Disseration - The Search for an Architectural Identity in China

The Search for an Architectural Identity in China: the use of Materiality in Contemporary Chinese Architecture

Callum Joss

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A dissertation submitted to the Scott Sutherland School of Architecture and Built Environment, Robert Gordon University in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Architecture/MSc Advanced Architectural Studies.

Callum Joss Matriculation Number: 0804044 ACM007 Supervisor: Penny Lewis Word Count: 11,633 May 2013

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Table of Contents Introduction

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Part 1  The History of Chinese Architecture

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Part 2  Identity In Chinese Architecture

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 Regionalism and Material In Architecture

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 Memory and Material In Architecture

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Part 3 Case Study Analysis  Ningbo Museum by Wang Shu

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 Villa Shizilin by Yung Ho Chang

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 Well Hall (Jade Valley Resort) by Ma Qingyun

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 Summary

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Conclusions

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References

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Figure References

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Introduction 'This horizon of unlimited possibilities occurs alongside the concurrent tendency of architecture to become a vehicle for economic political interests, devoid of deeper cultural responsibility. The potent combination is awakening increasing concerns and doubts. Previously, architecture was the most important means of concretizing cultural and social order, as well as expressing and materializing the specificity of place and culture.

However, today's globalized, instrumentalized, technologized, and codified construction forcefully eradicates the sense of place and identity. Instead of serving the purpose of rooting, uniting, and empowering society, the constructions of today's consumer culture given rise to alienation and social discrimination.

Is architecture forgetting its fundamental cultural and social tasks?'

(Pallasmaa, 2012, p98)

China has gone through one of the most dramatic and compelling urbanisations the world has ever seen. In the 58 years it took Great Britain to double it's per capita, China has done in only 10 (Hongxing & Parker, 2008). The hunger of a nation desperate to grow and achieve global economic recognition has driven people into the sprawling cities and it is said that by 2030, 70% of the nation will be an urban population. A staggering transformation considering this figure was only 26% in 1990. (Juan, 2011)

Figure 1.

In 1987 People’s Republic of China had 24 cities of over a million inhabitants. (4.6 per cent of total population)

In 2007 People’s Republic of China had 159 cities of over a million inhabitants. (23.2 per cent of total population)

This rapid progression has naturally had a huge impact on the ‘architecture’ as a culture of designing buildings and built environments (Zhu 2007). This evolving urban environment has raised many prevalent discussions and come under much scrutiny, many are of the opinion that the architecture has lost what it means to be Chinese and that the ‘cityscape has become an encyclopaedia of world architecture’ (Sizheng Fan, 2009, p.64)

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This research presents an opportunity to study current trends of thought regarding the apparent ‘loss’ of architectural identity of China. This research appears significantly more valuable considering that a large amount of the country’s architecture has been undocumented by the western world. By completing this research it has allowed me to substantiate the exciting yet unknown Chinese evolution of architecture. Through studying the architectural character of China's past, I can develop an understanding of what has existed and how this has changed in the present day. The main vein in which I will choose to tackle this issue of identity is through materiality, and how materials can be utilized in order to set the building within its place and time in a way that recreates Chinese character. This thread of investigation is something I will continually refer to throughout my research and case study analysis.

Although heavily criticised for its fast track, internationally influenced, confused architectural development; China has an emerging new breed of contemporary architects set on establishing a new path for the future built environment. These architects have been educated both nationally and internationally but all share the same ambition to bring China forward, while at the same time, developing an identity for the country's architecture. For most this new found direction has come from a rediscovery of what Chinese architecture means to the people, and how this is important in the modern world. This is done through references and re-interpretation of the country's forgotten history. From where else does one rediscover the identity of a nation with such a rich architectural past?

Many of these contemporary Chinese architects are stepping back to learn from the country's heritage. In doing so they are able to reinterpret and combine principals of traditional Chinese building craft in a way that creates modern architectural solutions. Most importantly these solutions still speak of a Chinese sensibility and character. A number of these architects have travelled to study in the United States, having learnt a great deal which on return to China has allowed them to tackle and develop the architectural ambitions of their nation. Although not all of these architects have travelled from China to learn. Some have embraced the developing nation and in doing so have seen firsthand the change and evolution in China.

One of the most inspirational and publicised figures in contemporary Chinese architecture is Wang Shu, winner of the 2012 Pritzker Prize, who has spent his entire life studying and working in China. Along with Wang two further architects I will focus on in this piece of writing are Yung Ho Chang and Ma Quingyun. These architects have both studied and taught in the USA before returning to China to establish their own practices. These architects are actively responding to the changing Chinese urban condition in an aspiration for architectural identity.

Figure 2. Wang Shu at the New Academy of Art in Hangzhou

I have chosen to look at these three figures in particular as I feel that they have spoken openly about the direction in which they wish to take Chinese architecture, however I could have chosen a number of emerging talented architects who all share similar traditional, cultural and material values. The buildings I have chosen to analyse by each architect show a certain material tectonic quality which achieves a strong sense of place and relationship to the environment. At the same time, responding to traditional and cultural values through a modern Chinese approach and an ambition to develop an architectural language.

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Along with this, I will tackle the broader issues which China has faced to undergo its dramatic modernisation. Initially I will discuss the last 100 years of architecture in China to grasp an understanding of what has influenced the country’s architectural character. Further to this I will review three critical subjects which relate to this journey in China.

These will include architecture as an identity, regionalism, and memory in materials. I have chosen to investigate these subjects as I feel they will provide an insight into how and why China has developed the way it has and also what constitutes, if at all possible, to make a particular piece of architecture Chinese, in the recreation of an identity within the country. The research fields all relate to the current condition of Chinese architecture and can provide a thoughtful insight into the strategies and values being expressed within this new formation of native architects.

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Part 1 Chinese Architectural History China has a recognizable and rich architectural history. Features of Chinese construction and craft have developed as a language which form the nations architecture; the pagoda roof, courtyard principle, and an emphasis on the horizontal axis to name a few, have helped to define a vocabulary representing a Chinese form and spirit.

'The history of architecture in China can be traced through nearly ten millennia. Chinese-style tombs, palaces, monasteries, gardens, and other architectural features add their distinctive forms to more than five thousand kilometres of landscape in Asia, from Kyoto to Kashgar.'

(Xinian, 2002, p1) In this section I will discuss the transition of Chinese architecture over the past one hundred years and how this has affected the country’s built environment with regard to its past architectural identity.

For a nation with monumental architectural history and building tradition, neither is apparent in the contemporary architecture shaping the cities of China today. To understand this modern journey we must begin in the early 20th century where Chinese 'architects', as we would know them today, came into being around the early 1910's. This occurred when students graduated and returned to China from America, Japan and Europe. (Zhu, 2007) Many of these newly accredited architects had studied in Pennsylvania under the teachings of Paul Cret (1876-1945) who imbedded the French Ecole des Beaux-Arts philosophy within his students. Two particular graduates, Liang Si-Chen (1901-1972) and Yang Ting-Bao (1901-1982) returning to China towards the late 1920s, have been regarded as ‘the founders of modern architectural education in China.’ (Zhu, 2007, p73) The teachings of Cret which have been transferred, via these Chinese graduates on return to China, have survived in principle and as a Chinese character through most of the 20th century until the 1980s. The approach to architecture taught by Cret was one of complete freedom in which he pushed for a response to and relationship with context and tradition. These principles spread with the opening of further architecture schools in the 1920s and 30s where the values of the Beaux-Art became a platform from which Chinese students could understand and interpret a language for the future built environment.

