAN SWEAT LODGE Sweat Lodge (n): A low profile hut, typically dome-shaped or oblong, made with natural materials where purification ceremonies take place.

The Native American sweat lodge is a primitive space, usually built using local materials; wood, stone and animal skin. It places an emphasis on sweating as a mechanism of physical and spiritual healing. It is commonly made from slender aspen or willow branches that are lashed together using rawhide. The inner dome is typically 4-5 feet high at the center and the fire pit is approximately 2 feet in diameter (Hardison). The entrance to the lodge always faces east, which mimicks the rising of the sun. The sweat lodge is much different than the traditional bath house or sauna in that it does not employ the use of water, but rather smoke to create a sweating effect. It is first and foremost a religious ceremony and is led by elders that understand the tradition. One must train to be able to enter the sweat lodge. In the past, improper training has resulted in death. Depending on the lodge keeper, men and women may sweat together, or may be separated. The ritual consists of four rounds that usually last 30 - 45 minutes. Upon completion of each round, one may exit the lodge and plunge into an adjacent pool or stream. In arid conditions participants roll in the sand to cool off (Hardison). This ritual is meant to be a cleansing of the entire mind and body and still exists today in Native American culture.

Fig. 19 - Hamam resting room

Fig. 21 - Typical interior caldarium space with tummy stone

Fig. 20 - Large open space Hamam with rest space and bathing space

TURKISH BATH HOUSE Hamam (n): A Turkish bathhouse that is distinguished by its primary focus on water and not steam.

The Hamam is a hybrid structure that combines architectural aspects of the Roman thermae with the Turkish tradition of steam bathing. In the past, it has been referred to as the wet relative of the sauna. It consists of three chambers similar to the thermae; the caldarium, tepidarium and frigidarium. The major difference between the Hamam and Roman thermae is the subtraction of the cold bath within the frigidarium. The arrangement of rooms was a bit different in that users typically enter the cold room before entering the warm rooms, which is the opposite of its Roman counter-part. The caldarium contains a tummy stone which people can lie upon. This room is used for soaking up steam and scrub massages. The Hamam is closely tied to both the culture and religion in which it exists. One of the Five Pillars of Islam is prayer. Before entering the Hamam, it is customary to perform a full body cleansing. This includes the cleansing of the face, hands and feet with water. However, if water is not available then sand or pure soil is used. The Hamam differs from the Roman Bath in that the preference for full body submergence in water is replaced by the act of cleaning oneself with running water. Traditionally in Middle-Eastern culture, men are the dominate figure of the household. Therefore, bathing in the Hamam used to be primarily for men, with the exception being women who had just given birth, or those recovering from an illness. Today, Hamams either have two separate spaces for men and women, or they are used at different times of the day. Men are cautioned to remain partially clothed between the knees and lower stomach while inside the Hamam. For women, it is only appropriate to expose the face and hands.

Fig. 22 - Typical Russian Banya cabin

Fig. 24 - Typical interior layout of Russian Banya

Fig. 23 - Steam room with steam stones

RUSSIAN BATH HOUSE Banya (n): A small room or building designed as a place to experience dry or wet heat sessions, or an establishment with one or more of these facilities. The steam and high heat make the bathers perspire.

Russian Banya’s can vary in size and scale. They can range from very large spaces with many bathing areas, to small simple wooden cabins containing a single bath within. Banya’s typically consist of three rooms; a steam room, a washing room and an entrance room. The predbannik or pre-bath, which is attached to the entrance room, is lined with benches to rest upon and pegs to hang clothing on. The washing room has a steam stove that allows one to have access to hot water from a tap. There is also a tap for cold water so that one can mix the two together for a more comfortable experience. There are rocks, which are heated by the stove that produce steam when water is poured upon them. The steam within the space is often referred to ‘wet steam’, whereas Finnish saunas employ ‘dry heat’. Users enter the steam room before water has been poured onto the rocks in order to sweat before the steam circulates through the space. The Banya space often exceeds 199º F and special hats are typically worn to protect the head from the heat. The Russian Banya is typically inhabited and experienced by a singular person at any time. Many are makeshift spaces called pokhodnaya banyas that are either constructed very rapidly while hiking. Often, different herbs are placed upon the skin while in the Banya to infuse the scents with the body.

