III. Permafrost and Svalbard

Lexicon of Permafrost Conditions Design Intent and Research Questions

Engagement with the underground and permafrost in Longyearbyen

Various conditions of permafrost appearing above and below ground in Longyearbyen coal mine footprints permafrost boreholes lexicon conditions potential site of design proposal

Lexicon of Conditions

Building on the literature and reference projects I have explored throughout this term, I have begun to compile a lexicon of sub-surface permafrost conditions within Longyearbyen, Svalbard. Through mapping, and documentation while visiting the site in September 2022, I have compiled some of the manners in which frozen ground is found/used/’dealt with’, in an attempt to present the fluidity of the underground. In the end I found ten potential conditions to develop further next term.

Following the framework of my spatial reference projects, I have documented the temperatures, depths, material compositions, and temporalities for each of the nine conditions. For this report I have expanded on three of the nine conditions through drawings and spatial analysis from photos (see appendix for rest). The three selected are the Longyearbyen Graveyard (-0.3m), the Svalbard Seed Vault (-150m), and a segment of Mine #3 (-300m).

I hope to build on this lexicon throughout the diploma term, through drawings, animations projecting into the future, and models which explore the assemblage of materials while adding textures and dimensions to those conditions (see page 78-79).

An interpreation of the thermo-material permafrost conditions within the Longyearbyen Graveyard (+1 to -2m)

1. Alan Heginbottom, “Excavating the Spanish Flu,” Government of Canada, last modified 2019, https://definingmomentscanada.ca/wp-content/ uploads/2019/05/Higgenbottom-English.pdf.

2. Ole Humlum, “Permafrost, Endalen borehole,” UiO Climate4you, last accessed October 22, 2022, https:// www.climate4you.com/index.htm.

(references) “Norwegian cemetary may hold clues to Spanish flu,” Canadian Medical Association News and Anslysis, 158, no. 2 (1998).

Per Kyrre Reymert, Longyearbyen: from company town to modern town, (Longyearbyen: Governor of Svalbard, Environmental Protection Department, 2013), p. 16-17.

Longyearbyen Cemetery: Spanish influenza graves

78°12’52.5”N 15°36’25.5”E

Depth: 30cm to 1m (active layer burial not permafrost)1

Temperature: at 30cm from Endalen borehole in central Spitsbergen2 2008 max: 4°C 2015 max: 14°C 2008 min: -10°C 2015 min: -4°C

Timespan of infrastructure: 1917 to present Timespan of ground: Aptian - Albian Era, 100 to 113 million years ago

Geological Strata: Carolinefjellet Formation comprised of “mudstones and siltstone with thin interbeds of very fine- to fine-grained sandstones.”1 Covered up to 150m with mudstone.

Relevance: Cemeteries are a fundamental way humans engage with and through the underground. In frozen ground however these processes are often interrupted and thus challenge the connection to the ground in places such as Longyearbyen.

Materials found: bodies, influenza bacteria, wooden coffins, sediments, water...

Activities taking place: remembrance, decomposition, stasis, story-telling...

Events: 1917 cemetery established replacing the one in Hotellneset, two buried 1918 seven miners buried after passing away from Spanish Influenza 1980 replacement of wooden crosses and addition of fence surrounding plots 1998 excavation on influenza plots to assess if virus is still present - results inconclusive 2004 site restoration complete

Users/uses: the dead, microbes, visitors,

The graveyard presents a clear spatial example of what happens when the dynamics of frozen ground are misunderstood. As a combination of practicalities (difficulty digging in frozen ground) and processes (permafrost pushing foreign objects to the surface), some of the graves are only 30cm from the surface. The influence of the active layer is much more present and its future conditions as permafrost thaws completely will be interesting to explore.

The realities of the underground were much easier to imagine or relate to in this instance, as processes of decomposition and a site visit to Svalbard made this shallow sub-surface permafrost more evident than others.