‘Chinese students immediately saw the light in the spirit of reviving a much older tradition of a thousand years, by applying this general framework and replacing western neoclassicism with a Chinese style; ‘Chineseness’ in modern building could be reflected through adopted ornamentation, which was well received both by designers and public in the newly reformed country in search of its own identity.’ (Xiaodong, 2010, p305) In terms of architectural appearance this meant a return to ‘Chinese Form’ particularly apparent was the Chinese roof and the outline shape, along with careful detailing such as decorative Chinese motifs. This marked the beginning of an ongoing battle in which Chinese architects were attempting to regain control of an architectural future based on Chinese influences rather than Western desires.

With the creation of modern architectural education in China, inspired by European teachings, many Chinese people objected to the Western philosophies. During the 1920s and 30s there was a clear dispute as to the necessity for China to ‘Westernise’ and many scholars debated this decision.

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The main arguments for this ‘Westernisation’ was that many felt Chinese culture did not fit well with the modern world, the move was a progression being embraced by nations around the globe so if China was to become instrumental at this stage it needed to follow suit and Westernise itself. (Meisser, 2006) A second wave of this traditional ‘Chinese Form’ came during the 1950s, this time under the heading of ‘Socialist Content, National Form’. The successful appointment of the communist party in 1949 coupled with the 1952 loss of the ‘imperialistic invasion’ of the USA in Korea, brought about a rise of nationalistic honour and searches a widespread revival. (Zhu, 2007) In essence, this was a return to the national building form and the influential architecture shaped by the Ecole des Beaux-Arts teachings in the 20s and 30s.

During this period, and into the 60s and 70s, much of the architecture can be explained by ‘the attempt to create a cultural and national identity based on Marxism-Leninism.’ (Meisser, 2006, p8) This ideology was implemented by communist leader Mao Zedong (1893-1976), and is generally regarded as a period of time in Chinese architecture which failed to produce a cultural and national identity in the communist ideology. The movement commonly known as ‘Maoism’ urged China to rapidly industrialise and in 1966, Chairman Mao had famously branded the political slogan ‘Destroy the Old to Establish the New’ (Liauw, 2008). Many vernacular building fabrics which formed entire city neighbourhoods were destroyed to provide new commercial developments, which naturally had a huge impact on the built environment at the time.

Figure 3. Neighbourhood erased in Pudong

Maoism came to an end with the death of Mao Zedong in 1976 which was followed by a period of architecture in China often regarded as the ‘New Era’, a title used to signal a break in the Cultural Revolution and generally defined China in the 80’s with regard to the social and cultural conditions. At this point the Chinese urban environment was a mixture of traditional, dense, low rise neighbourhood blocks and new high rise commercial districts and residential blocks which remained completely unrelated and unknown character. This shaped the 80’s and 90’s as city became a miss match of diverse historical architectural styles, which had already formed much of China’s 20th century, and of post-modernism influenced from the West. Once again at around this time a returning interest in historical Chinese forms became apparent which ran in parallel, as a third wave was seen across China in the 20th century. (Zhu, 2007) In 1986 China implemented an ‘open door policy’ which opened the country to foreign investment and encouraged development of the market economy and private sector. This experience has had one of the biggest impacts in China’s economic history, which as a result, has had a massive influence on the nation’s architecture.

‘The single most important factor in shaping Chinese society today is arguably the introduction of the market economy, which is now increasingly dynamic if not rampant.’ (Zhu, 2006, p486) This allowed international architects the chance to influence large amounts of the Chinese cityscape and defined a period where many feel the Chinese architectural profession became ‘lost’. From the late 80’s onwards, Chinese architectural history has been heavily influenced by international architecture driven by the country’s economic development rather than a Chinese architectural language or thought. Resulting cities are overwhelmed by buildings which can be described as ‘copy-cat architecture’ stolen from the West and ambitious sky scrapers which aim to rival the rest of the world.

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From the late 1990’s, as a result of a modern architectural education system being enforced in China, a new generation of Chinese architects have qualified and taken inspiration from the traditional and cultural influences which had shaped China’s past. This growing group of young architects are attempting to reconnect a country’s rich architectural history in a dramatically globalizing China.

‘At this juncture, the first generation of Chinese architects of the post-Mao era, receiving their education after 1977-8 with western and international influences, some having studied in America, Europe and Japan, emerged in the late 1990s as a new voice in the history of architecture of modern China. Adopting purist and tectonic modernism, they are making a breakthrough in a country that has been dominated by decorative social-realism originating from the Beaux-Arts tradition imported around the 1920s.’ (Zhu, 2006, p486) This most recent break-through of architects has in a way revitalized this idea of the ‘Chinese Form’ which has been reoccurring throughout the past one hundred years. These architects are driven by ambitions to create a truly Chinese architecture through traditional references, as well as a responsibility to the contextual and cultural values which are relevant to the buildings place and time.

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Part 2 Identity in Chinese Architecture ‘Individual and national identities are not static, but are changing continuously. Each individual, group and nation always tries to redefine his/her/its identity when it is challenged, endangered or broken. This is understood as an identity crisis. The search for and redefinition of a new identity is a process of adaptation, in which a new equilibrium is sought between traditional elements and new challenges. The identity crisis is solved as soon as a new equilibrium, however temporary, is achieved.’ (Meissner, 2006, p41) Much like the rate of development in China itself the discussion as to defining its architectural Identity is an ever present and evolving topic, where new research and theories are being developed all the time. All discussions touch upon the Western influence on Chinese architecture and the major part it has had to play in Chinese identity.

Here I will discuss the impact on the country’s architectural identity, which was affected by the economic boom and internationally influenced development.

‘In the early 1980s, China reconnected its economy with the Western world and relaxed its ideological constraints. As a result, China’s architecture was also reconnected to the Western methods as its vast design market opened to Western architects. China has exhibited a great respect for Western architects in the recent building boom’ (Fan, 2009, p.64).

This reconnection with architectural methods from the West became influential in the appearance of Chinese cities. Several of the most significant Chinese projects in recent years, both public and private, have more often than not been contracted to foreign architectural practices (Ren, 2008). Fan (2009, p.64) supports this when stating that ‘Although China has many designers and planners whose best work may rival that of their occidental colleagues, high-profile projects are almost routinely awarded to Western architects.’

Appointing foreign architects to design prestigious and iconic buildings symbolised the countries aspirations to become a global superpower and part of the elite international community (Hongxing & Parker, 2008). This drive for global recognition and ultramodern architecture has left the Chinese city as, what some would call an accumulation of world architecture. Within this the preference to commission Western architects was met with a mixed response; many Chinese seeing it as a negative move in the preservation of national identity. It could also be seen as a loss of work for local architects, while ‘the more conservative critics see the ‘invasion’ of foreign architects as a new form of cultural colonialism’ (Peng, 2000 cited in Ren, 2008, p.220).

Following on from this critique, Wu (2005 cited in Ren, 2008, p.220) argues the point that ‘Chinese cities have lost their authentic character as foreign architecture from Western architects destroys historical urban fabrics.’

This argument depicted strong feelings in Chinese society at the time, for example ‘In 1998, when the National Theatre was commissioned to French architect Paul Andreu, more than 200 members of Chinese Academy of Sciences signed a petition to protest against the decision.’ (Ren, 2006, p.189) However this opposition was disregarded by State Government as they felt it was an ‘architectural symbol to show the world its success, open-mindedness and (selfimagined) political transparency’ (Ren, 2006, p.190).

