Essay 2: Pilot Thesis
RECONCEIVING THE SITE OF THE AMERICAN EMBASSY IN HAVANA IN A TIME OF TRANSITION
Janis Atelbauers Hughes Hall, 19/04/2016 The number of words: 4300 An essay submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the MPhil Examination in Architecture & Urban Design (2015-2017)
CONTENTS 1
INTRODUCTION
2
HISTORY REPEATS: OPENNESS VS CLOSURE
3
DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICAN EMBASSIES
4
AMERICAN EMBASSY IN HAVANA
5
REVOLUTION, ''THE WORK OF THE CENTURY'', PERESTROIKA
6
HISTORY REPEATS: METRO PROPOSAL IN FRONT OF AMERICAN EMBASSY
7
CONCLUSION
4 INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION I) A section pointing out the paradox between trends towards openness on the one hand, and towards greater security and control of the free exchange of people. Here I give examples of both trends, including specifically the issues for Cuba as it tries slowly to open up, when other pressures internationally are in the opposite direction. II) A brief discussion of how, historically, embassies have functioned and served national interests. The rise of American embassies after the Second World War. III) The specific case study of the American embassy in Havana. Its history and controversial facts raised the question: as an embassy how appropriate is it as national architecture which intends to spread democracy? IV) A brief survey of the revolution and the ''work of the century'' to solve traffic issues in Havana V) Re-discovery of existing metro entrance and proposal of a second metro line. One of its stations to be placed in front of the American embassy which symbolically reshapes new relationships between the USA and Cuba, and architecturally reshapes the panoramic view to the city from Malecon Bay.
6 HISTORY REPEATS: OPENNESS VS CLOSURE
HISTORY REPEATS: OPENNESS VS CLOSURE Somewhat cynically, Karl Marx suggested that "History repeats itself first as tragedy then as farce." There are plenty of examples of this. We witness it right now, vividly illustrated in the paradox between trends toward openness on the one hand, and counter trends towards greater security and control of free exchange of people. The Schengen Agreement was reached 14 June 1985 by five of the ten EU member states. It reflected a rapidly-changing world where barriers were removed for free movement, and different trade agreements between the USA and Western European countries where made. There was sense of optimism. The growth of such openness might argue against the importance of embassies. By contrast, there is other, contradictory pressure, strongly evident in more recent affairs, for example, events in Paris, and a wide range of reactions to this, including the restricting of EU agreements, and the suspension of Schengen. In the past year there have been multiple attacks in France, Nigeria, and Denmark. Today Europe is a society in fear. France is in a state of emergency as security is ramped up, and borders highly controlled. The UK is set to have a referendum this year on the 23 June on whether to remain a member of the European Union. One of Europe's strongly Social Democratic countries - Sweden -- is the latest to close its borders to immigrants, despite the Hungarian and Slovenian governments having been widely criticised for putting up fences to halt the flow of migrants through their countries. Such developments obviously conflict with other widely-evident trends. Today globalization, together with advances in communications and transportation, has greatly increased the number of people with the desire and capacity to move to other places. Migration attracts increasing attention. Unforeseeable elements, emergencies, and complexity, increase the challenges and difficulties of international migration and require enhanced cooperation and collective action. Traditionally agreements about collective action, along with unilateral pacts between individual countries, has been the function of diplomacy, and the focus of such diplomacy has been embassies. For countries with very large migrant communities based overseas, the presence of embassies and consulates facilitates effective provision of consular services and protection. The increase in levels of migration has also increased the global problem of human trafficking and abuse of foreign workers. Without embassies, these citizens would lose a valuable layer of protection.
It is important to note that while Europe is experiencing significant challenges in securing borders because of the influx of refugees and potential of terrorism, Cuba is undergoing profound changes in terms of the openness of his relationship with the outside world and in particular with the United States. It has been much in the news with the restoration of diplomatic relations with the US. Promising conversations about opening up for trade are being aggressively pursued. There is an agreement to restore commercial flights in 2016.1 Traditionally, such matters would have been undertaken primarily under the auspices of the countries' embassies.
