Dominick Ramirez
Senior Thesis | 2024
A Philosophical Approach on International Relations
Dominick Ramirez
Ms. Brown
January 19, 2024
Abstract
My thesis critically examines the Realist perspective in international relations through the lens of the Russo-Ukrainian war and historical precedents, notably the Melian Dialogue and the collapse of the Soviet Union. I argue that Realism's focus on power dynamics and state self-interest neglects the profound impact of internal politics, moral principles, and the role of ideologies beyond mere survival. By analyzing instances where Realist predictions faltered, such as the unexpected dissolution of the Soviet Union and the nuanced internal politics of the United States, the paper highlights the theory's limitations in accounting for the complexities of international relations. Ultimately, I call for a reassessment of Realism, which remains a prevalent idea in the political space, and for political thinkers to support instead a more nuanced approach that incorporates internal political dynamics and ethical considerations into understanding global affairs.
On February 24, 2022, Russian Armies crossed the Ukrainian border, escalating the Russo-Ukrainian war, which started in 2014, to become the largest war since the Second World War. Due to this catastrophe, many political thinkers put their opinions onto the war, some taking Realist and Idealist views. This paper is to describe and critique these views, not only for the RussoUkrainian war, but beyond.
Realism is a political philosophy, a school of thought that emphasizes that the world exists in a state of anarchy propagated by self-interested nation states, all in a competition with each other to achieve more power.1 Building on the Machiavellian thought of human nature, it being fickle, false, cowardly, covetous, and ungrateful,2 which builds the Realist notion that the world exists in a state of anarchy, which is avoided by a central authority, meaning that things such as moral codes or an idea of universal justice does not actually exist. Thus, the Realist “ideology” states that states are rational actors trying to achieve power through security in order to
1 Devetak, Richard, ed. (2012). An introduction to international relations (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 36–41.
2 Jahn, Beate, ed. (2006). Classical theory in international relations. Cambridge studies in international relations. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press. p. 7.
preserve themselves. Ideally for a Realist, the strongest powers, weather militarily or otherwise, will eventually become global powers, maintaining a balance of power which through its own emphasization of competition and conflict will create a balance of powers where two or more countries cannot overcome each other and thus are locked in a perpetual state of conflict, creating a state of peace through conflict. An example of this was the state of affairs that existed in the lead up to the Great War or the perpetual war in George Orwell’s book, 1984, creating a perpetual peace.3 This is the core of what Realists believe in, but you may ask what my criticism of it is.
I think Realists, such as Machiavelli, disregard ideals such as personal justice and freedom due to their beliefs.4 Not only are these notions things I hold dear, but also something that leaders and people believe in. Often, Realists disregard personal beliefs and internal politics because they as mentioned earlier that every country
3 Devetak, Richard, ed. (2012). An introduction to international relations (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 36–41.
4 Leo Strauss, Thoughts on Machiavelli (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978)
reacts the same to every situation in order to succeed which obviously is not true. One example in recent history is the Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan5 and the US invasion of Afghanistan.6 Both on the surface are similar but only when disregarding the methods and the internal politics of those areas. Especially in the case of the collapse of the Soviet Union, the Soviet Union being an entity Realist tied much of their credibility too.7 After the collapse of that major Realist push that existed during the cold war era, many modern Realists started to talk about more recent conflicts like the Russo-Ukrainian War. However, I think we should start off with one of the earliest examples of realism, that of the Melian Dialogue, as it describes both Realism and its counterpoint, idealism.
5 Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Soviet invasion of Afghanistan." Encyclopedia Britannica, December 25, 2023. https://www.britannica.com/event/Soviet-invasion-of-Afghanistan.
6 Witte, G.. "Afghanistan War." Encyclopedia Britannica, December 4, 2023. https://www.britannica.com/event/Afghanistan-War.
7 Buckley, Michael. “Political Constructivism.” Internet encyclopedia of philosophy. Accessed January 16, 2024. https://iep.utm.edu/politicalconstructivism/#:~:text=The%20term%20“constructivism”%20is%2 0still,approach%20to%20normative%20political%20theory.
Understanding the Melian Dialogue
The Melian Dialogue, etched in the annals of history by Thucydides, profoundly explores the ideological chasm between Realism and Idealism in international relations. As we analyze this pivotal moment deeper, we unravel the intricate details of the Melian dialogue, not only in the Realists/Athenian perspective but also from the Melian/Idealist viewpoint.
