Green Construction Practice

Content Foreword 1. Sustainable Development and Global Warming Mongolia’s sustainable, green development policy 1.1. Sustainable development 1.2. Global Warming 1.3. Climate change 1.4. Mongolia’s sunstainable, green development policy 2.Sustainable Construction Design and Planning 2.1 About sustainable construction 2.2 Sustainable construction planning 2.3 Construction energy consumption 2.4 Building air quality and air ventilation 2.5 Building interior lighting, sound control, acoustics and moisture 2.6Building energy efficiency indicators 2.7Passive building model 3. Sustainable construction products, materials 3.1Sustainable construction materials, sustainability of materials 3.2Regulation of construction products /countries of EU/ 3.3Features of construction materials 3.4Commonly used construction materials 4. Construction materials with chemical substances, European legislation on chemical substances Барилга ба хими 4.1Construction and chemical substances 4.2 The European regulation on chemicals 4.3 Hazardous substances in products 5. Quality management and quality assurance of the construction 5.1 Quality Assurance 5.2 Supervision in the construction process 5.3 Methods and tools regarding quality assurance in the construction process 1

5.4 Laying concrete, stabilization 6. Construction Waste Management 6.1 Construction waste 6.2 Hazardous waste 6.3 Sorting at source, opportunities for recycling 6.4 Waste management at site 7. Life Cycle Perspective 7.1 Life Cycle Cost Calculation 7.2 Life Cycle Assessment 8. Tools for simulation of energy use 8.1 Purpose and importance of energy use simulation 8.2 Basic principles and parameters of energy use simulation tools 8.3 Simulation results 8.4 Simulation program quality 9. Tools for energy performance verification 9.1 Factors that affect energy performance of buildings 9.2 Building energy performance verification 9.3 Building thermal protection 10. Waste disposal and landfilling Хог хаягдлын төрөл 10.1 Waste type 10.2 Landfill cover 10.3 Removing and treating leachate water 10.4 Treating methane gas emitted from landfills 10.5 Sustainable landfill planning 11. Construction demolition waste recycling technology 11.1 Demolition waste 11.2 Opportunities and significance of re-using demolition waste 11.3 Concrete recycling technology 11.4 Recycled aggregate standard

2

12. Possibility of using recycled material in the building sector 12.1 Current raw material saving technology development in the building material production 12.2 Possibility of using waste in the building material production 12.3 Possibility of using power plant ash in the building material 12.4 Possibility of using mining products waste in the building material 13. Building environmental labeling 13.1 Building environmental labeling benefits 13.2 Energy efficiency passport as part of labeling in Mongolia 13.3 LEED 13.4 Swedish environmental assessment system /Miljobyggnad/ REFERENCES

3

Chapter 1. Sustainable Development and Global Warming Mongolia’s sustainable, green development policy Contents 1.1 Sustainable development 1.2 Global Warming 1.3 Climate change 1.4 Mongolia’s sunstainable, green development policy 1.1 Sustainable Development What is sustainable development?

The World Commission on Environment and Development defines Sustainable Development as, “ development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”

The concept of sustainable development is made up of the following 3 dimensions(picture 1).

1. Environmental sustainability 2. Social sustainability 3. Economic sustainability

Picture 1. Sustainable development dimensions

А. Environmental sustainabilityis evaluated by criterions such as atmosphere, water, noise, natural resources, forest,land, animal and plant species, and soil.

Current level at which environmental criterions are at in Mongolia

Water supply and pollution in Mongolia According to the “National Water Census” research done in 2011, at the request of the Open Society Foundation of the Soros Fund, there are 18,610 rivers, ponds, lakes and 4

springs in Mongolia, of which 6,870 are dried up. [1].The ratio of surface and underground water supply is 90:10 in Mongolia. However, in 2004, the ratio of surface and underground water consumption was 20:80, and is 10:90 today. The improper consumption of water approach should be reflected and changed on sector policies.

Factories are one of the places where high level of ineffective consumption of water is found. Our factories consume 2 times more water than that of European standards, when producing 1kg of leather, 4 to 5 times more for 1liter of milk, and 8 times more for 1kg of textile. Technological revamping is essential.

Factors that can impact water supply:  Soil contamination. High level of soil contamination in Ulaanbatar city is a very sensitive problem for us.  Intensive development of mining in Mongolia has become a cause for speedy reduction of water supply and soil damage.  Climate change. Since 1961, earth surface evaporation has increased by 118.1mm and rainfall needed for plant growth has decreased by 33.0mm. Desertification has intensified causing hundreds of rivers, streams, ponds, and lakes to dry up, grazing grounds to reduce, and animal species to be endangered.  Improper use of water in urban areas.

5

Solutions: –

Proper use

–

Protection

–

New technology

–

Re-use of polluted water

Supply of natural resources and current development of mining in Mongolia Mentioned in the research requested by the Open Society Foundation, out of the over 300 small towns in Mongolia, 90 of them have been granted a license for mining.[1] The pivot point of Mongolia’s development is not to export crude mining products. If we are too dependent on only one sector, when the price of natural resources fall, our economy will go into recession. In reality, we are not going into recession because the prices of natural resources fall, but rather because foreign investment is pulled back. In the case of our country, sustainable development can be reached through manufacturing mining and other products domestically and developing our infrastructure and industrialization.

Researchers have said that rather than extracting our natural resources, we should focus more on industrialization and technology.

6

Mongolia’s animal and plant species Japanese and Mongolian scientists did a research about the melting of glaciers at the basin of Tuul river. Through this research, the consequences of global warming was found near Nalaikh. In other words, because the glaciers could not provide the moisture needed for plants to grow in spring, results showed a change in the ecological system.

The results of the research show possible negative effects and drastic consequences of climate change such as delay of plant growth, dry springs, ecosystem regression, therefore causing desertification, endangerment of grazing ground and shortage of water feeding into rivers from glaciers.

Desertification in Mongolia According to the evaluation of United Nation’s Convention to Combat Desertification, 90% of Mongolia’s grazing grounds have a possibility of being affected by desertification or land degradation. Among these, 5% of Mongolia’s land is classified as very-strongly affected, 18% as strongly affected, 26% as mid-affected and 23% as less-affected. This shows the rising danger of desertification in the region which has taken up 72% of the land.

Scientists predict that climate change and increasing grazing will cause 2/3 of grazing grounds to become degraded.

B. Population, social, and cultural sustainability is measured by education, health, accommodation, social communication, arts, culture, sport, recreation, entertainment, news and information spread.

C. Economic sustainability is measured by the environment which it was built upon, facilities, transportation and investment.

7

How much is invested in the construction sector for production and facilities?

In your opinion, which one should Mongolia be more focused on between the three dimensions of sustainable development?

At the 2005 World Conference on Education for Sustrainable Development that took place in Japan, the World Commission on Environment noted, “environmental sustainability is the most important in modern age,�

1.2 Global Warming What is Global Warming? Why is it happening?

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change identifies global warming to be caused by greenhouse gases.

8

Greenhouse Gas. It if defined as the trapping of the sun's warmth in a planet's lower atmosphere, due to the greater transparency of the atmosphere to visible radiation from the sun than to infrared radiation emitted from the planet's surface.

In other words, the main blame for global warming is the factories that deposit waste gases that contribute to the Greenhouse Effect. There are six main gases that cause Greenhouse Effect. Out of these, carbon dioxide, methane and nitrogen dioxide are natural gases that cause the Greenhouse Effect. Originally, these gases have been in the atmosphere and allows there to be life on the planet. However, due to mistakes made by human activity, the amount of gas in the atmosphere has been rising. The most negative effect is that gas doesn’t disappear from the atmosphere and stays there for decades. Especially, carbon dioxide (CO2) stays for about 200 years. Even if we make substantial changes against the Greenhouse Effect, changes cannot be noticed until after some decades. Therefore, we need to pay attention right now.

What emits Carbon Dioxide (CO2) the most?  The burning of fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum and natural gas emit CO2 the most (70%). Power plants in Mongolia run on coal. Therefore, we need to develop renewable energy sources and construct buildings with low-heat loss which require less heating. 95.48% of Mongolia’s energy source comes from diesel and thermal power plants and the remaining 4.52% from renewable energy.  Coal and limestone are the main ingredients used to manufacture portland cement construction limestone, where the manufacturing process in factories emit a great amount of CO2. Using a new type of inflammable binder or 9

changing a specific part of the portland cement with an active material (For example: Thermal power plant ash), without reducing the strength of it are some way to lower the CO2 emissions.

Before, climate change was solely induced by environmental changes. In other words, the earth’s temperature for the last 10,000 years has been stable.

Since the beginning of the “Industrial Revolution” (1790-1850), the earth’s average temperature has been increasing at a record speed and during the last 100 to 200 years; the CO2 in the atmosphere has increased by 35%. Research shows that human activity is the main cause of climate change. Especially, developed countries emit the most greenhouse gases. Therefore, developed countries signed the Kyoto Protocol.

“What is the “Kyoto Protocol”?

The Kyoto Protocol was signed in 1997, and came into force in 2005. The main purpose of the protocol is to have developed countries take responsibility for the greenhouse gases emitted into the atmosphere. Originally, developed countries agreed to lower greenhouse gas by an average of 5.2% from 1990 by 2012.

During the beginning of the industrial revolution in the 1800’s, carbon dioxide in the atmosphere was 280ppm, and by the 1990’s it had become 355ppm. If this continues, scientists predict that before the year 2030, carbon dioxide amount will double and reach 560ppm.

1.3 Climate Change The earth’s temperature has risen considerably compared to the last thousand years.

Climate change researchers agree that this rapid warming of the planet is mainly caused by human activity. The warming of the planet affects not only these extreme changes in climate but also causes glaciers and snow to melt, which in turn raises sea level.

10

NASA warns that the melting of the North Pole glaciers due to the sudden warming of the planet can release methane collected under the ice. Methane is connected to ice underwater and is accumulated in the form of methane hydrate. If the ice melts and the water temperature rises which decreases pressure on the ice, methane will be released into the atmosphere 170 times the volume causing global warming to rapidly increase and making it impossible to suspend this climate change.

According to researches done with satellites and ships, ice in the North Pole has decreased 50% (September, 2007) compared to 1950. The surface ice of Greenland has decreased 4 times when compared to that of 15 years ago. When looking at the 77 years of experiments done by experts, the surface temperature in the North Pole has reached its highest level so far.

NASA’s climate scientist James Hansen has said, “Even though we have passed the end point, we have not yet reached the irreversible point. We have time to fix the mistakes we made and change this dangerous situation. In order to do this, we need to change our attitude and make a move immediately."

1.4 Mongolia’s Green Growth and Sustainable Development Policy Mongolia’s Policy on Sustainable Development of the 21st century was draught in 19941998 and was ratified by the Mongolian government in May, 1998.

In 2011, as Resolution No.2, the Parliament adopted the “National Program on

Climate Change.”

In this program:  By 2021, in Mongolia….the basic conditions for green economy will be established(Article 2.1),

11

 Third strategic goal- decrease greenhouse gas emissions by stages, set the beginnings of a transition into low-carbon economy (Article 3.3.).

The national policy to “Decelerate Desertification” has been adopted and the purpose of the policy is determined through using science and technological advances to fight against and decelerate desertification. The first research center for monitoring desertification in Mongolia was established in Elsen Tasarkhai of Bulgan province.

When the Parliament ratified the "Air Quality Law" in 2010, legal framework for protection against air pollution was created and the "Clear Air Foundation" started its operation on January 1st, 2011.Three zones including, raw coal limitation zone, subzone, and coal stove introduction zone, for the "Air quality improvement zones" have been established in Ulaanbaatar and operations catered to each zones are underway.For example, during the cold winter in 2011-2012, 11 thousand families in Ulaanbaatar were provided with processed fuel and 70-80 thousand with fuel-efficient, less smoke producing, improved stoves. In the future, the “Clear Air Foundation” is planning to:  Increase the city's green area by 1.7 thousand hectares  Build green zones along Tuul, Selbe, Uliyastai, and Dund rivers, expand and improve parks downtown by 2.3 hectars  Introduce gas fuel use to no less than 30 thousand families in "ger districts"  Lower air pollution caused by auto transportation  Renew technologically no less than 60 boilers with small and medium capacity  Take actions to create seminars and advertisements to provide knowledge about decreasing air pollution to the citizens In 2012, the Ministry of Environment and Green Development was established.

Initiatives have been made to make Bulgan, Khovd, Khentii, and Arkhangai model green development provinces. However, goals and objectives are unclear and are still in the beginning stages.

Climate changes in Mongolia and its present consequences:

12

 Average temperature has increased by 2.14 degrees between 1940-2008  Mongolia’s yearly average temperature will increase an average of 2.1-3.0 degrees in mid 21st century and by 3.1-5.0 degrees towards the end of the century, which is about 2-3 times more than the 20th century increase  Since 1961, earth surface evaporation has increased by 118.1mm and rainfall needed for plant growth has decreased by 33.0mm  Desertification has intensified causing hundreds of rivers, streams, ponds, and lakes to dry up, grazing grounds to reduce, and animal species to be endangered  Greenhouse gas emission is caused 54.2% by energy use, 34.2% by agriculture and the rest by land use, forestation change, factories, and trash dumping.

Gross Domestic Product /GDP/ industrial energy consumption: Japan South Korea-

0.226 kWh/$ GDP , 0.459 kWh/$ GDP

Mongolia- 2.000 kWh /$ GDP(10 times more than the world average)  Greenhouse gas emissions 7.5 metric tons of CO2-ek/ million dollars GDP is ten times more than the world average. (source:UNDP Asia –Pacific Human Development Report ONE PLANET TO SHARE)  Energy efficiency, 14,000 tons of crude oil/ production is a million dollars which is 7 times lower than that of China's (Source: UNIDO 2011) There is a need to introduce energy-saving technologies in the production of domestic products.

13

Chapter 2. Sustainable Construction Design and Planning Contents 2.1 About sustainable construction 2.2 Sustainable construction planning 2.3 Construction energy consumption 2.4 Building air quality and air ventilation 2.5 Building interior lighting, sound control, acoustics and moisture 2.6 Building energy efficiency indicators 2.7 Passive building model

2.1 About sustainable construction The building facilities in the city in which we live in, is of vital importance to the environment and our lives. Therefore, sustainable construction is one that is harmless to the surrounding environment and the health of humans, cost efficient during construction planning, execution and use and produces less waste after operations.

Requirements for sustainable construction:  Life cycle calculation and evaluation /low impact on the environment/  Efficient planning  Water and energy efficient during operations  Use of sustainable materials  Meet the requirements for indoor air quality  Less waste during construction  Possible use of materials after demolition, etc

2.2 Sustainable construction planning The following basic principles should be upheld during the planning of sustainable construction:

14

1. Principles of energy efficient construction:Sustainable building can be fully supplied by renewable energy, energy use should be in compliance with standards or more efficient.

2. Right choice of construction site:When planning a sustainable construction site, it is important to consider things such as the impact it will have on the local ecosystem, transportation management and supply of energy in order to choose a site to build the building.

3. Water use:At a time when drinking water supply is insufficient all around the world, sustainable development has an advantage of using water efficiently and re-using gray-water.

4. Correct planning:To plan the fencing of the building accurately, use the heat protection design software, to calculate building mass and heat loss bridge, use green building materials, and follow construction norms, rules and standards.

5. Indoor air quality:-Indoor air quality is the most important factor for human health, comfort, and labor productivity. Other than the already set standards for indoor air quality, factors such as moisture control, proper functioning air ventilation and natural lighting should be considered as well.

6. Do research on already built buildings:Demolishing old buildings, restoring sites, and building new buildings is considered correct planning most of the time.

7. Correct use and management, etc.

Basic principles for sustainable development is shown below in Picture 2.

15

Picture 2. Sustainable construction criteria

In the construction efficient energy use principle, correctly planned renewable and traditional energy sources can keep energy use at the most minimum during building operation period.

Correct use of renewable and traditional energy sources for building design  Correctly choosing construction site and paying attention to shading  Proper use of solar energy and wind currents  Correct planning of building insulation and engineering system, etc.