To contain Soviet expansion after the Second World War, and particularly from 1947 on, the United States committed extensive economic and military resources to curtail the spread of international communism.2 It launched a massive effort to build democracy in Germany, Austria, Italy, and Japan and to turn its former foes into solid and productive allies, as the Soviet Union made use of sealed off Eastern Europe. The American embassy building program was, and remains, part of America's larger effort to define its world role. It was one of the responses to contain Soviet expansion in Europe. Crucially, it was recognised that no country can exercise political world leadership without displaying a degree of cultural leadership as well. Whether consciously or not, amongst a great many examples, the US Government has made US architecture a vehicle of cultural leadership. The most immediate example of national architecture in a foreign country is embassy architecture. An embassy is a nationalist building located in a foreign country, which conducts official diplomatic business between the governments and citizens of the two Embassies have existed for centuries and it is likely they will be around for a long time to come. However, the manner in which they will operate and conduct their work will evolve to keep them relevant and responsive to global developments, including such major (but to a degree contradictory) trends as those I pointed out earlier. The need for increased embassy security 3 also bolstered the US building program from the early 1950's. Until World War II, nearly all references to security regarding diplomatic facilities concerned theft, burglary, unauthorized entry, and above all, fire. But with the Cold War came new threats, prompted by increased concerns about foreign governments spying on Americans and the rapidly increased use of electronic equipment, as well as the greater quantity of sensitive information that had to be processed and stored at embassies.
DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICAN EMBASSIES 7
DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICAN EMBASSIES
8 AMERICAN EMBASSY IN HAVANA
AMERICAN HAVANA
EMBASSY
IN
The Soviet government had already begun to establish its own information centers, known as Houses of Culture. It is worth noting that this was taking place at the same time when, as part of its efforts to integrate and enhance urban life, and stress the of Soviet society, there was also a major effort to build metro's in all mayor Soviet Union capitals. These were just two highly symbolic but also utilitarian measures pursued at the time. US officials were worried about the high profile Soviet of such propaganda efforts and how it might undermine the mission to build, for example, a democratic government in West Germany. In discussing the function and format of embassies, it is useful to point out that intent distinguishes from When calculated to be provocative or subversive, information may best be described as propaganda.4 In designing this and other embassies in the post war period, those responsible were concerned that the rightness of American democracy should be self-evident. They wanted to make sure that the United States was not out-manoeuvred by the Soviets.
1
2
Harrison & Abramovitz were well-known as architects who designed the United Nations Headquarters and Metropolitan Opera House (Lincoln Center), both in New York City. They also built the American embassy in Rio (Brazil) and were chosen to design the new American embassy in Havana. When the firm was hired, Harrison had a relationship through marriage with the politically and financially highly influential Rockefeller family. Harrison received numerous commissions and became widely known, in part through Rockefeller patronage. Nelson Rockefeller was the Assistant Secretary of State for American republic affairs. An interesting question is whether he influenced the situation to favour Harrison. Knowing the patronage relationship that existed between the two men, one might expect that he did, or attempted to. 5 In any case, the American embassy in Havana was completed in 1953. Then on January 3, relations following Revolution. The building, located in Havana's Anti-imperialist Park, subsequently housed States' between 1977 and 2015, operated under power). In August, 2015 after a break of 55 years, the Embassy of the United States reopened, thanks to Pope Francis, Raul Castro and Cuban Americans. Interestingly, it was not just the fact of the embassy reopening that was significant: the physical site itself had in recent years taken on a political resonance. This was after a decade-long propaganda war from 2001 to 2009 which took place in the immediately adjacent to the former embassy. For example, in 2006 while Fidel Castro was giving a speech in this plaza, a banner appeared on what had been the embassy building, with the message: bad that all the people who know how to run the country are busy driving taxicabs and cutting As a response, the Cuban government placed poles and black flags to obscure the view of the embassy from the plaza. Prior to these events, the embassy building itself had remained relatively unchanged during the years when diplomatic relations were suspended. It was designed as a seven-story office building. The financial arrangements included provision for importing materials from many nations. There was clearly an attempt to fit the building to the local scene through attention to climate, site, materials, and the totality of the design, which included the involvement of a well-manufacturer, Hans Knoll.6 However, once the structure was finished, the heat in the building was unbearable; they had to seal all the windows and install air-conditioners. Despite typically uncritical praise from the architectural press, there was in fact, a profound failure of the architecture and the furniture to work as expected.
3
Figure 1 American embassy in 1952. Figure 2 Embassy finished 1953. Figure 3 Embassy today and ambassador's balcony overlooking bay.