Fig. 25 - View of the springs (Cascate del Mulino)

Fig. 27 - View of the springs (Cascate del Mulino)

Fig. 26 - Gorello Waterfalls

ITALIAN HOT SPRINGS Terme di Saturnia (n): A group of hot springs located in Manciano, Tuscany, Italy.

The Terme di Saturnia dates back to ancient Rome. The Etruscans and Romans believed that the springs were formed by lightning bolts, thrown by Jupiter. In reality, the hot springs developed because of the lava flow under the earths surface and itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s close proximity to the surface. The water is sulphurous and hot with an average temperature of 100Â°F. The landscape generated by the regions geothermal activity provides one with a unique experience different from the traditional bath. There is a connection between program and the surrounding environment where there are no predetermined boundaries.

TYPOLOGY OF THE BATH HOUSE

Roman Bath

Turkish Hamam

Japanese SentĹ?

Therme Vals

Bath House

250/hr.

80/hr.

40/hr.

Separated

Separated (Diff. time of day)

Separated

Together

Spiritual Influence

Yes

Yes, Islam

Yes, Shinto

Cleaning Method

Sweating, Bathing, Oil Rub, Scraping

Sweating, Massage, Scrubbing, Bathing

Shower/Bucket Wash, Bathing

Sweating, Bathing

Russian Banya

Native American Sweat Lodge

Italian Hot Springs

Sauna

Sweat Lodge

Hot Spring

6/hr.

4-10/hr.

100/hr.

Together

Spiritual Influence

Yes, Sioux Ceremonial

Cleaning Method

Sweating, Bucket Wash

Sweating, Bathing, Dirt Rub

Bathing

Program Type Capacity Gender

SCALAR VARIATION SCALE: 1/64” = 1’-0”

01 02 03 04

Turkish Hamam Therme Del Foro Therme Vals Japanese Sento

05 Russian Banya 06 Native American Sweat Lodge

08 10

THERME DEL FORO SCALE: 1/32” = 1’-0”

01 02 03 04 05

Atrium Women’s Warmroom Thermal Chamber Warmroom Women’s Changing Rooms

06 07 08 09 10

Servants Atrium Fire Bath Cold Bath Chamber for Fornacatores Changing Rooms

09 10

04 07

08 01

10 10

11 06

THERME VALS SCALE: 1/32” = 1’-0”

01 02 03 04 05 06 07

Outdoor Bath Sound Bath Shower Stone Sweat Stone Drinking Stone Flower Bath Fire Bath

08 09 10 11 12 13

Cold Bath Drinking Fountains Changing Rooms Indoor Bath Rest Space Showers / Special Baths

01 04

TURKISH HAMAM SCALE: 3/32” = 1’-0”

11 08

01 02 03 04 05 06

Entry Space Office Frigidarium Seating Area Plunge Bath Attendants

07 Laundry 08 09 Lavatorium 10 Tepidarium 11 Caldarium 12 Stokery

05 09

09 03

01 04

JAPANESE SENTO SCALE: 1/16” = 1’-0”

01 02 03 04 05

Entry Space Shoe Lockers Changing Room Garden Baby Beds

06 07 08 09

Faucets Baths Boiler Room Lockers

01 02

NATIVE AMERICAN SWEAT LODGE

01 Entry Space 02 Fire Pit 03 Seating Area

SCALE: 1/16” = 1’-0”

RUSSIAN BANYA

SCALE: 3/16" = 1'-0"

RUSSIAN BANYA SCALE: 1/16” = 1’-0”

01 Entry Space 02 Boiler 03 Seating Area

PROGRAMMATIC RELATIONSHIP WITH TACTILITY

CONFINED SCHEME (CURRENT ARRANGEMENT)

JOINED SCHEME

LANDSCAPE SCHEME

SEPARATED SCHEME

01 Changing Room 04 Fire Bath 02 Warmroom 05 Cold Bath THERME DEL FORO PROGRAM ANALYSIS 03 Thermal Chamber SCALE: 1/32" = 1'-0"

THERME DEL FORO PROGRAM ANALYSIS

THERME ANALYSIS 0' 8' DEL 16'FORO 24' PROGRAM 32'

64'

0' 0'

64' 64'

SCALE: 1/32" = 1'-0" SCALE: 1/32" = 1'-0"

8' 8'

16' 16'

24' 24'

32' 32'

