Part One: Constructing Blackness
Section One: Etymology and History of “Black” Identity
In order to find Blackness in art and fashion, it is important to establish what we’re looking for and mean by Blackness. Why ‘Blackness’ and not ‘African-American-ness’? For the case of this research project, I’ll use the identifiers Black and Black American when referring to the people and culture of my research focus, rather than African American. While the two have been and are still used interchangeably in some cases, they are not necessarily synonymous, and the debate of what racial label best describes this group of people has been in discussion since the 1960s and even before. Around the end of that decade, there were three but mainly two names in contention to refer to this group of people that aimed to both acknowledge their known and unknown history while moving beyond thinking of these people within slavery and a white-centered context. In his 1969 article “WHAT’S IN A NAME? Negro vs. Afro-American vs. Black,” Lerone Bennett
discusses the history and social conversations surrounding the adapting name for Black people, tracing back to the African Slave Trade as “Negro” derives from the Spanish and Portuguese, “who were pioneers in the [slave trade.]”4 The argument that these names could be used as synonyms is understandable; however, to emphasize Bennett's argument: “names are of the essence of the game of power and control … [and pro-black contingents emphasize] that a change in name will short-circuit the stereotyped thinking patterns that undergrid the system of racism in America.”5 While racial identifiers are names we constructed to classify the world, the words chosen throughout history do more than simply describe a group of people, they reflect the thinking of those with the power to select said signifiers and the social and cultural climate of the time. Native Americans were ‘classified’ as “Indians” by colonizers in the 15th century because those
4 Bennett, Lerone, et al. “WHAT’S IN A NAME? …” ETC: A Review of General Semantics 1969; p. 402
5 Bennett, Lerone, et al. 1969; p. 400
colonizers thought they were in the Indies at the time; that name stayed for centuries to separate those truly indigenous to the Americas from those who wanted claim to it. Collective names go beyond personal preference; the Spanish and Portuguese adjective negro was appropriated into the “English noun-adjective ‘negro’,” originally uncapitalized and often signified and implied an ‘inherent inferiority’ of the people, places, and objects it was designated to.
“Negro” and the term “colored” are both heavily rooted in the Jim Crow era of the treatment of Black people. Hence, the majority of the consensus during Bennett’s time was that “Negro” no longer was successful as a term for Black or African American people. Many young people “[linked] the word ‘Negro’ to Uncle Tom” and the slave-to-slavemaster power imbalance previously linked to Black and white people.6 As Tom W. Smith accounts in
6 Bennett, Lerone, et al. 1969; p. 401
his article “Changing Racial Labels: From "Colored" to "Negro" to "Black" to "African American"”: […] “Negro” also had considerable handicaps to overcome. It tended to be used as a term of reproach by Whites and further suffered from its association to the racial epithets “Niggah” and “Nigger” […]
As Roland A. Barton argued in his famous letter in 1928 to DuBois, “The word, ‘Negro,’ or ‘nigger,’ is a white man's word to make us feel inferior.”7
In 1968, the Racism in Education Conference of the American Federation of Teachers unanimously endorsed abandoning “the slavery-imposed name” Negro and the National Conference of Black Power did the same, but each organization came to adopt “Afro-American” and “Black” respectively as substitutions.8 Both are certainly more appropriate terms, yet as the years have passed,
7 Smith, Tom W. “Changing Racial Labels: ...” The Public Opinion Quarterly, vol. 56, no. 4, 1992, p. 498
8 Bennett, Lerone, et al. 1969; p. 400
African- or Afro-American hasn’t fit the description or experience of Americans of more distant or wholly unknown African descent. One of the effects of slavery was a loss of place of origin or lineage for many people. “Black American” is more inclusive of the African Diaspora, including Afro-Carribean and AfroAmerican people who cannot trace their ancestry to an ethnicity within the continent of Africa. This research includes those whose origin is better described as within the African Diaspora rather than just African Americans. In my eyes, “Black Americans” encompasses those people, their collective experience in America, and the unique culture created in that environment. Black culture is reactive and ever-changing, with influences from all aspects of the diaspora in its politics and art. “Black” as a racial label implied the opposite of “Negro,” it became the “parallel construction with” and “deliberate antithesis of ‘white’” and “also connoted Strength and power.”9
9 Smith, Tom W. 1992, p. 501
Section Two: Creation of Black Identity - “20th Century Blackness”
A lot of the social change of the 20th century within the Black community was a push toward stronger racial pride and more vocal activism. “Initially ‘Black’ was often associated [with] those who were [‘too’] progressive, forward-looking, [violent] or radical [… yet] the progressive and activist images of [the term] ‘Black’ boosted its acceptance,” evident in the shift in organizations that lent more towards the term to denote or title their organization, as shown in progression of groups listed with “Black” from Pre-1940s to the late 1980s in Smith’s table below.