9 AMERICAN EMBASSY IN HAVANA Figure 4 Satellite picture of Havana and location of Anti-imperialist plaza The city proper has a population of 2.1 million inhabitants, and it spans a total of 728.26 km2
10 AMERICAN EMBASSY IN HAVANA
Harrison & Abramovitz undertook to express the functional division of the embassy in their plan. They housed the consular offices, which needed to be accessible to the public, in a one-story structure. This wrapped around an office tower. In addition to the consular offices, the lower portion also housed the visa section and public information services. The ambassador's offices were on the fifth floor and were notable - rather remarkably -- for a prominent balcony on the north elevation facing towards sea. Although it later became unwise to advertise the location of the ambassador's office, there was no such concern at the time.
Malecon
Figure 5
road
Balconies historically have been an eloquent architectural element where individuals could express their political power through speeches: one thinks of Hitler, Pope Francis, or Eva Peron. In the light of such use, the single balcony in the Cuban Embassy was not a wise decision; it was provocative and in a not very subtle way displayed the kind of influence Americans had played and wanted to continue to play in Havana. Its location is on the edge of Malecon road and placed very prominently with the main facade looking towards city so it could be clearly visible all across the bay's Promenade.
11 4 4
5
6
3
2
7
1
N 1. Entrance 2. VISAS 3. COURT 4. PUBLIC INFORMATION SERVICES 5. COURT AND POOL 6. ARCADE 7. CONSULAR OFFICES 8. AMBASSADOR'S OFFICE
Figure 6 Ground and 5th floor plan M 1:500
AMERICAN EMBASSY IN HAVANA
8
12 AMERICAN EMBASSY IN HAVANA
7
American Embassy viewed from around the bay and across the channel
A
8 Figure 7 Photo taken from location A in Figure 8
13 AMERICAN EMBASSY IN HAVANA
American Embassy La Torre
Ant-imperilaist plaza metro station
''Hospital'' Metro station Figure 9 Redesigning Havana's bay: underground metro station obscuring American embassy and metro station in front of hospital with recreational space between these two stations
10
11 Figure 10 Taken before revolution. Figure 11 Taken in 2012 Both images taken from La Torre
14 REVOLUTION, ''THE WORK OF THE CENTURY'', PERESTROIKA
REVOLUTION, ''THE WORK OF THE CENTURY'', PERESTROIKA Before the revolution the USA had played a leading role in Cuban affairs and its social, economic, and political development. Hotels, restaurants, night clubs, golf clubs and casinos sprung up in Havana catering in part to wealthy Americans in search of exotic luxury. Tourism, together with the growing and selling of sugar,7 was making some Cubans very rich; but, crucially, not all Cubans. What the tourists didn't see, or didn't want to see, was people trapped in poverty who worked only during the four-month season, and the rest of the year were unemployed, frustrated, and angry. The vast degree of income inequality as well as accusations of rampant corruption within the government of President Batista laid the groundwork for the Cuban Revolution. The USA expansion of influence in Europe, and in particular the placing of missiles in Turkey next to Soviet borders, was irritating to Moscow. The leaders in the Kremlin saw a chance to demonstrate Soviet power and influence right next to American borders. They therefore first supported the Cuban revolution, and then orchestrated the missile crisis.