This again shows the strong ambitions of authoritative leaders in displaying China as a design power to rival that of the Western world. As well as this drive for global acknowledgement, the high calibre of buildings being undertaken by foreign architects has created a valuable stigma for developers to capitalise on. For example, the general consensus in China is that if a project gets

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commissioned to a well regarded international architect then this will attract attention in a thriving real estate market, allowing for the developer to demand higher prices (Ren, 2008). This shows that although Western commissions may not be socially and culturally accepted by all, they do render economic value.

As I have previously mentioned China has developed a critique against international architecture imposed on their home soil. However, it has been discussed that the new CCTV headquarters in Beijing (2008), along with others, attempts to relate with a new age of Chinese architectural identity. Designed by Dutch based architects OMA, the design has attempted to create an iconic building with Chinese character that does more than simply display a sense of power. It aims to be ‘a key symbolic building, as important for China’s self-image as the 2008 Olympics’ (Jenks, 2005 p.112).

Figure 4. CCTV Headquarters in Beijing by OMA Architects

Due to the nature of these projects many find themselves thrust into the limelight of criticism, none more so than the CCTV headquarters. It can be said that an iconic piece of architecture requires to be more than just a famous landmark. ‘An architectural icon is imbued with a special meaning that is symbolic for a culture and/or a time, and that this special meaning has an aesthetic component.’ (Sklair, 2006, p.25) So to go beyond simply eye-catching design and become iconic, the architecture must represent an identity of place and time. The CCTV building, at a closer look, presents a deeper thought and relationship to Chinese culture expressed through modern design to represent current ambition of the nation. Chinese architect Qingyun Ma, who I will later go onto discuss in detail, was part of the team working alongside Rem Koolhaas of OMA on the CCTV design. In an interview with Adele Weder of Azure magazine in 2007 he describes his role within this partnership.

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‘I played a role in defining the cultural, political and social context of today’s China. Some of his (Koolhaas) ideas were probably not the way the local Chinese would see them. I’ll give you an example: if this building has the character of, say, framing a stage in the sky, who in China cares?

Framing a stage in the sky is not part of their visual culture. But if you see that it’s defining a passage to the other side, then it makes sense.’

This shows how the CCTV has responded to Chinese society through a cultural means with the help of local architect’s. It is different in this sense than a number of Western designs appearing all over China which respond to nothing but the clients demands.

The CCTV ’recalls the famous Chinese bracket construction, as well as the lattice windows that can be found in traditional homes. Others compared the structure and laminated glass-mesh skin to Chinese calligraphy.’ (Jenks, 2005, p.111) Like all buildings of such expression, the CCTV has encountered major criticism with some judging these as ‘flimsy’ justifications and that the design principles are pastiche attempts to relate the building within Chinese culture. However, as true as this may seem, its response to create an iconic identity in China has considered cultural value and tradition which is a major step in the discovery of a new Chinese architectural identity.

An important image for China’s developing patriotic architectural ambitions – to marry tradition with contemporary – comes no clearer than the Chinese Pavilion at the Shanghai Expo in 2010. The China Pavilion was perhaps the boldest attempt to celebrate past building tradition through modern methods of construction.

Standing at almost 70 metres it was the tallest structure at the Expo and retained the name, ‘The Oriental Crown’ due to it resembling a traditional Chinese crown.

Externally it is red in colour which portrays elements of traditional Chinese culture, with interlocking beams which pay reference to the rich timber craft of Chinese heritage. Internally it uses environmentally-friendly and energy-saving techniques of contemporary design and in doing so the building relates both to contemporary needs and a familiar identity to China’s architecture heritage.

Figure 5. Chinese Pavilion, Shanghai Expo 2010.

The CCTV building and Chinese pavilion are projects which have consciously considered the relationship of contemporary Chinese architecture and its past character. These are not isolated examples, as a growing number of projects in China are implementing references from a Chinese past through conditions such as material, construction and form. Growing in interest and popularity, copious amounts of these projects have been designed by this new generation of architects in China touched upon earlier.

This expanding group of young Chinese architects are individually and collectively attempting to define a modern architecture which relates completely to a Chinese identity. Less concerned with the financially driven superstructures which are taking authority in the cityscape, they are creating an architecture which speaks of a Chinese character and culture which is becoming ever more acknowledged and allowing China to regain control of its built environment in order to dictate a future for the Chinese, by the Chinese.

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‘Young Chinese architects are quietly altering other sections of the built landscape; not with competitively tall towers, but with sensitivity, intellectual rigor and great subtlety.’ (Byrnes, 2012) It is becoming apparent that this new generation of Chinese architects on the rise are actively developing their own responses to the identity issue in China. Wang Shu, Yung ho Chang and Ma Qingyun among others are consciously conveying a different architecture than that of the West.

Opposing the ‘copy-cat’ trend of Western form they are driven to formulate a contemporary identity for Chinese architecture at a world stage. (Xiangning, 2008) But is this work enough to define an architectural identity as Chinese? A building which displays aspects of culture, tradition, material in which the Chinese people can associate and identify with? It is important to remember that when defining an identity for Chinese architecture we must learn from the past in order to give reason to what we build in the future. The only way a modern Chinese identity can be formed is by learning from what has shaped the character of China's past, and using this as a point from which to build upon a rich architectural identity and future.

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Regionalism in China ‘Regionalism is variously a concept, strategy, tool, technique, attitude, ideology, or habit of thought. Despite its many manifestations, collectively it is a theory that supports resistance to various forms of hegemonic, universal, or otherwise standardizing structures that would diminish local differentiation.’ (Canizaro, 2007, p20) We can simplify the term regionalism as an attitude towards architecture in which the ‘regional’ characteristics influence the design and construction. It can be described as a reaction to the specific conditions in which a being is set. These conditions take into account a number of architectural considerations, but all relate to a building which belongs indefinitely within its specific place and time.

This being said, discussing Regionalism in China as a whole is difficult due to the sheer size and diversity of the nation. A number of different environmental and cultural implications affect its numerous regional responses to architecture, and therefore collectively a ‘Chinese Regionalism’ becomes a fairly superficial term. It is true that through the tool of regionalism a response to Chinese tradition can form a common thread and the regionalist approach still remains specific to the area.

Regionalism has been an apparent feature throughout architectural history in China. From the unique Hakka villages of the South, arranged as defensive settlements and often constructed from rammed earth or local stone and brick, to the Siheyuan housing most notably found in Beijing which is often known as the ‘Chinese Quadrangle’ and consists of a traditional Chinese courtyard surrounded by four buildings. This built forms responded to the social, cultural and environmental needs of the region in which they existed so are specific to the identity of their location.

Figure 6. Hakka Village, Fujian

With the world, and in particular China, developing at such a frightening pace, any research in architecture naturally examines the subject of regionalism. Despite being evident in much of world architecture today it still remains an unsettled term, largely undocumented in today’s society.

China has had an intensely rich regional architectural history, developing over thousands of years and carving an identity firmly rooted in its landscape as well as its culture. This being said, the investigation into regionalism and its influence on the creation of architectural identity and tradition is hugely important within the evolution of the Chinese city.

Contemporary China is struggling to form an architectural marriage between tradition and modernity. A need for cultural vitality coupled with an aspiration for growth and modernisation has been an issue far removed from the architecture present in much of the country today. The push toward globalization has taken the driving seat producing western architectural forms which pay no attention to local conditions and regional values. But what is it that this architecture of the modern world should respond to?

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‘What are the constitutions of a sense of specific locality? They are of course reflections of natural, physical, and social realities. They are expressions and experiences of specific nature, geography, landscape, local materials, skills, and cultural patterns. But they are not detached elements: the qualities of culturally adapted architecture are inseparably integrated in tradition.’