Figure 1. Preferred Racial Term by Association a (Percentages)
Smith, Tom W. “Changing Racial Labels: …” Table 1. p. 500
While the change in 1990 in Table 1 would insinuate the conclusion that “African American” became the more preferable racial label, that is only conclusive of the organizations recorded and the following table shows that the “customary usage” of racial labels in most areas in the US favored “Black;” 98.4% of surveys used “Black” as the racial term between 1990-1991.10
10 Smith, Tom W. 1992, p. 502
Figure 2. Use of Racial Terms in American Surveys (Percentages)
Smith, Tom W. “Changing Racial Labels: …” Table 3. p. 506
Because Blackness started as a means of political classification–about property, ownership, and power within the economic world of slavery–much of the efforts to define Blackness and what it means to be Black–post-slavery and in the 20th century–were efforts of reclamation and opposition to oppression. Organizations and activists prioritized racial unity and the collective advancement
of Black people throughout the nation. Since this period of Black activism is marked by forming an identity and a place in society from nothing, it's necessary to differentiate this age of Black identity from what that means after the Civil Rights Movement and in the 21st century. For this reason, I label the Blackness of this time still in its experimental and very new phase: “20th-century Blackness”.
In February of 1909, The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) was created, with the “mission [of ensuring] the political [and educational] equality of minority group citizens of States and eliminate race prejudice.”11 “20th-Century Blackness” is marked by the leaders and thinkers of the time like Marcus Garvey and W.E.B. Du Bois but also by movements and changes in Black life like the Great Migration between the 1910s and 20s, the New Negro Movement, and the 11 NAACP. “Our History.”
Harlem Renaissance.12 The New Negro Movement was an expansion beyond W.E.B. Du Bois's theory of double consciousness. Which Dickson D. Bruce Jr. describes as “the difficulty that lay in the realization of any true [selfconsciousness]” or identity when the societal circumstance has defined black people with the “[warring ideals in the] "two-ness" of being [American and Black.]”13 The New Negro Movement “promoted a renewed sense of racial pride, cultural self-expression, economic independence, and progressive politics,” that continued from the Harlem Renaissance into the Civil Rights Movement and Black Arts Movement of the late 1960s and 70s through the promotion of Black art.14 As T. J. LeMelle expresses in his 1967 commentary on the decline of the Civil Rights Movement, “The
12 Library of Congress. “The Civil Rights Act of 1964: A Long Struggle for Freedom: The Segregation Era (1900–1939).”
13 Bruce, Dickson D. “W. E. B. Du Bois and the Idea of Double Consciousness.” American Literature 1992, p. 299, p. 306
14 Library of Congress. “NAACP: A Century in the Fight for Freedom: The New Negro Movement.”
Ideology of Blackness: African-American Style,” the rise of Black Power in the late 60s was a push for “an anti-racist race consciousness.” The meaning of “20th-century Blackness” pertained to the need for self-identification amongst Black communities. The ideology of Black Power and phrases like “Afro-American legitimacy” were calls to create a consciousness and identity that were beyond the racist notions and stereotypes from white oppressors and media depictions. Just like the name used to classify Black Americans, Blackness as an identity needed to transcend its contentious past. Black Power was an “[ask for] black intellectuals and artists [to] share their creations with the black masses who are hungering to know who they are.”15 Whether from Martin Luther King Jr. or Malcolm X, Blackness does not have a concrete definition, and this research is not in search of one. In the American context, Blackness is an art in and of itself.
15 T. J. LeMelle. “The Ideology of Blackness: African-American Style.” Africa Today 1967, p. 4
Blackness is an identity of collective resistance; the 20th century of America’s development and history reflects that “20th-Century Blackness” was challenging and redefining the perception of a people as inferior or the antithesis of whiteness.
Section Three: “20th Century Blackness” Falls Stagnant Now
Earlier I mentioned Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X, two famously known civil rights leaders who are often related as opposites of one another because the two reflect an interesting aspect of “20th-century Blackness” that gets overlooked. While the broader goal was racial unity, different groups clearly had different methods and ideologies of black empowerment that clashed at times, the most recognizable example being the Black Panther Party compared to church-organized non-violent marches and protests. However, despite these differences, there were similarities and common ideas of Blackness developing among these supposedly polarized Black activist groups.
Blackness acted a certain way, talked a certain way, and even dressed a particular way–the Black Ivy style especially–to subvert and transcend negative and limiting stereotypes of Black people. Blackness was regulated and ordered, both in intellectual and activist spaces and in Black spaces that were seen as contrary to order and normality. William L. Jones introduces an interesting point in his 1973 essay and study, “Importance of Black Identity to Adolescents,” related to the ‘regulated Blackness’ that was emerging. He quotes Professor Clemmont E. Vontress’s thoughts from 1970 “The black man is caught up in the web of white society,” and adds they had accepted a kind of self-hatred that brought upon the “Black Revolution of the sixties.”16 However, that state of blackness was not the same experienced by the Black youth and student activists of the 70s and today. They were involved in Black activism during the shift from ‘Black is not
16 Jones, William L. “The Importance of Black Identity to the Black Adolescent.” Journal of Black Studies 1973, p. 83
defined by white media and stereotypes’ to simply “Black is Beautiful.”17 I bring up Jones's observation because the priority of collective advancement came at the expense of creating an identity of Blackness that was unique and detached from whiteness. 20thcentury Blackness in a way fell into the trap it was trying to avoid; it’s easy to define what Blackness isn't but not what it is. Jones's conclusions from his questionnaire of Black teenagers of the early 70s were that “most black adolescents [were] not fervently seeking their identity of blackness because they [did] not have to do so.”18 The progression in Black activism of previous decades had to create a space that fostered their self-esteem: “He wears daishikis and other forms of African dress. […] He no longer needs to repudiate his past or question his identity. He can now turn on the television set and see black heroes like Sidney Poitier and Harry Belafonte.”19 Black young people of the mid to late 70s started to
17 Jones, William L. 1973, p. 84
18 Jones, William L. 1973, p. 89
19 Jones, William L. 1973, p. 89
adapt Blackness to be more individual, yet at the same time fit less and less into the “molds” and confines of 20th Century Blackness. This effect became even more noticeable heading into the 21st century. As one of the students Jones surveyed commented: “It’s not the color you are, it’s what you make out of yourself.”20
Section Four: Where “Blackness” falls Stagnant
Since the focus of my collection is centering and investigating meanings of Blackness, I cannot continue toward a contemporary state of Blackness without addressing some of the faults of the ideals of “20th Century Blackness”; primarily that this state of Blackness was and currently is too monolithic. In prioritizing creating a distinct identity for Black people beyond the derogatory antithesis of whiteness, the nuance and diversity of the individual black person took a backseat–creating some of the conflicts and issues within the Black community that persist today.
