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successional forest communities. They compete with each other, but our work shows that they also cooperate with each other by sending nutrients and carbon back and forth through their mycorrhizal networks. e360: And they can tell when one needs some extra help versus the other, is that correct?
Contents
Simard: That’s right. We’ve done a bunch of experiments trying to figure out what drives the exchange. Keep in mind that it’s a back and forth exchange, so sometimes the birch will get more and sometimes the fir will get more. It depends on the ecological factors that are going on at the time. One of the important things that we tested in that particular experiment
Exploring How and Why Trees Talk to Each Other Interview at the Yale School of Environment, 2016 By: Diane Toomey and Suzanne Simard
was shading. The more Douglas fir became shaded in the summertime, the more excess carbon the birch had went to the fir.
Section 0: Roots
Then later in the fall, when the birch was losing its leaves and the fir had excess carbon because it was still photosynthesizing, the net transfer of this exchange went back to the birch. There are also probably fungal factors involved. For example,
Defining the Intent of Creation
fungus that is linking the network is going to be looking to secure its carbon sources. Even though we don’t understand a
Section 1: Sprout
whole lot about that, it makes sense from an evolutionary point of view. The fungus is in it for its own livelihood, to make sure that it’s got a secure food base in the future, so it will help direct that carbon transfer to the different plants.
Suzanne Simard, an inspirational forest environmentalist, author of Finding the Mother Tree (2021) had an interview with Yale School of Science to discuss the little-known topic of tree conversation through roots. Two decades ago, while researching her doctoral thesis, ecologist Suzanne Simard discovered that trees communicate their needs and send each other nutrients via a network of latticed fungi buried in the soil — in other words, she found, they “talk” to each other. Since then, Simard, now at the University of British Columbia, has pioneered further research into how trees converse, including how these fungal filigrees help trees send warning signals about environmental change, search for kin, and transfer their nutrients to neighboring plants before they die. By using phrases like “forest wisdom” and “mother trees” when she speaks about this elaborate system, which she compares to neural networks in human brains, Simard’s work has helped change how scientists define interactions between plants. “A forest is a cooperative system,” she said in an interview with Yale Environment 360. “To me, using the language of ‘communication’ made more sense because we were looking at not just resource transfers, but things like defense signaling and kin recognition signaling. We as human beings can relate to this better. If we can relate to it, then we’re going to care about it more. If we care about it more, then we’re going to do a better job of stewarding our landscapes.” Simard is now
familiar with like maple and cedar, form a different type of mycorrhiza. In British Columbia, we have big grasslands that
predicted to move up into the forests.
Simard: I don’t think it will be blocked. I don’t think there’s ever going to be a shortage of an ability to form a network, but will go on. Whether they’re beneficial to native plant species, or exotics, or invader weeds and so on, that remains to be seen.
Some relationships benefited each Yale Environment 360: Not all PhD theses are published in the journal Nature. But back in 1997, part of yours was. You
participate equally, while others
used radioactive isotopes of carbon to determine that paper birch and Douglas fir trees were using an underground network
were not beneficial to one, etc.
to interact with each other. Tell me about these interactions.
However, these relationships were
can exchange between the trees. In a natural forest of British Columbia, paper birch and Douglas fir grow together in early
e360: Through molecular tools, you and one of your graduate students discovered what you call hub, or mother, trees. What are they, and what’s their role in
Earth may be alive: not as ancients saw her — a sentient
the forest?
Goddess with a purpose and foresight — but alive like a
Simard: Kevin Beiler, who was a PhD student, did really elegant work where he
tree. A tree that quietly exists, never moving except to
used DNA analysis to look at the short sequences of DNA in trees and fungal in-
never compared to a family unit.
low-ground pipeline, that connects one tree root system to another tree root system, so that nutrients and carbon and water
The Means to Continue
the network might be different. For example, there will probably be different fungi involved in it, but I think these networks
between different elements in nature.
trading it for the nutrients that it needs for its metabolism. It works out for both of them. It’s this network, sort of like a be-
Section 4: Rot
e360: Will these exchanges continue under climate change, or will communication be blocked?
native plant species, or exotics, or invader weeds and so on, that remains to be seen.”