(Canizaro, 2007, p130) Canizaro documents the different elements which come together to compose regional character. These elements, when discussed out with tradition and history, fail to produce a regional response to architecture and so must collectively influence local conditions through tradition. Regionalism relies on a study of the specific architectural existence related to a place and a complete understanding of its environmental and cultural significance.

Regionalism in China is trying to identify a direction for the country's architecture based on a strong grounding in its environment. By basing designs around simple regional examples of Chinese tradition, such as courtyard housing or using locally sourced material from the natural surroundings, the architecture becomes part of the place and belongs to the region.

Contemporary Chinese architects such as Wang Shu have been described as practicing ‘Critical Regionalism’ in an attempt to create an Architectural Identity for modern China and a strong relationship to the existing environment.

‘The term ‘Critical regionalism’ is not intended to denote the vernacular as this was once spontaneously produced by the combined interaction of climate, culture, myth and craft, but rather to identify those recent regional ‘schools’ whose primary aim has been to reflect and serve the limited constituencies in which they are grounded.’ (Frampton, 2007, p314) Critical regionalism is an approach to architecture that aims to counter the lack of identity in current architecture by responding to the specific context and environment of the building.

Deriving from regionalism, it follows within the traditions of modernism yet takes a more critical stance upon the values and character of place. Through combining these regional principles back within contemporary architecture the aim is to bring a belonging, as well as a sense of identity, to the particular built environment.

In almost all of the work by Wang Shu his choice of materials and techniques minimize the impact of the building on the natural setting. It is a common feature of his work to reuse local materials from the area within his construction in order to act as a physical memory of the buildings which existed in the area. His view was that after construction had been completed and the building was finished, the environment was finally able to repair. (Lefaivre & Tzonis, 2012) This attitude towards architecture and its relationship with nature shows how Wang Shu feels his work grows as one with nature, as the building is constructed nature suffers but as complete nature benefits from the buildings response, amplifying almost the quality of nature through the frame of a beautifully integrated architecture.

Through a strong understanding and response to the environment as well as local materials and building techniques these architects like Wang are able to critically respond to the modern architectural world in a way which contradicts the globalizing trend. By emphasising the fundamental principles of material, context, culture and tradition in architecture he is producing work which builds from the basics of regionalism and at the same time responding to the critical modern demands of the Chinese world.

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Memory and Material in Architecture In understanding a nations architectural identity the memory of its past is an important tool.

Architecture which can conjure memories of the historic past specific to the buildings location has huge value in the creation of an identity and building which belongs to place. Materiality is a strong element of design which has the ability to rediscover memories and lock in the historic culture and tradition of its environment.

'Human constructions also have the task to preserve the past, and to enable us to experience and grasp the continuum of culture and tradition...in addition to settling us in space and place, landscapes and buildings articulate our experiences of duration in time between the polarities of past and future.'

(Pallasmaa, 2012, p23) What Pallasmaa refers to here is that the building must display some form of reference from history in order for an understanding to be developed as to the buildings identity in place, time, culture and tradition. A building’s identity can only be formed from what has already been discovered therefore the understanding of the past is critical to the success of a buildings ability to generate an identity in its context.

Memories are therefore developed through an understanding of existing and previously considered architectural forms. In this process a building does not relate to the identity of place without a memory of its past architectural tradition. Material can form an important tool in the preservation of memories, and in doing so, has the ability to establish an identity relative to place.

The traditional methods of building and construction through local materials can help connect a contemporary piece of architecture with its context as well as cultural heritage through the memory in material.

‘We understand and remember who we are through our constructions, both material and mental. We also judge different and past cultures through the evidence provided by the architectural structures they have produced. Buildings thus project the epic narratives of culture and tradition.’ (Pallasmaa, 2012, p.23) In essence we can say that a nation’s historic culture, carved through thousands of years, is reliant on the evolution of its built environment to act as a timeline in the memory and definition of its identity. This memory is then the formation of an identity relevant to the place and time in which the specific architecture has existed, acknowledged through its specific traditional construction, material and form which root it within place.

The use of material in architecture which acts as one with its surroundings is never more apparent than in the work of Kengo Kuma. Kuma is a Japanese architect renowned for an expressive use of materials and strong connections to nature. Kuma’s architecture and philosophy shares many similarities to that of this ‘new generation’ of Chinese architects whom I have mentioned previously. Just as they are trying to reinterpret tradition into the 21st century Kuma has been, and still is, determined to recover the tradition of Japanese buildings in a contemporary way.

Kuma’s main theory is ‘dematerialisation’ and in so removing the need for the architectural form, in a sense that the building becomes an extended part of nature rather than a solid form in existence. He defines it as the ‘blurring’ of architecture where material becomes one with its environment. This level of detail in material consideration shows how important the response to nature is in Kuma’s work and how he feels the spaces created can become an extension of nature.

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As much as he can, Kuma depends on local materials from the surroundings site and region. In this way the architecture produced often seems to grow from the natural environment and so the materials form the character and a special understanding of the place.

“You could say that my aim is ‘to recover the place’. The place is a result of nature and time; this is the most important aspect. I think my architecture is some kind of frame of nature. With it, we can experience nature more deeply and more intimately. Transparency is a characteristic of Japanese architecture; I try to use light and natural materials to get a new kind of transparency.”

(Bognar, 2009, p42) Kuma speaks of his architecture not as a forced structure on a natural environment but as a structure which works in transition with the context and almost forms a way to appreciate the natural surroundings more through this close engagement. The ‘transparency’ of material form allows the architecture to undertake minimal impact on the landscape and enhance the experience. This definition of material, in and of itself, is one which acts as a whole architectural form rather than a detailing or exterior skin. To Kuma material can never simply be a finish; structure and material work in tandem and in so are combined as one. Material can never be thought of without the structural consideration and vice versa. (Bognar, 2009) Kuma was part of a collective group of Japanese architects around the early 1990’s who, much like the generation of Chinese counterparts, were interested and actively used materiality to comprehend a traditional identity and build a relationship with modern architecture. Part of the same generation and mentality, Chinese architects have been able to learn a great deal from the work of contemporary Japanese architecture with regards to tradition.

Figure 7. Great Wall House by Kengo Kuma

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Although historically the two countries have not always seen eye to eye, Kuma has a lot of respect In China and has designed a number of projects on Chinese soil. One particular project being the Great Wall house (2006) in which he was asked, along with a number of high profile architects, to design a house alongside the Great Wall of China. Kuma uses bamboo throughout as a traditional and symbolic element of design and this helps to define the regional material quality as well as architectural transparency of his work.

The marriage of new and old materiality has never been more significant than in the work of Kuma and the new generations of Japanese and Chinese architects. Japan encountered the same Western influenced modernization happening in China however at an earlier date and in doing so has had more time to mature and refine its architectural language. It seems that in the Chinese catalyst of modernization, architects saw material more as an external cladding, covering up the material structure. However, the new, younger generation of architects have actively taken a different approach in the use of natural bare materials which represent structural form in modern ways. (Bognar, 2009) The representation of material through its raw and tectonic form is certainly a technique used by a number of contemporary Chinese architects in practice. The purity of materials is a way in which the building can make reference to tradition and by stripping back the structure it becomes clear the relationship of the work in relation to the natural environment and region. Wang Shu views his work in a similar light to that of Kuma. He defines his practice as amateur and delights in the simple use of material. By referring to his architecture as ‘insignificant’ he is referring to its insignificant impact on nature, in a sense becoming one with the environment, much like the work of Kuma.

I will go onto discuss three case studies where locally sourced building materials, as well as other material values, represent the familiar qualities found in local architecture and so always conjure memories of the regional value.