20 Jones, William L. 1973, p. 88
Part of the distinct Blackness is the blueprints and roles within the Black community that we’ve created and how those roles behave:
“The Black Man,” or “The Black Family.” While a lot of the emphasis of creating a post-slavery Black identity was placed on economic foundation and advancement and especially education, it’s often overlooked how much focus was placed on the family as well, and healing the state of the black family that slavery and racism created. “The Black Family” is a similar image to that of the American nuclear family that developed in the early 1920s: a stable middle-class family of four–a man, his wife, two children, and maybe a dog too. This was the ideal working-class Americans aspired to achieve, and Black Americans too. However, this ideal is far from the reality of surviving as a Black person in America, and the circumstances and institutional hindrances on Black families. Works like Daniel Patrick
Moynihan’s 1965 book The Negro Family: The Case for National Action addresses the effects slavery and the large amount of
incarcerated or unemployed Black men have on Black families. According to political science professor Dean E. Robinson in his article “‘The Black Family’ and US Social Policy: Moynihan’s Unintended Legacy?,” “Moynihan worried that slavery, urbanization and high rates of black male unemployment transformed the black family or, more precisely, the lowerincome black family into a ‘matriarchy.’”21 Moynihan argued that this was detrimental to Black people and other 20th-century Blackness scholars held similar sentiments and attributed the disorganization of Black familial life to the Black women taking on ‘traditionally masculine roles’ when they were often forced into those circumstances.
In the introduction to Touré’s 2014 book–originally published in 2011–Who’s Afraid of Post-Blackness?: What It Means to Be Black Now, Micheal Eric Dyson discusses three 21 Robinson, Dean E. "“The Black Family” and US Social Policy: Moynihan’s Unintended Legacy?" 2003, p. 119
distinct problematic notions of Blackness that I think fall under the guise of 20th-century Blackness: “racial patriotism, racial fundamentalism, and racial policing.”22 I view racial fundamentalism and racial policing to be the most relevant to the shortcomings of 20th-century Blackness in contemporary spaces. However, racial policing is more or less the enforcement of racial fundamentalism.
Racial fundamentalism, in Dyson’s words, “views race like a religion;” it treats race like a set of strict, very literal rules of how to be Black: “who’s in and who’s out is determined by adherence to rigid tests of authentic Blackness.” However, Blackness is an identity created, not simply or easily defined. Racial fundamentalism often tries to confine Blackness to whatever older black leaders–primarily male–believe is ideal. Anything that challenges Black fundamentalism is deemed as inauthentically
22 Touré, and Michael Eric Dyson. Who’s Afraid of Post-Blackness?: What it Means to be Black Now. 2014 Introduction
Black. By these limits, strong independent Black women and Black feminists aren’t ‘really Black’ because “they undermine the integrity of Black masculinity.”23 Additionally, Black queer people were and still are seen as ‘not Black’ because they challenge the heteronormative ideas of Black love and ‘The Black Family’ that Black fundamentalists cling onto so strongly. This adamant insistence towards anything that adds nuance to the ideas of Blackness as inauthentic isolates Black individuals who are ousted from the community. The “collective unity” of Blackness is placed above the individual and their experience with who they are, which didn’t align with the Black youth in Jones's study and certainly doesn’t with Black young people today. Because of this “20thCentury Blackness” falls into the same fate that Blackness defined by oppressors does: it limits and confines Black people into ‘archetypes’ of how to be Black.
23 Michael Eric Dyson, 2014. Introduction
Like what that student Jone’s study had said: “It’s not the color you are, it’s what you make out of yourself.”24 As my search for Black identity got closer to the 21st Century and today, there’s a shift–a sort of schism within thoughts of Black identity–developing in the late 70s of 20th-Century Blackness and a more nuanced look at Black identity. This growing shift of Blackness embraces individual differences, emphasizes that Blackness isn’t a monolith, and keeps up with the ever-increasing hyper-individual social world we live in.