The Melian dialogue took place during the Peloponnesian war, where the neutral island of Melios came under siege by the Athenians, who were seeking to strengthen their position, leading to a philosophical conversation on the nature of politics. The Athenians reason that the strong must rule and the weak must submit, whilst the Melians argued their position based on justice and morality, ultimately the Meilians were destroyed but Athens lost the war. In the realm of Realism, the Athenians' actions resonate with the core tenets of this perspective. Realism posits that the world exists in anarchy, where self-interested nation-states compete relentlessly for power. The Athenians' demand for the submission of Melos becomes a manifestation of Realist principles,
emphasizing power accumulation and self-preservation. The deployment of overwhelming military force underscores the Realist belief in the centrality of strength in international affairs.8 This can be paired with the Machiavellian view of human nature as fickle, false, cowardly, covetous, and ungrateful a foundational premise of Realism, in this case the greedy/covetous of the Athenians masked by their own justifications. The Athenians, driven by this understanding of human nature, operate within the framework of power politics, dismissing notions of universal justice or moral codes spouted by the Melians.9 The rejection of the Melians' plea for neutrality exemplifies the Realist contention that states act as rational actors pursuing their interests without regard for moral considerations.
The Melians, on the other hand, embody Idealist values, advocating for moral legitimacy and the right to remain neutral.10 Their appeal to the law of nations and the principles of fairness
8 “Thucydides. History of the Peloponnesian War Translated by Rex Warner, Penguin Classics, 1963.
9 Thucydides. History of the Peloponnesian War. Translated by Rex Warner, Penguin Classics, 1963.
10 Thucydides. History of the Peloponnesian War. Translated by Rex Warner, Penguin Classics, 1963.
starkly contrasts the Realist emphasis on self-interest and power accumulation. The Melians' argument reflects Idealism's core belief in justice, cooperation, and the pursuit of common good in international relations.11 Bringing personal Idealist values into the discourse, one could assert that the Athenians may have set the stage for their demise by dismissing the Melians' plea and prioritizing power. Idealism contends that cooperation and respect for the autonomy of other states contribute to a stable and just international order. According to an Idealist perspective, the Athenians' rejection of these principles undermines their moral standing and could contribute to a future where trust among states disintegrates.
Allowing my own personal values into the discussion, one might assert that the Athenians may have sown the seeds of their own downfall by neglecting the moral legitimacy of their actions.
Cooperation and respect for the autonomy of other states, hallmarks of Idealism, could have fostered goodwill and stability in the Greek 11 Sprigge, T. 1998, 'Idealism' In: Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Taylor and Francis, viewed 15 January 2024, https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/idealism/v-1.
world. According to Idealist values, rejecting these principles diminishes the Athenians' moral standing and risks creating an environment of distrust among other states. The Melian Dialogue becomes crucial to understand power politics and ethical considerations in international relations when viewed through Realism and ideology. While providing a pragmatic lens, Realism's focus on self-interest and the pursuit of power is critiqued by ideology for potentially undermining the enduring strength of ethical values. The clash between Realism and Idealism, as exemplified in the Melian Dialogue, resonates with broader debates about the balance between power and morality on the global stage.
This can also be seen with the eventual collapse of the Athenian Empire, partially due to its imperialism approach as seen with Melios. As we reflect on this probable historical event, let us move onto the effects of internal politics on nations, which will discuss the fall of the Soviet Union and how internal politics matter.
The Collapse of the Eternal Foe
The collapse of the Soviet Union marked a seismic shift in global geopolitics, challenging the tenets of Realism and giving rise to a more nuanced understanding of international relations. Realists thought of the Soviet Union as the eternal counterbalance to the United States of America, with Henry Kissinger stating, “But none of us, neither Nixon nor I nor any of the Soviet advisors we consulted, ever spoke of the disintegration of the Soviet Union.”12 Since Realism inherently relies on the previously mentioned “Poker Game Dynamic”, Realists saw the Soviet Union as one of the players to counteract the US and China, and as such never believed in its collapse. The internal conflicts that precipitated the dissolution of the Soviet Union presented a complex tapestry that Realism struggled to capture fully. In this context, the Melian Dialogue is an illuminating framework for exploring the interplay between Realism and Constructivism in interpreting the events
12 Kissinger, Henry. “Discussion of the Collapse of the Soviet Union.” United States Office of the Historian, 2007.
leading to the end of the Cold War. Realism, anchored in pursuing state interests and power dynamics, faced a formidable challenge in comprehending the multifaceted factors contributing to the Soviet Union's disintegration. This is mainly because Realists believe that internal Politics don’t truly affect a nation, as nations are inherently focused on self preservation as mentioned before and thus will act similarly, rendering internal Politics redundant. Which is why Realists struggle with the fact that the collapse of the Soviet Union wasn't solely a result of external pressures or geopolitical shifts, but was instead tied to internal dynamics – a realm where Realism often falls short in its explanatory power.13
The rise of nationalism within the Soviet bloc provides and its collapse will serve as a case study. Realism's emphasis on states as rational actors pursuing self-interest struggles to capture the emotional and identity-driven elements that fueled nationalist movements. The Melian ideals, with their focus on morality and
13 Wohlforth, William C. “Realism and the End of the Cold War.” International Security 19, no. 3 (1994): 91–129. https://doi.org/10.2307/2539080.