16

Use of solar energy and lowering the impact wind

When planning sustainable construction, the architecture, construction engineer, executor and client will work as a team and will make decisions together. For every building design, the use of energy and its opportunities are calculated from the designplanning step. Weather data and model programs are used for building design.

European and domestic regulation of sustainable construction planning

17

2.3 Construction energy consumption Energy used to extract raw materials to make building materials, energy used to manufacture building materials out of the raw materials, energy used during the installation of the building, and energy used during the operation of the building are all together considered as building energy consumption.

Energy use in buildings is to a large extent related to heat use for space heating and domestic hot water production, and electricity for lighting, fans, pumps, cooling, user electricity, etc.

This picture points out the major heat flows between a building and its surroundings.

Picture 3. Major heat flows between a building and its surroundings

According to the picture above, heat can be lost from buildings through the following: 

heatloss through building envelope



air leakages through thermal bridges



heatloss through air ventilation



radiant heatloss to surrounding environment

On the supply side is also free heat from inside the building:

18



Heat from people



Electrical appliances



Lighting



Window solar gain and etc.

To reduce the inefficient use of energy in buildings, instead of high capacity use of heating, detailed calculations should be planned. Energy balance in buildings is calculated by the balance point temperature formula. The formula is as follows: ,

W

–transmission.This is determined by the following formula.

–ventinlation heat loss.This is determined by the following formula.

S

–air leakage heat lossThis is determined by the following formula.

–internal heat gains. This is determined by the following formula.

Энд: -envelope heat transfer coefficient, W/(m2 К) –area of fenced field outside, m2 -the coefficient of linear thermal bridge transfer, W/m –linear thermal bridge lenght, m –point thermal bridge loss –air density, kg/m3 –air heat capacity, KJ/(kg0С) 19

Heat Loss Transmission heat loss Heat loss can be transferred through thermal bridges such as envelopes, corners, wall connections and such. For sustainable construction, during the planning and designing of the building, heat loss is to be kept at the minimum. However in practice, the amount of heat loss through envelopes can be great. This occurs mostly because of mistakes made

during

construction.

Thermal

bridges are made when buildings aren’t built according to the planning and design.

Picture 4. Building heat loss Picture 5.

Heat loss points created because of mistake made during construction

What is a thermal bridge?

Other than walls, ceilings, and coverings, elements such as floor corners and wall connections

are

included

as

building

envelopes. Heat losses at these points are generally more than other parts of the building (due to thermal bridges).

Heat loss at parts where thermal bridges are located can be great and can cause perspiration in the small wholes and spaces on the outside. This further forms an

20

environment where mold and fungi can grow on the outside. Thermal bridges cause the following negative effects:  Heat loss increases tremendously  Inefficient use of energy  Decrease of moisture inside and outside of building androom temperature  Heat from inside and cool temperature of outside causes perspiratoin which leads to molding and fungi growth, etc.

Space between the connections of different materials such as brick walls and wooden coatings or wall oven and wooden ceilings tend to be small. Also, pay attention to the following parts where cracks, splits and spaces are common:  doors: door folder, space between wooden panels, and the wall and the panel  window: all around window frame, between window frame and wall  door with mail slot: around the slot, assurance of tight closing of slot  holes made in walls, electric wires put through walls  around air conditioner  around electric switches and wires put through walls How heat is transferred according to the thickness of the outer wall can be seen from picture 6.

Picture 6. Heat transfer according to the thickness of the wall

Heat is transferred from a warm temperature to a cooler temperature environment, meaning from inside to outside.The amount of heat transferred depends on the thickness of the outer walls and from the technical performance of the materials used.

21

The main technical performance should be the ability for heat transferability and denseheat transfer. In order to determine the heat conductivity of the outside, first we need to calculate the heat resistance with the following formula:

For this: –thermal resistance

м2 К/Вт.

This is determined by the thermal conductivity characteristics of each layer and thickness of materials by the following formula:

m2 K/W For this: –thickness of layer, м –material heat transfer coefficient, W/(m К).

This formula can be referred to from BD 23-103-10, depending on the materials used.The appendix shows parts of the thermal conductivity coefficient of common building materials.

Example: Let’s find the coefficient of thermal transmittance, U, made up of the following three layers.

22

Coefficient of heat transmittance, U, isthe inverse of heat resistance, then the formula W/(m2 К).

becomes

According to the appendix showing heat conductivity of materials, the windows have a lower chance of insulating and transfers heat more, compared to the walls. The general heat conductivity of the windows depend not only on the glass but also the materials used to frame the windows and the space between the glass. The window heat conductivity indicators can be found from construction norms and rules.

Heat loss through thermal conductivity prevention: 

calculate

technical

envelope

heating,correctly

choose

low

heat

transmittance, low coefficient of heat conductivity layer materials and thickness. 

Consider not only the indicators of the windows’ heat conductivity but also the indicators of the sun



Because windows have high heat conductivity, consider getting windows without exceeding the norm for size



Because buildings with large windows have to use air conditioning, consider using shading and barricades.

Infiltration heat-loss Heat-loss, or leakage, through thermal bridges increases heat conductivity.

Heat

leakage through the outer components can be due to the building’s poor insulation and many unwanted space and gaps. The amount of heat leakage through the space and gaps can be calculated by the frequency of ventilation inside the building per hour. The frequency of ventilation inside a building per hour is defined on the BNaC 23-02-09.

According to this norm, it is considered normal if the frequency is

-4hr-1. When the

rate of ventilation is high, the heat leakage increases. However, if it is too low, there is no ventilation inside the building, which causes for air pollution to increase. When there

23

is no ventilation inside the room, not only is it bad for human health and comfort, it also negatively affects the building components causing them to become damaged.

Ventilation rate is how much air is ventilated in an hour inside a room, where 1 is the indicator of an hour. The Blower Door can be used to measure air duct tightness.

Refer to Chapter 9 for measurements. Heat leakage can be calculated by the following formula.

For this:

–air density, kg/m3

–air heat capacity, kJ /(kg0С) – amount of air leakage –season’s heating per night 0С per night

–rate of ventilation, hour-1 –room volume, m3

The following are prevention methods for heat leakage through thermal bridges: 

Correct

choice

of

insulation

materials

for

construction

/ensure

uninterruptedness, focus on fastening methods, connecting the insulating panels and spigot and socket joints correctly/ 

Insulation of window plasters



Insulation of outer part of the building envelope



Making the balcony separate and using a twine or metal fix, without installing it to the outer wall



Completely enclose holes made through the building envelope for wires and pipes



Thorough insulation of junction, corners and boundaries of building envelope 24

Thorough insulation of space and gaps made in building envelopes should be made to prevent thermal bridges. Materials used to insulate will vary depending on the space and gaps. It is suitable to use rubber gaskets for switches, sockets and electric input holes. Silicone sealants are used on two different types grafting materials, particularly suitable for use on plastering and wood coatings.Also, construction should be well done.

Thermal bridges are made when windows aren’t installed according to requirements.

Ventilation heat loss

Correct air ventilation of removing contaminated air to the outside and letting in fresh air from the outside has an impact on human health and comfort. Ventilation is classified into two groups, natural ventilation and mechanical (exhaust air) ventilation. Natural ventilation is based on temperature differences between the inside air and outside air without using any equipment. Exhaust air ventilation is a system using centrally located fans that extract the air from extract air terminal devices.When removing contaminated air and heat from a room, the thermal heat of the rooms leaves with it. Unlike the natural

25

ventilation, mechanical ventilation can be regulated and is possible for heat recovery using heat pumps.

Heat loss from ventilation can be calculated by the following formula:

S

For this:

–air density, kg/m3

–Air heat capacity, kJ /(kg0С) –Expenditure of removed air, m3/hour –Ventilation heat reuse TE –season’s heating per night 0С per night

One way to save energy is before throwing the air out of the room straight away, merge the air coming in from outside with the heat leaving the room. There are several types of equipment, which can be used to reuse the heat from ventilation. For example, rotary or heat control rotary, laminate heat exchanger, and such.

Reuse of heat from exhaust air is shown in picture 7.

Picture 7. Ventilation heat recovery

26

In a regenerative heat exchanger does letting the exhaust air transfer the heat and the supply air alternating has contact with the same surface. The most common and efficient solution is a rotary heat exchanger. It is a rotor wheel, where folded aluminum profiles are heated by the exhaust air. As the wheel turns the aluminum rotor heats the intake air. The rotary heat exchanger ensures low-pressure drops, which results in relatively low fan power demand. The thermal efficiency can be as high as 80-85 %. A disadvantage of the rotary heat exchanger is the risk of leakage from the exhaust air into the supply air. Bad odors and contaminants can transfer through the rotor wheel.

In a recuperative heat exchanger the exhaust air and supply air are separated. This eliminates the risk of transferring odours and contaminants to the supply air, which can be a problem in a rotating heat exchanger.

The plate heat exchanger uses a simple technology, where the supply and exhaust air flows on each side of plates of corrugated aluminum sheets. The warm exhaust air heats the aluminum sheets and the cooler supply air absorbs heat.

In colder climates, moist exhaust air results in frost on parts of the exhaust side.

In most cases, the thermal efficiency of regenerative heat exchanger is 0.8-0.9.

Heat gains Heat being produced from within the building envelope is taken into account when measuring heat capacity inside a building. The following are some of the factors that can produce heat: 

people,



lighting,



Electrical appliances,



sunlight



hot food, etc.

Heat from people varies depending on the activity the person is doing and the temperature of the room. The following table shows the amount of heat that an average male person can produce.

Activity When static

Amount of heat depending on the temperature of the room, W 15 20 25 120 90 60

27

When performing easy tasks When performing harder tasks

120

100

65

165

130

95

Heat produced from lighting can be found by the following formula, where the lighting power density is multiplied by the room size: .

For this: S–room size, m2 Е–lighting power density, W/m2.This number can be found from the following table according to the purpose of the room. Further details can be found from standard ASHRAE 90.1-2007.

Purpose of room

Lighting power density W/m2

Office Conference room Classroom Trading hall Hotel Hospital room Hospital patients’ room Surgery room Library reading room Corridor Car garage

12 15 15 8 12 16 8 24 13 5 2

The following formula is used to find the heat being produced from the machines in particular rooms: W

For this:

–installed engine capacity kW

–installed capacity utilization factor. This is 0,7-0,9

–engine load factor. This is 0,5-0,8 –engine simultaneous load factor. This is 0,5-1,0 28

–engine thermal efficiency factor. This is 0,75-0,92 –thermal assimilation factor. This is 0,1-1,00

Including the formula above, there are other international calculation methods from the “ASHRAE handbook fundamentals-2009”, where other machine tables are available.

Solar heat comes through the building envelope in two different ways; transparent and non-transparent.Transparent solar heat comes through windows, which can be calculated by the following formula:

For this:

F-glass, window size, m2 А-glassifying related to window factor /single glass-1,45,

Double glass-1,15/ q-1m2solar heat passing through glass material

This can be found from the following table. # 1 2 3

Window contents Wooden frame window Metal frame window Metal frame fenestella

Window’s orientation, geographical latitude South East and north-west East and West 350 45-550 350 450 550 35-450 55-650 110 125 85 110 125 125 145

Other 60

140

160

110

140

160

160

180

80

130

160

110

140

170

160

180

80

The solar heat passing through the window will depend on the condition of the window.

If the window is dirty, the above calculations will be decreased by 80%.

The following formula is used to calculate solar heat passing through non-glass transparent, covered envelope.

For this: F–cover size, m2 29

K–the cover’s heat conductivity factor, W/m20С q–1m2solar heat passing through the cover , W/m2 2.4

Building air quality and air ventilation Indoor air quality

We spend 90% of our lives indoors or in a building. It is important to our health to be surrounded by clean air. Bad indoor air quality can negatively affect our health and work productivity and can cause us to be uncomfortable. The following are negative affects bad indoor air quality can cause: 

Health: Short term affects that can be cured. For example, sore throat, headaches, itchy eye, stuffy nose, dizziness, nausea, etc

 Diseases: asthma, hypersensitivity 

Chronic diseases:Respiratory and heart cancer



Sick building syndrome: a condition affecting office workers, typically marked by headaches and respiratory problems, attributed to unhealthy or stressful factors in the working environment such as poor ventilation.



Building related sicknesses:Sicknesses caused by air contamination, bacterial infections caused by fungi and mold, e.coli bacteria, etc

The following table shows the indoor air contaminator, its source and its symptoms.

Indoor air contaminator PM10 particles

Carbon Monoxide

Source Dusty environment, equipment use, smoking Exhaust gas, car exhaust, smoking

Nitric Oxide

Exhaust gas, car exhaust, smoking

Ozone

Copier, printer, fax machine Pressed wood products, foam insulation, carpet, glue, and the combustion process Buildings under

Formaldehyde

Total organic

Health affects/ symptoms Toxic to the respiratory tract, coughing, allergies Visibility problems, headache, nausea, vomiting, runny nose Itchy eyes, nose, throat and respiratory diseases Repiratory diseases Watery eyes, cancers and respiratory diseases

Bad smell, itching,

30

Precautious measures Constant cleaning, air conditioning, prohibit smoking, improve air ventilation No combustion indoors, air handling system No combustion indoors, air handling system, let in lots of fresh air Seperate machines, air handling system Avoid pressed wood products, improve air ventilation

Use products with less excretion

compounds

Bacteria spread in the air

Radon Temperature Relative moisture Air movement

renovation, paint solvents, ayerozol products People, animals, soil, vegetation, contaminated air quality system Radioactive concrete, gravel, soil, Thermal comfort factor Thermal comfort factor Thermal comfort factor

and some form of cancer

of this, improve air ventilation

Allergy and asthma, infectious diseases

Regular cleaning, monitor indoor moisture, improve air ventilation

Lung cancer

Cover and seal with wall paper, improve air ventilation Correct ventilation Correct ventilation Correct ventilation

Thermal comfort Thermal comfort Thermal comfort

The World Health Organization established the acceptable amount for each of these contaminators.

A definite source not mentioned above in the table is outside air pollution.

Not only does polluted air come straight through the ventilation system from outside envelope, when the ventilation system is contaminated or isn’t function properly, the polluted air is sent indoors after being heated.

Therefore, in a country like Mongolia, where the pollution amount is beyond acceptable, these factors should be taken into account. The World Health Organization has established the following acceptable limits for outside air pollutants.

Air pollutant

Carbon Dioxide Lead

Average length

Level

8-hours

0.00009

1-hour 3 months 1-hour

Carbon Monoxide

Ozone

Year

8-hours

Form

0.00035 Should not exceed more than once per year 0.15 mg/m3 (1) Should not exceed 0.00000100 [188 mg/m3] Three year average should be 98% 0.0000053 [100 mg/m3] (2) Yearly average 3 year average 0.00000075 /the factor of the most amount in 8 hours of [147 mg/m3] (3) consecutive 4 days with the most amount/

Year

12 mg/m3

3 year average /yearly average/

Year

15 mg/m3

3 year average/yearly average/

Particulate matter/ Dust PM2.5

24-hours

35 mg/m3

3 year averageshould be 98%

Particulate matter/Dust PM10

24-hours

150 mg/m3

Average of 3 years, should not exceed more than once per year.

31

Sulfur Dioxide

1-hour

0.0000075 (4)

For 3 years, highest amount should be 99% per hour a day

3-hour

0.000005

Should not exceed more than once per year

The following steps should be taken to improve indoor air quality: 1.

Improve air ventilation. The ventilation system should not be blocked or closed.

2.

Windows should be opened appropriately.

3.

Let in fresh air.

4.

Maintenance

of

ventilation

systems,

especially

air

conditioner air filters be replaced or cleaned.

5.

Avoid commodities containing volatile organic compounds.

6.

Air vacuums near air contaminating machines.

7.

Regular cleaning.

8.

Prohibit smoking indoors.

9.

Throwing away rotten or expired food products so the smell doesn’t spread.

ISO7730 is a standard procedure to determine whether a work or living atmosphere in the room is appropriate. It enables the analytical determination and interpretation of thermal comfort using calculation of PMV (predicted mean vote) and PPD (predicted percentage of dissatisfied) and local thermal comfort, giving the environmental conditions considered acceptable for general thermal comfort as well as those representing local discomfort.