24 Jones, William L. 1973, p. 88
Part Two: Contemporary Blackness
Section One: Future Solutions We’re Creating Today - “PostBlackness”
I believe that a more fluid and contemporary example of exploring Blackness that is catching up with the hyperindividualism of American society in the 21st century is Post-Blackness. Artist and curator Thelma Golden first coined the term “Post-Black” in the late 1990s, originally referring to art.25 “Post-Blackness” is an extension of the term “Post-Black.” In his 2012 book Who’s Afraid of Post-Blackness, Touré then developed and explored the term more broadly to define this era as postBlack, meaning “rooted in but not restricted by Blackness” and “the definitions and boundaries of Blackness are expanding [infinitely.]”26
25 Campbell, Mary Schmidt. “African American Art in a Post-Black Era.” Abstract. Women & Performance: A Journal of Feminist Theory 2007
26 Touré. 2014, Chapter One
Touré's concept of Post-Blackness is not about moving away from Black identity, but rather about expanding what it means to be Black and acknowledging the vast diversity within the Black experience. It is an ideology that rejects the idea of a singular “Black experience” or a monolithic Black identity. In the realm of Post-Blackness, being Black is not a matter of adhering to a specific set of cultural or behavioral standards, but rather an individual and personal experience that encompasses a wide range of identities, experiences, and expressions. The concept of PostBlackness celebrates the complexity and diversity of Black identity and rejects any attempt to confine it within the narrow parameters frequent in 20th-century Blackness and Black fundamentalism.
Post-Blackness acknowledges the existence of ‘untraditional’
Black women and queer Black people without ostracizing an already marginalized group. By doing so, it paves the way for a more inclusive and nuanced understanding of Blackness. In this Post-Black era Touré introduces, Blackness is seen as a part of
one's identity, but not the sole determinant of it. This concept allows for a more fluid and individualistic approach to Black identity, making room for Black individuals to define their own Blackness in ways that resonate with their personal experiences and realities mirroring the state of hyper-individuality in American society.
As we continue to navigate the complexities of identity in the 21st century, Touré's concept of Post-Blackness extends the framework of the understandings and explorations of Black identity created by Black Feminists. Furthermore, it invites us to embrace the diversity within the Black community and to acknowledge the many different ways in which Blackness can be experienced and expressed. In my eyes, a contemporary state of Black identity starts with Post-Black thinking.
Section Two: Invisible Intersection. Black Femininity Neglected and Forgotten. Blackness and Her Contention with Femininity.
While I play with androgyny in my designs, I design clothing–and this collection–primarily for women, and gender goes hand in hand with shaping the experience and identity of black women. This intersectionality comes with its own set of challenges and hardships with navigating American society, having to balance both being Black and being a woman. The unique experience and struggle of being a Black woman is being one of the subsections of marginalized people that have been pushed aside and ignored for the collective advancement against the larger marginalization and oppression. The white feminists and women’s rights advocates were often perpetuating racism in the oversight of how race affects gender, and conversely, civil rights activists and Black theorists were perpetuating sexism in the same ways. Unfortunately, 20thcentury blackness and racial fundamentalism have very heterosexist ideals, that as I’ve mentioned before centralize the “authentic Black struggle” while also ignoring and disrespecting the Black women similarly struggling under the same society. One
of Malcolm X’s most famous quotes is about society’s neglecting of Black women:
The most disrespected person in America is the Black woman. The most unprotected person in America is the Black woman. The most neglected person in America is the Black woman.27
Similar to the reclamation of the term Black, Black women in the later half 20th century took their positionality and neglectment in society and redefined our notions of Blackness and Black theory and studies. Patricia Hill Collins argued that “black women are uniquely positioned due to their race and gender to [understand] the importance of self-definition within the context of a social system that defines oneself in oppressive ways” and created the space for that self-definition.28 Authors like Patricia Hill Collins,
27 Lackey, Alesha. “The Fallacy of The Strong Black Woman.” Charlotte Mecklenburg Library, 2021.
28 Cole, Nicki Lisa. “Biography of Patricia Hill Collins, American Sociologist and Feminist.” ThoughtCo, 2019.
Toni Morrison, Angela Davis, and Audre Lorde were pioneering the need to challenge “socially constructed limitations” and explore the nuance of Blackness like Post-Blackness and future organizations' ideologies.29 Part of Edmund T. Gordon’s “The Austin School Manifesto” states that in “following Black feminist precepts, [The Austin School has] committed to strategies of simultaneous struggle for justice against all forms of social hierarchy.”30 Therefore it would seem that Black women and their contributions to Black identity would make them the faces and the blueprint of contemporary Blackness, yet Black female contributions and a lot of aspects of their feminity have gone unacknowledged for far too long.
29 Gordon, Edmund. “The Austin School Manifesto: An Approach to the Black of African Diaspora,” March 2007, p. 93
30 Gordon, Edmund. 2007, p. 93
Part Three: Blackness in the Physical
Section One: Reflecting Identity in Art
Before I delve into where we find contemporary states of Blackness in fashion–both throughout history and now–it’s necessary to briefly explore where aspects of Post-Blackness and contemporary Blackness show up in other mediums of art, that in turn influence and interact with fashion and physical selfexpression. Like Oscar Wilde wrote in his essay, “The Decay of Lying,” “Life imitates art far more than art imitates life:” Black life reflected the ideals and feelings portrayed in Black art and vice versa.