justice, become pertinent in evaluating the ethical dimensions of these internal struggles. The eventual collapse of the Soviet Union led to the rise of Constructivism, which started after establishment Realists were discredited due to the aforementioned collapse. Constructivism says rather than self preservation, states are shaped by social constructs, such as norms and identities, including personal morals.14 The internal conflicts within the Soviet Union were not mere power plays; they were deeply rooted in historical legacies, cultural differences, and societal changes. Constructivism's ability to account for these intricate dynamics provides a more holistic understanding of the Soviet Union's collapse.15
Moreover, the Soviet Union's internal conflicts were not confined to nationalism alone. Economic turmoil and regional autonomy movements further destabilized the Soviet bloc. With its tendency to overlook internal factors, Realism struggled to
14 Theys, Sarina. “Introducing Constructivism in International Relations Theory.” E, August 5, 2018. https://www.e-ir.info/2018/02/23/introducing-constructivismin-international-relations-theory/.
15 Wohlforth, William C. “Realism and the End of the Cold War.” International Security 19, no. 3 (1994): 91–129. https://doi.org/10.2307/2539080.
encapsulate the economic intricacies and regional dynamics that played a pivotal role. The Melian ideals of justice extend beyond the geopolitical realm to encompass economic and social justice, aligning with Constructivism's broader analytical scope.16 This can be seen further with the collapsing Soviet Union, in many ways mirroring the collapse of the Athenian Empire. The greed of the imperialist Soviet led to the exploitation of lands and the attempted Russification of the many cultures and peoples that inhabited the Soviet Empire. This greed led to hatred against the Soviet Union and increasing nationalism, which eventually led to its demise.
As the Soviet Union disintegrated, the post-Cold War era ushered in new actors and complexities.17 The European Union and the United Nations, often viewed through a realist lens as mechanisms for balancing power, also embodied elements of Constructivism. These institutions, driven by shared values and
16 Milestones: 1989–1992 - Office of the Historian. (n.d.). https://history.state.gov/milestones/1989-1992/collapse-soviet-union
17 Milestones: 1989–1992 - Office of the Historian. (n.d.). https://history.state.gov/milestones/1989-1992/collapse-soviet-union
collective consciousness, demonstrated that ideas and cooperation could coexist with power struggles. The Melian Dialogue's emphasis on justice and morality becomes a guiding principle in evaluating the evolving landscape of international relations.
The clash between Realism and Constructivism in the context of the Soviet Union's collapse provides us with a glimpse into the failures of Realism. The internal conflicts within the Soviet Union serve as a microcosm of this more extensive theoretical debate. Constructivism, with its ability to navigate the complexities of ideas, societal influences, and historical legacies, emerges as a more accurate framework for understanding the events that led to the Soviet Union's dissolution. The clash between Realism and Constructivism played out on the world stage during this transformative period, underscoring the ongoing evolution of international relations theory and urging scholars to reassess and refine their theoretical frameworks in response to dynamic historical realities.
The collapse of the Soviet Union serves as a poignant
example of how internal political development can shape a nation's trajectory on the global stage. However, this lesson is not confined to only historical events; it resonates with contemporary instances, such as the ongoing debates about polarization within the United States. Realism often downplays the significance of internal dynamics as a political philosophy, emphasizing external power struggles. Yet, the current state of U.S. internal politics challenges this Realist perspective.
The Domestic Situation in the United States of America
Examining the internal politics of the United States, particularly the issue of polarization, we find a nuanced interplay between domestic affairs and international implications. Rachel Kleinfeld's article on U.S. polarization sheds light on the multifaceted nature of this phenomenon. Realists might argue that polarization is merely a byproduct of power struggles and shifts in the global order, asserting that internal political dynamics are secondary to external factors. However, a closer look at the facts presented in Kleinfeld's article reveals that the roots of polarization
extend deep into the internal fabric of American society. The misperception of ideological polarization among politically engaged citizens highlights the emotional and identity-based nature of the issue. This challenges the Realist notion that such internal sentiments are secondary to external power dynamics. The internal divisions within the U.S. population, particularly on critical issues like gun control and racial matters, reflect the intricate interplay between domestic politics and global perceptions.