for photosynthate [a sugar or other substance made by photosynthesis] from the plant. The plant is fixing carbon and then
Visible Communications
primarily arbuscular mycorrhizal, interact with our ectomycorrhizal forest, because as climate changes, the grasslands are
teacher explaining relationships
ents and water, especially phosphorous and nitrogen, brings it back to the plant, and exchanges those nutrients and water
Section 3: Crown
come up through the interior of the province and interface with the forest. We’re looking at how those grasslands, which are
climate change, pine beetle infestations, and logging. “These networks will go on,” she said. “Whether they’re beneficial to
photosynthesize of course, explores the soil. Basically, it sends mycelium, or threads, all through the soil, picks up nutri-
Reasoning with Time Perception
Simard: Yes, not just in my lab, but also in other labs well before me. Grasslands, and even some of the tree species we’re
I remember ever so vaguely a science
below-ground fungi. These are fungi that are beneficial to the plants and through this association, the fungus, which can’t
Section 2: Trunk
been any work done on that?
focused on understanding how these vital communication networks could be disrupted by environmental threats, such as
Suzanne Simard: All trees all over the world, including paper birch and Douglas fir, form a symbiotic association with
Exploring Interconnection Relationships
e360: Do you think this exchange system holds true in other ecosystems as well, like grasslands, for instance? Has there
dividuals in patches of Douglas fir forest. He was able to map the network of two
say in the wind, yet endlessly conversing with the sunlight
related sister specials of mycorrhizal fungi and how they link Douglas fir trees in
and soil. Using sunlight and water and nutrient minerals to
that forest. Just by creating that map, he was able to show that all of the trees essentially, with a few isolated [exceptions],
grow and change. But all done so imperceptibly, that to me
were linked together. He found that the biggest, oldest trees in the network were the most highly linked, whereas smaller
the old oak tree on the green is the same as it was when I
trees were not linked to as many other trees. Big old trees have got bigger root systems and associate with bigger mycor-
was a child.
rhizal networks. They’ve got more carbon that’s flowing into the network, they’ve got more root tips. So it makes sense that they would have more connections to other trees all around them. In later experiments, we’ve been pursuing whether these older trees can recognize kin, whether the seedling that are regenerating around them are of the same kin, whether they’re
- James Lovelock, Independent Scientist, Environmentalist,
offspring or not, and whether they can favor those seedlings — and we found that they can. That’s how we came up with the
and Futurist, b.1919.
8
9
Section 1: Sprouts
“We as human beings can relate to [language] better. If we can relate to it, when we’re going to care about it more. If we care about it more, then we’re going to do a better job of stewarding our landscapes1.”
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Section 1: Sprouts
of four territories converge on a single point (illus. 3).
or to prevent a quick takeoff. Seen from above, the herds formed by herd animals have rounded forms, which, even
Planned occupations: The peculiar human drive towards order which enables humans to create structures using techno-
rapid movement, maintain a minimal circumference and are reminiscent of drops of mercury rolling over rough te
logical means and also to recognize, maintain and measure structures more easily, automatically leads to planned occupa-
same is true of flocks of birds and shoals of fish moving in space. Even during rapid movements, individuals maint
tions. The most familiar structures occupy surfaces with a 3-, 4- or 6-cornered grid, forming hexagonal, quadratic, rectangu-
closest possible proximity. The outlying flyers always press towards the center. The flock has a boundary layer, alth
lar, rhomboid or triangular territories (illus. 4). Every planning, whether of a road with boundary posts, division of plots of
is not necessarily distinct. The form of the flock seen as a whole is related formally not only to soap bubbles in the
ground or the building of multi-story structures, relies on a knowledge of the rules for oneto three dimensional occupations.
also to moving drops of oil floating in water (illus. 9). As with a flat plane, there are many ways for three-dimension
In evaluating the results, it is in theory irrelevant what materials are used to plan the occupation. And yet the materials
ritories« to fit together in three-dimensional space. The most familiar involve the placing together of cubes or block
(T-square, curve template, optical instruments and computers, use of construction machinery, planting and harvesting in-
key points form a Cartesian grid network. The closest configuration, creating the minimal surface area and placing
struments) do have an influence on the outcome.
points extremely close together, is assumed by soap bubbles of the same size. This is however a highly complicated
Distancing occupations: Objects which occupy points, lines, surfaces or spaces at the largest possible intervals are de-
uration, in which every single bubble has a slightly different form. This is the structure of foam. Such foam format
All the different ways human engage with the natural elements around
this earth is either a resource to
- Suzanne Simard, Forest Ecologist, b.1960.
something, we begrudgingly adapt around it.
in the series of publications by the Institute für leichte Flächentragwerke (see p. 112, bibliography).