31 The artists were just as much activists in their everyday lives, helping with social change by being pioneers of Black thought and perspective in literature, challenging systemic injustices in music, and conveying Black struggle and calls to action in visual art. There are two eras in Black history where Black arts and intellectual works experienced significant
31 The Westologist. “Oscar Wilde - Life Imitates Art.”
promotion and emergence: The Harlem Renaissance in the 1910s to late 1930s and the Black Arts Movement in the late 60s and early 70s. The Black art social movements overlapped with the broader liberation and social justice initiatives of the time and directly reflected their ideals. My collection primarily draws inspiration from the Harlem Renaissance so I kept the beginning of the century as the focus for this section.
The Harlem Renaissance parallels the New Negro Movement of the early 20th century and the sentiment of a “renewed sense of racial pride [and] cultural self-expression” as a lot of the artwork and literature was also experimenting and contributing to the developing idea of Blackness. But it was also the first era of Black pride and celebration of the developing culture and brought Black creative work to the forefront of American society. Black and white sponsors alike who understood the importance of Black art platformed Black voices to be heard and respected. The art, music, and literature that emerged from the
Harlem Renaissance were not just expressions of creativity; they were bold statements of Black identity and resilience. It was a significant turning point in the recognition and appreciation of Black culture in America.
This period is most well known for its vibrancy of jazz music, which quickly became a symbol of creative defiance and cultural celebration. Musicians like Louis Armstrong and Bessie Smith utilized their musical talent and platform to echo the joys, sorrows, and aspirations of the Black experience. Jazz spaces were often a source of inspiration for Black creatives; Jazz music itself emulates Post-Blackness in the way Jazz “broke the rules -musical and social. It featured improvisation over traditional structure, performer over composer, and black American experience over conventional white sensibilities.”32
32 “Culture Shock: The TV Series and Beyond: The Devil’s Music: 1920’s Jazz.” PBS.
The Harlem Renaissance also generated some of the most influential works of Black literature which are still extremely relevant to this day. Writers such as Langston Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston, and Nella Larson used their literary works to explore and express the complexities, struggles, and joys of Black life. One of Langston Hughes's more famous poems “I, Too” reflects Black identity during this time perfectly. The first part of the poem expresses the discrimination and denial of the speaker’s Black and American in a simplistic yet deeply personal way:
I, too, sing America.
I am the darker brother. They send me to eat in the kitchen When company comes, But I laugh, And eat well, And grow strong.33
33 Hughes, Langston. “I, Too.” Poetry Foundation, 2004. Stanza 1-2
The last three lines of this stanza challenge this discrimination and reflect the resilience of the character. As if Langston is saying ‘I’m making the most of what I’ve got, finding the joys even in my setbacks’ and addresses the strength and courage of Blackness to subvert preconceived notions and the hope of change in the second half of the poem:
Tomorrow, I’ll be at the table When company comes. Nobody’ll dare Say to me, “Eat in the kitchen,” Then.
Besides,
They’ll see how beautiful I am And be ashamed I, too, am America.34
34 Hughes, Langston. “I, Too.” Poetry Foundation, 2004. Stanza 3-4
Hughes's poem vocalizes the resilience many Black Americans had at the turn of the century. There are post-black elements in the author’s refusal to let other’s ideas of who he is dictate himself or his joy. There is persistence and hope in his line, “They’ll see how beautiful I am” to push through adversity and discrimination toward a better future that acknowledges Blackness to be just as beautiful and worthy as Black Americans do.
The acknowledgment of the past and interest in a different and better future is also reflected in visual art during the Renaissance. Often referred to as “the father of Black American art,” Aaron Douglas was a painter and leading artist during the 20s and 30s, he combined modernism and art deco with African art styles to create various murals, paintings, and graphic art for magazines like the NAACP’s The Crisis that all reflect his ideas of Blackness at the time.35 One of his most famous pieces is his four35 Biography. “Aaron Douglas Biography - Paintings, Art & Harlem Renaissance.” Biography, 2021.
mural series “Aspects of Negro Life,” which goes through different periods of Black history to what I can only describe as Douglas’s idea of the Black future, as the last mural is very afro-futurist yet uncertain conclusion. The first panel of the series is “Aspects of Negro Life: The Negro in an African Setting,” the second is “Aspects of Negro Life: From Slavery to Reconstruction,” the third is “Aspects of Negro Life: An Idyll of the Deep South,” and the last panel is “Aspects of Negro Life: Song of the Towers.”
36 In closer examining the second and fourth paintings in Douglas’s series, there are many aspects of both “20th-Century Blackness” and “Post-Blackness” ideals within these paintings.
36 Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, Art and Artifacts Division, The New York Public Library. "Aspects of Negro Life" New York Public Library Digital Collections.
Figure 3. Aspects of Negro Life: From Slavery to Reconstruction
Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, Art and Artifacts Division, The New York Public Library.