The evolving nature of political ideologies within the U.S., with Democrats and Republicans both, at least verbally, moving significantly away from each other in their doctrines. Mirrors are the internal ideological transformations that can dramatically influence a nation's foreign policy stance. This contradicts the simplistic Realist view that nations act solely based on self-interest and external power dynamics. The article also introduces the idea of affective polarization, emphasizing emotional dislikes based on identity. This emotional dimension challenges Realism's often
detached and rational view of state behavior. It suggests that internal emotional dynamics, rooted in identity and values, can affect a nation's international standing. The debate on U.S. polarization provides a contemporary lens through which we can reassess the Realist perspective on the insignificance of internal political development. The intricate connections between domestic politics, public sentiments, and international implications underscore the need to acknowledge the role of internal dynamics in shaping a nation's behavior on the global stage. Just as the collapse of the Soviet Union highlighted the importance of internal political health, the U.S. polarization discourse challenges Realism by revealing the intricate dance between internal politics and international relations.
Exploring how internal conflicts and divisions impact the United States' foreign policy decisions is essential to delve deeper into the complexities. The internal strife surrounding issues like gun control and racial inequality not only reflects societal divisions but also shapes the narrative that the nation presents to the world. As
the U.S. grapples with these internal challenges, it becomes a testing ground for the resilience of democratic institutions and their ability to address pressing issues.
Internal divisions can manifest differently, influencing the nation's approach to international relations. The misalignment between public sentiments and official foreign policy decisions can create domestic and international tensions. Realists might argue that the pursuit of power on the global stage is divorced from internal conflicts, but the U.S. experience suggests otherwise.
From a historical perspective, the internal conflicts that led to the Civil Rights Movement had profound implications for how the United States was perceived globally. The struggle for racial equality symbolized the nation's commitment to its ideals, influencing diplomatic relations and alliances. This historical precedent challenges Realism's assertion that internal affairs are inconsequential in the grand scheme of international politics. Furthermore, the emergence of affective polarization introduces a psychological dimension to the discourse.
Emotions and identity-based dislikes can become powerful drivers of political behavior, both domestically and in foreign policy. This challenges the Realist assumption that states act solely based on a rational calculation of interests. The emotional undercurrents within a society influence the tone and tenor of diplomatic engagements, potentially impacting the nation's standing in the global arena.18
While Realism emphasizes the role of power and selfinterest in shaping international relations, the U.S. experience suggests that a nation's internal health is intertwined with its external posture. The collapse of the Soviet Union demonstrated that internal weaknesses could precipitate geopolitical shifts, and the ongoing polarization debates in the U.S. echo this sentiment. The nation's internal conflicts are not mere distractions from global power plays; they are integral to shaping the narrative and identity that a country presents to the world. Moreover, as the United States 18 Hounshell, Blake. 2022. “Measuring America’s Divide: ‘It’s Gotten Worse.’” The New York Times, July 27, 2022, sec. U.S. https://www.nytimes.com/2022/07/27/us/politics/vanderbilt-unity-index.html.
grapples with the challenges of the twenty-first century, including technological advancements and evolving geopolitical landscapes, changing population statistics etc., its internal political dynamics become even more critical. Issues such as cybersecurity, economic inequalities, and climate change necessitate a cohesive and informed domestic front to navigate the complexities of the global stage effectively. Constructivism offers an alternative perspective that aligns with the notion that internal dynamics matter.
Constructivists argue that ideas, norms, and shared beliefs are pivotal in shaping a nation's behavior in international relations. The U.S. internal debates on climate change or human rights reflect the clash of ideas within the society, and these debates can influence the nation's stance on the global stage.19
Constructivism posits that a society's shared understanding of norms and values can impact its foreign policy decisions. If the 19 Kleinfeld, Rachel. 2023. “Polarization, Democracy, and Political Violence in the United States: What the Research Says.” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. September 5, 2023. https://carnegieendowment.org/2023/09/05/polarization-democracy-and-politicalviolence-in-uni ted-states-what-research-says-pub-90457.
United States experiences a shift in societal attitudes towards issues such as human rights or environmental sustainability, it could lead to a recalibration of its foreign policy priorities. This challenges the Realist assumption that states are driven solely by material interests and power dynamics. To further underscore the relevance of internal dynamics, one must consider the role of democracy in shaping a nation's international conduct. Democracies are often viewed as more transparent and accountable, with internal debates and public opinions influencing foreign policy decisions. Therefore, the U.S. polarization debates become crucial to understanding how democratic values intersect with international relations, but also how it affects nations differently, as seen with the pushback with recent Russian protests, nations don’t always act the same when put under civilian scrutiny and pressure. This then affects the policy of that nation, even if it is detrimental to other allies but rather to uphold civilian morality.
The discourse on U.S. polarization challenges Realism's assertion that internal politics are secondary to external power
struggles and aligns with Constructivism's emphasis on the role of ideas and norms. The intricate dance between internal dynamics and international relations is evident in the nation's historical experiences and struggles. As the United States navigates the complexities of the twenty-first century, internal debates and conflicts will continue to shape its global posture. The collapse of the Soviet Union serves as a stark reminder that a nation's internal health is inseparable from its standing in the international arena, and the ongoing polarization debates reinforce the interconnectedness of domestic and global affairs.