A survey is done from those who have used the building asking them to choose from the following seven choices for thermal comfort. +3 Hot

+2 Warm

+1 Somewhat warm

0 Normal

-1 Somewhat cool

-2 Cool

-3 Cold

Thermal neutrality is maintained when the heat generated by human metabolism is allowed to dissipate, thus maintaining thermal equilibrium with the surroundings. The main factors that influence thermal comfort are those that determine heat gain and loss, 32

namely metabolic rate, clothing insulation, air temperature, mean radiant temperature, air speed and relative humidity.

The clothing worn by a person and the activity one is performing is calculated and shown in Appendix C of ISO 7730.

Zero is the ideal value, representing thermal neutrality, and the comfort zone is defined by the combinations of the six parameters for which the PMV is within the recommended limits (-0.5<PMV<+0.5) Thermal comfort based on activity being done and clothing insulation is shown in Picture 8-1.

Picture 8-1. Thermal comfort dependent on human

The shaded area represents human thermal comfort depending on the activity, clothing and room temperature.

33

Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied (PPD) predicts the percentage of occupants that will be dissatisfied with the thermal conditions. Survey answers given as +3, +2, -2, -3, are considered dissatisfied. Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied percentage curve and average survey answers are shown in Picture 8-2.

Picture 8-2. Correlation between average survey answers and PPD X axis= average survey answer Y axis= percentage of dissatisfication

In order to have indoor thermal comfort, PPD percentage has to be less than 10%.

Building ventilation We can infer from the above information that indoor air ventilation should be maintained at normal levels. In order for people to live and work, and operate technical machines properly in rooms and environments for work and factory-use, indoor air atmosphere should be appropriate. This is done with an air ventilation system, which exchanges air by putting out exhaust air and letting in fresh air from outside. Depending on the use and purpose of the rooms and halls, prevention of the above mentioned pollutants could be stopped by position and general ventilation systems. Specific positioning ventilation system is when air is placed next to machines and equipment that produce air pollutants. General ventilation is air exchange of the whole room. The amount of air exchange needed in the room is defined on BNaC 23-02-09, depending on the amount of air pollutants and toxic emissions. In some cases, the use of the room can be determined by the present pattern of air exchange and by the definition on the norm.

34

The following table is an example of a building’s frequency and norm of air exchange according to the BNaC 23-02-09.

Room purpose

Air temperature, Celcius 18 18/20/ 25 16

Kitchen Living room Bathroom Toilet

Air exchange frequency and norm Supply air Exhaust air >60 m3/hr For 1m2area, 3 m3/hr 25 m3/hr 1 seat 50 m3/hr

In an air ventilation system, the machine meant for filtering contaminated and dusty air is important. Air filters are classified into the following types according to EN 779:2012.

Filter type

Classification

Dust holding, %

G1 G2 G3 G4 М5 М6 F7 F8 F9

50≤A≤65 65≤A≤80 80≤A≤90 90≤A

Large unit

Average units Small units

Average thermal efficiency, %

40≤Е≤60 60≤A≤80 80≤A≤90 90≤A≤95 95≤A

Pressure drop, Pa 250 250 250 250 450 450 450 450 450

Filters can be chosen depending on the requirements put on outside air pollution levels and indoor air quality. A few filters can be assembled in a row. The following table shows filter choices.

Outdoor air quality Fresh air 1 Dusty air 2 Dust and gas concentration 3

2.5

1

/High/ F9 F7+F9 F7+G+F9

Indoor air quality 2 /Medium/ 3 /Reasonable/ F8 F7 F6+F8 F5+F7 F7+G+F9 F5+F7

4/ Low/ F5 F5+F6 F5+F6

Building interior lighting, sound control, acoustics and moisture Building interior lighting

We have artificial light using electricity for ourconvenience and lifestyle when natural light is not available. Poor indoor lighting can make our eyes hurt, cause headaches and makes it hard to concentrate.

Artificial lighting is classified as general, workplace, combined, and emergency. General lighting should light the area fully and evenly.

35

When designing a building and its lighting, depending on the purpose of the building, many different plans can be made. Professionals using norms, standards and model programs can only make these plans.

CIBSE interior lighting code is the international lighting standard and norms for indoor facilities. The following table shows these norms.

Room purpose

Average fluorescence / lux / 20 100 200 500

Corridor Kitchen Office Factory

Also, the lighting output needed for a space of 1m2 is shown in the following table.

Room purpose Basement Guest Room Bedroom Children’s Room Bathroom Kitchen Garage

Incandescent 10-15 20-35 10-15 15-18 15-18 12-30 10-15

Average strength of lighting, W / m2 Halogen 11-13 14-24 08-12 10-12 10-12 8-20 11-14

Day light 3-4 4-7 4-5 4-7 6-8 4-7 3-4

In order to create a favorable environment for indoor lighting, the following steps should be taken during design planning: 

Enough lighting for the whole area/300-500lux/,



Contrast index should be no less than 80%



To reduce reflection and effulgence



Color temperature contrast should be good, etc.

Building noise and acoustics Indoor building noise comes from the following: 

Outdoor noise /cars, vehicles, etc/



Indoor installed machines



Neighbors

Acoustics is measured in decibels, dB, and the international standard is shown in the following table according to the weighted average noise volume and the length.

36

Weighted average noise level, dB

Length, hours

80

32

85

16

90

8

95

4

100

2

Noise during weekdays is measured by the following formula. If the average noise is more than 50%, measures to lower the noise should be taken.

For example: If the noise is 85 dB for 5 hours, 90 dB for 2 hours, or 95 dB for 30 minutes, the average from this formula is D=100(5/16+2/8+0.5/4)=68.75dB, meaning actions need to be taken to lower the noise because it is over 50%.

The length at which a person can stay during the noises made above is shown below: Length, hours/days 8 4 2 1

Noise, dB 90 95 100 105

The following table shows the highest level of noise that can be made depending on the purpose of the rooms: Room purpose Bedroom Guest room Classroom Hospital

Highest level of noise, dB 30 50 35 35

Special time Night Day Day Day/Night

Ways to reduce noise: ď&#x20AC;­

To improve building envelopes and insulations

ď&#x20AC;­

To choose sound-absorbing materials for inside floor panels and walls,For example:materials such as low-density, thermal isolation such as mineral wool reduces the reflection of noise.

37



To plan correctly and seal air-pipelines



To separate building envelope of noisy rooms



To replace machines and devices with low-noise ones



To place sound-absorbing elements, etc.

Building moisture The moisture in buildings is not only bad for human health; it also has negative affects on the building envelopes. Moisture in buildings is due to human activity and human metabolism, moisture in building envelopes, and water leaks. Due to the relative indoor moisture level, the growth of mold and fungi increases, which is has negative affects on both human health and causes damage to the outside building structure. Moisture passes through building envelope through the following: 1.

Convection,

2.

Diffusion,

3.

Capillary suction - in porous building material

4.

Liquid flow , e.g. water leaks

There are many modeling tools that estimate indoor air humidity and moisture through the building envelope. For example, by using the WU-FI program, we can model the outside building envelope and choose a secure solution to the outside envelope.

The permissible norm of relative indoor moisture level for a healthy lifestyle is defined and risks related to the increase of moisture concentration is shown in picture 9.

38

Pciture 9. Moisture related problems

The ideal humidity state indoors is considered in the range of 30%~ 60%.

Actions against indoor humidity are as follows: –

Install a steam-resistance material inside the outside wall

–

Install protection from precipitation on the outside envelope

–

Seal the building envelope very well

–

Install water repellent systems around the building

–

Keep indoor ventilation at check to let exhaust air out without collecting moisture

–

Prevent water leakages

–

Seal the bathroom with a material 50mm above the bathroom floor

–

Seal plumbing pipes

–

Seal pipes and holes

2.6 Building energy efficiency indicators In order to compare the energy efficiency of any building, there needs to be indicators.This is the amount of energy used per area /kW*hr/m2 а/ Building energy consultant S. Tuvshinkhuu has shown the changes made in our building energy use. /Picture 10/.

39

According to S. Tuvshinkhuuâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s research, the GTZ model building uses 3 times less heat energy than the norm /Picture 11/.

Picture 10.

40

Picture 11. Heat use for GTZ model building

Apartment energy use is shown in picture 12.. (Swedenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s example).

Picture 12. Energy performance indicators of Sweden

41

When this is compared to the results of researcher S. Tuvshinkhuu, Mongoliaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s renewed heat protection norm is at the same level as Swedenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s new apartments. However, our old brick and precast buildings are at lower levels; in the red levels, same as Sweden apartments built during 1940-1980, especially our brick buildings.

In conclusion, it is necessary to take measures to decrease heat loss from old buildings.

Picture 13 shows the heat supply and demand data from the research put out by the Swedish Environmental Research Institute. Seeing from the picture, one building without thermal insulation in Ulaanbaatar and one very well insulated in Sweden.Note the huge difference in energy use.

Picture 13. Building energy balance â&#x20AC;&#x201C;Residential building

2.7

Passive building model

Passive building design is described as a smart building design reducing heating and cooling demand as much as possible and offering high-comfort.The main elements of passive design are shown in a diagram in picture 14.

76

Outside envelope of passive design building: By insulating the outer envelopes, heat conductivity decreases, which lessen energy use. When 42

evaluating passive building designs, energy use is limited. However, outer envelope thickness is not defined. This is due to the different specifications of the insulation materials and the climate changes during construction. The outer envelope of a passive building should not let heat of the sun through during the summer and not let heat from inside escape during the winter and should be insulated more than the national standards for heat conductivity. Passive building should meet the requirements of having a heating energy use less than 15kW.hr/m2 per year.

77

Window: The window heat conductivity coefficient, U, should be no less than 1,5W/m2Đ&#x161;.

78

The percentage of thermal efficiency of heat re-use for air ventilation in passive buildings should be no less than 80%.

79

Sealing: At a 50Pa air pressure difference, the airflow rate should be 0.6 per hour. According to the rules Mongolia abides by, this rate is considered average if it is 2-4.

80

Thermal bridge: There can be thermal bridges or a very small amount. This can be approved by measures.

43

1

ЗураPicture 14. Main 5 elements of passive building –Thermal insulation, 2 –Passive house windows, 3 –Comfort ventilation with higly heat recovery, 4 –Air tightness, 5 –Thermal-bridge-free

The key factors of passive building is indoor air comfort, building type, room layout, and passive use of solar energy.

Passive building aims to reduce outer surface area, where most passive buildings have fewer corners and are simple rectangle shapes. As the outer surface area expands, heat loss through outer envelope increases and as more complex the shape becomes, with more corners, more thermal bridges are created.

The windows of passive buildings face south and are not shaded by the adjacent building or other barriers because this is important for solar thermal collecting. The most suitable solution to reducing the solar heat transferred through windows during the summer is to use movable covers.

44

Chapter 3. Sustainable construction products, materials Contents 3.1 Sustainable construction materials, sustainability of materials 3.2 Regulation of construction products /countries of EU/ 3.3 Features of construction materials 3.4 Commonly used construction materials

3.1 Sustainable construction materials, sustainability of materials Construction is a long-term investment, which has a long lifetime.

How do construction materials impact the environment?

Impacts made on the environment throughout all the stages of construction should be considered; starting from material manufacturing to constructing the building and finally until the demolition. The following table shows the possible impacts.

How can building materials affect the environment?

When ?

Manufacturing Transports Construction Occupancy Demolition

How ?

Resource use Emissions Risk Exposure

For what ?

Climate Acidification Eutrophication Toxicity Effects on health Ozone depletion Resource use Leaching, etc.

Building materials are manufactured by various processing of natural minerals and raw materials.One of the most important issues of a country is developing technology that saves natural resources. It is especially more important to start using technology that saves natural materials and energy for the building sector, which uses 40% of the societyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s total use of both energy and materials.

The development of consumption and efficient use of natural resources are carried out in the following areas: 45

 Replace mineral raw materials for industrial waste  Reduce the capacity of building materials by raising the technical and building features (strength, ability to withstand load, etc.) of products  Reduce maintenance costs and extend use time by improving the lifeexpectancy of material  Design and plan envelopes with modern methods such as structural restoration and renovation The following are 3 areas to uphold to decrease energy use for the building sector: 1. Decrease energy use of construction material manufacturing by choosing construction technology that uses less energy.

2. Lowering heat loss through thermal bridges by using good materials for insulation for building envelope.

3. Plan and design ventilation and heating system to be bale to reuse building heat.

In the 1970’s, French material scientist Joseph Davidovits introduced a new technological concept whereas concrete is the composite material resulting from the mixing and hardening of cement with water and stone aggregates. This cement binder came to be known as “geopolymer”.Geopolymer is still researched today and is manufactured all over the world. Geopolymer is produced by natural and technological waste such as caolin developed by heat, feldspar, ash and various type of alumisilikat based materials. Geopolymer based construction materials are cheaper than the traditional materials.Also, materialsmade out of geopolymer are weathering resistant and have a longer life-expectancy.

Lately, Mongolia has made it a goal to make products with the use of technology by processing natural and raw materials instead of exporting them unprocessed. Also, it is putting the rapid development of the construction sector, whichproduces construction materials that use less energy and raw materials, as a leading concept at the national level What is a sustainable material?

46

 Tricky question–Many different ways to define it!Therefore, there is not a definite answer on what exactly is a sustainable material. It depends on the requirements. The main features are: –

Keeps its nature for long-term

–

No negative affects on human health

–

No risks for the environment

Sustainability of materials –

Material choice depends on the requirements put on it.

–

Product choice affects the life-expectancy of the building.

–

Maintain the stability of environmental, societal, and economical factors.

–

Life cycle assessment measures the affect of the product on the environment.

Products are an integral part of a final product.The stability of the parts that make the final product should be widely considered more than the manufacturing level.

3.2 Regulation of construction products /EU countries/ 7 requirements for construction materials /in the European Union/: 1. Mechanical resistance and strength 2. Fire safety 3. Sanitation, hygiene, no negative affects on the environment 4. Safe to use 5. Noise protection 6. Energy efficient, economical, heat preservation 7. Sustainable use of natural resources These requirements are applied throughout the life cycle.

European legislation 

Construction Product Regulation (CPR): how construction products shall be described uniformly to reduce trade barriers within EU



CE-marking: presents characteristics of the products, is not an OK stamp



Harmonised standards: common understandings about how we conduct tests and reports of the CE-marking 47



National construction rules: materials shall not affect the indoor environment or local environment negatively

Additional legislation Even if we have a Construction Product Regulation, harmonized standards and national construction rules there are also other laws that apply.

–

CLP - the classification, labeling and packaging of chemical substances and mixtures.

–

REACH

–

CE Mark: is a visible declaration that the product meets the requirements of the law.

–

Product safety directive

–

Aims to ensure that goods and services sold to consumers do not cause injury.

CE Mark – “Fit for purpose” – The CE mark is a claim that a particular construction product, irrespective of its origin, can be legally placed on the market of members states of the European Economic Area (EEA) and is based on the principal that the product specification – Accodring to the EEA legislation, it is required to verify and confirm whether the building materials and products on the market meet hte BWR standards.

48

Environmental Product Declaration Environmental Product Declaration- An EPD shows the environmental impact of a product or service throughout its life cycle. An EPD shows the environmental impact of a product or service throughout its life cycle. Established communication systems of building materials chemical content and environmental impact = Certified product declaration. Industry driven and industry-wide system based on: –

ISO standard 14025 for environmental product declarations Type III

–

ISO / DIS 21930 for environmental declarations of building products

“Bauen and Umwelt” is a German EPD program restricted to building products.

Aim to provide environmental information from LCA studies in a common format, based on common rules, known as Product Category Rules (PCR).The system will not only make it possible to compare different similar products and how a product affect the environment but also makes it easier for the contractors buyers to compare products and to set requirements in procurement.

For compliant

EPD,

independent

verifier must be

used

critically

to

the LCA and

ensure

followed

PCR.

the

an

review it

has

The following

table is the EPD

of life cycle

assessment

1m3concrete

mix.

49

for

How does EPD affect the building?

Construction material, product manufacturers: –

Report damages and impacts related to the product

–

Report product reliability and environment performance of the company

Procurement: –

Source of information about purchase of products

Specification: –

Performance specification

End user: –

Comparison between products

Construction material options: –

has to be durable. This depends on its nature.