While the second panel’s depiction a cotton plantation in the foreground implies that is “Aspect of Negro Life” is focused on the era of slavery, the painting travels through time in an interesting way that– at leat to my understanding– insinuates otherwise. The more into the background you look, the more each detail gets closer to the 20th century in Douglas’s painting. To the
right of the cotton pickers, a man in holding a scroll that is highlighted by the overlay of yellow circles that symbolizes the emancipation of slaves, given the broken chain and the people celebrating behind this figure. Next to him is a man playing the trumpet and it is unclear which level of the foreground he is on so I believe the musician is both reference to the spirituals during slavery and jazz music during Douglas’s time, as both are a crucial form of expression and aspect of Black life. On the left of the painting further in the background are figures that depict the KKK, which were only very prominent in the time period post slavery and during the Reconstutruction era, but Douglas is also referencing his time as the KKK saw a resurgance after the release of the film The Birth of a Nation in 1915.37 In the center, slightly behind the people picking cotton is a man holding a candle or a light, pointing towards the furthest objects in the background: the 37 Getchell, Michelle. “The Reemergence of the KKK .” Khan Academy.
church and another building that looks similar to the skyscrapers
Douglass painted in panel 4 “Song of the Towers.” In figure 4 the element of music is centered in this panel along with an almost indetectable silhouette of the statue of liberty beyond the buildings and the chaos in the foreground that the people are climbing out of; conveying the hope and aspiration of Black people that has withstood time.
Figure 4. Aspects of Negro Life: Song of the Towers
Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, Art and Artifacts Division, The New York Public Library.
In both paintings I’ believe theres an element of Post-Blackness on only in the expression of ideas that aline this Black identity but also in how the paintings themselves subvert expectation; the title implies that each panel is about slavery to recontruction or the towers but the artwork goes beyond that and creates meaning that includes and expands those ideas.
The Black art from the Harlem Renaissance and the Black Arts Movement all give voice to the many aspects of Blackness that are important to the community and influence how Blackness is understood at the time. Examples like “I, Too” and “Aspects of Negro Life” convey the creative strength through hardship that I believe is a key element of Blackness, then and now. And it’s crucial to continue that expression in shaping how we understand Black identity today. An expressive Post-Black identity encompasses Black individuals' diverse experiences, struggles, hopes, and triumphs. It is not a monolithic experience but instead
an ever-evolving spectrum of identities shaped by cultural, societal, and personal factors. This expressive Black identity challenges traditional notions of Blackness, embracing individual differences and expanding definitions to reflect the nuanced and complex realities of the Black experience.
Part Four: Translating and Reshaping Black Fashion
Section One: Blackness of Fashion Past
When it comes to translating identity into fashion, the first thing that comes to mind is often cultural clothing, a specific garment or pattern that is significant to the geographical or ethnic culture. This understanding of fashion identity has expanded slightly to include social or subcultures clothing identity that is centered around the image and lifestyle of primarily teenagers and young adults. Most notable examples include the Harajuku fashion scene in Tokyo, the punk rock scene in the UK, and the only one readily identified as distinctly Black: Hip-Hop fashion or streetwear. Especially between the 1980s and early 2000s, the frequency of subcultures was on the rise, and Hip-hop music– and its subculture– played a large influence in what fashion was associated with the Black identity.
In Rikki Byrd’s 2017 article, “In Search of the Good Life: Toward a Discourse on Reading the Black Body in Hip-hop and
Luxury Fashion,” Byrd interrogates the relationship between hiphop and fashion and what that reflects of the black male identity.38 Byrd argues that contemporary Black male hip-hop artists’ “affinity for luxury fashion” is a presentation of success, the performance of worthiness, and the current desire for luxury clothing is somewhat of a modern-day version of Black Dandyism because it is also “subverting readings of their body.”39 Black Dandyism is the intentional appropriation of classical European or Eurocentric fashion with the incorporation and emphasis on African diasporic aesthetics.
While I agree with this idea that incorporating luxury fashion into the culture of Black hip-hop is a visual protest and subversion of archaic notions of the Black body, Byrd's analysis limits the significance of this example of Black dandyism in the
38 Byrd, Rikki. “In Search of the Good Life: Toward a discourse on reading the black body in hip-hop and luxury fashion.” 2017
39 Byrd, Rikki. 2017, p. 180, p. 182
history of Black fashion movements. ‘New school hip-hop’ is not a display of worthiness because of its use of luxury clothing, it is a display of worthiness despite upward mobility; it maintains the classic and essential elements of blackness and hip-hop.
The 1920s marked the beginning of a significant shift in the representation of Black identity in fashion. During the Harlem Renaissance, Black Americans began to express their identity and culture through fashion, using it as a form of self-expression and resistance. Clothes became a means for Black people to assert their identity, challenge racial stereotypes, and demand recognition in a society that often overlooked and marginalized them.
At this time, dandyism became a significant trend in Black fashion. Black dandies, known for their sophisticated and flamboyant style, used fashion to subvert established norms and redefine Black masculinity. This trend was a direct challenge to the negative racial stereotypes of the time, presenting Black men as sophisticated, stylish, and cultured. It was a means of asserting
their worth and demanding respect in a society that often denied them these.
The 1960s and 1970s saw the emergence of the Black is Beautiful movement, which celebrated Black culture, features, and aesthetics. This era saw the rise of Afro hairstyles, Africaninspired clothing, and the use of fashion to make political statements. Fashion became a platform for Black people to express their pride in their African heritage and reject the Eurocentric beauty standards that had dominated for so long. This movement was a significant step in the development of a distinct Black identity that was not defined by whiteness or European ideals. In the 1980s and 1990s, hip-hop culture had a significant influence on Black fashion. The style associated with hip-hop – baggy jeans, oversized shirts, and bold jewelry – was a stark departure from the mainstream fashion of the time. This style was not just a fashion statement, but also a form of resistance and a way to express Black
identity and culture. Similar to the dandyism of the Harlem Renaissance and the Black is Beautiful movement, hip-hop fashion was a means for Black people to assert their identity, challenge racial stereotypes, and demand recognition in a society that often marginalized them.