Figure 12 Metro proposal in 1921
Cuba become a stage and showcase where the Soviets could demonstrate that the right and most successful system was communism rather than capitalism. It was in Russian interests to show to Latin America how prosperous Cuba was by trying to assist it to be efficient and technologically advanced. Cuba was heavily subsidised with oil from the Soviets, and also supported economically in many ways. But despite such extraordinary assistance, there were major problems: for example, the daily average of 30,000 bus trips8 required in Havana meant that the city was not able to cope with the need for service. The obvious solution was the creation of a Metro. And it was not a first time the Metro Project was discussed. In 1921 there was a
Figure 13 Publication in ''The New York Times'' 1921
REVOLUTION, ''THE WORK OF THE CENTURY'', PERESTROIKA
15
18 REVOLUTION, ''THE WORK OF THE CENTURY'', PERESTROIKA
This earlier plan was to be based upon the New York City subway. But, appropriately enough, this time a Cuban delegation was sent to Moscow to study its Metro system. After it returned, the project took full speed and was called work of the But soon perestroika came, and the project had to be abandoned since subsidies were cut down or eliminated altogether. This was not only a political embarrassment, but also a lost opportunity to improve significantly the conditions of Havana's residents, and not surprisingly, there was no publicity given at the time to the suspension of plans. After the Soviet Union's collapse there were inner and outer forces whose interest was that post Soviet Union countries undergo quick changes. There were two reasons: 1. they wanted to be sure that the process was so rapid it was not reversible, and 2. There were groups of people who were extremely anxious to gain financially from a process not yet closely regulated by new governments. It may well be that similar conditions will in due course (as history repeats itself) in part determine future developments in Cuba. Privatizations in Russia and Eastern Europe were accompanied by large-scale corruption in the course of the sale of the formerly state-owned companies. Those with political connections unfairly gained huge wealth. But there were other, unfortunate consequences, some of them long-lasting. A 2009 study published The Lancet journal estimated that as many as 1,000,000 working men died as a result of economic shocks associated with mass privatization in the
Figure 13 Sokol metro station, Moscow
And that in turn had a snowball effect on the rise of a great many other problems, including - to take one example -- child prostitution. The sexual exploitation of children was tremendously influenced not just by poverty, but also by tourism, and the rise of human trafficking. Another profound consequence was the rise of emigration to western countries. In time Cuba shared similar some of the same experiences encountered in countries of the former Soviet Union, and in addition, because it didn't change its political system, it suffered from isolation and faced in turn further issues. Because the oil supply was cut, it meant that not only did the country continue to have difficulties to import sufficient food, but in addition, the faming population could not run tractors to work on their own fields. A farming revolution began. First they had to train oxen to plough the land. With no oil-based fertilisers or pesticides, farmers had to turn to natural and organic replacements. But such measures did not come even close to supplying demand. Inhabitants in Havana who had the necessary knowledge began growing food in between collapsed buildings or on patios. Cubans began raising organic food by using less fuel than developed countries do today. Cuba still imports 60 percent of its food today; mainly bulk cereals and grains An eventual transition from communism to some more capitalist system will throw up a host of problems and challenges, and future Cuban governments will urgently need to address these. One prominent and particularly effective undertaking might be to revive and institute the old plans for a Metro which would allow a reduction in pollution and leave the surface of the city for use by people rather than by vehicles. Moreover, from the Anti-imperialist park all across a bay the proposed site for a Metro station could be fashioned to incorporate a long green urban farm that uses salt water from the bay, with, in addition, piers extending into the sea. This could fulfil the sort of recreational function and provide civic amenities which currently are seriously lacking in Havana.
Figure 14 Komsomolskaya metro Station, Moscow
Figure 15 Elektrozavodskaya metro station, Moscow
20 REVOLUTION, ''THE WORK OF THE CENTURY'', PERESTROIKA
Today Cuba still ''struggles'' with public transport. Tourists are advised not to travel around Havana by bus. These are crowded, infrequent, and never on time. The reason why is that the city does not have a subway, which would address this pressing problem, and in turn because to create one it is an extremely costly undertaking. Nevertheless with recent and prospective changes, now might very well be the best time to reinitiate a The possible location of one of the Metro stations (which I am proposing) would be both practically useful but also highly significant in its symbolism. The Luxurious hotel Nacional de Cuba is located close to the This hotel moreover, was used by Fidel Castro and Che Guevara as their headquarters to organize the defence of Cuba against the US and features a small museum highlighting this. Earlier, many famous people had stayed at the Hotel Nacional, such as Frank Sinatra, Ernest Hemingway, Marlene Dietrich, Winston Churchill and his wife and many more. A further significance of the site is that La Torre, the tallest building in Cuba, is located between the Hotel Nacional and the Embassy. It is described as one of the seven wonders of Cuban civil engineering. Upon its completion in 1956, it was considered a national sensation due to its modern technology. Indeed, it was only the second project of its kind in the world. Today it's used for temporarily housing of foreign guest workers.