–

no negative affects on health /no toxicity and breathable/. Product has to be certified of hygiene.

–

has to be energy efficient. Low heat conductivity, choose building materials with high heat capacity.

–

re-usable. Lower the negative affects on the environment

–

minimum investment

All of the options should be considered during the planning and designing stage and attention should be paid to the following: –

product specifications

–

whether the specifications meet the product standards

–

low quality materials will affect the entire quality of the building

–

building materials manufactured to orient sustainable development are needed in the construction industry

BUT, where do we get this information?

We need to choose products with certificate of origin and documentation of quality.

3.3 Features of construction materials What is the basis for selecting and calculating construction materials?

50

We make selections based on its features.The features of construction materials are classified into the foloowing three main groups: 1. Physical features 2. Mechanical features 3. Technological features Đ?. Physical features

Đ&#x2018;. Mechanical features

51

Out of the mechanical features, strength plays an important role for construction materials.Outline to determine concrete compression and flexural strength is shown in picture 15.

Picture 15. Outline to determine concrete compression and flexural strength

Picture 16 shows the deformations that occur during pumping of materials. To have this pattern operate correctly, concrete blocks should be pumped by the press according to specific procedures by standard period of time. If it is pumped too fast or too slow, the following pattern may be disturbed and the outcome may differ.

Picture 16.

Deformations that occur during pumping

Also, the sample has

to

be

correctly placed on

the

press.When the sample 52

is

pressed in an incorrect position, the strength performance becomes faulty.This is shown in picture 17 and the table below.

Picture 17. Sampling impact on test results When the sampling is pressed improperly, the sample prints incorrectly and the results become faulty.

When the top of the sample is uneven, the sample incorrectly cracks and results are faulty.

Reduction of concrete strength results due to sampling error Errors that can occur

Sample surface to be pressed is broken, uneven Sample is not fully or partially compacted Freeze sample for 24 hours Press sample with a chock places in between without metal hatter

53

Possibility of strength reduction, % no less than 75 61 56 53

Laboratory (L) Field (F) L F F L

Soft material is placed on the side of the press where the sample meets Center of the sample is depressed Surface of the sample where the press meets is rough Store sample outside in hot temperature for 7 days Reuse plastic mold to print sample Print samples into cardboard molds Take too long to boot when checking strength Print samples into plastic molds Create space between sample and polishing Appearance of bulge after polishing Ledge of sample where the top surface meets is slanted Side surface of sample is slanted

43

L

30 27 26 22 21 2 14 12 12 12

L F F L F L F F F F

10

F

В. Technological features It is the ability to accept technological production of materials.

For example, concrete mixture can be cast and molded into any form and wood is simple to put into technological production.

3.4 Commonly used construction materials Stone materials:are durable. Depending on the durability, natural stone materials are divided into the following 4 groups: 1. Group

1

–

consists

of

stone

materials

with

durability

of

500-1500

years/Quartzite/, 2. Group 2 – consists of stone materials with durability of 250-700 years/gabbro, labrodorit/ 3. Group 3 – consists of stone materials with durability of 150-450 years /white mramor, limestone, and sandstone/ 4. Group 4 – consists of stone materials with durability of 20-50 years /limestone stone/.

Ceramic Material:Raw materials - Clay is a widespread, durable, and elegant material.

Ceramic materials include: – Clay bricks for wall masonry and polishing – Roof tiles – Plumbing – Ceramic plumbing ware and tiles 54

– Expanded clay aggregate, etc.

Thermal insulation materials: In order to reduce heat loss and relieve weight off building, a variety of insulation materials are used. A material's heat conductivity and insulation ability is defined by the λ –coefficient. The lower the coefficient, the higher the thermal insulation ability.Materials with a λ –coefficient of 0,25 kcal/ (m hr Co) or less is considered a thermal insulator material.

Thermal insulation materials include: –

Silicate cotton

–

Hard thermal insulators /foamed perlite, expanded clay aggregate, lightweight concrete, etc. /

–

Liquid insulators /”corondum” paint/ and such

55

Corondum is the new generation of thermal insulators as it can insulate every nano-part Its Îť is 0,001 kcal/ (m hr Co). Therefore, only a light layer of it can become enough insulation. This can be viewed from the picture below.

56

Chapter 4. Construction materials with chemical substances, European legislation on chemical substances

Contents 4.1Construction and chemical substances 4.2 The European regulation on chemicals 4.3 Hazardous substances in products

4.1 Construction and chemical substances Even though you donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t buy chemical substances, you can not build a building without them.

As shown in the pyramid, the materials and products we use are made up of chemical substances.But, a building is made up of building materials and such, this covers a wide range.

This means the whole city is based on chemical substances, which means that it is very important what materials we choose to use. If substances that are environmentally harmful are used in larger scale, there can be enourmous impact on the environment and human health.

Production of chemicals in the European Union can be seen from the chart below.Of all these million tons of chemicals around 55 % is harmful to the environment and 62 % is toxic, this means that we have to be cautious how we handle the chemicals and that we take care of it in the best way to avoid harming the environment.For example, if chemicals are flushed down in the toilette or poured out in the sink, the chemicals will damage the processes in the treatment plant and leak out to the environment.

57

Total production of chemicals in EU, million tons

Impacts of building materials on the environment and human health occur later. For example: PCB started to be used in 1930. In 1960, seals in the Baltic Sea started to injuries to the reproductive system.Suspicion between PCB and the seals was discovered and the use of PCB was stopped that year.

Substances of very high concern –Substances of very high concern - Certain substances that may have serious and often irreversible effects on human health and the environment can be identified as Substances of Very High Concern (SVHCs). A Member State of the European Union, or European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) on request of the European Commission, can propose a substance to be identified as an SVHC. So the SVCH is a list of hazardous substances used within the European Union.

If a substance is determined as a SVHC it will be put up on the “candidate list”. If a substance is added to list, it is given a "latest application date" and a "sunset date". The sunset date is the date after which the substance cannot be used or imported into the EU without authorization from the ECHA, and the latest application date is the date by which any applications for use must be submitted to the ECHA.

58

If

a

chemical substance has one or more of the following features, it is considered Substance of Very High Concern: – P – Persistent – B – Bio- accumulative – T – Toxic – C – Carcinogenic – M – Mutagenic – R – Toxic to reproduction Products containing chemical substances directly and indirectly impact the environment and human health.

4.2 The European regulation on chemicals Chemical substances contained in materials: All products contain chemical substances and some chemicals can be seperated from the products.Can the seperated substance spread out to the environment?, absorb into human skin? These depend on the character of the chemical substance. If the chemical substance is dangerous to the

59

environment and human health, it can show negative affects. Therefore, regulation is needed. А. Europe’s chemical substance regulations- REACH REACHis Registration, Evaluation, Authorization, and Restriction of Chemicals. This is a common law in European Union and applies to all members nations. The primary responsibility for chemical control lies with producers and suppliers (importers). This means that any person handling, manufacture, sell and store chemicals should have adequate knowledge of the products effects on humans and the environment. Жилд нэг болон түүнээс их тонн химийн бодис, зарим тохиолдолд химийн бодис агуулсан бүтээгдэхүүн үйлвэрлэгчид ба импортлогчид химийн бодис, бүтээгдэхүүнээ тоон хэмжээгээр нь REACH –д бүртгэлжүүлнэ.

Producers and importers are registering their productsby one ton or more, of chemical substances, sometimes products with chemical substances, to REACH. B. Example of substance information: For example: Formaldehyde 

CAS number: 50-00-0



Hazard statement codes: –



H351, H331, H311, H301, H314, H317

Risk phrases: –

R40, R34, R43, R23/24/25

–

Safety phrases:

–

S26, S36/37, S45, S51

CAS /CAS number/ :Is a unique numeric identifier that designates only one substance and is a link to a wealth of information about a specific chemical substance. For more information: https://www.cas.org/content/chemical-substances/faqs

Hazardous statement codes: the letter H for ”Hazardous statement”. The first following number stands for the type of hazard ”2” = physical hazards, ”3” = health hazards and ”4” = environmental hazards. The two following numbers are hazards arising from the 60

intrinsic properties of the substance/ mixture, such as explosivity (code 200 to 210) and flammability (codes from 220 to 230), etc.

For more information: http://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/trans/danger/publi/ghs/ghs_rev02/English/07e_an nex3.pdf

Risk phrases:R phrase and R number: phrases indicating the risks of hazardous preparations and substances, and their numbers respectively. Examples: R40 - Limited evidence of a carcinogenic effect, R34 - Causes burns, R43 - May cause sensitisation by skin contact, R23 - Toxic by inhalation, R24 - Toxic in contact with skin, R25 - Toxic if swallowed, etc.

For more info: http://www.msds-europe.com/id-485-r_s_phrases.html

Safety phrases: S phrase and S number: phrases related to the safe handling of hazardous preparations, and their numbers respectively. Examples: S 26 - In case of contact with eyes, rinse immediately with plenty of water and seek medical advice, S 36 - Wear suitable protective clothing, S 37 - Wear suitable gloves, S 45 - In case of accident or if you feel unwell seek medical advice immediately, S 51 - Use only in wellventilated areas.

For more info: http://www.msds-europe.com/id-485-r_s_phrases.html

All chemical substances have a CAS number.

Mongoliaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s example is shown

in

picture 18.

61

Picture 18.

Statistics: REACH baseline study(2009) REACH is being implemented stepwise and the picture shows how the risk reduction will increase in time. Time plan for REACH stretches to 2018 for full implementation.

C. REACH â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Candidate list = Substances of Very High Concern Substances of Very High Concern: 62

–

PBT = Persistent, Bioaccumulative and Toxic

–

vPvB =very Persistent and very Bioaccumulative

The candidate list is not a prohibition list but a permit may be necessary to use these substances. Substances that need permit are listed in REACH Annex XIV. Any supplier of a material containing >0.1% of any substance listed on the candidate list have to inform the recipient/buyer/user about the content – IF THEY ASK FOR IT - but there is no fixed format of how information will be conveyed (for materials).

Substances of concern will be listed on the REACH candidate list. These substances are persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic or very persistent and very bioaccumulative.

The substances put on the candidate list won’t be prohibited right away, but will have to have permission before use. Substances that need permission is listed on REACH Annex XIV. For mixtures the supplier must provide information on how the product is used safely /Such as safety data sheets/ Violation of the law - a fine or imprisonment up to 2 years For more information:http://echa.europa.eu/web/guest/candidate-list-table The safety data sheet follows the content requirements set out in REACH with hazard identification, information on ingredients, first aid measures, personal protection needed to handle the product, etc.

Candidate List of Substances of Very High Concern for Authorisation

63

Access to Safety Data Sheets (SDS) for the use chemical products How to use SDS? SDS contains information about dangerous substances, potential hazards, preventive safety measures. SDS must be provided for dangerous solvents/ paints/ adhesives etc.

Safety Data Sheets:SDS contain detailed information about the chemicals. The information about safety precautions is especially important.

1. Identification of the substance /mixture and of the company/ undertaking 2. Hazards identification 3. Composition/ information on ingredients 4. First aid measures 5. Firefighting measures 6. Accidental release measures 7. Handling and storage 8. Exposure controls/ personal protection 9. Physical and chemical properties 10. Stability and Reactivity 11. Toxicological information 12. Ecological information 13. Disposal considerations 14. Transport information

64

15. Regulatory information 16. Other information According to European legislation, the information about safety precautions has to be obeyed when using the product.

D. The European Chemicals Regulation – REACH – Annex XVII A substance can be restricted or prohibited if the use of it poses an unacceptable risk to human health or the environment – REACH Annex XVII. More than 1000 substances are listed. There are specific restrictions for these substances.

Table of substances/group of substances, which are restricted by Annex XVII to REACH Regulation

65

E. Classification Labeling and Packaging (CLP) CLP is the Regulation on classification, labeling and packaging of substances and mixtures â&#x20AC;&#x201C;

Facilitate international trade in chemicals and to maintain the existing level of protection of human health and environment.

â&#x20AC;&#x201C;

Explosive, flammable, oxidising, gas container, corrosive, toxic, harmful,

hazardous,

environmentally hazardous...

CLP deals with the dangers of chemical 66

substances and mixtures, and how others should be informed about them.

It is the responsibility of the industry to identify hazards of substances and mixtures before being placed on the market, and to classify them according to the hazards that have been identified. If a substance or a mixture is hazardous, it must be labeled so that workers and consumers aware of its effects before they handle it.

4.3 Hazardous substances in products Standards, legislation and ecolabels for: –

Water-based paint

–

Adhesives

–

Artificial boards and its products

–

Wallpaper

Ecolabels: –

EU Ecolabel & Nordic Swan (EU, Nordic countries)

–

Grenelle de l’Environnement (France)

–

Blue Angel = Der Blaue Engel (Germany)

–

BASTA (Sweden)

The EU Ecolabel helps you identify products and services that have a reduced environmental impact throughout their life cycle, from the extraction of raw material

67

through to production, use and disposal. The Nordic Swan is a Ecolabel with stringent environmental and climate criteria for 63 product groups.

Grenelle de l’Environnement (France) - the "Grenelle Environnement" combines the state and civil society in order to define new actions for sustainable development Blue Angel (Germany) – is a German certification for products and services that have environmentally friendly aspects. Blue Angel is the oldest ecolabel in the world, and it covers some 10.000 products in some 80 product categories.

BASTA (Sweden) –is the industry's only independent environmental assessment system for building and construction products.

Ecolabels for water-based paint

In

68

column two (from left) is the substance given that has restriction in the different ecolabelling systems and in legislation.

69

4.4.

Hazardous subtsances contained in building materials

Let’s examine the hazardous substances contained in widely used building materials: –

Cement is composed of lime, silica, clay and other materials that can be furnace slag, fly ash, bentonite etc. that may include heavy metals or sulfur compounds. Depending on the origin of raw materials and the handling, cement contains various levels of metals and other substances found in the earth's crust. These substances fills no technological function in cement and is usually found in very low concentrations.

 Cement contains Chromium, which can cause problems with eczema for the bricklayers. Iron sulphate as additive to reduce the amount of Chromium VI  Strong alkaline solution is formed from wet cement  Cement (dry or wet) that come into contact with the eyes can lead to serious eye damage that may be incurable  Cement can have an irritating effect on moist skin  Prolonged skin contact with cement or wet concrete can cause severe burns since these burns occur without pain –

Concrete is composed of cement, ballast and water but also contains some admixtures, mainly super plasticizing admixtures. Additives are mostly agents to make concrete more fluid.The most common types of admixtures are air entraining agents, accelerators, retarders and super plasticizing admixtures and waterproofing additives

–

Concrete that consists of cement; aggregate and water normally don’t emit any emissions.

–

Emissions from concrete can however arise when various admixtures are added during mixing.

–

Super plasticizing admixtures based on melamine and naphthalene contains a certain amount of free formaldehyde.

–

Repeated skin contact with wet concrete can also cause contact dermatitis (eczema)

70

–

High relative humidity around 75% between concrete and PVC flooring may cause harmful emissions

Emissions from concrete Primary emissions:Direct emission from material to the environment:  Formaldehyde to air: –

Typical value: 6 mikrogram/m3 air

–

World Health Organization: 100 mikrogram/m3 air

–

Sweden: 0,37 milligram/m3 air

–

Chromium VI = maximum 2 ppm (0.0002%) (REACH Annex XIV)

Secondary emissions:Material affects the environment, which in turn emits emissions, e.g., floor coverings on concrete (carpet and adhesives) –

Moisture in the concrete base

–

TVOC

Protection against hazardous substance in concrete: –

Recommended personal protective equipment (safety data sheet):

–

Respiratory protection - dust protective mask

–

Hand protection – protective gloves made of water proof rubber, resistant to abrasion

–

Eye protection: Eyeglasses that are water proof

–

Skin protection: Protective clothing with long elastic cuffs on the sleeves and collar closed

–

Boots: Make sure that cement mixture can not penetrate the boots

–

Do not eat, drink or smoke in connection with handling of cement to avoid skin contact

Mineral wool insulation Mineral wool is made from thin fibers of glass or stone materials that are bonded together by using phenol and formaldehyde resin. Toxic substances - considered stable and bound by normal use of the material. Mineral wool emit formaldehyde and fibers

71

that irritate the skin. Mineral wool gives a poor, dusty work environment with harmful fibers.