The Modern War
The Russo-Ukrainian war stands at the crossroads of international relations, providing a poignant backdrop for the ongoing discourse between realist and idealist perspectives. Realists, epitomized by figures like Henry Kissinger, interpret the Russo-Ukrainian conflict through the prism of great-power politics. From this vantage point, the war is perceived as a manifestation of Russia's strategic concerns about losing influence in its traditional
sphere. The collapse of the Soviet Union and NATO expansion are viewed as challenges prompting Moscow's military intervention in Ukraine. This realist perspective prioritizes state survival and security in an anarchic international system where power dynamics are pivotal.
However, critics argue that the realist lens oversimplifies the conflict's multidimensional nature. The Russo-Ukrainian war is not solely a result of strategic calculations. Still, it is deeply intertwined with questions of national identity, self-determination, and the pursuit of democratic values by the Ukrainian people. Idealists contend that emphasizing shared values, human rights, and international cooperation is crucial in addressing the root causes of the conflict and fostering a just and sustainable global order.
Drawing a parallel with historical events, we can look back to the Melian Dialogue In this dialogue. "The strong do what they will; the weak suffer what they must," echoes the Thucydidean realism that remains influential in contemporary international relations. Despite the differences in context and scale, similarities
emerge between the Melian Dialogue and the Russo-Ukrainian conflict. In both instances, powerful states sought to assert dominance and shape the geopolitical landscape according to their interests.
Ukrainian Foreign Minister Dmytro Kuleba's perspective adds nuance to the discourse, providing insights into the nuanced realities of the conflict. Kuleba's reflections highlight the challenges that Ukraine and its people face, emphasizing the importance of international solidarity in confronting aggression. His perspective aligns with the idealist stance, emphasizing the significance of shared values and collective action in addressing global challenges. While Henry Kissinger's realist perspective acknowledges the strategic balance among global powers, it faces criticism for potentially overlooking the conflict's human cost and ethical dimensions. Critics argue that realpolitik, exemplified by Kissinger, may fail to capture the transformative potential of societal changes and people's determination to shape their destinies, and even the
basic will of people to fight for their freedom.20
Idealists propose an alternative approach, advocating for diplomacy and dialogue and promoting democratic values to address the Russo-Ukrainian war. They stress the importance of international cooperation, humanitarian assistance, and empowering nations to choose their destinies without external coercion. From this standpoint, the conflict is not merely a geopolitical chess game but a test of the international community's commitment to shared values.21 Expanding on the discourse surrounding the RussoUkrainian war demands a deeper exploration of the consequences and potential pathways forward. From a realist standpoint, focusing on power dynamics and strategic considerations may lead to a pragmatic understanding of state behavior. Yet, the repercussions of such realpolitik approaches manifest in the suffering of civilians,
20 Coalson, Robert. 2023. “The Evolution of Henry Kissinger’s Views on Russia and Ukraine.” Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, November 30, 2023, sec. Features. https://www.rferl.org/a/henry-kissinger-evolution-views-russia-ukraine-obituary/327 08682.html.
21 DWB. 2022. “On the Battlefields of Ukraine, Idealism Is Laying Waste to Realism.” Democracy without Borders. April 27, 2022. https://www.democracywithoutborders.org/22727/on-the-battlefields-of-ukraineidealism-is-layi ng-waste-to-realism/.
displacement, and geopolitical tensions reverberating globally. In the contemporary context, the Russo-Ukrainian conflict unfolds against a world interconnected by technology, information, and a growing emphasis on human rights. The ongoing humanitarian crisis in Ukraine underscores the urgency of a more holistic approach that combines strategic thinking with a genuine commitment to human well-being. Along with the war backfiring against Russia, with the global response leading to the expansion of NATO, being the exact thing that Russia wanted to prevent with the invasion of Ukraine.
Increasingly it becomes evident that more than power politics is needed to guarantee long-term stability or sustainable solutions. The Athenians' dominance over Melos did not prevent the eventual downfall of Athens in the broader Peloponnesian War. This historical parallel raises questions about the effectiveness of coercion and dominance in shaping enduring geopolitical outcomes. The international community's response to the Russo-Ukrainian war becomes a crucial point of contention between realists and idealists.
The sanctions imposed on Russia reflect a pragmatic attempt to alter its behavior through economic pressure. However, idealists argue that a more comprehensive strategy is needed, one that combines punitive measures with diplomatic efforts, humanitarian aid, and a commitment to upholding international law.22
Ukrainian Foreign Minister Dmytro Kuleba's call for international solidarity and support aligns with the idealist perspective, emphasizing the collective responsibility of nations to stand against aggression. Kuleba's plea resonates with the broader human rights discourse that transcends state borders and underscores the interconnectedness of the global community.