The Longyearbyen graveyard stands out across the valley due to the contrast between the white crosses and the muted backdrop. As full body burials are not allowed on the island, the cemetery stands as a marker to the extremes of this place and risks which have faced those living in the Arctic. The cemtery itself is surrounded by mining infrastrucutre, reflecting the cycle of life and death in the underground of Svalbard.

Bjoertvedt, Longyearbyen graveyard, photograph, Wikipedia, September 10, 2011, https:// commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Longyearbyen-Gruve-1-cemetery.jpg.

In contrast to the Longyearbyen cemetery the permafrost conditions of Likneset preserved the graves of many whalers from the 17th-18th century. This preservation in shallow ground may be why the graves in Longyearbyen were thought to be deep enough at 1m, however the thicker active layer in the valley resulted in fluid conditions (which Likneset appears to have less of).

Lise Lokuto, Likneset excavation, photograph, Twitter, February 16, 2020, https://twitter.com/brearkeologi/status/1229008868472238082/photo/1.

Thermo-material permafrost conditions of part of the Svalbard Global Seed Vault

1. Sten-Andreas Grundvag, et al, “Sedimentolofy and palynology of the Lower Cretaceous succession of central Spitsbergen,” Norwegian Journal of Geology 99, no.2 (2019), p. 253.

2. “Svalbard Global Frøkvelv,” Statsbygg, last accessed October 19, 2022, https://www.statsbygg.no/prosjekter-og-eiendommer/svalbard-globalefrohvelv.

(references) “The Facility,” Svalbard Global Seed Vault, last accessed October 19, 2022, https://www.seedvault.no/about/ the-facility/.

“More about the physical plant,” Government.no, last updated February 23, 2015, https://www.regjeringen. no/en/topics/food-fisheries-and-agriculture/svalbard-global-seedvault/mer-om-det-fysiske-anlegget/ id2365142/.

“Frøhvelvet er rustet for fremtiden,” Statsbygg, last modified October 21, 2019, https://www.statsbygg.no/ nyheter/frohvelvet-er-rustet-for-fremtiden.

“Major deposit for the Svalbard Global Seed Bank,” Statsbygg, last modified February 24, 2020, https://www.statsbygg.no/nyheter/major-deposit-forthe-svalbard-global-seed-vault-storinnrykk-til-svalbard-globale-frohvelv.

Svalbard Global Seed Vault

78°14’08.2”N 15°29’27.9”E

Depth: 130m below surface

Temperature: -3 to -4°C ground temperature, -18°C in chamber

Timespan of infrastructure: 2004-present Timespan of ground: Aptian - Albian Era, 100 to 113 million years ago

Geological Strata: Carolinefjellet Formation comprised of “mudstones and siltstone with thin interbeds of very fine- to fine-grained sandstones.”1 Covered up to 150m with mudstone.

Relevance: “doomsday” vault for seeds embeded in permafrost to extract its temporal-material properties. Symbolic conquering of the undergound and signaling to coming planetary disasters.

Materials found: +/- 4000 seed varieties, waterproof concrete walls, freezer pipes along corridor and chambers, metal storage shelves, storage boxes, sealed seed packets containing roughly 500 seeds, energy...

Activities taking place: seed storage, events, active artifical cooling, melting, protecting

Events: 2004 commissioned to build vault 2008 construction was completed 2016 water leaking as “permafrost failed to surround the tunnel”2 2018 metal tunnel structure replaced with concrete, all equipment which generates heat to be moved to new building outside 2019 renovations completed with artifical cooling system

Users/uses: seeds

While the media surrounding this project highlighted its use of the ‘natural’ cooling properties of permafrost, poor engineering and assumptions made that it would automatically surround the tunnel reflect a poor understanding of frozen ground in Svalbard. Additionally, the sterilized walls and new concrete tunnel fail to respectfully engage with the underground dynamics of permafrost. It’s complete seperation from human view also creates a hyper secretive and elite approach to seed storage - something which, in my opinion, should be accessible to all. Due to its inaccessibilty and concrete materials this condition relates to the concrete infilling occuring in Yellowknife through a combination of artifical and ‘natural’ means. How might it have been designed to not require artifical cooling or complete obstruction from view?