Expanded/Extruded Polystyrene (EPS/XPS) insulation EPS is produced by small pearls of polystyrene with the addition of pentane that is exposed to heat, the pearls are expanded to balls that mostly consist of 98% air. XPS are made by polystyrene that is melted, pressurized and carbon dioxide is added, as pressure decreases the material expands and a disc is formed with lots of small holes in, much like a cheese. The difference between EPS and XPS - XPS usually have higher strength requirements and is thus for more demanding applications. The EPS insulation contains styrene and toxic flame retardants.

Expanded/Extruded Polystyrene (EPS/XPS) insulation Pentane is often added as a blowing agent in EPS.EPS/XPS can emit xylene and styrene, substances considered harmful by inhalation and skin contact. HFCs, which contain environmental hazardous chemicals, are widely used as foaming agents in XPS. These plastics contain volatile substances (VOC) that can emit into the indoor air.

In particular, during fire hazardous gases are emitted. Cellular plastic is made from fossil raw materials, contains hazardous styrene, flame retardants and is flammable.

The origin of Polystyrene is the same but there are two different ways to make them: 1. Polystyrene or some of its other substances are hard foam insulators that are produced by being melted, blown up for porosity and have open or closed surfaces. These are called â&#x20AC;&#x153;Extruded Polystyreneâ&#x20AC;? or XPS. 2. Polystyrene or some of its other substances that are produced

to

be

pearl

shaped and are blown up are called Expanded Polystyrene or EPS. 72

In our country, the product specifications of thermal insulator Extruded Polystyrene (XPS) is defined by product specifications of MNS EN 13164:2011 and Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) by MNS EN 13163:2011.

The use of polystyrene or foam has spread all around the world. But, do not think that polystyrene is just a white panel made up of foam pearls manufactured in Mongolia. If we were to classify only this type of panel, there will be more than 20,000 categories.

The use of this panel rises as every day goes by. Official research shows that the use of this panel was 6,277 mil/ton in 2006, 10,511 mil/ton in 2013 and is planned to be 11 mil/ton in 2015.

Chapter 5. Quality management and quality assurance of the construction Contents 5.1 Constrution quality assurance 5.2 Supervision in the construction process 5.3 Methods and tools regarding quality assurance in the construction process 5.4 Concrete molding, hardening and care 5.1 Construction Quality Assurance Quality Assurance is a systematic process of verifying that all building systems perform interactively according to the design intent and: a) Legal regulatinos and requirements b) Project specific requirements -

Sustainability requirements

-

Ownerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s project requirements

QA is achieved through a complete quality assurance process through the building process.

Why is supervision of legal regulations needed?

Supervision assures quality. This is the quality assurance of the developer. Supervision is required to minimize errors that could be made during constructin process and to achieve the set goals for sustainability and quality.

Systems to be supervised: 73

-

HVAC Systems

-

plumbing

-

electrical- lighting

-

fire safety

-

building envelope

-

waste water

-

controls

-

design resistance

-

thermal climate

-

moisture

-

noise

-

accessibility

-

energy performance

-

OHS- in use

-

OHS- construction site

What is supervision?

Supervision is a process to facilitate and ensure quality.It is an ongoing process of assuring that the companyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s product and services are going according to the purpose and standards and errors can be corrected.

Why do we need supervision?

Unsupervised activities can creat chaos. Peter Drucker once said, â&#x20AC;&#x153;Setting a direction and supervising are synonymsâ&#x20AC;? Supervision is responsible for preventing any uncertain situations, assigning implementors of purpose, preventing crisis situations, and ensuring successful implementation.

74

Supervision in the construction process

Developer

Control manager

The localBuildingAuthority Inspection plan

Players and routines in the supervision of legal aspects: The Swedish example: -

Developer –owner of the building/ property

-

Control manager– the assigned supervisor of the project

-

Inspection plan– the steering document of the project. The way to quality assures that applicable laws and regulations and that the Owner’s project requirements are followed and fulfilled.

-

The local Building Authority(have different names such as Planning office) – the supervisory authority.

Developer: Owner of building project. Has the full responsibility that the building is produced according to applicable laws and regulations. No one else has this responsibility. The developer assigns a person to be in charge of the supervision- The certified Control Manager.

Control manager:To be a Control Manager in Sweden, you have to be certified by a accredited certification body and have to acheive the following requirements: a. Technical education from University b. Experience of practical work in the construction sector c. Suitable for the position / have ability recommendations from others who have worked in the sector/ d. Pass approximately two days of training and an exam And if you fulfil this test you can apply for a certificate at a accredited certification body.

75

Responsibilities of the Control Manager The control manager shall be independent from the contractors and developer and shall be involved as early as possible in the project. They have the following responsibilities: -

Create the inspection plan

-

Attend technical consultations, inspections, and other controls

-

Control that legal requirements are followed

-

Follow up the inspection plan

-

Follow up that necessary controls are conducted in design and construction stage

-

Visit the construction site regularly and produce reports regarding the inspection plan and site visits

Inspection Plan Aim of the inspection plan:Ensure that regulations and the project requirements are followed and that all building systems perform according to the design intent.

Content of the inspection plan: 1. Short description of the project 2. Organization scheme of the project 3. List of inspections and controls during design stage 4. List of inspections and controls during the construction sta 5. List of inspections and controls during final inspection 6. What to control and which tests and inspections to be done, by whom and according to which regulations and requirements 7. Which notifications to be done to the building authority 8. When the building authority inspectors shall visit the building site 76

Inspection Plan /Mongolian example/ 1. Inspection plan order attachment 2. Inspection plan rules for inspection and control 3. Procedures for producing an inspection plan 4. Advice on working with a simple system for merging information of inspection plan 5. Register risk assessment and inspection plan in archive.

Types of inspection plan /Mongolian example/: -

Carcass building and construction process work inspection plan

-

Brick building and construction process work inspection plan

-

Prefabricated building and construction process work inspection plan

-

Inspection plan during building use

-

Inspection plan for wall material manufacturing process

-

Inspection plan for the factories of concrete mixtures, filler materials and reinforced concrete

-

Inspection plan for steel bar factory 77

-

Inspection plan for binding material factory

-

Inspection plan for window and door material factory

-

Inspection plan for insulation material factory

-

Inspection plan for construction budget and performance

-

Inspection plan for source of water supply and sewerage systems, centralized water supply and sewerage network assembly

Law related to author’s monitoring during construction work was ratified on August 1st, 1999.

The local building authority – The supervisory authority- ensuring that laws and regulations are followed – Approves the Inspection Plan – Approves the Control Manager – Visit the construction site to assure that the control manager fulfill his/her job and that the inspection plan is followed. If he/she is not doing their job, to change them.

Other supervisory authority: – Local environmental department/authority – Country administration – Government Supervision in the construction process

78

A schematic picture of the building process: -

Program stage

-

Design stage

-

Construction stage

-

User stage

The control manager is assigned during the program stage.Inspection plan is produced in the design stage and used during design and construction stage.

The local building authority act as supervisory authority during design and construction stage- after the building permit is given.

The executor is responsible for internal matters during construction process.

Supervision during program stage: -

The developer assigns the control manager, tasked to ensure that the developer has the competence and experience needed to avoid missing important contacts with authorities.

-

Provide input to the developers project requirements for quality assurance of the systems and equipment

-

Assure that the design team focus on the developers project goals and requirements 79

Supervision during design stage: Control Manager shall also make sure that Owner’s project requirements will be fulfilled in the project, all the way from program to operation.

Supervision of inspection plan: -

Self monitoring by designers and engineers

-

Followed-up by the Control Manager

Required certifications and statements: -

Statements from the workers, position control certificate etc, Energy performance calculation, etc.

-

Collected by the Control Manager

5.2 Supervision during construction stage Supervision of the Inspection Plan





-

Self-monitoring by contractors

-

Followed-up by the Control Manager

Inspections –

Performed by the Control Manager or other independent experts

–

Site visit by local building authority inspectors

Tests –

Performed by independent experts- documentation

Required certifications and statements –

Issued by material producers

–

Issued by independent experts

Requirements during construction work /Mongolia’s example- Parliament Resolution 72 of 2009/ – Constant supervision of building material supply, storage, quality and technology of equipment is required by the owner during construction process

80

– The developer shall complete an act of open and closed performance during phases, and the owner shall verify by photo evidence at the time.

– Documents including the certificate of origin, certificate of conformity, certificate, and laboratory testing report of the building materials being used during construction is required.

– Verification of construction work with pictures.

– Completed drawing, act for hidden installation, test act for engineering system and equipment.

– The construction process completion should be verified and funded.

– Daily maintain field journal, review judgement and conclusions made by the developer, owner and professional inspection organizations and implement the changes advised.

– When changes are necessary in building design during construction process, consent and approval is required from building designer.

– Technical Commission and the State Commission shall be in charge receiving the building to put into operations based on the official request of the developer.

Final inspection after the building process is finished Complete the Inspection Plan and hand over the building: –

Execution of remaining functional test and inspections

–

Complete the inspection plan

–

Operation and maintenance documentation handed over to the owner

–

Training of facility management staff

–

Turnover meeting held to transition responsibility

–

Clearance to use the building

Supervision during occupancy Supervision of the energy performance.

Monitoring of the energy performance: –

The energy performance of the new building shall be monitored and verified and reported.

–

This shall be done in the first two years.

81

5.3 Methods and tools regarding quality assurance in the construction process Self-monitoring “Self monitoring is a survey conducted on own operations, by own responsibility, to determine whether an object fills given requirements”

Different ways to perform and document self-monitoring:  Checklists  Drawings  Records of measurements  Test certificates  Protocols  Photos

82

Self-monitoring- Insulation example

Insulation around windows and doors

Insulation: penetrations: Critical spots: – Installations – Fixings – Connections between different materials

Self-monitoring- checklist Source: www.fuktcentrum.lth.se

83

Self-monitoring: Measurement of moisture content in wood

84

5.4 Concrete molding, hardening and care Hardening concrete from cement binder Key factors that affect concrete hardening 1. Temperature 2. Moisture In a time when concrete technology is dominating, concrete is hardening and molding during construction work in temperatures of 5-35C. What are these conditions?

-

50С – winter

-

350С – hot and dry

-

15-200С – normal

Concrete molding care Concrete poured on field: -

Do not hit, shake or move concrete that is hardening

-

To cover concrete with wet permeable material in order to protect concrete surface from sun and wind

-

If environment is hot and dry wooden frame shall be watered along with concrete until it receives 75% of its strength.

In winter /0-50С/.

85

-

If concrete is frozen in (-) Celsius water inside concrete becomes ice and expands its volume by 9-10% and as a result concrete structure will be damaged. In such case concrete becomes useless and shall be removed.

How to mold concrete in winter?

Prerequisite -

Clean reinforcement metal before use.

-

If environment temperature is below /-150ะก/ reinforcement metal shall be heated up to 50ะก.

-

In practically water is heated up to 40-900ะก, and fillings are heated up to 20600ะก.

-

Cement and powder additives shall not be heated.

-

Mixing time is 1.5times longer compare to normal condition. .

Molding method in winter: 1. Concrete mixture shall be molded without heating and insulated after molding. /concrete elements shall be insulated with insulation material/.

2. Heat concrete before molding.

3. Add winter additive or use cement that has lower strength period.

How to mold concrete in hot and dry environment?

-

If relative humidity is below 50% and average temperature is above 25C environment could be considered as dry.

-

Hot temperature, solar radiation, low humidity, wind speed affects concrete strength negatively.

-

Quick water evaporation creates crush on concrete.

Molding method in hot and dry condition -

Early morning or late evening is good time to mold concrete. Pour concrete continuesly.

-

If concrete is mixed at the site it shall avoided from direct sun and mixing device shall be closed.

-

If filling materials are heated they shall be cooled with cold water and water on the surface shall be evaporated. Filling temperate shall be 15-200ะก.

-

Usage of cement that has low strength period is useful 86

-

It is forbidden to add water on the concrete after molding.

-

Water and fillings are most high thermal conductivity materials in the concrete.

-

Water specific heat capacity is 5 times higher than other ingredients.

-

So reduce water and other ingredients’ temperature in hot and dry climate

-

50% of water can be replaced with ice.

-

Water evaporates quickly in hot and dry condition. So specific techniques shall be followed:  Mixing concrete throughout way,  ¾ of total water can be added initially and remaining amount shall be added just before molding at the site.

-

Maximum transportation distance of concrete is 50km. if concrete is stuffy allowed distance to transport is 10-15km.

Why concrete shal be molded within short time and continuosly?

87

Why vibration contact with reinforcement metal is not allowed to compact concrete?

Why long vibration period is harmful?

88

Why vibrator can not be used to spread concret e?

89

How to know concrete complete dense?

90

Why spaces on the wooden frame shall be sealed?

91

Chapter 6. Construction Waste Management Contents 6.1 Construction waste 6.2 Hazardous waste 6.3 Sorting at source, opportunities for recycling 6.4 Waste management at site

6.1 Construction waste MĂśbius sign- internationally recognized symbol used to designate recyclable materials.

Russian chemist, scientist D.I. Mendeleev once said, â&#x20AC;&#x153;Waste is just raw materials that have not yet found their belonging.â&#x20AC;?

It is important to sort waste materials in the beginning process of construction. Construction waste management should be reflected on construction designing and planning as well as life cycle.

92

Waste management is at the top of the list of issues to resolve for Ulaanbaatar city.

Besides domestic waste, construction waste takes up a considerable amount. Domestic waste can be gathered and loaded to a truck, however, gathering and loading construction waste is not easy.

350-400 thousand tons of waste is produced in Ulaanbatar annually. 12-15 percent of this is construction waste accounting to over 60,000 tons.

How to reduce waste?

The following are possible ways to reduce waste during construction process:  Recycle and reuse building material  Construct and operate buildings with the latest techniques  Use materials with long life expectancy  Plan building contsruction considering possible future changes to be made  Less waste is produced at centralized productions. Therefore, modern construction material facilities, unified and organized commercial market, combine precast and cast buildings (assemble ready fabrication)

93

6.2 Hazardous Waste The following are materials with hazardous waste:  preservative treated wood  cresote  chromium  adhesives  sealants  paint residues  detergents  unknown substances  electrical and electronic waste  batteries  refrigerants

All products contain chemical substances that can at times seperate from the product.

This can cause harm to the environment or to poeple.

6.3 Sorting at source, opportunities for recycling The first step to waste management is to sort the materials at the source according to its resusability. For example:

94

 Electronic waste- recycle  Wood or flamable materials– recycle, energy recovery  Plastic – spillage from installations can be recycled.For example: PVC, PE, EPS and PP products such as pipes and carpets, packaging and wrapping materials, plastic insulation  Gypsum – spillage can be recycled to produce new gypsum boards (clean and dry)  Scrap metal- recycle  bricks and concrete- recycle  filling material- recycle  hazardous waste Waste fractions are shown in picture 19. /Sweden example/

Picture 19. Waste fractions /Sweden example/

95

Today, in Mongolia, the outer wall for a single family house or the inner wall in multi family house is 70% EPS, 30% concrete. The ratio is the same for spillage from construction sites. This should be reflected in the waste management.

6.4 Waste management at site Waste management material inventory should be kept. This must be performed by a trained person with knowledge of hazardous substances.

Material Inventory  The purpose of the inventory is to gain knowledge about dangerous materials, the amount and location  Should include materials and products which can be hazardous  Should include materials and products which can be reused, recycled and recovered  The results of the inventory forms the basis for the waste management plan Material inventory working process can be used also when desgning new buildings in order to reduce the amount of hazardous materials.

Construciton waste management plan A waste management plan should always be prepared in connection with demolition activities. The plan should include: 1. Information about potential hazardous materials (location, amount, handling) 2. Products that can be reused 3. Other waste (fractions, amount, handling) 96

4. Cost to remove waste and ways to reduce it, etc.

Example of waste management plan  Administrative data  Information about hazardous waste  Information about other waste  Information about logistics and routines Example of information table for hazardous waste: Completed by the contractor Type of waste

Waste Estimated Handling Stored code

amount

/ storage amount

Transporter Receiver

Received amount

Verification

Comment no.