THERME DEL FORO PROGRAM ANALYSIS

The Roman bathhouse provided tactile experiences based on the materials available at the time. It did not primarily focus on the tactile sense by creating spacing specific to the body. Rather, the spaces were shaped to optimize the material being used to construct it. If the bath was located on top of a hot spring, then a specific programmmatic elements had to go in a specific area. This meant that the program was often confined into individual spaces, connected by hallways. Because of this, there was a lack of a communal experience within some of the spaces in the bathhouse. This could be a positive or negative aspect when thinking about creating public / private or intimate spaces. When thinking about tactility in relationship to the arrangement of the program, in particular within the confined scheme, there are a number of things to take into consideration. The circulation within the space is established by a series of thresholds, or hallways, between conjoining rooms. When developing space employing tactility, this may not be an appropriate way to separate space. The journey throughout this scheme is directed and linear. Developing tactile surfaces allows you to create a system in which the tactility itself is the element that directs where one moves through the space. Furthermore, all of the transition spaces within the confined scheme are the same. Creating circulation through tactility could allow for variation and could blur the line between was is transition space and what is actual programmed space.

CONFINED SCHEME

JOINED SCHEME

09 05 07

01 08 06

LANDSCAPE SCHEME 01 02 03 04 05

Changing Room Shower Sweatstone Fire Bath Flower Bath

06 07 08 09

Sound Bath Indoor Bath Outdoor Bath Cold Bath

SEPARATED SCHEME

(CURRENT ARRANGEMENT)

THERME VALS PROGRAM ANALYSIS

The Therme Vals provides an experience very different to any of the other bathhouse typologies. The spaces are separated and located within different structures. This allows users to have chance encounters with both other people, as well as with elements within the space. The paths of circulation are not necessarily defined. There is no prescribed method of procession, which suggests that there is no order in which one must follow when experiencing the bath. This could provide interesting moments where paths of circulation and material cross over each other. The overlap of two paths of circulation would need to be defined differently. One of the potential disadvantages of this scheme is that the shape of each space is defined by its function, or program. The goal of creating a tactile environment would be to let tactility both shape and guide one through a space. This would force us to re-think and re-interpret specific types of program.

CONFINED SCHEME

JOINED SCHEME (CURRENT ARRANGEMENT)

03 02 04

LANDSCAPE SCHEME

SEPARATED SCHEME

01 Changing Room 04 Seating/Massage 02 Tepidarium 05 Plunge Bath TURKISH03 HAMAM PROGRAM ANALYSIS Caldarium 06 Frigidarium SCALE: 1/32" = 1'-0"

TURKISH HAMAM PROGRAM ANALYSIS

8'TURKISH 16' HAMAM 24' 32'PROGRAM ANALYSIS64' SCALE: 1/32" = 1'-0" SCALE: 1/32" = 1'-0"

0' 0'

8' 8'

16' 16'

24' 24'

32' 32'

64' 64'

TURKISH HAMAM PROGRAM ANALYSIS

The Turkish Hamam is organized in a way that allows one to experience multiple spaces at the same time. Although some spaces are confined, the majority of major programmatic space is left open, with large transition spaces in-between the primary bath space. This method would allow us to employ tactility to define the areas of transition within the bathhouse. It would also allow us to create multiple spaces that read as one large spacial region.

CONFINED SCHEME

JOINED SCHEME

01 02

02 TURKISH TURKISH HAMAM HAMAM PROGRAM PROGRAM ANALYSIS ANALYSIS

SCALE: 1/32" = 1'-0" SCALE: SCALE: 1/32" 1/32" = = 1'-0" 1'-0" LANDSCAPE SCHEME (CURRENT ARRANGEMENT)

0' 0'

8' 8'

16' 16'

24' 24'

01 Changing Room

32' 32'

64' 64'

02 Bathing Pools

ITALIAN HOT SPRINGS PROGRAM ANALYSIS

The Terme di Saturnia is located on top of a natural hot spring and cascading waterfall. It is unique in that the programmatic spaces are located in pockets within the natural landscape. This creates a space where circulation is not defined. Water creates a tactile barrier, preventing one from seeing where the paths of circulation are. There is a sense of discovery within this space that no other spacial arrangement can create. The idea of creating pockets, or zones of program that are not related to the circulation within a space, but rather a tactile element, or barrier, could allow for interesting tactile experiences within the bathhouse.

