UNDERSTANDING
LEARNING
FLIGHT MANUAL a complete guide to flying a airplane
APPLYING
TABLE OF CONTENTS UNDERSTANDING section 01 the history
page 06
aerodynamics
page 08
LEARNING section 02 the anatomy
page 12
terms of ATC
page 14
how to control
page 16
APPLYING section 03 skills for a career
FLIGHT MANUAL
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01 02 03
The purpose of this manual is to inform you how to operate and fly an airplane.
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section 01
01 UNDERSTANDING section 01
FLIGHT MANUAL
UNDERSTANDING
LEARNING
APPLYING
UNDERSTANDING AN AIRPLANE Most of us only have to look up into the sky to see an airplane, and many of us have traveled by airplane to places that would have taken much longer by any other means of transportation. An airplane by definition is an aircraft that has a fixed wing and is powered by propellers or jets. Human flight has become a tired fact of modern life. At any given moment, roughly 5,000 airplanes crisscross the skies above the United States alone, amounting to an estimated 64 million commercial and private takeoffs every year. Consider the rest of the world’s flight
activity, the grand total is incalculable. It is easy to take the physics of flight for granted, as well as the ways in which we exploit them to achieve flight. We often glimpse a plane in the sky with no greater understanding of the principles involved than a caveman. The core of the matter is this: Even a clear sky isn’t empty. Our atmosphere is a massive fluid layer, and the right application of physics makes it possible for humans to traverse it.
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section 01
UNDERSTANDING THE HISTORY The inventors of the first airplane were Orville and Wilbur Wright. On December 17, 1903, the Wright brothers made the first successful experiment in which a machine (aka airplane) carrying a man rose by its own power, flew naturally and at even speed, and descended without damage. However, before the first airplane was invented by the Wright Brothers, inventors made numerous attempts to make like the birds and fly. Wright Brother’s “Kitty Hawk”
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1891
1894
1905
Leonardo da Vinci studies
Samuel Langle’s realization
Octave Chanute’s breakthrough
Wright Brothers fly for first time
Leonardo da Vinci made the first real studies of flight in the 1480’s. He had over 100 drawings that illustrated his theories on bird and mechanical flight. The drawings illustrated the wings and tails of birds, ideas for man carrying machines, and devices for the testing of wings.
Samuel Langley was physicist and astronomer who realized that power was needed to help man fly. Langley conducted experiments using whirling arms and steam motors. He built a model of a plane, which he called an aerodrome, that included a steam-powered engine. His model flew for 3/4s of a mile before running out of fuel.
Octave Chanute was a successful engineer who undertook the invention of airplanes as a hobby, after being inspired by Otto Lilienthal. Chanute designed several aircraft, the Herring Chanute biplane was his most successful design and formed the basis of the Wright biplane design.
Wilbur and Orville Wright complete the first four sustained flights with a powered, controlled airplane. In 1905 they introduce the Flyer, the world’s first practical airplane. On their best flight of the day, Wilbur covers 852 feet over the ground in 59 seconds.
FLIGHT MANUAL
UNDERSTANDING
LEARNING
APPLYING
“If we all worked on the assumption that what is accepted as true is really true, there would be little hope of advance.”
— Orville Wright
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section 01
UNDERSTANDING AERODYNAMICS lift
thrust
drag
weight
Aerodynamics is the way air moves around things. The rules of aerodynamics explain how an airplane is able to fly. Anything that moves through air reacts to aerodynamics. A rocket blasting off the launch pad and a kite in the sky react to aerodynamics. The four forces of flight are lift, weight, thrust and drag. These forces make an object move up and down, and faster or slower. How much of each force there is changes how the object moves through the air. If you’ve ever watched a jet plane taking off or coming in to land, the first thing you’ll have noticed is the noise of the engines. Jet engines, which are long metal tubes burning a
FLIGHT MANUAL
continuous rush of fuel and air, are far noisier (and far more powerful) than traditional propeller engines. You might think engines are the key to making a plane fly, but you’d be wrong. Things can fly quite happily without engines, as gliders (planes with no engines), paper planes, and indeed gliding birds readily show us. A plane’s engines are designed to move it forward at high speed. That makes air flow rapidly over the wings, which throw the air down toward the ground, generating lift that overcomes the plane’s weight and holds it in the sky. So it’s the engines that move a plane forward, while the wings move it upward.