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Part 3 Wang Shu Wang Shu is a Chinese architect born in 1963 in Urumqi, a city in Xinjiang, the most Western province of China. Unlike many of his colleagues he has spent his entire career in China, having received his first degree in architecture in 1985 and his Master’s degree in 1988, both at the Nanjing Institute of Technology. From here he spent eight years (1990-1998) working on construction sites with builders and other craftsmen, grasping a comprehensive knowledge of the building process and values of material and craft.

(Denison & Ren, 2012)

Figure 8. Wang Shu

He founded his own studio in 1997 along with his wife, Lu Wenyu. The practice based in Hangzhou, China is named Amateur Architecture which refers to the values which an amateur builder considers to be important in design, values which are based on cultural traditions and building craft(The Pritzker Architecture Prize, 2012). With over 15 years of professional work and a growing reputation, Wang Shu shot to global stardom in 2012 when he became the first Chinese citizen to win the Pritzker Prize, architectures most illustrious award. Commended for his simple principles in contemporary design, Wang has created inspiring architecture which places strong values on material and craft, and through this he has rediscovered a sense of tradition and culture within the Chinese built environment. The resultant architecture is one very much integrated with the ideas of regionalism. ‘devoted to tradition, history, a sense of place, sustainable use of materials, and the people who will inhabit it.’ (Meinhold, 2012) In this section I am going to analyse how the work of Wang Shu has created this sense of Chinese identity through material form. I will focus on a single project which I feel epitomises the ethos of his practice.

The Ningbo History Museum is perhaps the signature piece by Wang Shu and his practice, Amateur Architecture studio, accurately portraying his objectives and material value. In 2003 Wang was awarded first place in an international design competition to secure the Ningbo Museum commission. The museum was to be committed to the history of humanities and the arts on the East coast of China.

The region of Ningbo, in which the museum sits, was once predominantly arable land and consisted of many charming villages which were destroyed in order to provide area for the development of Ningbo’s new commercial centre (Fuchs 2012). This provided a tough brief, however Wang Shu knew from the outset that 'it was essential to transform this desolate scene into a place of cultural meaning and future memory’ (Denison & Ren, 2012, p.124) The success of the building and its relationship to site has been developed through a deep contextual analysis and sensitivity to the building traditions of the area. The connection of the building to its heritage and place was even more important in the success of the buildings functional purpose as a museum. As well as holding objects from the past, the entire mass acts as a distant memory of villages through time and an important symbolic reference to the history of Ningbo. Wang Shu describes that;

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'As the sketch gradually took shape, the image of a village emerged. There used to be thirty beautiful traditional villages here. When I started the design only half were left and the others were ruined. I decided to collect the materials from the ruins and use them to build this new museum so that the vanished memory, the hap tic feeling, and the time past would be collected and preserved.’ (Shu, 2012, p35) Ningbo has a rich history of landscape painting and through the buildings structure and material quality Wang Shu has designed a building which recreates the area's heritage through a piece of artificial mountain displaying strong links with place and Ningbo's tradition.

‘The precipitous walls, rocky outlines and geological texture can be seen as an abstract expression of the painted mountainscapes that so inspire Wang Shu. Two different methods of construction are used to achieve this unique aesthetic. One is traditional, one is modern. Both are innovative.’ (Denison & Ren, 2012, p.125) The two contrasting methods of construction work seamlessly together producing a building which incorporates modern and versatile concrete technology with local building techniques. The traditional clay-tile wall makes use of reclaimed tiles, stone and brick that are set to the wall with cement. This creates a rich geological façade which speaks of the building heritage and works to blend with the natural surroundings. The technique makes certain that throughout time the tradition of the region will never be forgotten.

The second technique of construction is a bamboo-strip concrete mould which is a completely original way to shape concrete.

The bamboo, of which there are copious amounts of in the area, leaves imprints in the surface. Naturally occurring cracks and texture left on the surface give the material a much softer and harmonious feeling, far removed from concretes usually hard and intense impression. (Denilson & Ren, 2012) Materiality is paramount and allows the museum to connect with its past, the use of reclaimed brick and local stone feature heavily throughout the exterior which represents generations of building craft. This component of the external walls makes reference to the local historic fabric And, in turn, conjures memories of it.

Figure 9. (Above Top) Ningbo Museum wall construction Figure 10. (Above) Ningbo Museum contrasting façade

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This is something which features in all of the work by Amateur Architecture Studio, the ability to marry traditional techniques and material with contemporary methods in order to create architecture with a firm sense of Chinese identity. A common component in much of the work by Wang Shu is the reclaimed materials he uses from the area. Recycled brick, slate and stone feature not only in the Ningbo Museum but in the Chinese Academy of Art in Hangzhou and the Ningbo Tengtou Pavilion in Shanghai. The textures and visual beauty gained come across as a strong architectural element as well as the importance they have in grounding the work to context and history.

Conformation of this historical connection achieved in the Ningbo History museum can be found in the feedback Wang Shu has acquired from the native people of the area. The locals have warmed to the museum and the experiences it can exert; Wang Shu recalls that when the museum opened the people had a very positive reaction, ‘Many local residents went to visit repeatedly, only because in here they can try to find their lost memories. I am very moved by this.’ (Denison & Ren, 2012, p.126) This connection that the local people discover between the building and the forgotten memories of place shows strength in the buildings material effect, in a way that evokes an image of the past. It can be said that architecture does not create feelings, but that through methods of design it is able to amplify our emotions. This emotion acts as a visual and physical connection with the context and tradition of the area, informing the people of the identity and heritage of the region.

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Yung Ho Chang Another who can be considered part of this ‘new breed’ of contemporary Chinese architects is Yung Ho Chang. Unlike Wang Shu, Chang spent over a decade studying and teaching in the US before returning to his home city, Beijing. Born in 1956 he received his Bachelors of Architecture from Nanjing Institute of Technology (now Southeast University) in 1981 before completing his Masters at the University of California at Berkeley in 1984.

He then went on to teach at various Universities across the United States until 1993 when he moved back to Beijing to establish China’s first private architectural firm, Atelier FCJZ (feichang jianzhu).

‘Judging from this range of work, he may be considered to be a theory-based architect.

Although the buildings he has designed are limited in number, they are research-oriented. Viewed over time, they expand in scale with an increasing ease in the innovative use of building technologies.

Figure 11. Yung Ho Chang What is consistent in these works is an emphasis on the exposure of materials, on spatial experience and the relationships with the outside, and a studied theoretical theme.’ (Zhu, 2006, p488) This in some respects is the defining feature of Chang’s work. Each of his projects produces a huge amount of research and theory which inform the reasoning and approach to the architecture. His time spent in the United States allowed him to appreciate the theoretical approach to Chinese architecture and gain a further understanding which gives his work a greater comprehension of aspects such as materiality and natural environment.

His practice, which translates as ‘unusual architecture’ has been his way of developing an exemplar contemporary Chinese practice which displays approaches to mould the future of Chinese architecture. An important aspect of Chang’s approach to architecture is an ‘intricate relationship with materialism.’ (Xu, 2012) Throughout his vast collection of work this material character is prominent and is always deeply considered with regard to context and local tradition. Being the first private architecture practice in China, Chang wanted to choose a direction for Chinese architecture which emerging architects could follow and learn from.

Herein lies the similarities shared between Wang Shu and Yung Ho Chang. Both architects place great value on a materialistic tectonic quality which a building should display. These qualities create significant feelings and a sense of belonging to place. Research of local conditions, landscape, materials, tradition and building methods all contribute to the creation of a building which can become one with its setting. Combined these design considerations create a model in which a modern Chinese architectural language can be expressed. Through respect for traditions, culture and the vernacular, a trend can be set where this knowledge and respect is combined with modern methods of architectural design and contemporary uses of space.