Unsorted waste can result in ineffective inventory use and cause harm to human health and the environment.

“Regulations on sorting and disposal of waste” is in effect in Mongolia.

The purpose of this regulation is to sort waste from individuals, households and entities, to do basic sorting, collect sorted waste, and to arrange transportation.

Also in this regulation, waste sorting and vocabulary definitions are noted including:  “Other waste”is household waste that remains after removing the recyclable waste. Hazardous waste, construction waste, electrical device waste and hospital waste are not included in “other waste.”  “Sorting at the source”is to dispose according to this regulation waste that can be used by the generator and other wastes such as household hazardous waste, construction waste, and hospital waste.

The following are recyclable waste:

97

 newspaper, magainze, notebook, plain paper, all sorts of wrapping paper, cardboard, milk and juice tetra pak cartons.  plastic, all sorts of water, soda plastic bottles, ketchup, vegetable oil, body wash, shampoo, detergent plastic cases.  aluminum, metal, copper, brass, all sorts of aluminum, metal, copper, brass utensils.  glass bottles, all sorts of grocery glass bottles.  wooden waste  plastic bags, plastic packaging

Other waste include the following:  coal ash  perishable food and food waste  sanitary waste  Other waste not included in recyclable waste Hazardous household waste include the following:  - Paints, solvents,  - Self-propelled vehicle waste (used oils, butter, antifreeze fluid, circular)  - Insecticides, rodenticides,  - Waste containing mercury (thermometers, mercury used in switches, plug and light, this type of lighting equipment),  - Electronic devices waste (PC, TV, mobile phone), 98

 - Aerosol or spray bottle waste products (propane cylinders),  - Scorcher and corrosive chemicals (cleaning agents),  - Products containing cooling agent,  - Some special batteries (lithium, nickel kadmum, electronic watch battery)  - Tara,  - Radioactive wastes (smoke detectors).  Construction waste:addition to building and construction materials, include unnecessary materials generated directly and indirectly during the manufacturing process, including brick, concrete, wood, insulation, and insulation materials, nails, electrical installers, plumbing equipment and fixtures, waste tiles, wall paper base and also includes waste generated by the earth, felled trees and rocks during construction preparation process.

According to Article 6 of this regulation, a reward will be given to those who sort waste.

Article 6. Reward 1. Households, organizations, and entities that have become accustomed to basic sorting of waste will be rewarded by purchase of their recyclable waste, promote to the public, and fee waivers from waste disposal costs for a certain amount of time.

How is construction waste different from other waste?  Very convenient to reuse. 80% of construction waste can be reused.

What can be produced if recycled?  Brick, blocks and gravel from construction waste can be used for road maintenance.

Chapter 7. Life Cycle Perspective

Contents 7.1 Life Cycle Cost Calculation 7.2 Life Cycle Assessment

99

When calculating the life cycle cost, all the costs that an investment generates during the building’s lifetime, from the manufacturing process to demolition, should be calculated. From there, the principle of choosing the correct investment of the least costly and least amount of impact on the environment is upheld. Building products produce the most amounts of costs during its operations. This is related to the costs of energy use. Therefore, when decreasing the costs from all the stages of construction, more attention should be paid to a situation where lowering the costs of energy use is essential. However, the owners or the investors have to make a decision between many alternatives that result from technology advancements and the knowledge and ability of the engineers and technicians. The life cycle assessment and calculation is crucial to the investors making the correct decisions.

Life Cycle Calculation is done in Europe for the following reasons: –

Improve competition of construction industry

–

Introduce the construction industry’s impact on the environment

–

Give assurance to investors to invest in this project

–

Assist in making new decisions and purchases by assuring the information about the project

–

Produce comparison information, etc.

Life cycle cost calculation not only determines the costs of the project, but also the negative impacts the project may have on the environment.

7.1 Life Cycle Cost Calculation When choosing engineering system equipment and building parts, the specs and performance are usually the same, but it’s common for them to cost differently. This is related to the products’ energy use during its operations, frequency of maintenance, and the quality.

In most cases, investors refuse to calculate costs because of the following reasons: – Not responsible for the building’s operations, investors and operators have different owners and separate costs – Project length is short – Financial ability is low, difficulty attracting investors 100

– Minimum knowledge of economy and finance, no calculation of operation costs regarding rise of energy use – No guarantee, equipment does not fulfill its ability – Weak implementation of environment laws and regulations, no penalties or charges Procedures of the life cycle calculation are defined in the ISO 15686. This is implemented in most countries.

The following order is followed for the life cycle calculation: 1. Identify the main purpose of the calculation: Identify what results and how to use them.

2. Identify the length of calculation 3. Identify if additional risk assessment is needed 4. Determine costs and expenses 5. Perform calculations using data 6. Report the results There are many ways to do the life cycle calculation and the easiest of them all is to use present value calculation. This is a simple method to make comparison using the costs.

The costs and expenses used for the calculation is generally classified into the following: – Costs and expenses not related to construction  Buying land expenses  Professional consulting expenses /legal, planning, etc./ – Design, planning and constructing expenses  Architectural planning  Construction site preparing  Constructing  Prepare for operations and handover  Interior design  Outer design and landshaft, etc.

– Operations expenses  Rent, 101

 Taxation,  Insurance,  Energy,  Operations /water, sewage, etc/  Cleaning, security  Everyday expenses /surveillance,etc/.

– Maintenance expenses  Inspection  Small maintenance  Cleaning  Fixing – Other expenses  Possible retail price – Income:  remaining expenses  service revenue  rent revenue  tax cuts, etc.

The formula for life cycle cost calculation using present value calculation is the following: LCCTotal = Investment + LCCEnergy + LCCMaintenance + LCCOther – Residual value

– Investment– all costs incurred in the investment phase.Land purchase can be included in this. Only the material expenses can be included when comparing costs beforehand.

– LCCEnergy– the total energy cost as a measure generates (electricity, heating, gas, cooling, etc.)The rise of energy costs should be considered.

– LCCMaintenance –all maintenance costs during lifetime related to a measure. This varies depending on the number of floors, area and location of the building.

102

Engineers can make calculations by using the operations of similar buildings and equipment or can use calculations of other researchers.

– LCCOther –other relevant

costs

related to

the measure (for example

environmental costs.)

– Residual value– The total life cycle cost is reduced with the residual value that the installation is expected to have in the end of the calculation time.The remaining cost can include the costs to demolish the building after its operation length is over or the retail price. The calculation can be negative or positive.

Prevent value calculation is used to bring the above costs to the same level as today’s costs.Today’s 1₮ is transferred to what it would be in the future.

S0 

Sn

1  p n

In this: S0–Cost or income year 0 (today) Sn–sum yearn n-number of years (calculation period). Expected lifespan of the installation from its construction to its demolition. p-interest rate. This is a factor for calculating interest rates at different points in time to present value. It is usually 3~5%.

Example 1: Life cycle calculation period is 5 years and every year the maintenance cost is 1000 euros.How much does the value of money decrease of 1000 euros every year come to? Interest rate is 5%.

Year 0

Yearly maintenance cost with cost position as year 0 1.000

Yearly maintenance cost with present value calculation = 1000/((1+0.05)0) = 1.000

1

1.000

= 1000/((1+0.05)1) = 952

2

1.000

= 1000/((1+0.05)2) = 907

3

1.000

= 1000/((1+0.05)3) = 864

4

1.000

= 1000/((1+0.05)4) = 823

5

1.000

= 1000/((1+0.05)5) = 784

Нийт

6.000

5.329

103

Example2: The costs of choosing heating equipment for every stage of operations and life cycle.

Option AOption B The energy prices in the examples are set to increase 1 percent more than the inflation, per year. The examples show how large portion of the total cost that relates to energy and that it is therefore important to find products that have low energy use.

The above formula is used to find the total costs using the life cycle cost calculation.

The following example shows whether making an investment by looking at the costs is beneficial or not.

Example 3:Let’s look at the two options of insulating the outer envelope of the building with 5cm and 10cm thickness.The first investment cost needed to do maintenance work for options “A” and “B” for 5 years. The yearly costs are shown in the following graph.

Yearly cost B Utbetalning vid renovering 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 0

1

2

104

Investment A Årskostnader

3

4

A- Yearly B Årskostnader cost

5

The following shows the total cost comparison of the sum of the first yearâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s investment cost and 5 years of maintenance work.

The above graph shows that even though investing to insulate the outer envelope of the building with 10cm thickness may cost more in the beginning, it is more beneficial and cheaper in the long run.

The following graph shows hte break-even for the two measures just before the end of the year three. (red arrow)

The breakeven point for the two

105

measures “A” and “B” is shown in the graph as 2.8 years. After the 2.8 mark, option “B” is more beneficial and has a lower total cost in the future.

For the Life Cycle Calculation, the focus is not only costs, but income may also be considered in the calculation.

Yearly income, such as rental income, can be transferred to present value and if the sum is more than the investment cost, then it can be concluded that it’s beneficial.

Example 4: Let’s say after starting operations, the building will be sold. After 6 years:

In

the

above graph, the grey bar

represents investment costs, which is negative, therefore below the X-axis. The green represents net operating income and the red, residual value.

Calculating the income with present value has caused the results to decrease.

To

106

make a conclusion from the graph, an investor needs to add the residual value to the rental income of 6 years and compare it to the investment cost.

It is beneficial if the measures those are positive and above the X-axis are greater than the negative.

7.2 Life Cycle Assessment A Life Cycle Assessment is a system analytic tool to assess environmental impacts associated with all the stages of a productâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s life from cradle-to-grave, including product manufacturing, using the product to construct the building, building operations and demolition.

This assessment can become the basis for vital solutions such as improving manufacturing process and strengthening legal regulations by assessing the impact on the environment with researching material amount, manufacturing process and operation technology.

When performing the Life Cycle Assessment, ISO 14040 14044 is followed.

This international standard was acknowledged by professionals for having scientific validity.

The following are the 4 steps of Life Cycle Assessment: 1. Goal and scope definition:The purpose and scope depends on what the results of the LCA will be used for.

2. Inventory analysis:Includes inputs of water, energy, and raw materials and what they release to air, land and water. In other words, the inputs and outputs of the inventory are assessed.

3. Impact assessment:choosing category for impact on environment. It is important to choose the correct category for impacts on the environment after the inventory analysis. This impact on the environment is shown in numbers.

4. Interpretation:systematic technique to identify, quantify, check and evaluate information from the results of the prior two steps.

In Europe, most products and chemical products have environmental reports.

107

A product’s environment report shows a product’s impact on the environment and its use in a complex format in quantitative form.

Schematic process for an LCA: – Collection of raw materials – Production – Use (operation) – Waste management In these four steps, the products’ impact on the environment can be seen.

Analysis of window materials is shown below:

The side arrows show the system. The arrows facing down show the in flow to the system and the bottom arrows show the out flow such as emissions and waste.

The analysis above can be performed on similar products for comparison.

If we only analyze the energy use of a product, we need to take both the energy use during its manufacturing and its operations. Because a building’s life cycle is long, 85% of its energy use is during its operations. Therefore, if we specifically take the energy use during the assessment, we will be able to see the distinct characterization of energy-efficient buildings and its building envelope.

108

Chapter 8. Tools for simulation of energy use Contents 8.1 Purpose and importance of energy use simulation 8.2 Basic principles and parameters of energy use simulation tools 8.3 Simulation results 8.4 Simulation program quality

8.1 Purpose and importance of energy use simulation Simulation tool is a tool that uses mathematical simulation to find estimate results based on given situations. Energy use simulation has become the today’s main tool to study thermal comfort and energy performance. Many programs that are distinct in their thermodynamic modeling, graphics, scope of application, which phase of the building’s life cycle it is used and opporunity of data exchange with other programs are being applied.

Energy use simulation programs can be classified into two groups:  choosing heating, air ventilation, conditioning system equipments, system plus design  Simulation tool used to determine annual energy needs of a building

109

Programs used today in reality are listed on “Building Energy Software Tools Directory” (U.S. DOE 2007). Energy use simulation for a building is used in the following steps:  Early planning stages - During the planning and designing process of a building, simulation tool is used to choose the building envelope and determine how much energy the envelope will need to spend. Also during the plannig process, size of facilities and pipelines can be determined and overall system energy load can be calculated.  During building construction - During the construction process, every changes made in relation to the original design should be reflected in the simulation, in order to show how it affects the overall performance.  Completed construction - Барилгын ажил дуусмагц хэмжилт хийн, хэмжилтийн үр дүнгээр төлөвлөлтийн үе шатанд бодит биш, таамаглаж авч хэрэглэсэн утга бүхий зарим нэг үзүүлэлтийн өгөгдлийг бодитоор авдаг.For example:Building битүүмжлэлийн үзүүлэлтand such. Building битүүмжлэлийн үзүүлэлт can often differ from the calculations during the planning process depending on the skills of the workers and the equipment used during construction. Барилгын битүүмжлэлийн үзүүлэлт нь дулаан алдагдалд

шууд

нөлөө

үзүүлдэг

учраас

уг

үзүүлэлтийн

бодит

хэмжилтийн утгыг өгч эрчим хүчний ачааллыг загварчлах нь чухал байдаг.

Using simulation tools to do building calculations can be cost and time efficient.

Simulation tools requires less time and labor because calculations can be done with as many changes to the basic data.

The main advantage of energy simulation is that energy use and thermal comfort can be determined in advance by comparing the solutions of architects. The results this comparisons are reliable when the condition and hypothesis of the first calculations are the same.

Simulation programs are of importance in that they are time and cost efficient and cause less human error and calculation difference due to data base based on norms and regulations.

110

8.2 Basic principles and parameters of energy use simulation tools Building energy use simulation program shows a comparison of how the building will operate under certain criteria. How specific and realiable the results of the simulation will be depends on how correct the input data is. Energy use simulation tools all calculate on the basis of thermodynamic equations, principles and hypothesis.

Picture 20 shows the operating principle of simulation tool in a scheme.

Picture 20. Загварчлалын хэрэгслэлийн ажиллагааны зарчим

Загварчлалын хэрэгслэлээр тооцоо гүйцэтгэхэд тодорхой өгөгдлүүдийг оруулах баэрчим хүчний системийн загварчлалын тооцоонд шаардлагатай өгөгдлийг дараах байдлаар ангилдаг. Үүнд:  number of people, lighting, equipment  climate data  heating, air ventilation, conditioning and domestic hot water system  building envelope type and size Let’s take each of the above into account.

Number of people, lighting, electrical devices Internal heat loads can affect building heat balance to some extent. Room thermal comfort can be affected if the internal heat load amount is great. Heat emitted from human activity can be classified into two groups, ил ба далд дулаан.Ил дулаан 111

ялгаруулалт нь increases room temperature and далд дулаан ялгаруулалт нь is associated with moisture discharging from the human body.

According to ASHRAE Fundamentals 2009, heat from people depends on the activity.

Activity

Watt/ Adult 70

Sleeping Seated, quiet

110

Walking about (office)

180

Handling 50kg bags

420

Wrestling, competitive

700-900

Heat from lighting is determined by the lighting norm of a room’s square meter area.

According to ASHRAE Fundamentals 2009, heat from lighting is shown in below.

Watt/m2 10 12 15 28 5

Lighting Dining area Office Classroom Performing arts theatre Corridor

Electrical equipment differs according to room purposes. The heat from certain equipments are directly related to the equipments’ motor power and their electric energy consumption. This can be further seen in ASHRAE Fundamentals 2009. The table shows some of the common equipment found in an office and their average power demand.

Appliances Computer PC Copier for office use Printer for office use Charger (mobile phone)

Watt/ item 125 400 400 10

Because the above data can affect calculations greatly, it is very important to put in the correct information into the simulation program in regards to the type, amount, and length of internal heat generator.

Climate data 112

Energy use simulators use data such as temperature, relevant humidity, wind speed and direction and solar radiation. Монгол орны хувьд гадна цаг агаарын үзүүлэлтийг БНбД 2.01.01-93 “Барилгад хэрэглэгдэх уур амьсгал ба геофизикийн үзүүлэлт ”-ээс орон нутгийн байршлаас хамааруулж авна.