(top image) One of the three seed vault chambers. The rough cieling marks the landscape of the underground. What is yet to be revealed is if the white is frost or an insulating spray.

Jim Richardson, Seed Vault, photograph, The Guardian, Feb. 25, 2020, https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/feb/25/newly-waterproofed-arctic-seed-vault-1m-samples-climatechange .

(bottom image) One can see from this photo how the tunnel was replaced. All of the earth on top was simply moved to the side (circled), while the walls were reinforced. Having visited the site in Fall of 2022, that entire section was re-covered. One might assume that the construction of the tunnel initially was completed in a similar way, while the chambers were potentially drilled in from the exposed face.

Statsbygg, Repairs to Svalbard Seed Vault in May/ June 2018, photograph, High North News, Feb 27, 2019, https://www.highnorthnews.com/en/svalbard-seed-vault-reparations-nearly-complete.

(top image) The interior of the tunnel post-flood. The architecture of the tunnel removes any signs of the underground, creating a sterile environment. On the one hand this helps with the potential mental concern of descending some -150m underground but it also does little to appreciate or engage with the permafrost which it is manipulating.

Entrance Svalbard Seed Vault, photograph, Norwegian Ministry of Agriculture and Food, N.D, https:// www.seedvault.no/about/the-facility/

(bottom image) Interior of the tunnel pre-flood. Metal sheet walls connect more to the coal mining, adhoc realities of building in Longyearbyen.

Global Crop Diversity Trust, Svalbard Global Seed Vault Steel Tunnel, 2018, photograph, Flickr, Feb 11, 2018, https://www.flickr.com/photos/croptrust/3852310318/in/photostream/

Thermo-material ground conditions of part of the Svalbard Global Seed Vault

Per Kyrre Reymert, Longyearbyen: from company town to modern town, (Longyearbyen: Governor of Svalbard, Environmental Protection Department, 2013), p. 18-20.

“Mine #3,” Spitsbirgen, Svalbard, last accessed October 23, 2022, https:// www.spitsbergen-svalbard.com/ photos-panoramas-videos-and-webcams/spitsbergen-panoramas/mine-3. html.

“Van Mijenfjorden Group,” Time Scale Foundation, last accessed October 23, 2022, https://timescalefoundation.org/ resources/NW_Europe_Lex/litho/ svalbard/mijen.htm.

“Dark beer from the deep,” Svalbard Bryggeri, last accessed October 23, 3033, https://www.svalbardbryggeri. com/gruve3/

Mine #3: Decomisioned Mine

78°14’17.4”N 15°26’38.3”E

Depth: +300m below surface Temperature: -1.2°C to -4°C

Timespan of infrastructure: 1906 to present Timespan of ground: 66 to 56 million years ago

Geological Strata: Firkanten Formation and Grumantbyen and Hollendardalen formations

Relevance: As one of the only mines accessible to the general public through tours, mine #3 presents a unique infrastructure for people to experience the underground. Additionally, it is now home to a variety of programs - from the Arctic World Archives to the local brewer using its chambers to mature beer.

Materials found: coal seam of 80 to 90cm deep, 1900m of sandstone with layers of siltstone, shale and coal (Firkanten Formation), steel structures, electrical wires, machinery, people, concrete, rail tracks, wooden piles...

Activities taking place: tourism, settling of ground, waiting, parties, archiving, holding memories, extraction, maturing beer....