Although some may say that a strong reference to traditional Chinese architecture is a backward move in the development of the Chinese city, Chang is always pursuing the ambition to make the future Chinese city a more acceptable place. The architecture and methods always 22

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aspire to answer the same question, ‘whether a single, singular object/building can succeed in achieving mass influence.’(Xing et al, 2003, p.10). Rather than the creation of hundreds of buildings which display similar attributes Chang prefers to push the boundaries of his architecture and treat every project as an individual entity. The process is more about experimenting on a small scale to develop ideas and principles which can provide guidance to many.

Chang’s architecture is as much about the context as it is about the building. By considering the context as a whole he can develop a diagnosis of the problem. Differing from a Western process where the problem is then isolated and treated as an individual issue, his Chinese sensibility works on a building as part of the contextual totality. (Xing R et al, 2003) ‘There is an emerging paradox between tectonics and ideas in Chang’s architecture. Whilst he continues to work on an increasing number of projects, he inevitably faces more problems concerning materialisation and technology. Some of his recent projects – including the Split House built of rammed earth and a factory warehouse literally cut in half and turned into an art gallery – are seductive in the delights of material tectonics.

But it would be hard to imagine that he could surrender his narratives and conceptual speculation completely in exchange for a material logic’ (Chang, 2003, p.35) It’s true that Yung Ho Chang has been continuously interested in traditional and modern Chinese cultures. However, the potential influences he receives from Chinese culture are not superficial and formal, as have been expressed by many through replicas of Chinese architectural elements. (Chang, 2003) ‘In projects like Split House (2002) under the Great Wall, he experiments with the traditional construction methods of kuangtu (stacking earth) to build the main walls of the house – earth being the most common local material. The house, however, embodies radically inventive forms and functions in spite of its ecological and economic use of local, traditional but unexpected materials and technologies. According to him, this project respects the tradition in various ways instead of imitating it. It is an attempt to answer the question of what contemporary Chinese architecture is.’

(Chang, 2003, p.48) Villa Shizilin is a celebrated project by Chang’s practice, Atelier FCJZ, and epitomises his ethos in creating an architecture deeply rooted in its environment which makes use of local material and traditions to develop a belonging of place and time.

Figure 12. (Above Top) Villa Shizilin in context Figure 13. (Above) Enclosed courtyards, Villa Shizilin

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The building sits within an orchard of persimmon trees in a mountainous region to the North of Beijing. Originally designed as a family home for a developer client with two children, the home expanded and now includes further functions such as a hotel wing for guests and stunning indoor swimming pool.

The vast project of 4,800-square-metres has used an amalgamation of modern building technologies which have been united with an understanding of traditional Chinese architectural forms. (Pearson, 2006) The architecture fully engages with the landscape in which it is set, even enclosing a small number of existing trees within courtyards located inside the building itself.

Chang has created a multi-angled building which includes nine tapered spaces, all orientated toward different views. The collection of angled structures and large full height windows evokes a feeling of intimacy between internal and external spaces. Along with this the sloping roof shapes translate a traditional Chinese form into the architecture as well as a reference to the mountainous scenery.

(Leece, 2007) Figure 14. (Above Top) Villa Shizilin roof profile Figure 15. (Above) Internal space, Villa Shizilin

The building displays a sensitive response to materiality and makes best use of local granite as an external cladding. Structurally the building incorporates a concrete-sheer-wall-and-beam system to allow for spatial and façade freedom in design. The choice of building fabric and methods has come from an understanding of traditional construction and the materials available in the region which best suited the buildings needs as well as the surrounding context.

‘An appreciation for natural materials, craftsmanship and local culture is clear. Stone from a nearby mountain – more often used locally in dam construction – was cut into cubes and used as a structural element.’ (Leece, 2007, p164) The incorporation of local material and building skill gives the architecture a sense of belonging to the landscape, using stone taken from the surrounding mountain itself allows the building to act almost as a piece of the natural landscape and therefore, in a sense, it becomes fully immersed in its environment.

The fusion of traditional forms and modern technologies gives the project cutting edge architecture delivered to the world stage which has a direct recognition of materials, culture and craft associated with the region. This has resulted in a modern piece of architecture deeply rooted in its specific context. (Pearson, 2006)

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Ma Qingyun Ma Qingyun is currently one of the highest profile architects working in China and in 2010 was named one of the world’s most influential designers (Walters & Wong, 2010). Born in 1965, Ma studied at Tsinghua University in Beijing (1983-88) where he received his Bachelors of Architecture before travelling to the United States to complete his Masters at the University of Pennsylvania (1989-91).

In 1996 he established his own practice named MADA S.p.a.m. while he was based in New York; however in 1999 he made the move back to China and, bringing the practice with him, set up a permanent base in Shanghai.

‘MADA S.p.a.m. (it stands for strategy, planning, architecture, media) is one of the new generation of architectural practices that has grown up, fit and healthy, in the development hot-house of modern, free-market China.’

(Davis, 2006, p232)

Figure 16. Ma Qingyun

Since settling back in China, Ma has returned to the United States serving as a visiting professor and critic at many of the best schools in the county including Harvard, Columbia and Pennsylvania. In 2006, he was appointed Dean at the School of Architecture in Southern California, becoming the first Chinese person in history to be appointed Dean at a university outside of China. (MADA S.p.a.m.)

Through education and experiences gained in the United States Ma, like Yung Ho Chang, was able to learn from Western architectural teachings and practice in order to interpret his own architectural attitude towards the future of China’s built environment when returning home. His learning emphasised the critical thinking and theory behind architecture which is somewhat overlooked in current Chinese architectural education.

As well the positive knowledge attained from his time abroad, Ma also discovered a weakness in the American profession.

‘Like Chang, Ma also noted the separation in the United States between ‘theory’ and ‘practice’, for example between critical design teaching at universities and commercial practice outside. He emphasised that, in his practice in China, critical thinking and commercial practice have to be integrated.’ (Zhu, 2006, p494) This was an important principle of MADA, as well as many of the new emerging Chinese practices. Critical thinking towards architecture must be enforced in the professional work taking place in China to ensure that buildings are well resolved and fully relate to context. This integration between theory and physical work is clear in all of Ma’s work. Attention to material, natural environment and tradition all play a role in the critical response to modern architecture in China.

These characteristics are defined in comprehensive depth through a MADA project known as Well Hall. Part of the large Jade Valley Resort project, the building is located in an area of China where Ma grew up and so holds a special place within his own past.

Jade Valley is a resort and winery in the Qinling Mountains just East of Xi’an in central China.

Established in 2000, the project combines vineyards with a resort consisting of 50 rooms which range from private villas to courtyard houses and hostels. The work began with Ma designing a unique house for his father, along with the transformation of the winery building from an ancient flour mill. In 2008, Well Hall was designed and built as a guesthouse, forming a precedent for the local architecture.

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Each of these buildings has been individually designed in response to the natural surroundings along with the historical culture and building craft of the region.

The project takes an alternative ‘slow process’ to its building in a country being overwhelmed by high speed, high-rise development. By utilizing local materials and builders, responding to the local microclimate, and meeting sustainability needs the project has successfully improved the Jade Valley populace. (Jacobson, 2010) This somewhat opposite approach to the project was something which Ma actively sought to achieve. As well as head architect of the project he was also the developer of the whole project. This meant complete control and cost of material, program, local craftsmen and construction time.