Indoor temperature is taken according to MNS 5825:2007 depending on the purpose of the room. Meteorological databases such as “Meteonorm” can used to find climate data of a certain location. In the handbook “Use of Solar Energy” published by the Construction Energy Saving Project, calculations made by the Metenorm program for solar rays in most provinces of Mongolia are enclosed.

Heating, ventilation, air conditioning and domestic hot water system The source, distribution system, and equipment parameters of the HVAC system has an affect on a building’s energy load. During effective distribution of the heat production system, distribution loss is dependent on factors such as the use of equipment, operation status, and monitoring and adjustment of equipment. For example: the more curves, turns and twists the distribution pipes have and the longer they are, the higher the pressure is. Also, the ашигт үйлийн коэффициент of an equipment is in reality 5-10% less than the manufacturers say.

In order to input the functions of the ventilation system and the capacity and specifications of the equipment, verification measurements need to be taken. This can be further seen in Chapter 9 of this book. Air ventilation in one hour, or the frequency, is the basic indicator for calculating the exterior envelope and the amount of heat loss through ventilations. Therefore, measuring and determining the indicators correctly is crucial.

Consumption of domestic hot water system is determined by local norms and regulations. For energy simulation programs, the given data is calculated directly by international norms, regulations and standards. After calculations of the base data with own norms and regulations, revisions can be made afterwards. Consumption of domestic hot water in Mongolia is defined by БНбД 40-05-98 “Дотор усан хангамж, ариутгах татуурга” Building envelope type and size 113

In order to use the simulation program, the following data has to be input corretly:  envelope geometrical measures  orientation  material and thickness of each layer of envelope  material density When choosing and inputting the type of envelope material, basic data from the program such as material heat, technical, physical, and mechanical specificatins, are directly entered into the calculation.

8.3 Simulation results The results of the simulation have an important impact on construction managers making the most suitable decisions.

The most important outcomes of the energy simulation calculations is finding the system load for heating, cooling, hot water supply and lighting. By expressing building energy system load in numbers and graphics, it is easier for the user to understand. If the energy load calculations have less error and is closer to facts, the equipments and the system as a whole will function correctly according to procedures. Therefore, there’s no need for engineers to avoid risks, choose too wide of a equipment capacity, operate equipment higher than its ability and ineffectively use energy.

8.4 Simulation program quality BESTEST (Building Energy Simulation TEST) is a method designed by the International Energy Agency, for testing, diagnosing, and validating the capabilities of building energy simulation programs which consist of analytical tests that allow a given building energy simulation program or design tool to be compared with the state-of-the-art building energy modelling.

This method is used after the construction of the building. The following are reasons why the measurement data differs from the simulation data:  Incorrect data input 114

 The purpose of use of the building for the customer In order to get the results of the simulation calculations to be close to factuality, some data from the measurement results should be realistically input. In this case, the hardest thing to accomplish is inputting the customer’s behaviour. Even though simulating the customer’s behaviour from a static study is the right thing to do, most simulation tools do not have this function. Тиймээс тооцооны утга бодит байдлаас зөрөх тохиолдлыг авч үзэн, өгөгдлийг оруулахдаа дараах байдлаар тодорхой хэмжээний нөөц авах нь зүйтэй байдаг. Үүнд: Therefore, considering the uncertainty, some parameters are ought to be scrutinised:  Increase the indoor temperature by 10С  Calculate ventilation operating time and increase by some hours per day including weekends and weekdays  Decrease the efficiency by 10% in heat recovery and heat pumps  Increase total energy consumption result by 20% as backup.

Chapter 9. Tools for energy performance verification Contents 9.1 Factors that affect energy performance of buildings 9.2 Building energy performance verification 9.3 Building thermal protection For industrialized and developing countries, saving energy is the best option to decreasing economical, health and environmental impacts caused from fossil fuel burning.

9.1 Factors that affect energy performance of buildings When investing in the energy system, questions such as “how much energy are we saving?”, “how long will this savings last?” get attention. Therefore, calculating energy performance correctly and verifiying those calculations is crucial. Also, building energy use is dependent from many other factors and is always a changing energy system, therefore, require monitoring because it does not operate according to calculations. The following factors impact a buidling’s thermal energy performance: 115

 Building envelope:Heat is lost through thermal bridges and ventilations, which causes energy use to rise.The heat lost through building envelopes highly depend on the envelope’s type, design, setup, and any mistakes made by the workers during the consturction process.  Technical systems:The efficiency of equipments and systems that use heat, directly affect energy performance.  User behaviour:The number of users emitting heat greatly impacts a building’s thermal energy performance. Also, the length a user will be in the room and their comfort is crucial for the system to operate correctly.  External climate: The amount of energy to be used is calculated by the geographical location and external climate of the building. Important climate factors for energy performance include temperature, relative humidity, solar radiation and wind velocity.  Indoor climate: Indoor air comfort parameters are settled in the standard depending on room purpose and human activity inside the room. All engineering systems are designed to create indoor environment that could be considered as comfortable according to the standard.

9.2 Building energy performance verification Building energy performance verification is done in the following steps: 1. Determine calculated capacity 2. Make an agreement on energy usage 3. Verify whether technical systems are working according to calculations, measuring energy consumption at the relevant level 4. Validation report documents Let’s take each of the above steps.

1. Determine calculated capacity Building energy consumption can be easily calculated with simultation tools. During the plan and design phase, standard parameters are calculated according to norms and regulations. The values of this calculation should be updated according to the changes made during construction phase. Finally, with the results of the verification 116

measurements during the operation phase of the building, energy use will be calculated.

Refer to chapter 2 for building energy use calculations and how to obtain values.

Systems of a building that use energy can be classified into heating, cooling, ventilation, domestic hot water, lighting, and electrical supply.

Heating, cooling A buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s heating and cooling energy load is determined by heat balance, which is difference between heat loss and heat emission.

Heat loss through thermal bridges is determined by the building envelope and its thickness accodring to ISO 6946:2007.Thermal bridges cause 10-30% more heat loss through thermal bridges and it is calculated by ISO 10211:2007 and ISO 14683:2007.

Heat loss through thermal bridges or holes in materials by infiltration can be determined by the air change rate.

In this case, calculation value will be used. The higher the frequency of ventilation, the more heat is being lost. In reverse, low frequency indicates lack of air ventilation inside the room.

When calculating heat emission from electircal devices, their power capacity and hours of use should be taken into account. For example: the following table shows heat emissions from devices in a small apartment building.

Small apartment building example Power [watt] 200 300 150 650

Outdoor lighting Common staircase lighting Circulation pump Ventilation fan Total

Operating hours/year 3 500 2 500 4 000 8 760

Energy/year [kWh] 700 750 600 5 694 7 744

Refer to chapter 2 for heat emission from people activity.

Heat emission from lighting can be predetermined based on lighting norms. The following table shows a Swedish example of heating and cooling system benefits and required lighting capacity depending on the room purpose.

Room

Watt 10

Office

117

Corridor Dining room Hospital Classroom Conference room

8 10 24 12 16

Total benefits of the heating and cooling system depend on the type of heat source.

Heat source may be a heat pump, boiler, centralized systems, refrigeration compressors or solar collectors. The efficiency of these are determined by different parameters and is most fitting to use the following: ď&#x20AC;­ Heating boiler Efficiency 90%, ď&#x20AC;­ Heat pumps COP /performance/ 2,5-3,5, ď&#x20AC;­ Refrigerant compressors ĐĄĐ&#x17E;Đ higher than 2 Ventilation Mechanical ventilation systems use energy for fans and air heaters. Fan power consumption is determined by the following formula: N=L*P*Ρ , ĐşĐ&#x2019;Ń&#x201A; Key: L- Fan capacity, m3/sec Đ - fan pressure, PĐ° đ?&#x17E;° â&#x20AC;&#x201C; fan efficiency Heat energy required to supply air is determined by following formula: Q=L*c*Ď *Î&#x201D;t, ĐşĐ&#x2019;Ń&#x201A; Key: L- Fan capacity, m3/sec Ń â&#x20AC;&#x201C; air specific heat capacity 1000j/kg. Ď â&#x20AC;&#x201C; air density 1.2kg/m3 Î&#x201D;t - гадна агааŃ&#x20AC; йа ĐžŃ&#x20AC;Ń&#x192;Ń&#x192;НаŃ&#x2026; агааŃ&#x20AC;Ń&#x2039;Đ˝ Ń&#x201A;оПпоŃ&#x20AC;Đ°Ń&#x201A;Ń&#x192;Ń&#x20AC;Ń&#x2039;Đ˝ СӊŃ&#x20AC;ŇŻŇŻ external and inflow air temperature difference With a purpose to save energy, In Europe, the amount of energy consumed for ventilation fans and personal capacity is restricted as follows: 118

 Heat exchanger 2кW/(m3/sec)  exhaust and supply air without heat exchanger 1,5 кW/(m3/sec)  exhaust air 0,6 kW/(m3/sec) A way to save supply flow heating energy for ventilation system is to use an equipment, which can reuse air by transferring the heat from the exhaust airflow to the supply air.

The following shows the efficiency of heat exchange device. ɳ = (t2” – t2’ )/(t1’ – t2’)

Key: t2” – Supply air temperature out of air heat exchanger, [°C] t2’–outside temperature[°C] t1’ - temperature of exhaust flow entering the device [°C] It is most suitable for the АҮК of the heat exchange device to be 75-80%.

Domestic hot water The energy required to prepare domestic hot water is determined by the following formula.

E=V*ρ*c*Δt кВт Key: V–need to be heated water volume, m3 с –water specific heat capacity, 4200 J/kg p–air density is taken as 1000kg/m3 Δt - temperature difference of water to be heated and heated water, 60-5=550С In addition to the energy consumption determined by the above formula, heat loss from pipeline and hot water reservoirs should be taken into account.

Agreement on energy consumption

119

According to Swedish construction law and regulations, energy consumption is restricted and building energy consumption is measured. Also, the laws and regulations require the following steps to be taken. If the energy consumption exceeds specified amount, the owner or the leaser of the building pays the imposed fine according to law.

In order to approve such fines and fees, consumption has to be determined by approved procedures. These procedures are specifically defined in Sveby construction regulations.

9.3 Building thermal protection Technical systems check whether everything is going according to calculations, measure energy consumption levels and determine the status of building thermal protection.

The following measurements are made in order to determine building thermal protection.

Air tightness testing Air tightness can be defined as the resistance to inward or outward air leakage through unintentional leakage points or areas in the building envelope. This is done according to international measurement procedures with the “Blower Door” device. The blower door is made up of a calibrated, variable-speed fan, a pressure measurement instrument, and a mounting system.A powerful fan mounts into the frame of an exterior door or a room door and measures the pressure difference between inside and outside. According to international measurement procedures, the pressure difference is set to 50 Pa and the air leakage is measured. With the values of the measurements, the number of air changes of the home or the room is then determined. If the number of air changes is higher than the norm, air leaks are high. Агаарын шүүрэлт ихсэх нь дулаан алдагдлыг ихэсгэдэг муу талтай.

If air leaks are high, heat loss increases.

Picture 21 shows measuring instrument installations and whether there are any leakages.

120

Picture 21. Air leakage verification and experiment results.

IR Picture Infrared Picture of a building’s outside can be used to determine envelope and elements causing heat loss according to international measurement procedures. In order to not cause any deviations, the Picture should be taken under the following conditions.  No recent solar illumination  Cold surroundings  Under pressure indoors Picture 22 shows IR Picture and its results.

Picture 22. IR Picture of a building to determine heat loss

121

When determining the consumption and capacity of the heating and cooling system, the following measurements are made.  Outdoor climate parameters.  Heating energy consumption is directly affected by outdoor climate parameters. The outdoor climate parameter measurements have to be done with low frequency data logger devices during consumption measurements.

Specific climate parameters using the dynamic modelling device are used to determine energy consunption at a high level.  Indoor air parameters: During measurements, indoor air parameters should be measured to determine volatility and the energy consumption spent due to indoor and outdoor pressure differences are necessary for comparison.  Supply and return water temperatur: If there is no metering to determine heat consumption it can be determived by the water flow rate and water temperature difference.  Heat transfer flow consumption  Measure heat with electronic sensors The following measures are taken to determine air ventilation system operations:  To analyze air volume flows and measuring air flow during commissioning.

Aerodynamic probes or fixed metering devices can be used.  When checking the operation of a ventilation system, the voltage, pressure for circulation and consumption are measured. For measurement, power meter, voltage and current meter are required.  Ventilation duct system tightness is measured.  Measurement of filters:Filter contamination can raise fan capacity and worsen indoor air quality by allowing in air pollutants.

The following tools are used for measuring electric energy consumption.:  voltameter  ammeter  meter The following formula determines report factor for energy efficiency depending on how electrical devices are being used.

122

One phase:

PF = 100 * Power / (voltage * current)

Three phases:

PF=100* Power / (voltage*current*1,73)

Aside from the above measurements, building energy consumption can be determined with the help of energy management systems or also known as auto monitoring for each system. Construction energy management system is a consumer friendly monitoring system. It is made up of sensors, monitor and measuring tools, and automatic calibration equipment. It is an easy to use method, which makes it possible to monitor energy in detail, detect errors and faults, view consumption by yearly, monthly, daily and hourly basis. Shneider is a large company, which introduced the construction energy management system. Its division has opened in Mongolia and is currently operating.

Verification report documents Verification report documents should contain the following:  purpose and need for energy performance verification  system specifications  verification plan  energy consumption calculations and data  energy cost calculations  measurement results Scope of use of energy performance verification results By determining and verifying real consumption, it is possible to categorize and label energy. Knowing whether energy consumption is at the calculated level and energy is being saved, will help determine if further maintenance and investment is needed.

Chapter 10. Waste disposal and landfilling Contents 10.1 Waste type 10.2 Landfill cover 10.3 Removing and treating leachate water 10.4 Treating methane gas emitted from landfills 10.5 Sustainable landfill planning 123

Materials produced by human activity and are no longer used are called waste.

Depending on its properties, waste is classified into gas, liquid and solid waste. Gas waste is eliminated into the atmosphere, liquid waste is supplied to the sewage water system and solid waste is either recycled or buried. Burying is the most basic and cheapest way to eliminate solid waste. However, due to its impact on the environment, most countries are refusing to bury and choosing to recycle and burn instead.

10.1

Waste type

Waste is classified as follows depending on its source and its impact on human and the environment:  Domestic waste  Non-hazardous industrial waste  Hazardous industrial waste  Construction waste  Hospital waste  Animal related waste  Waste to be burnt.

Wastes that are permitted to be received and buried in city landfills include solid waste, commercial and non-hazardous industrial waste and construction waste.

However,

because heavy metals are produced from precipitation entering the waste from demolition, some countries take measures of burying construction waste at the site.

Because hospital and hazardous waste can impact human health and the environment during collecting, transporting and eliminating process, they are either buried by in a special landfill or burned.

Difficulties that arise during waste burial:  Methane emission CH4, methane, is formed when organic materials degrade after burial. 1kg of CH4 corresponds to 25kg of fossil CO2 (carbon dioxide) in greenhouse effect. The methane formation can continue for a long time and starts to decline 25-50 years after the waste have been deposited into the landfill.

Even though there is no way to stop methane emissions, it is possible to 124

monitor the amount then effectively use it by producing energy from collecting and burning the methane. ď&#x20AC;­ Leachate Leachate is produced by percolating precipitation water onto waste in the landfill, causing a sharp, stinky smell and producing a black, yellow, orange color liquid. Leachate water contains hazardous organic compounds /acid, aldyegid and alcohol/, non-organic macro-elements /BOD, COD, P, NH3/NH4/NO3/, heavy metals /Cu, Pb, Ni, Hg/ and xenobiotic organic compounds. Therefore, leachate water exuding from landfills has risks of contaminating surface and groundwater. Treating leachate water at the spot, collecting and eliminating it through the drainage system can prevent it from causing harm to the environment. ď&#x20AC;­ Public opinion resistance Even though people agree on burying waste, they do not want it near them. Therefore, providing enough information to the residents near landfills about landfill principles and the measures taken to lower the impact on them and the environment is necessary. Also, it should be economically beneficial to the residents. For example: When methane is being used to produce energy, the residents should be provided with cheaper energy costs. ď&#x20AC;­ Deformation of the landfill After waste is buried, it is compacted and a cover is made in order to prevent percolation of precipitation. After many years, the material in the landfill will be discharged from the landfill mainly as gas. This mass decrease will cause a settling of the landfill, with risks of damages of covering layers. The damage to the cover will cause percolation and increase leachate water.