However, hunters, trappers and village land / forest husband-
(immature, I know). Each thing on be exploited or a pest in need of
structures with a high degree of order which are often described superficially as chaotic are shown and described
on pylons with the largest possible interval between them. The way lone predators mark out their territories is a typical distancing occupation process.
them remind me of Animal Crossing
removal. If we are unable to move
scribed as distancing occupations. This can be seen when, for instance, birds sit
Occupations which are both attractive and distancing: Many occupation mechanisms show both ki
occupation simultaneously. Gregarious birds such as starlings, sitting on an electrical cable, i
ry associations also have »territories« situated at the
ly huddle together nervously, but also keep a certain distance, in order to be able to flee.
largest possible intervals (illus. 5,6). The occupation
gulls or settling people converge while keeping their distance (private area, individu
ry). Perhaps one could include in this category of occupation stars drifting apart
structures have entirely typical forms, which will
space, which are however held together to form galaxies? Animals or human b
be described in detail later in this text. Dis-
hunting in groups keep together while at the same time occupying the larg
tancing occupations and processes which
ble hunting territories. Inhabited forest houses or colonists’ homesteads o
initiate or promote them are common in
surface in a way which is both attractive and distancing. The same is tr
non-living nature and have many variations. Examples include the configuration
fensive castles, as well as agricultural villages with closely-packed hou
of cracks in drying clay layers or in hardening rock. Thermal columns are also
examples can also be cited from the occupation of space taking place
distributed over the Earth’s surface in a distanced way. With grasses, trees,
of surface area, whether frost crystals, hairs, bushes, grasses, bambo
tall buildings and towers, which usually show distanced occupation on ground
Human beings build high-rise buildings in which people live closely
level as well, the third dimension starts to open up. Typical exam-
together, or towers which allow antenna to transmit electromagnetic
ples of three-dimensional occupations include birds’ nests,
over a wide area. Attractive and at the same time distancing occupa
many spiderwebs and space frames for all kinds of high-rise buildings. Distancing occupations in three-dimensional space
also numerous in the third dimension. Molecules in gases and liqui
are also numerous. Molecules in gases and liquids move away
ute themselves at the maximum distance from one another. When ab
from one another. In enclosed spaces, they take up posi-
capacity (saturation) is reached, they combine to form densely-packed
tions as far away from each other as possible. This is shown
and create solid bodies, which then occupy nearby objects of any form
distanced from each other in space (air or water). The whole weather cy
especially clearly in the expansion of strongly fragrant sub-
affected by attractive and distancing occupations playing out in three-dim
stances. A similar procedure can be seen in the ice crystals of
al space. Not only do areas of high and low pressure, and also localized the
cirrus clouds. This is especially clear in the so-called anvil shape of a
with simultaneous formation of a spiraling column of air, take up distancing
thundercloud, which, in contrast to the lower-lying cumulus clouds, drifts
tive positions on the earth’s surface, but cloud formation, rain and snowfall pro
apart. The same can be observed in cirrus clouds and freezing contrails (illus. 7).
are created or affected by distancing / attractive occupation processes. Water molec
Attractive occupations: When objects which are mutually attractive
tribute themselves in the air in a distancing way. When saturation is reached, water co
to one another occupy lines, surfaces or spaces, this can be referred to as attractive occupation. Attractive occupation is characterized by the close proximity of the occupying elements. Strings of pearls, birds flocking on cables and houses built close together along roads are typical representatives of
flat mist with indistinct outlines. As the moisture level increases, the mist precipitates on the ground (wet fog), or
the air that has been warmed by condensation. Water droplets floating in a high density are presumably attractive
occupations. Seagulls brood close together, but in such a way as not to endanger each other
Occupying and Connecting
STUDIES IN COLLECTIVE RELATIONSHIPS
way. These may be fine dust or rust particles (silver iodide crystals, the so-called rainmaker’s subst
extremely attractive to water particles). Extremely small water droplets, which initially float at a distance, form
attractive occupation of linear elements (illus. 8). Attractive occupation of surfaces can be seen in throngs of people. The closest possible proximity is to be in bodily contact. Normal attractive occupation excludes private area. Many animal species »huddle« together, creating dense
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around particles of solid substance which have also distributed themselves in space in a dist
other in the same way as soap bubbles on water surfaces. The droplets become bigger, while the total surface area
drops in relation to their volume becomes smaller. During this process, energy is released, and a horizontal air mo
Section 1: Sprouts
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