Returning to Henry Kissinger's realist stance, his acknowledgment of the evolving situation and the altered geopolitical landscape signifies a potential opening for a more nuanced approach. The complexities of the Russo-Ukrainian conflict may necessitate a recalibration of realist strategies, incorporating elements of idealism
22 Latham, Andrew. 2022. “How the Ukraine War Vindicates Realism.” The Hill. September 15, 2022.
to address the war's ethical dimensions and human costs.23
The Russo-Ukrainian war is a crucible for testing the efficacy of competing international relations paradigms. The Melian Dialogue's echoes in contemporary geopolitics prompt a reflection on the enduring nature of power struggles and their limitations. As the conflict unfolds, a synthesis of realist pragmatism and idealist principles may offer a more comprehensive and practical approach to navigating the complexities of the Russo-Ukrainian war. The international community's ability to transcend traditional power politics and prioritize human well-being will determine the path toward a just and sustainable global order.
Ending
In the tapestry of global politics, various philosophies have emerged to grapple with the world's complexities and conflicts. Realism, a significant school of thought, posits a world in perpetual 23 The New York Times. 2022. “Full Transcript of Zelensky’s Speech before Congress,” December 22, 2022, sec. U.S. https://www.nytimes.com/2022/12/21/us/politics/zelensky-speechtranscript.html#:~:text=We%2 0stand%2C%20we%20fight%20and.
anarchy shaped by self-interested nation-states vying for power.
Rooted in Machiavellian principles depicting human nature as erratic and self-serving, Realism dismisses the existence of universal justice or moral codes in the international arena. Instead, it envisions states as rational actors pursuing power through security for self-preservation. The Realist ideal of achieving a global balance of power through competition and conflict, fostering a state of perpetual peace, has historical echoes in events like the lead-up to the Great War or the perpetual war depicted in George Orwell's “1984.” However, my critique of Realism stems from its tendency, exemplified by thinkers like Machiavelli, to disregard ideals such as personal justice and freedom. These are values that I, along with many others, hold dear and believe to be essential. Realists often oversimplify by assuming that every country reacts uniformly to situations for success, neglecting the nuanced internal politics and diverse responses that nations exhibit. A case in point is the contrasting approaches of the Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan and the U.S. invasion, which, while appearing similar on the surface,
reveal stark differences when considering the methods and internal politics of each. The collapse of the Soviet Union, a cornerstone for Realist credibility during the Cold War, further highlights the limitations of applying a uniform Realist framework to diverse geopolitical scenarios.
As the Cold War era waned, contemporary Realists shifted their focus to more recent conflicts like the Russo-Ukrainian War. However, I propose revisiting one of the earliest examples of Realism, the Melian Dialogue, which encapsulates the essence of Realism and its counterpoint, Idealism. In essence, the Melian Dialogue, documented by Thucydides, serves as a microcosm of the perennial debate between Realism and Idealism in international relations. The Athenians' pursuit of power and their dismissive stance towards moral considerations aligns with the core tenets of Realism, mirroring power dynamics in the international system. The refusal to acknowledge the Melians' plea for neutrality reflects the Realist contention that states act as rational actors prioritizing selfinterest over moral values. In contrast, the Melians embody Idealist
values, advocating for moral legitimacy and the right to remain neutral. Their plea based on the law of nations and principles of fairness starkly contrasts Realism's emphasis on power accumulation and self-preservation. This clash between Realism and Idealism, epitomized in the Melian Dialogue, and the RussoUkrainian war, resurfaces in historical and contemporary contexts, challenging the adequacy of a purely Realist framework in interpreting the multifaceted dynamics of global affairs. As Realism inevitably begins to decay as an ideology, perhaps there's still hope for the world to find its replacement political thoughts in Idealism and Constructivism.
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Witte, G.. "Afghanistan War." Encyclopedia Britannica, December 4, 2023.
https://www.britannica.com/event/Afghanistan-War.
The "Afghanistan War" article by G. Witte offers an insightful and thorough examination of the conflict in Afghanistan that began in 2001. This entry provides a detailed narrative of the war's origins, following the September 11 attacks in the United States and the subsequent U.S.-led invasion aimed at dismantling the Taliban regime and eliminating the al-Qaeda network. Witte's article covers the complex series of events that unfolded over two decades, highlighting key military actions, political developments, and the involvement of international forces under the NATO banner. The piece also discusses the challenges of nation-building, counterinsurgency, and efforts to establish stability and governance in Afghanistan. It also addresses the human costs, including civilian casualties and the impact on Afghan society.
Buckley, Michael. “Political Constructivism.” Internet encyclopedia of philosophy. Accessed January 16, 2024.