RE-INTERPRETATION OF PROGRAM IN RELATIONSHIP TO TACTILITY While studying the differences between the organization of space within different types of bathhouses, it became apparent that the size and location of programmatic elements varies and has no relationship to the act that occurs within a particular space. In some instances, the size of a space is determined based off of the utilitarian aspect of objects within it, and in other instances it may be a certain size in order to affect the way one perceives the space. Therefore, the size of the particular space can be re-scaled in relationship to the user and their tactile interactions within it. If we think about the procession through the tactile bathhouse, the changing room is where every occupant must begin. In many bathhouses, the body is suddenly exposed to the elements within the space. This could be a shocking experience for those unaware. Within the tactile bathhouse, the user could become introduced to the space gradually through variation in a surface. The texture, growing in size, would target and massage the feet, resulting in increased blood flow. Increased blood flow helps the bodyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s muscles obtain oxygen and is helpful when stretching. As one circulates into the massage space, their body will now have had time to prepare for the next event. The massage space within the traditional bathhouse usually employs the use of a person to provide a mechanical action in order to release muscle fibers and increase blood flow. Tactility allows for the re-interpretation of the massage by creating an environment that replaces the person with a surface. This surface, whether laid upon or leaned against, would further increase blood flow. The warmth provided within the surface allows the body to have better muscle control, flexibility and range of motion.

The next space does not currently exist within the traditional bathhouse. It consists of surfaces that are shaped in ways that contort the body into different positions. The purpose of this is to target specific regions of the body. This is meant to be thought of as a type of exercise, similar to yoga. The caldarium, or hot bath, would maintain its traditional goal, which is to relax the muscles, but the way one interacts with the hot bath, however, could become altered by tactility. The frigidarium, or cold bath, is an essential programmatic element that signifies the end of the experience within the tactile bathhouse. Athletes use the cold bath to help their muscles recover after working out. The ice bath is thought to restrict blood vessels and reduce both swelling and tissue breakdown. This results in reduced soreness caused by repetitive exercise. Changing Room

Target feet, increased blood flow

Massage Space

Target body/ muscles, increased blood flow, stretching, performance

Contortion/ Stretching Space Prevents injuries, reduce recovery time

Hot Bath

Relax Muscles

Cold Bath

Recovers Muscles, reduced swelling

PROTOTYPE SPACE Entry

Changing

Women’s Changing

Massage Space

Massage Bed

Massage Bed Massage Bed

Massage Bed

Entrance

Massage Bed

Massage Bed Men’s Changing

Massage Bed

SPACIAL SEQUENCING PLAN SCALE: 1/16” = 1’-0”

Entry

SPACIAL SEQUENCING SECTION SCALE: 1/16” = 1’-0”

Changing

Massage Space

Stretching Space

Dhanurasana

Warm / Cold Bath

Dandasana / Bandhasanasana Dhanurasana

Dhanurasana

Warm Bath

Stretching Space

Cold Bath

Warm Bath

Cold Bath

Warm Bath

Dandasana / Bandhasanasana

Dhanurasana

Cold Bath

Warm Bath

Warm Bath Warm Bath

Cold Bath

Warm / Cold Bath

BATHING AREA

MASSAGE / STRETCH SPACE

MEANS OF CONSTRUCTION

BATH AND BODY The bathhouse is a space that is meant to cleanse both the body and mind. It is the perfect place to utilize tactility as a means of changing ones perception, or feeling of space. That is not to say that the bathhouse is the only space where these techniques can be employed to do so. Rather, the bathhouse is a catalyst for engagement utilized to display changes in perception though tactile sensations. The development of a prototype space allows for the generation of specific areas of intervention in relationship to programmatic elements within the bathhouse. In fig. 28,29 there are a series of interventions that occur at various scales in relationship to the body. Changes in tactility, provided by scalar shifts in textural elements, allow one to occupy a space that consists of a single surface that undulates and gradates from wall to floor. This gradation changes based upon the program and each specific site of engagement. These images also display the gradation of texture within the space that have direct relationships to the body. The idea of the massage bed could change to become a wall that one leans against (fig. 15) with textural elements that start to target specific areas of ones backside. The floor could start to become textured in a way that activates parts of the body just by walking through the space. Different parts of the body could be targeted based off of atmospheric conditions as well.