UNDERSTANDING
LEARNING
APPLYING
Drag
Thrust
Drag is a force that tries to slow something down. It makes it hard for an object to move. It is harder to walk or run through water than through air. That is because water causes more drag than air. The shape of an object also changes the amount of drag. Most round surfaces have less drag than flat ones. Narrow surfaces usually have less drag than wide ones. The more air that hits a surface, the more drag it makes.
Thrust is the force that is the opposite of drag. Thrust is the push that moves something forward. For an aircraft to keep moving forward, it must have more thrust than drag. A small airplane might get its thrust from a propeller. A larger airplane might get its thrust from jet engines. A glider does not have thrust. It can only fly until the drag causes it to slow down and land.
Weight
Lift
Everything on Earth has weight. This force comes from gravity pulling down on objects. To fly, an aircraft needs something to push it in the opposite direction from gravity. The weight of an object controls how strong the push has to be. A kite needs a lot less upward push than a jumbo jet does.
Lift is the push that lets something move up. It is the force that is the opposite of weight. Everything that flies must have lift. For an aircraft to move upward, it must have more lift than weight. A hot air balloon has lift because the hot air inside is lighter than the air around it. Hot air rises and carries the balloon with it. A helicopter’s lift comes from the rotor blades at the top of the helicopter. Their motion through the air moves the helicopter upward. Lift for an airplane comes from its wings.
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section 02
02 LEARNING section 02
FLIGHT MANUAL
UNDERSTANDING
LEARNING
APPLYING
LEARNING AN AIRPLANE This chapter focuses on the flight control systems a pilot uses to control the forces of flight, and the aircraft’s direction and attitude. It should be noted that flight control systems and characteristics can vary greatly depending on the type of aircraft flown. The most basic flight control system designs are mechanical and date back to early aircraft. They operate with a collection of mechanical parts such as rods, cables, pulleys, and sometimes chains to transmit the forces of the flight
deck controls to the control surfaces. Mechanical flight control systems are still used today in small general and sport category aircraft where the aerodynamic forces are not excessive. For additional information on flight control systems, refer to the appropriate handbook for information related to the flight control systems and characteristics of specific types of aircraft. Addition handbooks will likely be provided in most aircrafts, or refer to your instructor.
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section 02
LEARNING THE ANATOMY Inventions large and small have combined over the years to create the modern experience of air travel. And you don’t have to be a frequent flier to know that today’s airliner is still a work in progress: What you see today may not be there tomorrow. Every airplane is different. Unlike learning to drive a car, you can’t just hop from one plane to another. A pilot needs familiarization (and in some cases, a whole new type of license) to fly a different kind of plane. Some are piston-powered; some are jet-powered. Some have electrically-driven controls;
FLIGHT MANUAL
some are hydraulically-driven. Some have emergency oxygen; some don’t. And so on. All the switches, dials, and knobs in the cockpit control the various aircraft systems, and every aircraft has different systems. However, a good majority of airplanes do follow the same basic layout. Complexity and levels of information that need to simultaneously be processed may differentiate through different airplane types, but the general layout will stay consistent throughout.
UNDERSTANDING
LEARNING
C
D
APPLYING
E
F G
B
N
A
H
A: Throttle Levels
B: Primary Display
C: Direction Finder
Sets the desired power level. The throttle controls the mass flow-rate of air.
Shows primary flight information; built around an LCD or CRT display device.
Works much like compas; determines direction in which airplane is flying.
D: Altitude Indicator
E: Systems Information
F: Navigation Controls
Shows level of altitude airplane is at; helps maintain sustainable level.
Shows information for numerous tasks; generally dispalces thrust level and communications.
Uses gravity to drive a display which shows the direction of the beacon from the aircraft
G: Radar Display
H: Control Wheel (Yoke)
Shows incoming objects in airspace along with other aircrafts in the area.
Main source of control, used to determine altitude level of aircraft.