Events: 1906 initial investigation of coal seams 1969 mine properly prepared for extraction 1981 most productive year with 321,000 tons of coal extracted 1984 fire inside mine plant 1990 tourist visits began 1996 closed for mining

The infrastructure of Mine #3 is one of the only examples in Svalbard where the underground infrastructure has been re-purposed. Inside, tours are offered, events hosted, and one of the chambers holds the Arctic World Archives (pg. 89). In contrast to the Seed Vault, the mine has no sense of sterilization, as the underground is revealed and embraced within the small tunnels. As you begin to unpack the materials present inside these chambers you are aware of the extent of objects which must have been brought in from the mainland and subsequently buried underground. Will these just stay there forever? Are there ways to re-purpose them?

Within this condition as well, the vastness of the underground is not reflected on the surface, as a few small buildings mark the opening. How can the underground reveal itself? Is it a matter of having a massive whole down to the center like the Siberian craters? How will the landscape of these spaces and the surface above them transform as permafrost thaws?

(top and bottom image) Inside Mine #3 one can see the jumble of materials (likely brought in from the mainland or repurposed from other mine’s on the island) which shape the architecture. Rust is covering the steel cieling supports and what looks like some osrt of lichen covers the rocks, both present from thermo exchanges within the underground.

N.A, 360 view of Mine #3, photograph, Spitsbergen-Svalbard, N.D, https://www.spitsbergen-svalbard.com/photos-panoramas-videos-and-webcams/spitsbergen-panoramas/mine-3. html#160411c_Gruve-3_073HDR.

(top image) While there are some 50km of tunnels within mine #3 the entrance does not reflect the shear scale of the underground infrastrucutre. Consequentially, when remediation occurs it is only the outside which is considered (as seen in the Svea mine remediation).

Bjoertvedt, Exterior entrance to Mine #3, photograph, Wikipedia, August 10, 2010, https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gruve-3#/media/Fil:Longyearbyen-Gruve-3-IMG-6874-rk-136717.JPG.

(bottom image) Mine #3 is known for its incredible narrow coal seam (80 to 90cm) making extraction tight and risky.

N.A, Interior of Mine #3, photograph, Visit Svalbard, N.D, https://en.visitsvalbard.com/activity-planner/ coal-mine-3-visit-gruve-3-as-p2523693.

Design Proposal for the Underground Chambers of Mine #7

Encouraging/prioritizing more-than-human processes, considering manners for humans to engage with the underground as permafrost modifies the conditions above and belowground

Design Intent

Throughout this report I have begun to address my initial research questions:

What would a landscape architectural approach to understanding permafrosts above and belowground conditions look like?

How do you draw, model, and design for the fluid assemblage of materials present within sub-surface permafrost?

How do underground materials such as coal, slate, siltstone.. react to water, ice, heat, vapour.. through natural (thawing, settling, eroding, dispersing) and artifical processes (moving, breaking, adding)?

What would landscape architecture which considers permafrost following Cho’s defintion look like? How would this design alter underground spaces embedded in permafrost? How would these be reflected on the surface?

Moving into the diploma term I have decided to respond to these questions with the development of a landscape architectural vocabularly for this fluid, frozen ground. This will be created through visuals and text within the Lexicon of Longyearbyen’s Permafrost Conditions.

Building on this, I intend to propose a method for how landscape architects might engage/design/restore underground permafrost. This will be done through the afterlife design of Mine #7*, whereby an imagined means of considering the anthropogenic remains embedded in permafrost is developed.

This proposal intends to imagine how specific design interventions within and above the mine, might encourage/reveal permafrosts increasing fluid processes as climate change alters landscape conditions above and below ground. The design’s intention is to prioritize more-than-human processes and beings, while also developing ways to reveal the realities and temporalities of underground permafrost within the coal mine to human visitors. In this way, this work will propose a method for how to plan, remediate, engage with and address the Arctic’s frozen ground, through landscape architecture.

* I have decided to work with Mine #7 given its location below the Foxfonna glacier, and current discussions surrounding its future decomissioning. While operations are likely to continue into the near future, it has been very publicly presented that the mine will be closed at some point. Given its past flooding events, layering between glacial and permafrost ground I think it will provide an interesting site for this proposal. See Appendix for additional information on the mine.

70