Fig. 28 - â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Body Supportâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;

The physiology of one’s body could unwittingly enhance ones experience of a space. Reflexology allows us to target points within the body, specifically within the hands and feet, which transmit nerve signals to other parts of the body and subsequently activates those areas. By studying these areas of stimulation, one can start to imagine how certain areas of the body can be targeted to activate others that are used most within the typology of the bathhouse. These areas of the body are sensitive to pressure. Based off of Ackerman, Nocera and Bargh’s experiments with the hard vs. soft chair, it is also apparent that hard and soft materials affect the way we perceive ourselves within a certain context. So by altering surface’s textural qualities and by targeting specific parts of the body, one could start to change a person’s perceived notions and experiences within a space through tactility. Maps of the body, similar to the ancient Chinese drawings can be studied to determine which parts of the body should be targeted to change ones perception of space within the bathhouse. The body’s meridian lines are displayed in fig. 30 in conjunction with all of the points of pressure along these pathways. It is interesting to note that many of the aforementioned pathways stem from either the hands, feet or head.

Fig. 29 - ‘Massage Wall’

Fig. 30 - Full Body Meridian Map

Fig. 31 - Reflexology Hand Map

Fig. 32 - Sitting (Sauna, Bath)

Fig. 33 - Sitting (Sauna, Bath)

Fig. 34 - Laying Face Up (Massage)

Fig. 35 - Laying Face Down (Massage)

Fig. 36 - Laying Combined (Massage)

Fig. 37 - Standing

Fig. 38

Fig. 39

Fig. 40

Fig. 41

PROGRAMMING THE BODY

Fig. 32-37 - Portrays specific meridian lines and pressure points and how they change as a person moves. One can study the locations of these points and start to correlate parts of the body with specific programmatic elements within the space. These elements can then be designed in a way to target the specific points within the body that would enhance ones perception of the space. Fig. 31 - portrays the hand with the areas of engagement that directly relate to parts of the body used within the thermae. When the map of the hand becomes three-dimensionalized (fig. 38-41), a gradated surface starts to target those specific areas within the hand that activate other parts of the body. This surface could then be applied to the bathhouse as a railing, or as an element of support so that upon contact, particular parts of the body would become activated within the space. These pressure points, located all over the body, could be targeted at other moments within the space as well.

Fig. 42

Fig. 43

Fig. 44

Fig. 45

MATERIAL CONNECTIONS

A major element to experiment with when thinking about many different programmatic interventions is the materiality being used at different moments within a space. Surfaces that act as elements of rest, particularly those areas where users will be sitting would employ the use of softer materials. The pyramid (fig. 45) was an attempt at creating an element at a larger scale that visually looks like something that one may not want to sit on, but upon the act of sitting, the material gives and provides a comfortable surface to rest on. The properties of rubber (fig. 42-44) enable us to think about programmatic elements that require both flexibility and stability. It could be applied to act as a handrail, or an element to grasp when entering or exiting a pool. Or it could start to become integrated into the vertical surface to provide the user with a different experience. The benefit of using rubber is that it is not only durable, but it can be either hard or soft. The material is not porous, like foam, but it is also not completely solid, like plaster. It is a material that exists between the two and could be used to potentially transition between them.

EXPLORING FUNCTIONAL TACTILITY When thinking about architecture in relationship to the senses, it is important to understand how these interactions operate at a physical level. Experiencing sensations of touch and tactility first hand allows one to understand how variations within tactility can affect the way they perceive space. Similar to the precedents that took on a purely functional form, the introduction of a series of studies dealing with scalar shifts (fig. 46,47) allowed for the exploration of the idea of boundary and edge conditions. By creating a series of tiles with differently scaled textures, one can walk on, and experience a surface that provides a means of pleasure, comfort, pain and discomfort. These tiles can be arranged in many different patterns, some of which provide therapeutic benefits.

Fig. 46

Fig. 47

Other patterns create boundary conditions that enable one circulate through a space in a particular way based on scalar shifts. These scalar shifts operate by creating a pathway at a smaller textural scale where people can walk comfortably. As the scale increases the farther one moves away from the path, the level of discomfort rises, dissuading those from leaving the path. The introduction of a gradient within the tile system allowed for a much smoother transition between changes in scale. In figures (fig. 46,47), there is a sudden change in scale when one steps from one tile to another. The goal is not to create a tile system, but rather a single surface (fig. 48,49) that undulates and changes scale based on circulation and programmatic elements within the space. This system could then be scaled up and down based on the particular programmatic elements needed. At the micro scale it could interact with the foot and on the macro scale it could become a surface that somebody lays on.