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section 02
LEARNING TERMS OF ATC There is an art to using the right words when you communicate with air traffic control (ATC). Effective aviation phraseology combines brevity with the transfer of complete and correct information. Long, detailed transmissions ensure the controller receives the needed information, but these monologues also tie up the frequency. If the controller is working five other airplanes and needs to issue timely control instructions, he can’t do it until you release the microphone button. This delay may affect the safety of the other airplanes. So how do you learn the right mix? The same way you learn other aviation skills—study and practice. The Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM) is the best reference for learning good ATC communication skills and phraseology.
FLIGHT MANUAL
Because the FAA writes it, the AIM also is the most authoritative source for instrument flight rules procedures. During your training, you’ll learn to work with tower and ground controllers. How about flight following? Routinely requesting this ATC service during your cross-country flights affords you an added margin of safety. It also makes you more comfortable talking to ATC and gives you a ready source for hearing new aviation phrases. Most ATC communications you hear will be for IFR traffic. Much of the phraseology will be new and confusing at first. Like any new skill, it gets easier with time.
UNDERSTANDING
LEARNING
APPLYING
ABEAM
An aircraft is "abeam" a fix, point, or object when that fix, point, or object is approximately 90 degrees to the right or left of the aircraft track. Abeam indicates a general position rather than a precise point.
BLOCKED
Phraseology used to indicate that a radio transmission has been distorted or interrupted due to multiple simultaneous radio transmissions.
CLEARED FOR THE OPTION
ATC authorization for an aircraft to make a touch and go, low approach, missed approach, stop and go, or full-stop landing at the discretion of the pilot. It is normally used in training so that an instructor can evaluate a student's performance under changing situations.
CLOSED TRAFFIC
Successive operations involving takeoffs and landings [touch-and-goes] or low approaches where the aircraft does not exit the traffic pattern.
EXPEDITE
Used by ATC when prompt compliance is required to avoid the development of an imminent situation.
FLY HEADING (Degrees)
Informs the pilot of the heading he should fly. The pilot may have to turn to, or continue on, a specific compass direction in order to comply with the instructions. The pilot is expected to turn in the shorter direction to the heading unless otherwise instructed by ATC.
HAVE NUMBERS
Used by pilots to inform ATC that they have received runway, wind, and altimeter information only.
IDENT
A request for a pilot to activate the aircraft transponder identification feature. This will help the controller to confirm an aircraft identity or to identify an aircraft. Do not confuse this with squawk, which means to tune the transponder code or transponder operating mode, such as Mode C.
MAINTAIN
Concerning altitude/flight level, the term means to remain at the altitude/flight level specified. The phrase "climb and" or "descend and" normally precedes "maintain" and the altitude assignment.
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section 02
LEARNING HOW TO CONTROL As aviation matured and aircraft designers learned more about aerodynamics, the industry produced larger and faster aircraft. Therefore, the aerodynamic forces acting upon the control surfaces increased exponentially. To make the control force required by pilots manageable, aircraft engineers designed more complex systems. At first, hydromechanical designs, consisting of a mechanical circuit and a hydraulic circuit, were used to reduce the complexity, weight, and limitations of mechanical flight controls sys-
tems. As aircraft became more sophisticated, the control surfaces were actuated by electric motors, digital computers, or fiber optic cables. Called “fly-by-wire,� this flight control system replaces the physical connection between pilot controls and the flight control surfaces with an electrical interface. In addition, in some large and fast aircraft, controls are boosted by hydraulically or electrically actuated systems. In both the fly-by-wire and boosted controls, the feel of the control reaction is fed back to the pilot by simulated means.
It is essential that a pilot is familiar with the primary and secondary flight control systems of the aircraft being flown, as they vary by airplane type.
FLIGHT MANUAL
UNDERSTANDING
LEARNING
APPLYING
STEPS TO TAKEOFF
01
preparing for flight
Before even entering the hanger, you must contact Air Traffic Control and alert them of your attentions. If you are given the clear to fly the time you wish, continue to check with co-pilots and staff about your voyage.