‘His builders spend most of the year farming but are free during the winter for construction work. Well Hall’s bricks are made in a nearby village, so Ma bought them as needed by the basketful rather than the truckload. This allowed him to build in stages and to change the design as his ideas evolved. In fact, Ma used sketches rather than construction documents to convey his design to the workers. He scaled the building according to the size of a brick, as it made better sense to specify a wall of a certain number of bricks than to break some to fit an idealized measurement.’ (Jacobson, 2010)

Figure 12. (Above Top) & Figure 13. (Above) Well Hall by Ma Qingyun

In this sense Ma was almost counterpoising the current construction industry in China by bringing the building program back to a fundamental design and build principle. The delivery of a building for the local people, by the local people is certainly achieved in this building. Producing a building which responds to local conditions and material in such a way that the brick module and availability of materials define the spaces and speed of construction, epitomises the return to regional values and traditional building process. Producing a beautiful piece of architecture which meets current technological demands and modern living needs, in itself, is a commendable feat, done with such a simplistic material and construction process.

The Well Hall building shares this reoccurring relationship which has been present in much of the ‘new generation’ Chinese architecture. This is the bond of traditional values in materiality and the use of contemporary technologies in construction. This careful consideration and appreciation for tradition shows the respect for the past and how it can be interpreted in contemporary architecture, producing a sense of Chinese identity once again.

An understanding of the local brick and construction has been reinterpreted to form a perforated façade with only a few hexagonal holes punctuating the walls, a typical characteristic of Chinese housing. Using brick walls and clay-tile roofing in the exterior construction is a very standard approach in the area, this being said, the brick walls have been designed to alternate red and black which produce an exclusive decorative effect.

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As well as the choice of material being typical of the region, the inverted roof pitch is another historic design feature which served many local buildings in the past, by passing rain water into a central well within the courtyard and also as a security aid, as the high walls would discourage thieves from surrounding areas. (Jacobson, 2010) Even the internal courtyard space speaks of traditional Chinese timber craft and detailing, which forms a modern aesthetic and blends seamlessly with the brick finishes.

Figure 12. Well Hall courtyard by Ma Qingyun

The organisation of the building reinterprets a traditional model in the form of the Chinese courtyard house. Although Ma has chosen to represent a historical domestic building, he realises that Chinese families are constantly evolving and in doing so the buildings use can cater to accommodate family, friends and strangers. (Jacobson, 2010) Through this modern interpretation of a successful traditional housing model, Ma recognizes the diversity of modern China and the changing needs in society. The familiarity of the accommodation type relates to the people of the region as well as the tradition and identity of its architecture.

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Summary To summarize the three case studies. Although each display characteristics of materiality which are distinctly Chinese, they do so through different methods and form different relationships with tradition and context. Each of the three architects offer different theoretical approaches to the issue of identity.

Wang Shu can be classed as the most regional of the three architects. Not an academic figure as such, he applies his basic approach and values to building design. He strives to create building that blend into the environment; his work can be described as a subtle intervention in the landscape. The sense of a distinct Chinese character, tradition and material identity is expressed through the building construction and craft, associated to centuries of Chinese architecture.

In the design of the Ningbo Museum, a particular quality is developed through the use of reclaimed building materials. These materials encourage the visitor to form a memory of the region and create a sense of place in this reconnection with the past traditional and architectural heritage. As a museum, this reference to the past is a function of the building as much as what is enclosed inside.

Yung Ho Chang and Ma Qingyun are both very much Chinese intellectuals, who have a large amount of experience working in and developing Chinese architectural education. They are very much the theoretical pioneers of modern Chinese architecture, and in so have been discussing their work and ideas all over the world. The values which they place on a Chinese identity come from the time spent away analysing China. They are seeking to improve the Chinese cities on every level and both find materials and tradition a vital way of expressing a Chinese character and response to place.

At Villa Shizilin Yung Ho Chang uses references in material form as well as construction to root the building within the natural environment. By reinterpreting traditional Chinese architectural elements, such as the roof shape and courtyard, he is able to reintroduce a sense of Chinese character. Coupled with this are the strong contextual considerations formed through a response to existing nature. The mountainous roof shape reference, small courtyard areas containing existing trees, and local stone walls set the building within its place and time.

As for the Well Hall project by Ma Qingyun, careful material detailing and use of local building tradition, craftsmen, and material all contribute to form a piece of architecture which speaks of the region in which it sits. Along with this, the specific arrangement of a central courtyard and roof shape are taken from an existing regional model, which ties the building to the traditional forms and identity of the area.

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Conclusions Throughout my investigation into Chinese architecture and the contemporary architects who are shaping its future, I have learned a huge amount and feel that my understanding of the country’s architectural condition has improved and is constantly developing. From this research I has become aware of the complexity and multiple layers of design considerations which contribute to a definition of a Chinese architectural identify.

What seemed initially like an incredibly broad subject is only constitutes to a single piece in a vast puzzle; the question of what it means to create authentic Chinese architecture.

Something which I have touched upon a number of times in my analysis of case study material is the active position of the architect in the process of blending traditional techniques with modern technologies. Be this through form, material, construction, or other elements; the response to a historic design method is met with a technical integration of contemporary needs.

It seems that finally the Chinese have begun to re-establish a design process, which relates to tradition and regional values producing results that speak of a Chinese identity.

China has had to learn a great deal in such a short space of time, the future is a hugely exciting and an unknown prospect. What we have seen so far from the last ten to twenty years is the first generation of professional architects to tackle the current condition in China; a modernised economic powerhouse with strong architectural ambitions.

With this being said it is important to remember the new generation of Chinese architects which I have been looking at are a very small minority in a country full of architects, many of whom still appear lost in an international mindset and an aspiration to interpret western forms. However true this may be the influence felt from the western world was a way for China to learn and develop quickly from existing modern nations. This allowed China to prosper economically and function as a powerful global nation. In this sense the western interpretation was necessary in helping China keep up with its economic growth.

It is apparent that within this group of a new generation of architects, discussed in this dissertation, the majority have been educated in, or have spent time, learning and working in foreign countries. Does this signal a problem with the architectural education system in China? It seems that the more successful architects have spent time abroad where they have been able to view the condition in China from an outside perspective. Ma Qingyun has felt this benefit. ‘…blind desire to leave China was a good move; firstly because it gave me the chance to see China from a distance; a kind of re-understanding. It would have been different if I had stayed in China then. And secondly it was good for me to leave China because it prepared me much more intensively – for my return.’ (De Muynck, 2006) The experience of an outside perspective and a different take on education has allowed Ma as well as many others to return home with a greater understanding of China. Rather than to distance themselves from what is important, the time away has become a chance to rediscover what matters and the values of architecture in China. It begins to question the Chinese architecture education and suggests that perhaps it is still catching up with the world.

At the same time as one can blame the Chinese education system as the possible problem for not creating an authentic and contemporary Chinese architecture, architects such as Wang Shu as well as others are making national and international names for themselves. Having spent all his educational upbringing in China he has developed an understanding of Chinese architecture from within its own environment. This makes it perhaps more of an issue in the attitude towards learning and a response to what is regarded important in China now.

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One thing is certain, with figures such as Yung Ho Chang and Ma Qingyun among others returning to China and becoming actively involved in the education system their influence will soon show and future generations are sure to prosper. Change will happen; as Chang and Ma have both acknowledged, the separation between ‘theory’ and ‘practice’ in the west is not suitable to China. (Zhu, 2006) This contemporary issue is being discussed by architectural critics and theorists while also being publicly addressed in practice by all three architects whom I have analysed, as well as other members of this Chinese generation. For instance, Yung Ho Chang has and is currently delivering presentations across the globe on his personal ambitions for Chinese architecture and the importance of material in contemporary design to address this new Chinese architectural identity.