Fig. 48

Fig. 49

Fig. 50

Fig. 51

EXPLORING CLIMATIC CONDITIONS

Atmospheric conditions provide for the opportunity to affect a person at a microscopic level. The fact that we are most sensitive to changes in temperature means that subtle changes in climatic conditions can have a large impact on how we feel within a space. Surface’s properties may start to change based on atmospheric conditions as well. They can start to become hot and cold or dry and slippery. Puddles of water may start to form that affect the way one moves through a space. The ‘Weeping Wall’ (fig. 50) was developed as a response to the traditional wall within architecture. The static properties of the wall are offset by the performative nature of water in the form of mist. An alteration of this scheme led to the integration of nozzles within a plaster tile (fig. 51). The intent was to study how water could affect how one interacts with a surface by walking on zones in which the relationship between scale and tactility are affected. Are zones with texture at a smaller scale that are dry meant to be walked upon, while zones that have a texture at a larger scale with puddles meant to be avoided? Could the puddles provide some sort of therapeutic relief? Could this system be turned vertically to act as a wall in which a gradated surface directs where the flow of water goes? Through these systems, we can start to understand how elements could become integrated into surfaces to alter atmospheric conditions within the space that affect us at the microscopic level. To better understand the points in which these atmospheric elements affect us the most, diagrams were created portraying the hot and cold zones within the body. These zones (fig. 52) can then be overlaid onto the maps of the pressure points on the body. The result of this enables us to start to study and understand what types of materials and surfaces can be utilized to affect one at both the physiological and psychological level. Hard and soft elements within a space have different effects on the body when climatic conditions change. If parts of the body are wet and soft, then they will be more sensitive to hard textures. Whereas, areas that are warm and dry will be more sensitive to cold and wet textures. The integration of atmospheric-altering elements within the materials that make up the bathhouse would allow for the development of a space where tactility affects our perception and experience.

Fig. 52

THE HAPTIC BATHHOUSE

Fig. 53 - Iceland Landscape

Fig. 54 - Thermal Vent

Fig. 55 - Hot Water Flow

Fig. 56 - Hot Spring

SITE AND SPACE

The selection of a site is important when trying to generate conditions and parameters through which a finished design will sit. The site allows the designer to embed a specific design within a particular context while drawing cues that relate the site to space. In many countries that bath houses currently exist within, the culture of that society drives the way that the bath house is designed. The societal and political agendas affect the way that people interact with the space. This was something that made the selection of a site difficult. How can one design a space that purely relies on tactility when the cultural aspect places so many constraints on the design already? The answer came not by thinking about the cultural context in which the bath house sat, but rather the environmental aspects and qualities of the site. Could both the atmospheric and environmental qualities of a site inform how the bath house operates? The site in which the Haptic Bathhouse exists is located in Iceland. Iceland is an active geothermal region. It sits on a tectonic plate zone that has over 30 active volcanoes. This activity within the region has caused the landscape to change dramatically. There are large rolling hills, jagged rock faces, hot springs, geothermal vents, and groundscapes that ooze water and molten rock. These conditions can inform how specific tactile elements within the Haptic Bathhouse operate.

SITE AND SPACE The rolling hills prevalent in Iceland’s landscape require one to rethink how a surface condition can be interpreted. When examining this landscape, it is not obvious how this layered system allows one to pass through it. It requires one to traverse the terrain in order to understand its spacial qualities. This sense of discovery and layering began to manifest itself within the massage space of the bathhouse. The atmospheric conditions within Iceland can begin to inform how one interacts with a space at an atmospheric level. The large hot springs and geothermal vents begin to inform how a surface can start to become hot or cold to affect the environmental qualities within a space. It requires one to rethink how the traditional bathhouse is arranged. In the past, the specific programmatic qualities of a space determined its size and shape. Many spaces were separated and closed off. Within the Haptic Bathhouse, the surface condition, specifically in the bath area, could start to become hot and cold to affect the temperature of water. If a spacial zone is shallow, the surface could be heated to create the “hot bath”. If a zone is deep, it could become cooled to create the “cold bath”.