Current research at the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Dryden Flight Research Center involves Intelligent Flight Control Systems (IFCS). The goal of this project is to develop an adaptive neural network-based flight control system. Applied directly to flight control system feedback errors, IFCS provides adjustments to improve aircraft performance in normal flight as well as with system failures. With IFCS, a pilot is able to maintain control and safely land an aircraft that has suffered a failure to a control surface or damage to the airframe. It also improves mission capability, increases the reliability and safety of flight, and eases the pilot workload. Today’s aircraft employ a variety of flight control systems. For example, some aircraft in the sport pilot category rely on weight-shift control to fly while balloons use a standard burn technique. Helicopters utilize a cyclic to tilt the rotor in the desired direction along with a collective
to manipulate rotor pitch and anti-torque pedals to control yaw. Aircraft flight control systems consist of primary and secondary systems. The ailerons, elevator (or stabilator), and rudder constitute the primary control system and are required to control an aircraft safely during flight. Wing flaps, leading edge devices, spoilers, and trim systems constitute the secondary control system and improve the performance characteristics of the airplane or relieve the pilot of excessive control forces.
02
pre-flight check
Once you get outside to the aircraft hanger, you must go through a number of pre-flight requirements. This will range from checking fuel and exhaust levels, to adjusting seats. per-flight requirements vary between aircrafts.
03
contact ATC
This may seem repetitive, but remaining in contact with Air Traffic Control is vital in making sure your flight is safe. ATC will alert you of airway and runway traffic and when it is safe to takeoff.
04
prepare for takeoff
Once you get the go-ahead from ATC, you must repeat a number of pre-flight checks. Once that is complete, check your current status of levels and report back to ATC. ATC will give you the final clear for takeoff.
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section 02
“Man must rise above the Earth—to the top of the atmosphere and beyond—for only thus will he fully understand the world in which he lives.”
— Socrates
Aircraft control systems are carefully designed to provide adequate responsiveness to control inputs while allowing a natural feel. At low airspeeds, the controls usually feel soft and sluggish, and the aircraft responds slowly to control applications. At higher airspeeds, the controls become increasingly firm and aircraft response is more rapid. Movement of any of the three primary flight control surfaces (ailerons, elevator or stabilator, or rudder), changes the airflow and pressure distribution over and around the airfoil. These changes affect the lift and drag produced by the airfoil/control surface combination, and allow a pilot to control the aircraft about its three axes of rotation. Design features limit the amount of deflection of flight control surfaces. For example, control-stop mechanisms
FLIGHT MANUAL
may be incorporated into the flight control linkages, or movement of the control column and/or rudder pedals may be limited. The purpose of these design limits is to prevent the pilot from inadvertently overcontrolling and overstressing the aircraft during normal maneuvers.A properly designed airplane is stable and easily controlled during normal maneuvering. Control surface inputs cause movement about the three axes of rotation. The types of stability an airplane exhibits also relate to the three axes of rotation.
UNDERSTANDING
LEARNING
APPLYING
87% of malfunctions are caused by simple communication errors between copilots.
15% of standard airplanes levels do not meet required FAA takeoff protocal.
23% is the maxium percent of airspace per mile an airplane may travel through.
67% of runway traffic is caused by poor communication between ATC and pilots.
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section 03
03 APPLYING section 03
FLIGHT MANUAL
UNDERSTANDING
LEARNING
APPLYING
APPLYING SKILLS Now that you have this infinte knowledge of this history of airplanes, areodynicms, how a airplane flys, and how to control and airplane, you need to decide what different career path to choose from. There are many different careers in aviation, with a range of salaeries, if that is the decideing factor. The downside is that these careers require a coupious amount of experience, and will take time to learn. The bright side to looming pilot and aviation mechanic shortages, it’s that young people with a dream to fly or fix airplanes can look to a brighter future in an exciting and challenging field.
For some time now, aviation professionals have worried privately that turbulence in the aviation industry (with layoffs, furloughs), wage and benefit cuts affecting wide-swaths of the industry was going to result in too few men and women choosing to become pilots and mechanics. Combined with a predicted global growth in aviation, the decrease in the numbers of trainees is creating what many see as a looming shortage of both pilots and mechanics, which may be problematic.
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section 03
APPLYING SKILLS FOR A CAREER Many people wish for the glamorous lifestyle and income of a pilot. But, do pilots always wear crisp uniforms and make the big bucks? Not necessarily, according to Al Lee, director of quantitative analysis at online salary database PayScale.com. He says, “There’s a huge variation in pay depending on whether you’re flying a float plane for a regional commuter company or flying 747s for United. Regional airlines sometimes pay $20 per hour and only when the engine is on.” Lee says that with only 1000 hours of engine time a year, that hourly rate can come close to minimum wage. Fortunately, you don’t have to wait to fly jumbo jets if want to work in aviation. In fact, if you like doing math, mechanical work or security tasks, here are some in-demand job options, that are also some of the best-paid in the industry, according to PayScale.