In "Political Constructivism," by Michael Buckley and featured in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, the concept of constructivism within political theory is meticulously explored. This article delves into the foundational aspects of political constructivism, a philosophical approach that examines how political and social realities are constructed through interactions and the shared understandings of individuals and groups. Buckley articulates the nuances of constructivism, distinguishing it from other theoretical frameworks by emphasizing its focus on the social and constructed nature of political norms, values, and structures rather than seeing them as purely objective or given. This resource is a critical starting point for scholars and students interested in the intersections between philosophy, politics, and social theory, offering a comprehensive overview of political constructivism's role and relevance in contemporary normative political theory.
“Thucydides. History of the Peloponnesian War. Translated by Rex Warner, Penguin Classics, 1963.
"History of the Peloponnesian War," translated by Rex Warner and authored by Thucydides, is a seminal work in classical literature and historical writing. This ancient text chronicles the conflict between the Athenian Empire and Sparta and their respective allies, known as the Peloponnesian War, during the 5th century BC. Thucydides provides a detailed and insightful account of the political, military, and social dynamics that led to the outbreak of war and shaped its course. His narrative skillfully navigates the complexities of power politics, diplomacy, and human nature, offering timeless lessons on the nature of conflict, leadership, and the pursuit of power. "History of the Peloponnesian War" remains essential for scholars, historians, and anyone interested in understanding the complexities of ancient Greek history and its enduring lessons for contemporary politics and international relations.
Sprigge, T. 1998, 'Idealism' In: Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Taylor and Francis, viewed 15 January 2024, https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/idealis m/v-1.
"Idealism," by T. Sprigge and featured in the Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, provides a comprehensive overview of the philosophical perspective of idealism. It delves into the fundamental principles of idealism, a philosophical tradition emphasizing the primacy of ideas, mind, or consciousness in shaping reality. Sprigge explains the historical development of idealism, tracing its roots from ancient Greek philosophy through its various embodiments in modern and contemporary thought. The article examines critical concepts within idealism, such as the nature of reality, perception, and the relationship between the individual mind and the external world. Additionally, it explores the diverse interpretations and critiques of idealism put forth by philosophers across different eras and intellectual traditions.
Kissinger, Henry. “Discussion of the Collapse of the Soviet Union.” United States Office of the Historian, 2007.
In "Discussion of the Collapse of the Soviet Union," Henry Kissinger offers insights into the complex events surrounding the dissolution of the Soviet Union. The United States Office of the Historian provides a valuable perspective on the factors and dynamics that led to the collapse of one of the 20th century's most significant superpowers. Kissinger's analysis delves into geopolitical shifts, economic challenges, internal political dynamics, and the role of critical actors, shedding light on the multifaceted causes and consequences of this historic event. As a prominent figure in international relations and diplomacy, Kissinger's commentary offers valuable insights into the broader implications of the Soviet Union's collapse for global politics, security, and the post-Cold War era, especially as a well-known Realist himself.
Wohlforth, William C. “Realism and the End of the Cold War.” International Security 19, no. 3 (1994): 91–129. https://doi.org/10.2307/2539080.
In "Realism and the End of the Cold War," William C.
Wohlforth explores the role of realist theory in understanding the dynamics that led to the conclusion of the Cold War.
Published in the journal International Security in 1994, this article critically examines how realist principles, such as balance of power dynamics and state-centric analysis, elucidate the events and decisions that contributed to the Cold War's resolution. Wohlforth challenges alternative interpretations that emphasize the role of ideological change or the actions of individual leaders, arguing instead that Realist principles provide a more comprehensive framework for understanding the behavior of states during this pivotal period, even though the Realist principles thought the Soviet Union would continue independently. Through examining key historical events and diplomatic maneuvers, Wohlforth demonstrates how realist insights shed light on the strategic calculations and power dynamics that ultimately led to the end of
the Cold War, especially after they were discredited due to that collapse.
Theys, Sarina. “Introducing Constructivism in International Relations Theory.” E, August 5, 2018. https://www.eir.info/2018/02/23/introducing-constructivism-ininternational-relations-theory/.
Sarina Theys' article, "Introducing Constructivism in International Relations Theory," offers a comprehensive introduction to constructivism within international relations theory. They provide a clear and accessible overview of constructivist perspectives, emphasizing the role of social constructions, norms, and identities in shaping state behavior and global politics.
Through examples and theoretical insights, the article explains constructivism's core principles and contributions to understanding critical issues in international relations, such as cooperation, conflict, and the emergence of international institutions. It also explores constructivist thought's evolution, its relationship to other theoretical frameworks, and its implications for contemporary debates in the field.
Wohlforth, William C. “Realism and the End of the Cold War.” International Security 19, no. 3 (1994): 91–129. Realism and the End of the Cold War.
