Chapter 12 • Politicking
Resources in organizations are also limited, which often turns potential conflict into real conflict. If resources were abundant, all the various internal constituencies within the organization could satisfy their goals. However, because they’re limited, not everyone’s interests can be provided for. Furthermore, whether true or not, gains by one individual or group are often perceived as being at the expense of others within the organization. These forces create competition among members for the organization’s limited resources. Maybe the most important factor leading to politics within organizations is the realization that most of the “facts” that are used to allocate the limited resources are open to interpretation. What, for instance, is a good performance? What is a good job? What is an adequate improvement? The manager of any major league baseball team knows a .400 hitter is a high performer and a .125 hitter is a poor performer. You don’t need to be a baseball genius to know you should play your .400 hitter and send the .125 hitter back to the minors. But what if you have to choose between players who hit .280 and .290? Then other factors—less objective ones—come into play: fielding, attitude, potential, ability to perform in the clutch, and so on. Most managerial decisions in organizations more closely resemble choosing between a .280 and a .290 hitter than deciding between a .125 hitter and a .400 hitter. It is in this large and ambiguous middle ground of organizational life—where the facts don’t speak for themselves—that politics takes place. Finally, because most decisions have to be made in a climate of ambiguity—where facts are rarely fully objective and thus are open to interpretation—people within the organization will use whatever influence they can to taint the facts to support their goals and interests. That creates the activities we call politicking. Political Diagnostic Analysis Before you consider your political options in any situation, you need to evaluate that situation. Political diagnostic analysis is a three-step process designed to make you a better evaluator. 1. Assess your organization’s culture. The place to begin is with an assessment of your organization’s culture to ascertain which behaviors are desirable and which aren’t. Every organization has a system of shared meaning called its culture.7 This culture is a set of unwritten norms that members of the organization accept and understand and that guide their actions. For example, some organizations’ cultures encourage risk taking, accept conflicts and disagreements, allow employees a great deal of autonomy, and reward members according to performance criteria. Other cultures differ by 180 degrees: They punish risk taking; seek harmony and cooperation at any price; minimize opportunities for employees to show initiative; and allocate rewards to people according to such criteria as seniority, effort, or loyalty. The point is that every organization’s culture is somewhat different, and if a political strategy is to succeed, it must be compatible with the culture. One of the fastest and most effective means for tapping an organization’s culture is to learn as much as you can about the organization’s performance-appraisal system and the criteria used for determining salary increases, promotions, and other rewards. Take a look at the organization’s performance-appraisal form. What does it look like? What does it evaluate: traits, behaviors, goal accomplishments? How much emphasis is placed on factors such as getting along with others, teamwork, and loyalty to the organization? Does style count as much as substance? Are people rated against absolute standards or against each other? How are people ranked? How often are appraisals required? How does top management view performance appraisal: to identify deficiencies, as a basis for reward allocations, or to facilitate employee growth and development? Then turn your attention to the reward system.
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