Hotel Nacional
Figure 18 North elevations of Anti-imperialist plaza
Figure 18 Aerial view overlooking Anti-imperialist plaza
La Torre
American Embassy
21
Two of proposed metro stations on La Linea Dos
1 Parque Central
A Anti-imperialist plaza
2 Salvador Allende y Belascoain
B Hospital
REVOLUTION, ''THE WORK OF THE CENTURY'', PERESTROIKA
Existing entrances on la Linea Uno
3 Plaza de la Revolucion 4 Minsterio del Transporte 5 la Ciudad Deportiva A B 1
2 3
4
5
Figure 19 Existing entrance on Linea Uno and proposed second line
22 REVOLUTION, ''THE WORK OF THE CENTURY'', PERESTROIKA
Option 1
Platform and entrance
In front of it in a bay, I am proposing a metro station on the Metro line ''Linea Dos'' to come from the Parque Centrale. In the Soviet plans Parque Central was the main and deepest station and from there some of the existing tunnels already run for to the station Ciudad Deportiva. This should have been finished by 1993 according to the official newspaper of the Central Committee of the Cuban Communist Party in 1985. Option 2
Platform and entrance
Option 3
Option 4
Platform and entrance
Platform
Entrance
Figure 20 Studies of proposed stations
23 REVOLUTION, ''THE WORK OF THE CENTURY'', PERESTROIKA Figure 21 Collage of some of material from official newspaper of the Central Committee of the Cuban Communist Party published in 1985
24 HISTORY REPEATS: METRO IN HAVANA
Figure 22 Horse carriages and bike taxis are used very often by locals and tourists
Figure 23 Coco taxi used by tourists and locals
= 5,000 emigrants (total for 2007-2011) = 5,000 tourists (2011 figures)
1,104,679 68% in Florida
The Metro would serve to maintain Havana's city fabric and its innovative way of travelling. However, there is a significant challenge in trying to preserve its streets for the people and display the charm of antique cars, while at the same time making it more efficient and more competitive as Havana becomes more globalized and reintegrated with the rest of world. I strongly believe a Metro could be a major response to meeting this challenge. It would do so by drawing upon elements from the historical past, and then these for a new and promising future. Indeed, such an undertaking might serve as one major, symbolic, highly visible and suggestive example of the desire to preserve aspects of the past, while addressing the challenge of a greatly changed future that the Cuban people now face. I would argue that if the Castro dynasty comes to an end, Cuba will experience rapid and potentially far-reaching changes and a Metro could be invaluable and timely in helping to tackle the consequences of such quick and profound political, cultural, and economic change, of the sort which is still evident today in Eastern Europe and Russia. Moreover, the experience and insight arising from the collapse of the Soviet Empire might provide some very useful and instructive guidance on how best to address the likely developments (and avoid pitfalls) forthcoming in Cuba. Perhaps in this instance we can actually learn from history without descending into farce.
Cuban nationals abroad and tourists by country of origin
United States
How would a Metro respond to issues Havana is facing?
Spain
Germany
Mexico
Venezuela
Italy
Canada
92,583
18,265
12,108
9,621
8,865
8.865
101,631
95,124
76,326
34,096
110,432
1,002,318
85 %Cuban Americans
605,354
HISTORY REPEATS: METRO IN HAVANA
Metro stations could be responsive to the new conditions likely to develop in Havana as they evolve, both in how the stations would function, and in the form of their design. In the case of the station I propose here, I would argue that (in addition to all its other attractive qualities which I have outlined) because there have been 60 years of isolation and little communication between Cubans and Americans, a Metro is actually highly appropriate, desirable and effective in the circumstances of the emerging future relationship between Cuba and the United States.
25
HISTORY REPEATS: METRO IN HAVANA
26 CONCLUSION
Figure 24 Cuba before Communism was a playground for those who could afford to play. Aline Johnson de Menocal meeting with her personal staff to plan a party.
At the beginning I cited what appear to be recurring, cyclical phases of openness and closure; when borders, international relationships, and the movement of people periodically enjoy periods of relative relaxation and openness, which can then be followed by retrenchment and closure. Despite important innovations and reforms, and an apparent willingness tentatively to move to a more open society, it may well be that Cuba will not open up as quickly as we think. After suggesting an official expiration date for the Castro Era of 2018, Mr. Castro in 2013 selected as his top vice president and successor Miguel He now accompanies Raul on almost all important international visits. It seems likely that Miguel will be the next President of Cuba. If Cuba should experience some sort of uprising or major realignments of political power following its elections in 2018, it is then likely to face rapid change, and one of the probable consequences is that traditional Embassies will not be able greatly to help the most vulnerable people. for its capacity to record and preserve not just historical physical remnants, but concomitant with these, and immanent within them, the history of thought, perception, memory and imagination as well. The rebirth of the Metro Project could reflect the new possibilities of openness and communication that are evident in recent developments in Cuba. Or it might instead become a concrete demonstration of Marx's warning that ''History repeats itself first as tragedy then as farce''. Cuban culture is strong, its people resilient and proud, and very concerned to preserve and support their culture, while deeply wary of too much US influence. The role, therefore, of a metro stations would need to be handled sensitively. They represent perhaps one solution (and in the example of the station I propose adjacent to the American embassy) one particularly relevant to the history of the site and its historical associations - reflecting those global trends which until recently were evidence of greater cooperation and a less assertive nationalism, and which hopefully will now also become increasing prevalent in Cuba. What is undoubtedly true is that there will be changes in Cuba, but many of the essential, characteristic, and attractive aspects of Cuba life will go on. The proposed revival of the of the is not only timely, but also, in the light of its history, and that of the particular site I propose for a metro station, deeply evocative or a turbulent past, while suggestive and offering encouragement for a promising future.