These historical moments in Black fashion reflect the evolving notions of Black identity discussed above. They showcase the diversity and complexity of Black identity, challenging the monolithic and limiting notions of Blackness often prevalent in society. From the dandyism of the Harlem
Renaissance to the bold styles of hip-hop culture, Black fashion has continually served as a platform for self-expression, resistance, and the redefinition of Black identity.
Section Two: Blackness of Fashion Present
In the 21st century, we see a new era of Black fashion that continues to challenge and redefine the notions of Blackness. Through their work, contemporary Black fashion designers such as Stella Jean, Virgil Abloh, Kerby Jean-Raymond, Telfar Clemens, and Teni "Tia" Adeola are mapping out the complexities of the Black identity, echoing themes of self-definition, resistance, and diversity that are recurrent throughout this paper.
Stella Jean, an Italian-Haitian designer, uses fashion as a platform to explore her multicultural identity. Her designs blend traditional African prints with European tailoring, challenging the monolithic perceptions of Blackness and celebrating the intersection of different cultures. Her work echoes the sentiments of PostBlackness, offering a broader and more nuanced representation of Black identity.
Virgil Abloh, the artistic director of Louis Vuitton's men's wear collection, is known for breaking boundaries and challenging the status quo. His work, which combines high fashion with streetwear, challenges the elitism often associated with luxury fashion. This aligns with the ideals of 20th-century Blackness, where fashion became a tool for challenging social hierarchies and asserting Black identity. Kerby Jean-Raymond, the founder of Pyer Moss, uses his designs to make powerful statements about the Black experience. His collections often address social issues and challenge systemic racism, reminding us of the activism inherent in the exploration and expression of Blackness. Telfar Clemens, the designer behind the unisex brand Telfar, is reshaping the fashion landscape with his inclusive designs. His work challenges gender norms and promotes equality, reflecting the diversity and complexity of the Black identity.
Teni "Tia" Adeola, the designer behind Slashed by Tia, reimagines Renaissance-era fashion through a modern and diverse lens. Her work, which often features models of various ethnicities, challenges the Eurocentric narratives prevalent in fashion history and celebrates the richness of the Black identity. These designers, through their creative expressions, are not just shaping trends; they are also crafting narratives of Black identity that are as diverse as the community they represent. Their work aligns with the principles of contemporary Blackness and Post-Blackness, challenging the monolithic notions of Blackness and celebrating the individual experiences and realities of Black people. Their designs serve as a testament to the resilience, diversity, and evolution of Black identity, offering a glimpse into the future of Black fashion.
Section Three: Blackness of Fashion Future - Resilient Life Collection
These understandings of Black identity and its expression on the physical body are particularly crucial when creating fashion designs that aim to reflect and celebrate the complexities and nuances of Black identity. With this in mind, I transition to discussing the application and embodiment of the principles of contemporary Blackness in my mini collection of fashion designs. I created sketches for eight looks in total, with garments ranging from gowns to coats, corsets, bodysuits, and bell-bottom pants. Being my first collection and still in the primary stages of designing I chose to keep each sketch monochromatic and let the design elements stand out without the influence of any colors.
Figure ## shows a lineup of all eight looks, not arranged in the order they would be presented on the runway hypothetically but in a way that visually presents this collection and the breadth that it could be expanded to.
Figure ##. Resilient Life Final Eight Sketches
I used various drawing techniques on Procreate to convey the different fabric textures, patterns, and behaviors that I feel represent Black identity in all aspects of fashion; from couture to more readyto-wear items.
Figure ##. Look Four In-Depth Composition
I designed the dress in Figure ## to display Black femininity in an editorial space. the dress references the mermaid silhouette that pays homage to Black Aunties and older women across the diaspora who are always dressed ready to attend the Met Gala, yet with more present-day elements in the bodice and pleating of the skirt. I’ve paired it with a reversible shawl with one side being my take on a suit– inspired by the menswear of the Harlem Renaissance– and the reverse side is a puffer coat–inspired by streetwear. The shawl represents two aspects of Blackness that have been positioned as opposites and aims to challenge that and what our understandings of formal and street really are.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the evolution of Black identity from the 20th century to the contemporary era signifies a shift from a monolithic understanding of Blackness towards a more nuanced and individualistic exploration of Black identity. This shift is evident in various aspects of culture, from literature and music to visual arts and fashion. Black Feminist ideas and Touré’s
Post-Blackness provide a useful framework for understanding the complexities of Black identity in the 21st century. They acknowledge the diverse experiences within the Black community and reject any attempts to confine Black identity within narrow parameters.