In his article "Realism and the End of the Cold War," published in International Security in 1994, William C. Wohlforth examines the role of realist theory in understanding the dynamics that led to the conclusion of the Cold War, Wohlforth challenges alternative interpretations, arguing that realist principles, such as the balance of power dynamics and state-centric analysis, provide a more comprehensive framework for understanding the strategic calculations and power dynamics that ultimately led to the Cold War resolution.
Milestones: 1989–1992 - Office of the Historian. (n.d.). The Collapse of the Soviet Union - 1989-1992 - Milestones
The "Milestones: 1989–1992" section on the Office of the Historian website provides an insightful overview of the pivotal events and factors leading to the collapse of the Soviet Union. Covering economic stagnation, political reform efforts by Mikhail Gorbachev, and the rise of independence movements within the Soviet states, it explains the complex interplay of internal and external pressures that culminated in the dissolution of one of the 20th century's superpowers.
Hounshell, Blake. 2022. “Measuring America’s Divide: ‘It’s Gotten Worse.’” The New York Times, July 27, 2022, sec. U.S.
https://www.nytimes.com/2022/07/27/us/politics/vanderbil t-unity-index.html.
In his article "Measuring America's Divide: 'It is Gotten Worse,'" published in The New York Times on July 27, 2022, Blake Hounshell explores the deepening polarization within American society. Focusing on the Vanderbilt Unity Index, the article examines data and surveys to assess the extent of political, social, and cultural divisions across the United States. Hounshell provides analysis and commentary on the factors contributing to this growing divide, including ideological polarization, partisan politics, and socioeconomic disparities. The article offers insight into American unity's challenges and the implications for governance, public discourse, and national cohesion through interviews and expert perspectives.
Kleinfeld, Rachel. 2023. “Polarization, Democracy, and Political Violence in the United States: What the Research Says.” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. September 5, 2023.
https://carnegieendowment.org/2023/09/05/polarizationdemocracy-and-political-violence-in-united-states-whatresearch-says-pub-90457.
In "Polarization, Democracy, and Political Violence in the United States: What the Research Says," Rachel Kleinfeld, a senior fellow in Carnegie's Democracy, Conflict, and Governance Program, delves into the complexities of polarization within American society. Kleinfeld addresses the ongoing debates surrounding the extent of polarization in the United States, with some scholars warning of imminent civil strife while others argue that polarization is overstated. She examines the various perspectives within the philanthropic world, where some advocate for pluralism and civility, while others embrace activism as a means to drive social change. Kleinfeld's paper aims to answer fundamental questions about the nature, causes, and
consequences of polarization in the United States, offering insights gleaned from scholarly research and empirical evidence.
Coalson, Robert. 2023. “The Evolution of Henry Kissinger’s Views on Russia and Ukraine.” Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, November 30, 2023, sec. Features. The Evolution Of Henry Kissinger's Views On Russia And Ukraine. This article provides a detailed examination of Henry Kissinger's life and diplomatic career, mainly focusing on his perspectives on Russia and Ukraine and the geopolitical dynamics between them. It traces Kissinger's upbringing through the events of the 20th century, his influential role in shaping U.S. foreign policy, and his evolving views on international relations, especially regarding Russia's role as a great power and Ukraine's strategic importance. The article highlights Kissinger's stance on issues such as Crimea, NATO membership for Ukraine, and the ongoing conflict in the region, offering insights into his diplomatic philosophy and its implications for global politics.
DWB. 2022. “On the Battlefields of Ukraine, Idealism Is Laying Waste to Realism.” Democracy without Borders. April 27, 2022. On the battlefields of Ukraine, Idealism is laying waste to Realism.
This article from Democracy without Borders discusses the ongoing conflict in Ukraine, arguing that the unfolding events clearly indicate idealism prevailing over realism. It asserts that the Ukrainian resistance and the international response reflect a significant shift in global political dynamics, where ideals of democracy, sovereignty, and self-determination challenge the traditional realist view of international relations, prioritizing state interests and power dynamics. This piece highlights the broader implications of the Ukraine conflict for global politics, suggesting a reevaluation of how principles and values influence international affairs.
Latham, Andrew. 2022. “How the Ukraine War Vindicates Realism.” The Hill. September 15, 2022.
In "How the Ukraine War Vindicates Realism," Andrew Latham argues that the ongoing conflict in Ukraine validates the principles of realism in international relations; Latham contends that the events unfolding in Ukraine demonstrate the enduring significance of power dynamics and state interests in shaping global politics. He suggests that the actions of key actors, such as Russia's annexation of Crimea and other states' responses, align with the predictions of realist theory, highlighting the centrality of power struggles and strategic calculations in geopolitical affairs. By analyzing the Ukraine war through a realist lens, Latham offers insights into the underlying dynamics driving the conflict and its implications for international relations theory and practice, particularly from a Russian-friendly perspective.