SITE SECTION

Finally, when the surface rises up from the water it could start to become heated to that point at which steam would form. This steam could fill up the space and act as the traditional â&#x20AC;&#x153;saunaâ&#x20AC;?. The steam would create tension between the eye and the space by blurring the qualities of the space, forcing the inhabitant to rely purely on tactility to make their way through the space. The landscape within the massage space allows inhabitants to lay, sit, stand and lean on objects in order to stretch and massage oneself. It was designed as a torus, where in section there are two interior systems separated by a large opening. The intent was to create an interior space that was more cave-like. Upon entry, vision would become obscured by darkness so that one would once again have to rely on their relationship to the space in a tactile manner in order to circulate through it. The occupants could also interact with the surface condition on the exterior as well.

ATMOSPHERIC BATH RENDERING 88

MASSAGE SURFACE-SCAPE RENDERING 90

CONCLUSION

CONCLUSION During the final thesis review some of the critics thought that the completed design was still too architectural, in that it existed within a constrained space. The idea of the landscape was something that they wished would have been expanded upon where the experience of the Haptic Bathhouse began as soon as one stepped foot on site. The surface condition would then morph and change in both size and elevation as one circulated throughout the landscape. In addition, many of the critics believed that further research on materiality should be done. The thesis relied on the use of a gradated plaster tile system and basically no other materials. The idea of tactility between many different types of surfaces is an aspect that could have allowed for a stronger argument to be made for a tactile or haptic system. In all, I believe that the research outlined in this thesis provides a good starting point to work from when thinking about new ways in which one can perceive space that doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t rely on our dominate sense of vision. Architecture should exist as a full body experience and should not have to rely solely on vision itself to affect the way we perceive and experience it.

REFE R E NCE S

Pallasmaa, Juhani. 1999. “Hapticity and Time.” RIBA Discourse Lecture. RIBA.

Pallasmaa, Juhani. 2005. The Eyes of the Skin: Architecture and the Senses. Chichester: WileyAcademy.

Krueger, Lawrence. 1996. Pain and Touch. San Diego: Academic.

Wood, Horatio C. 1888. Therapeutics: its principles and practice. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Co.

Montagu, Ashley. 1986. Touching: The Human Significance of the Skin. New York: Columbia University Press.

Ackerman, Joshua, Christopher Nocera, and John Bargh. 2010. “Incidental Haptic Sensations Influence on Social Judgements and Decisions.” Science 328.5986 1712-1715.

Rahm, Philippe. 2009. Domestic Astronomy. Accessed November 8, 2016. http://www.philipperahm. com/data/projects/domesticastronomy/.

Hardison, Bob. “The Native American Sweatlodge, A Spiritual Tradition.” The Native American Sweatlodge, A Spiritual Tradition. N.p., n.d. Web. 02 Feb. 2017. <http://www.barefootsworld.net/ sweatlodge.html>.

Fig. 01

2009. The Therme Vals / Peter Zumthor. February 11. Accessed November 17, 2016. http://www. archdaily.com/13358/the-therme-vals/.

Fig. 02

2007. Hazelwood School. Accessed November 8, 2016. http://www.dev.ihcdstore.org/?q=node/128.

Fig. 03

LERK. 2010. Nagoya Daigaku Station platform. March 16. Accessed November 8, 2016. https:// commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nagoya-subway-M18-Nagoya-daigaku-station-platform-20100316. jpg.

Fig. 04

Lowe, Josh. 2015. What Britain has learned about social mobility. December 18. Accessed November 8, 2016. http://www.prospectmagazine.co.uk/blogs/what-britain-has-learned-about-social-mobility.

Fig. 05

Rahm, Philippe. 2009. Domestic Astronomy. Accessed November 8, 2016. http://www.philipperahm. com/data/projects/domesticastronomy/.

Fig. 06

International, Random. 2012. Rain Room. Accessed November 10, 2016. http://random-international. com/work/rainroom/.

Fig. 07

Renfro, Diller Scofidio +. 2002. Blur Building. Accessed November 10, 2016.

Fig. 08

Oppenheim, Meret. 1936. Object. Accessed November 10, 2016. https://www.moma.org/learn/moma_ learning/meret-oppenheim-object-paris-1936.

Fig. 09

Eindhoven, Design Academy. 2009. Pin Gloves. Accessed November 10, 2016. https://inprogress. designacademy.nl/Projects/tabid/1431/articleType/ArticleView/articleId/252/In-Search-of-a-NewTactility.aspx.