As we move forward, it is crucial to continue exploring and celebrating the complexities of Black identity in the realm of fashion. We must acknowledge the diversity within the Black community and recognize the many different ways in which Blackness can be experienced and expressed. This understanding is
especially important for fashion designers who aim to reflect and celebrate Black identity in their work. There are ways to acknowledge and pay homage to elements of previous eras of Black fashion design and styling without stereotyping or confining Blackness in the present day, and I hope I have established a sort of starting point for achieving this. By embracing the principles of contemporary Blackness and Post-Blackness, we can create fashion designs that truly reflect the resilience, diversity, and evolution of Black identity.
Bibliography - Works Cited
Alexander, Ella. “Stella Jean Calls for a Fashion Revolution.” British Vogue, British Vogue, 4 Nov. 2013, www.vogue.co.uk/article/stella-jean-designer-interview.
Bennett, Lerone, Barton, Roland A., & Du Bois, W. E. B. “WHAT’S IN A NAME? Negro vs. Afro-American vs. Black.” ETC: A Review of General Semantics, vol. 26, no. 4, 1969, pp. 399–412. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/42574587.
Biography. “Aaron Douglas Biography - Paintings, Art & Harlem Renaissance.” Biography, June 29, 2021. https://www.biography.com/artists/aaron-douglas.
Bruce, Dickson D. “W. E. B. Du Bois and the Idea of Double Consciousness.” American Literature 64, no. 2 (1992): 299–309. https://doi.org/10.2307/2927837.
Byrd, Rikki. “In Search of the Good Life: Toward a discourse on reading the black body in hip-hop and luxury fashion.” QED: A Journal in GLBTQ Worldmaking, vol. 4, no. 3, 2017, pp. 180–184, https://doi.org/10.14321/qed.4.3.0180.
Campbell, Mary Schmidt. “African American Art in a Post-Black Era.” Abstract. Women & Performance: A Journal of Feminist Theory 17, no. 3 (November 2007): 317–30. https://doi.org/10.1080/07407700701621541.
Cole, Nicki Lisa. “Biography of Patricia Hill Collins, American Sociologist and Feminist.” ThoughtCo, 18 June 2019. www.thoughtco.com/patricia-hill-collins- 3026479.
Connolly, Nathan D. B. “A Black Power Method.” Public Books, 17 June 2020, www.publicbooks.org/a-black-powermethod/.
Getchell, Michelle. “The Reemergence of the KKK .” Khan Academy. Accessed February 18, 2024. https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/us-history/riseto-world-power/1920s-americ a/a/the-reemergence-of-thekkk.
Gordon, Edmund. “The Austin School Manifesto: An Approach to the Black of African Diaspora,” Cultural Dynamic Vol 19, No 1, March 2007, pp. 93 – 97
Hughes, Langston. “I, Too.” Poetry Foundation, 2004. https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/47558/i-too.
Jones, William L. “The Importance of Black Identity to the Black Adolescent.” Journal of Black Studies 4, no. 1 (1973): 81–91. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2783681.
Lackey, Alesha. “The Fallacy of The Strong Black Woman.” Charlotte Mecklenburg Library, May 12, 2021. https://www.cmlibrary.org/blog/fallacy-strong-blackwoman#:~:text=He%20said%2C %20%E2%80%9CThe%20most%20disrespected,quoted% 20quotes%20by%20Malcol m%20X.
Library of Congress. “NAACP: A Century in the Fight for Freedom: The New Negro Movement.” Library of Congress, February 21, 2009.
https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/naacp/the-new-negromovement.html#:~:text=These%20f
orces%20converged%20to%20help,law%20that%20would %20prohibit%20lynching.
Library of Congress. “The Civil Rights Act of 1964: A Long Struggle for Freedom: The Segregation Era (1900–1939).” Library of Congress, October 10, 2014. https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/civil-rights-act/segregationera.html.
NAACP. “Our History.” NAACP, May 11, 2021. https://naacp.org/about/ourhistory#:~:text=On%20February%2012%2C%201909%2C %20the,civil%20rights%20organization%20was%20born.
PBS. “Culture Shock: The TV Series and Beyond: The Devil’s Music: 1920’s Jazz.” PBS. Accessed April 4, 2024. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/cultureshock/beyond/jazz.html.
Robinson, Dean E. "“The Black Family” and US Social Policy: Moynihan’s Unintended Legacy?", Revue française d’études américaines, vol. 97, no. 3, 2003, pp. 118-128. https://doi.org/10.3917/rfea.097.0118.
Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, Art and Artifacts Division, The New York Public Library. "Aspects of Negro Life" New York Public Library Digital Collections. Accessed February 18, 2024. https://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/634ad849-7832309e-e040-e00a180639bb.
Smith, Tom W. “Changing Racial Labels: From ‘Colored’ to ‘Negro’ to ‘Black’ to ‘African American.’” The Public Opinion Quarterly, vol. 56, no. 4, 1992, pp. 496–514. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/2749204.
T. J. LeMelle. “The Ideology of Blackness: African-American Style.” Africa Today, vol. 14, no. 6, 1967, pp. 2–4. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/4184839.
The Westologist. “Oscar Wilde - Life Imitates Art.” The Westologist. Accessed April 12, 2024. https://www.thewestologist.com/ideas/when-life-imitatesart.
Touré. Who’s Afraid of Post-Blackness?: What It Means to Be Black Now. New York: Atria Books, 2014. https://search-ebscohostcom.ezproxy.bu.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=nlebk&A N=1 959210&site=bsi-live&scope=site.