Top-Ten Paying Jobs In Avaiation
10 09 08 Aircraft Loadmaster: $40,900
Avionics Technician: $49,300
Aircraft Mechanic: $50,500
The loadmaster mathematically preplans the correct placement of passengers and cargo on the airplane so that the plane can take off and land safely. In the military, loadmasters often fly with the plane so that they can prepare it for its next leg of the journey. Commercial airlines often hire a similar position, called a load planner, which does not require flying on the plane.
An avionics technician works on the components used for aircraft navigation and radio communications, weather radar systems, and other instruments and computers. They often must solve complex electrical problems and can work odd hours depending when their expertise is called upon.
Many mechanics specialize in preventative airplane maintenance, though they also do repairs. While some mechanics learn their skills on the job, most attend an FAA-approved school, of which there are 170 in the US. Jobs with major airlines are the most competitive because they offer the best pay and benefits.
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UNDERSTANDING
LEARNING
APPLYING
07 06 05 Airplane Inspector: $60,600
Air Marshal (Gov’t): $62,100
Air Traffic Controller: $62,500
Airplane inspectors enjoy greater job security because the work they do is, and likely always will be, required by the FAA. Airlines must have them around to regularly inspect the planes after any maintenance, repairs or overhauls. According to the BLS, the best job opportunities are available to mechanics who have an aircraft inspector’s authorization.
Air marshals are employed by the federal government to guard against attacks targeting U.S. aircraft, passengers and crew. According to the Transportation Security Administration’s website, air marshals may have the unique challenge of working independently, without back up. Therefore, they are trained in handgun accuracy, terrorist behavior recognition and learn “aircraft specific tactics and close quarters self-defense measures.”
It’s well known for causing sky-high stress levels and requiring a tremendous amount of mental focus. But, did you know that, depending on the airport, the work is separated out between controllers for ground movement, take-off, en route flight time, landing and more? The competition for these lucrative, steady job positions is steep, though the BLS expects a wave of retirement in the coming years that should open up more positions to younger controllers.
“There’s a huge variation in pay depending on whether you’re flying a float plane for a regional commuter company or flying 747s for United.”
— Al Lee
04
Aircraft Manager: $74,000
This is a job position that requires both technical skill and a knack for leading teams. A maintenance manager is a knowledgeable professional who ensures that their teams perform maintenance regularly and according to regulatory guidelines. The manager schedules a staff of technicians and likely does much of the hiring and training of their team.
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section 03
03 02 Aerospace Engineer: $82,000
Airline Pilot, Copilot: $117,000
An aerospace project engineer must not only understand the ins and outs of aerospace engineering, but they must have the personal and organizational skills to lead a team through a project. A project engineer is likely involved in managing the budget for a project, hiring and training staff, checking their team’s work and other administrative tasks.
Most pilots used to receive their training in the military, but in recent years a college degree and training from an FAA-certified flight training school has become more common among new hires. There are plenty of jobs for pilots besides passenger airline gigs. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), about 34% of commercial pilots use their time in the air to dust crops, test planes, monitor traffic, fight fires and perform other non-typical functions.
01 FLIGHT MANUAL
Director of Aerospace Program Management: $151,000
According to Lee, “Aerospace is second only to petroleum engineering in pay.” That’s why the director of an aerospace engineering program management team can earn well into the six figures. This person likely has a graduate degree in business, such as an MBA, in addition to their degree in engineering. Directors are involved in developing the company’s business strategy, negotiating contracts to build aircraft and taking responsibility for the company.
UNDERSTANDING
LEARNING
APPLYING
Aerospace programs will determine the future of aviation.
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What Can Flying Do For You? What all this information is good for:
FLIGHT MANUAL
Flying an airplane is a skill a select few possess. It requires courage, patience, and talent to safely maneuver a multi-ton aircraft thousands of feet above Earth. It is not an easy task to master; however, once you do assimilate this skill, the possibilities it may allow you are endless.
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