Fig. 10

Farahi, Behnaz. 2013. The Living Breathing Wall. Accessed November 10, 2016. http://behnazfarahi. com/the-living-breathing-wall/.

Fig. 11

Diliff. 2006. Roman Baths in Bath, England. July 2. Accessed November 27, 2016. https:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Roman_bathing#/media/File:Roman_Baths_in_Bath_Spa,_England_-_ July_2006.jpg.

Fig. 12

2009. The Therme Vals / Peter Zumthor. February 11. Accessed November 17, 2016. http://www. archdaily.com/13358/the-therme-vals/.

Fig. 13

Bath in An Agricultural School. Accessed February 2, 2017. https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/thumb/b/b0/BATH_IN_AN_AGRICULTURAL_SCHOOL.jpg/250px-BATH_IN_AN_ AGRICULTURAL_SCHOOL.jpg.

Fig. 14

Japanese Baths. Accessed February 2, 2017. https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ thumb/d/d6/Japanese_Baths.jpg/320px-Japanese_Baths.jpg.

Fig. 15

Hyotan Onsen. Accessed February 2, 2017. https://i0.wp.com/shafir.info/shafir_images/10Album/24Ja pan~24Beppu~82Hyotan_Onsen_8%5E1920x.jpg

Fig. 16

Sweat Lodge Exterior. Accessed February 2, 2017. https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/ originals/33/0d/c4/330dc4a495e374d56858da7e74c12e43.jpg.

Fig. 17

Sweat Lodge Interior. Accessed February 2, 2017. http://samarahealingcenter.com/WP1/wp-content/ uploads/2014/12/IMG_2734.jpg.

Fig. 18

Hupa Sweat Lodge Exterior. Accessed February 2, 2017. https://cdn.psychologytoday.com/sites/ default/files/field_blog_entry_images/Hupa_Sweat_House_0.jpg.

Fig. 19

Hamam interior resting space. Accessed February 2, 2017. http://az836445.vo.msecnd.net/cache/7/7/c/ f/b/c/77cfbc05db3e9a86be442b1759362db1f079cd07.jpg

Fig. 20

Hammam Al-Nahhasseen Aleppo. Accessed February 2, 2017. http://www.alsahmnews.com/wpcontent/uploads/2016/07/Hammam_Al-Nahhasseen_Aleppo-1024x768.jpg

Fig. 21

Typical interior caldarium space with tummy stone. Accessed February 2, 2017. https:// shadesofjasmine.files.wordpress.com/2015/05/42-20985727-1680x1050.jpg

Fig. 22

Russian Banya. Accessed February 2, 2017. https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ thumb/3/36/Russian_banya.JPG/440px-Russian_banya.JPG

Fig. 23

Steam room with steam stones. Accessed February 2, 2017. https://thumb7.shutterstock.com/display_ pic_with_logo/362860/362860,1241426860,1/stock-photo-two-beautiful-women-have-a-saunasession-29621371.jpg

Fig. 24

Typical Banya Interior. Accessed February 2, 2017. http://spanaalexeevskoy.ru/wp-content/ uploads/2016/02/4.jpg

Fig. 25

Saturnia Cascate del Mulino. Accessed February 7, 2017. https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/4/41/Saturnia_Cascate_del_Mulino.jpg

Fig. 26

Holy Hot Springs of the Terme di Saturnia. Accessed February 7, 2017. http://www.thegrandwinetour. com/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/holy-hot-springs-of-the-terme-di-saturnia-2-1370x770.jpg

Fig. 27

Cascate Mulino. Accessed February 7, 2017. http://www.coolturehunter.it/wp-content/ uploads/2013/03/Cascate-Mulino-4.jpg

Fig. 53

Iceland Landscape. Accessed May 14, 2017. https://expeditionportal.com/media/2015/05/IMG_4070Version-3.jpg

Fig. 54

Thermal Vent. Accessed May 14, 2017. http://i47.tinypic.com/5yygxw.jpg

Fig. 55

Hot Water Flow. Accessed May 14, 2017. http://i49.tinypic.com/j7yvth.jpg

Fig. 56

Hot Spring. Accessed May 14, 2017. http://i49.tinypic.com/2l91n5l.jpg

sss