27 CONCLUSION
CONCLUSION
28 BIBLIOGRAPHY
BIBLIOGRAPHY Birkenmaier, Anke, and Whitfield, Esther (2011), Havana beyond the Ruins: Cultural Mappings after 1989 (Duke University Press)
Derrifa, Jacques (2001), On Cosmopolitanism and Forgiveness: Thinking in action . (Routledge) Loeffler, Jane C. (1998), The Architecture of Diplomacy: Building America's Embassies , 2nd Revised Edition. (Princeton Architectural Press) Coyula, Mario, & Scarpaci, Joseph, Segre, Robert (1997), Havana: Two Faces of the Antillean Metropolis . (John Wiley & Sons Ltd) Perez, Julio (2006), Inside Cuba (Taschen)
Samoff, Carnoy (1990), Education and Social Transition in the third world. (Princeton University Press) Scully,Vincent (1969), American Architecture and Urbanism . (Revised Edition, 2013 Trinity University Press) Skidelsky, Robert & Edward (2012), How much is enough? (Penguin books) Szelenyi, Ivan (1998), Privatizing the land: Rural political economy in post-communist societies. (Routledge) Turnock, David (1998), Privatization in Rural Eastern Europe: The process of Restitution and Restructuring. (Edward Elgar Publishing Limited)
http://caesar-studio.net/wordpress/master-plan-for-havana/
https://www.academia.edu/9887999/Transforming_ideology_into_heritage_A_return_of_nation_and_identity_in_late_socialist_Cuba (2014)
http://www.theguardian.com/travel/2014/dec/06/old-havana-cuba-entrepreneurs-new-law (2014)
http://www.biourbanism.org/the-city-must-be-dreamed-designed-and-conceived-for-the-future/
http://www.havanatimes.org/sp/?p=94956
http://translatingcuba.com/what-was-the-havana-metro-14ymedio-victor-ariel-gonzalez/
http://www.citylab.com/politics/2012/09/fortress-america-how-us-designs-embassies/3289/
1
http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-02-24/which-airlines-get-into-havana-the-feds-will-decide
2
Jane C. Loeffler (1998), Pg. 37. The Architecture of Diplomacy: Building America's Embassies, 2nd Revised Edition, (Princeton Architectural Press).
3
Jane C. Loeffler (1998), Pg. 105. The Architecture of Diplomacy: Building America's Embassies, 2nd Revised Edition, (Princeton Architectural Press).
4
Jane C. Loeffler (1998), Pg. 99. The Architecture of Diplomacy: Building America's Embassies, 2nd Revised Edition, (Princeton Architectural Press).
5
Jane C. Loeffler (1998), Pg. 62. The Architecture of Diplomacy: Building America's Embassies, 2nd Revised Edition, (Princeton Architectural Press).
6
Jane C. Loeffler (1998), Pg. 65. The Architecture of Diplomacy: Building America's Embassies, 2nd Revised Edition, (Princeton Architectural Press).
7
Roberto S, Mario C & Joseph L. Scarpaci (1997), Pg. 90. Havana: Two Faces of the Antillean Metropolis. (John Wiley & Sons Ltd)
8
http://translatingcuba.com/what-was-the-havana-metro-14ymedio-victor-ariel-gonzalez/
9
Roberto S, Mario C & Joseph L. Scarpaci (1997), Pg. 269. Havana: Two Faces of the Antillean Metropolis. (John Wiley & Sons Ltd)
10
Movie ''Sin Metro'' http://www.havanatimes.org/sp/?p=94956
29 CONCLUSION
ENDNOTES