The exhibitions Chang has organized, known as ‘Materialism’, are his way of teaching China and the rest of the world about his architectural approach to China’s current urban condition.

The space is set up with six courtyard shaped exhibitions which individually express different principles of work by Yung Ho Chang and his practice. These include the redefinition of tradition, culture, construction methods and materials, and inhabitation as well as perception and microurbanism. (Andrea DB, 2012) The argument as to whether these new approaches to architecture can bring substance to a new Chinese architectural identity is still ongoing. Many feel that this material and contextual value is something taken from the idea of Critical Regionalism popularised by Kenneth Frampton and cloned in China in an attempt to rediscover a coherent character. In a way, this may be true and China is still in the midst of discovering itself with relation to the modern world. Still in a transitional stage after the period of modernisation which has had such an impact and an unsure view of how it really wants to proceed in an architectural future. The return to material values and regional principles has undoubtedly been a positive step towards translating the current urban realm, moving away from the array of different western interpretations to a more contextual, traditionally influenced architecture which still defines a modern China.

What is undeniable is that the new breed of Chinese architects know this must change and must be done to rediscover the nations pride in architecture. Moving away from buildings built solely for the purpose of economic and social gain as we have seen across China in the past decade. Providing a solution to the architectural condition in China could prove a difficult task, with an air of global freedom and different cultures and social groups living and working together the response to fully resolve a ‘Chinese architecture’ will never appear to be the finished project.

But I feel that in this way, the issue of architectural identity across the world struggles to keep up with the changes in its people and needs.

From this research I have a better understanding of the dynamic of the Chinese architectural profession, and I have developed my knowledge of the effects material can have in creating a sense of place and relationship with the environment. It has encouraged me to critically think about material and how it can create different effects in architecture. The way in which these instrumental Chinese architects have portrayed material has influenced me to approach my own work in a different manner, at all times considering material as part of the complete design.

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References Abel, C., 2000, Architecture & Identity, Oxford: Architectural Press Andersen, M. A., 2012, In Conversation – Peter Zumthor, Architectural Design, v82, 6, London: Wiley Andrea, 2012, Behind-the-scenes of yung ho changes materialism exhibition at ucca, Designboom [Online] Available at http://www.designboom.com/architecture/behind-the-scenes-of-yung-hochangs-material-ism-exhibition-at-ucca/ [Accessed on 6 May 2013] Architect’s Record and Presentation Panel, Well Hall., 2010, Aga Khan Trust for Architecture [Online] Available at http://archnet.org/library/files/one-file.jsp?file_id=3337 [Accessed on 6 May 2013] Botz-Bornstein, T., 2009, Wang Shu and the Possibilities of Architectural Regionalism in China. Nordic Journal of Architectural Research, 21:1 Buckley, B., 2008, China Design Now, Theory, Culture & Society, 25:341 Byrnes, M., 2012, China's Emerging Architectural Style, The Atlantic cities [Online] Available at: http://www.theatlanticcities.com/design/2012/11/chinas-emergingarchitectural-style/4040/#slide1 [Accessed on 6 May 2013] Canizaro, V. B., 2007, Architectural Regionalism: Collected Writings on Place, Identity, Modernity, and Tradition, New York: Princeton Architectural Press

Cao, S., 2012, Cultural Values, The Architectural Review: China Issue, 233, [Online] Available at: http://www.architectural-review.com/cultural-values/8634788.article [Accessed on 6 May 2013] Chadwick, M., 2004, Back to School, Architectural Design, London: Wiley Chen, C., 2005, Alternative Views (Yung Ho Chang), Blueprint, 233, p46-50 Davis, C., 2006, Key Houses of the Twentieth Century: Plans, Sections & Elevations, London: Lawrence King De Muynck, B., 2006, Qingyun Ma: Architect in China: An Interview with Qingyun Ma of MADA S.p.a.m., movingcities, [Online] Available at http://movingcities.org/interviews/qingyun-ma_volume/ [Accessed on 6 May 2013] 31

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Journal of Architectural Education, 63:1, p64-74

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Figure References Figure 1. China’s urban population increase Liauw, L, 2008, New Urban China, Architectural Design, London: Wiley, p13 Figure 2. Wang Shu outside the Academy of Arts in Hangzhou [Online] Available at http://www.archdaily.com/20523/new-academy-of-art-in-hangzhou-wangshu-amateur-architecture-studio/2106282712_wang-shu-hangzhou-8615/ [Accessed on 6 May 2013] Figure 3. Neighbourhood Erased in Pudong Liauw, L, 2008, New Urban China, Architectural Design, London: Wiley, p8 Figure 4. CCTV Headquarters in Beijing by OMA Architects Figure 5. Chinese Pavilion, Shanghai Expo 2010 Dubrau, C., 2010, Contemporary Architecture in China, Berlin, German: DOM Publishers, p30 Figure 6. Hakka Village, Fujian Hertzberger, H., 2000, Space and the Architect: Lessons in Architecture 2, Rotterdam: 010 Publisher, p129 Figure 7. Great Wall House by Kengo Kuma Bognar, B., 2009, Material Immaterial: The New Work of Kengo Kuma, New York: Princeton Architectural Press, p35 Figure 8. Wang Shu [Online] Available at http://www.e-architect.co.uk/images/jpgs/architects/wang_shu_p270212_hf.jpg [Accessed 6 May 2013] Figure 9. Wall construction, Ningbo History Museum by Wang Shu [Online] Available at http://www.themilanese.com/?p=2505 [Accessed on 6 May 2013] Figure 10. Contrasting Façade, Ningbo Museum by Wang Shu [Online] Available at http://www.archdaily.com/14623/ningbo-historic-museum-wang-shuarchitect/470058299_wang-shu-ningbo-museum-4278/ [Accessed on 6 May 2013] Figure 11. Yung Ho Chang [Online] Available at http://www.chinese-architects.com/en/feichang/en/ [Accessed on 6 May 2013]

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Figure 12. Villa Shizilin in context Leece, S., 2007, China Living, Vermont, USA: Tuttle Publishing, p166 Figure 13. Enclosed courtyards, Villa Shizilin [Online] Available at http://images.businessweek.com/ss/05/12/yunghochang/source/8.htm [Accessed 6 May 2013] Figure 14. Villa Shizilin roof profile Endelmann, F., 2008, Positions: Portrait of a New Generation of Chinese Architects, Barcelona: Actar, p220 Figure 15. Internal space, Villa Shizilin Endelmann, F., 2008, Positions: Portrait of a New Generation of Chinese Architects, Barcelona: Actar, p221 Figure 16. Ma Qingyun [Online] Available at http://hammer.ucla.edu/programs/detail/program_id/160 [Accessed 6 May 2013] Figure 17. Well Hall by Ma Qingyun Architect’s Record and Presentation Panel, Well Hall., 2010, Aga Khan Trust for Architecture [Online] Available at http://archnet.org/library/files/one-file.jsp?file_id=3337 [Accessed on 6 May 2013] Figure 18. Well Hall by Ma Qingyun Architect’s Record and Presentation Panel, Well Hall., 2010, Aga Khan Trust for Architecture [Online] Available at http://archnet.org/library/files/one-file.jsp?file_id=3337 [Accessed on 6 May 2013] Figure 19. Well Hall courtyard by Ma Qingyun Architect’s Record and Presentation Panel, Well Hall., 2010, Aga Khan Trust for Architecture [Online] Available at http://archnet.org/library/files/one-file.jsp?file_id=3337 [Accessed on 6 May 2013]

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