10.2

Landfill cover

The following are reasons to have a cover for landfills:

125

 Prevent percipitation water and air oxygen to penetrate into the landfill and become leachate water  Pevent uncontrolled gas release  Use the surface to grow plans or for other reasons  Decrease hazardous impacts that may arise on the surface The cover will operate temporarily and permanently. Installing covers is a must take action to decrease the impact a landfill will have on the environment and the human health. A cover will have the following structure. /Picture 23/

Vegetation layer 0,3 m Protection layer 1 -1,5 m Drainage layer 0,3 m Sealing layer (barrier): 0,3 m

Protecti on Cover

Gas drainage layer 0,5 m Leveling layer 0-0,5 m Waste <10 m

Waste

Picture 23. Landfill cover structure

1.

The ideal compacted waste thickness is up to 10meters.

2.

After the waste is compacted, 0.5m thick leveling Layer, fine waste material put above to make the surface as even and smooth as possible. For example: ashes

3.

Above the leveling layer is the Gas Drainage Layer of 0.5m made out of stone or gravel. Its main function is to control the possible gas flow. Gas collection system is assembled during this layer.

126

4.

In order to not let leachate water to seep through, materials of the Sealing Layer should have tensile strength, flexibility, be resistant to perforation, tearing, temperature impacts, and infrared lights, and be dark-colored, also, easy to install. For example: materials with very low hydraulic conductivity, plastic and polietyelin film, bentonite and special qualities of clay. To not let percipitation seep through, this layer is 0.3m.

5.

Above the Sealing Layer, is the Drainage Layer of 0.3m, which is built up by small stones, gravel and similar drainage materials.

6.

Below the vegetation layer is the Protection Layer of 11.5m mostly made up of moraine. Its function is to prevent the lower layers from freezing, and to work as a moisture stabilizer- water is absorbed when the precipitation is high, and is evaporated when the weather is dry.

7.

The last layer is the Vegetation Layer, usually 0.10.3m of top soul, sewage sludge or compost, so the grass and bushes can vegetate.

10.3

Elimination and treatment of leachate water Leachate water emitted from landfills has different components depending on the

age of the landfill and the type of waste that is buried. For example: Gypsum and cement waste from construction materials come in contact with water, creates hydrogen sulfate and then causes large amounts of greenhouse gas emissions from the waste.

Because leachate water is made up of organic compounds such as hydrogen, nitrogen and sulfur acid, it tends to have a strong smell.

Leachate water from landfills without any covers intensely pollutes groundwater.

Therefore, collecting and removing enough leachate water before hydraulic pressure forms is important. Leachate water elimination system consists of liquid level monitor, pipelines, pumps and a pool.Pipeline corridor and size depends on the pressure from the buried waste size and pipeline. Installing pipelines before burying waste will make it easier to dump collected leachate water to trenches and ponds. Leachate water vacuumed and collected through pumps need to be treated. Leachate is treated in two ways, local treatment and centralized treatment. Centralized treatment is when collected

127

leachate water is supplied to a centralized drainage system and treated at the facility.

Treating leachate water at the site before dumping onto soil is called local treatment.

The following table shows leachate water chemical component and the chemical components of urban centralized sewage system.

Components COD BOD NH4-N Cr Hg Pb

Measurement units Mg/l Mg/l Mg/l Mg/l Mg/l Mg/l

Leachate average 700 30 300 30 0,04 6

Municipal sewage before 600 170 34 8 0,2 4

Local treatment for leachate water has an advantage of not contaminating centralized sewage sludge and not increasing the system load. However, its disadvantage is that it is costly and lack a little at dilluting salt. The following are leachate water local treatment methods:  Biological treatment  Chemical precipitation  Reverse osmosis  Evaporation  Air stripping  Activated carbon  Advance oxidation 10.4

Extraction of landfill gad Methane

By using the methane gas extracted from landfills, energy, heat, and chemical compounds can be produced.This is important in decreasing greenhouse gas affect.

Methane emitted at landfill is vacuumed with boreholes. Picture 24 shows a structural Picture of a commonly used borehole and methane treatment scheme.

128

Picture 24. Structure of methane vacuumer borehole and methane treatment scheme

With the help of a turbine, methane at the top of borehole is vacuumed into pipelines, which transfers it to either gas treatment devices or burning devices.

Eliminating excess methane gas reduces the toxic effects of methane. Burning process of methane done at 10000ะก for 0.3 seconds can decrease toxicity by 98%.

Primary filtering separates moisture and particulate matter from the methane while secondary filtering does chemical and physical treatment. Secondary treatment is expensive because of absorvation technology. Before treating methane for energy and heat production, either primary or secondary cleaning should be done.

10.5

Sustainable landfill planning

Sustainable landfill planning principles can be seen in picture 25.

129

Picture 25. Landfill planning principles

The following criterias are set for sustainable landfills: a. Control of waste Waste amount should be recorded. Monitoring waste is the basic condition for setting waste fees. Sorting and burying waste into hazardous and non-hazardous waste, can play an important role in chemical reaction rate and emission amount. b. Locating of landgill Landfills should be located in a low ground water level, non-sensitive environment, stable geography, and be distant from residential areas and lakes, rivers and ponds according to norms and regulations. c. Landfill principles Surface water elimination, leachate water treatment, methane gas usage and reusability will be taken into consideration. d. Emissions and pollutant monitoring Surface water control, leachate water and methaneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s qualitative and quantitative monitoring are taken into account. e. Closure and aftercare 130

Proper installations of cover, its usage, and ensuring whether grass and shrubs are growing due to aftercare of the landfill.

Chapter 11. Construction demolition waste recycling technology Contents 11.1 Demolition waste 11.2 Opportunities and significance of re-using demolition waste 11.3 Concrete recycling technology 11.4 Recycled aggregate standard 11.1 Demolition waste When a building is demolished, the following waste is produced: 1. Aggregate, 2. Concrete 3. Reinforcing framework, etc.

In Mongoliaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s case, research on recycling the above materials havenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t been done.

However, sand and gravel can be seperated from recycling concrete from old, demolished buildings. Dryied cement can be used at the cement factory as raw material and other materials such as reinforcement, window glass and insulation can be recycled.

Before

recycling building materials, its mechanical

and

physical features should be thoroughly researched and a conclusion comparing it to

natural

raw materials should be done.

131

Old building demolition waste consists of.. /Russia, Moscowâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s example/

Waste type

Amount, by percentage %

Concrete /aggregate, reinforced concrete/

81

Insulators

7

Armature

3

Bricks

1

Compacted padding material

1

Others (ceiling and asphalt waste, etc.)

7

Total

100

132

Left picture: Concrete, Insulation material, Armature, Birck, Compacted padding material, Other materials.

Right picture: Concrete waste, Total waste, Yearly average of demolition waste in Moscow 80 percent of demolition waste is low and high density concrete. Every year, $250 milllion in EU countries, $300 million in the U.S and $60 million in Japan, worth of concrete, metal concrete building envelopes are demolished.

11.2

Opportunities and significance of re-using demolition waste

Significance of recycling building concrete waste:  Cut costs for purchasing, transporting, dumping, and storing garvel  Recycled garvel is much cheaper than natural garvel, for example: energy use is 8 times less, concrete made out of recycled garvel costs 25% less.  Positive affect on the environment, etc.

Recycled garvel can be used in the following sectors:  Construction foundation, under the floor, foundation phase  Asphalt concrete can be used for the bottom phase of all kinds of roads  Used aggregate for concrete with durability of 5...20МPа 133

 Use for production of concrete, metal concrete  Use as rock cliff for temporary roads  Use as rock cliff for pedestrian roads  Use as rock cliff for parking lots and asphalt spaces  Use as rock cliff during replacement of soil  Use as narrow strip of felt or joint base  Landshaft architecture, etc.

Concrete made out of recycled aggregates are most often used for pouring the foundation of buildings that will be used for storage or manufacturing in lower ground level buildings.

The following picture shows the possible ways to use recycled old building materials.

Picture 26. Possible ways to use recycled old building materials

Japan has many experiences when it comes to using recycled materials and it is used widespread. This can be seen from the following picture. More use of recycled building materials in Japan is a result of a favorable legal environment and right policy implementation for the sector.

For example: 134

 The Japanese Construction Society executed the first project of recycling aggregate and concrete in 1977  In 1994, Ministry of Construction, plan to recycle secondary raw materials  In 1997, signed and implemented the intensive plan to recycle building waste  An Act to re-manufacture building materials  Law to support green technology  Implemented and produced the standard of recycled aggregates

11.3

Concrete Recycling Technology

Picture.

Metal

concrete

waste

recycler,

Russian

equipment

135

Devices include metal sorting, crusher, sieving controller and conveyor.

New technology of classifying crushed and developed old concrete through heat /Japan/ Technology and equipment for recycling old buildings is highly developed in Japan.Picture 27 shows technology that developes and crushes old concrete with heat and classifies and cleans aggregates mechanically. Aggregates developed from this method are relatively less contaminated.Pictures 28 and 29 show storage usage buildings and a district constructed from recycled aggregates.

Picture 27. New technology that developes old concrete through heat

136

Picture 28. District built from using aggregates from concrete waste

Picture 28. Storage built from using aggregates from concrete waste

137

Picture 30 shows mechanical cleaning spiral technology developed by Japanese scientists.

Picture 30. Mechanical cleaning spiral technology that developes concrete waste

Waste concrete crushed by the vibration crusher can be used in the road basement while concrete crushed by the conus crusher is used as filling in the low mark concrete due to its poor quality. Through heat developing, large and small aggregates are cleaned and then is available for the use of producing high quality concrete due to its quality. Therefore, research of obtaining highly clean aggregate from crushing old concrete is needed in our country according to our situation.

11.4

Recycled aggregate standard

In Japan, the standards of recycled aggregates and concrete was developed in the following steps resulting from research and experimental work: ď&#x20AC;­ In 1999, technical requirements of recycled aggregates and concrete was established by the Japanese construction center ď&#x20AC;­ In 2000, the Japanese Trade and Industry Ministry adopted technical requirements of recycled, low quality aggregate concrete.

138

 Japanese Standard Commission established the Japanese national standard JIS A 5021; 5022; 5023 for “the use of recycled aggregates and recycled concrete for concrete.”

JIS A 5021 is recycled aggregate for concrete class- H made for concrete with strength of 40МPа JIS A 5022 is recycled aggregate for concrete class- M made for concrete with strength of 36МPа JIS A 5023 is recycled aggregate for concrete class- L made for concrete with strength of 24МPа The standards shown below in the table is required for small and large aggregates according to the standards above.

Aggregate class “Н” class “М” class “L” class

Large aggregates Density, g/cm3 Absorbtion % 2,5 or more 3 or less 2,3 or more 5 or less 7 or less

Small aggregates Density, g/cm3 Absorbtion % 2,5 or more 3,5 or less 2,2 бor mroe 7,0 or less 13,0 or less

Future waste-less concrete structures Picture 31 shows “future waste-less concrete structures” that is being researched by Japanese scientists.

139

Picture 31. New construction technology that creates highly clean aggregates during demolition.

The purpose of the research is to develop this technology to be able to not only re-use 100% of the concrete waste from demolition sites, but also use this method during design and construction stages to seperate aggregates without contamination during demolition. This is now in its research stage and has not been used in practice yet.

Chapter 12. Use of secondary raw materials in the construction materials industrial sector Contents 12.1

Modern technological development level for saving raw materials in the construction material industry

12.2 Use of scrap for construction material production 12.3 Use of thermal power plant ashes 12.4 Use of mining industrial waste

Modern technological development level for saving raw materials in the construction material industry Development of savings of raw material consumption in the construction material industrial sector is as follows:  exchange natural minerals and raw materials with industrial waste  decreasing

building

construction

capacity

by

increasing

technical

specifications (strength, ability to withstand structural load and such).  Lengthen usage time and reduce maintenance costs by increasing the material’s durability.

The most effective solution to decreasing energy consumption in construction material production is to reduce the energy use of portlandcement production and replace it with a binder that has the same properties and is unburnt.

In the 1970’s, French material scientist Joseph Davidovits introduced a new technological concept whereas concrete is the composite material resulting from the 140

mixing and hardening of cement with water and stone aggregates. This cement binder came to be known as “geopolymer”.Geopolymer is still researched today and is manufactured all over the world. It is developed by the kaolin taken from heat process and other technological waste such as alabaster, ash. Geopolymer based construction materials are cheaper than the traditional materials. Also, materials made out of geopolymer are weathering resistant and have a longer life-expectancy.

12.1

Use of scrap for construction material production

In Western Europe, industrial waste is removed as follows: 1. Use in addition to current and developing technology 2. Obtain energy by burning 3. Remove if not possible to be used for the above reasons

It is reflected in the legal rules and regulations that the manufacturer is required to make its waste ecologically non-hazardous with their own fund. By doing so, the manufacturer will look for ways to give their waste to other manufacturer’s use, resolve their waste problem cost efficiently, and it will become a leverage for introducing less waste producing technology.

There are 11 low capacity (producing 3-10 million bricks) brick factories around Ulaanbaatar, 8 in Nalaikh, and 1-2 in other provinces. To produce an average of 108.0 million bricks a year:  Consumes 23000 tons of fuel coal technology, 20.5 tons of ash  27.0 thousand tons of brick waste Reuse of those waste in the same production process or production of new brick has following positive impact: to reduce ignition temperature, to reduce volume loss during drying process, to increase strength, to reduce cost and to be ecological and environmentally friendly.

141

5.4% of waste from lightweight concrete factory is partially-bonded and sliced waste. Not only can this be put back into the factoryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s raw material mix for further use, it can also be used as a grain thermal insulator.

Even though Mongolia does not manufacture glass domestically, 0.2% of total waste consists of scrap glass, alcohol, beer and beverage glass bottles. However, variety of building materials can be produced with this. One example of this is manufacturing foam-glass thermal insulators using glass waste. Mongolian University of Science and Technology, School of Civil Engineering and Architecture students G.Khangai, D.Zoljargal, S.Oyundari, D.Bulgan and L.Erdenebaatar, with the guidance of professor D.Sunjidmaa, completed a study on deriving foam-glass from APU LCâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s glass waste. Picture 32 shows the studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s products.

Picture 32.

Foam-glass insulator produced from glass waste.

Industrial waste is mainly used as an addition to basic raw material for traditional construction material technology. This provides an opportunity for quality improvement of products. For example: By using waste from the metal industry to manufacture portland cement, the ability to withstand sulfate reaction, fire resistance, and durability after steam treatment increases.

142

Technology that does not allow a noticable change to the material structure is another direction of material recycling technology. For example: When manufacturing limestone, limestone rock is calcinated at 110..1800 celcius. During calcination, double hydrogen oxide calcium sulfate (CaSO42Н2О) will change to half hydrogen oxide calcium sulfate (CaSO40,5Н2О). This will become a limestone binder.

When the limestone binder is mixed with water, (during press) half hydrogen oxide calcium sulfate creates a reaction causing it to harden and become

double

hydrogen oxide calcium sulfate. Therefore, waste limestone can be recycled

to

manufacture limestone binders.

Another example of recycling raw materials with slight processing is the mud brick buildings of Shibam, Yemen. The 5-10 story buildings are made up of mud bricks.

The buildings are shown in the picture below. The main feature of this city is that it is home to the oldest sky-scrapers in the world, reaching 30 meters. The buildings were built with mud bricks pressed closely side by side, creating almost a castle like image. In the dry climate of the Arabian penunsila, these buildings last for 200-400 years. Minor rain and flooding can cause gradual erotion. After the demolition of the buildings, the demolition waste is recycled to build another building. This city is known as the “Manhattan of the desert” and has been around for over 2,000 years. This proves that this technology is effective.

143

Also, in 2014, Mongolian University of Science and Technology, Shool of Civil Engineering and Architecture students majoring in construction material manufacturing technology B.Nomin, G.Amgalan, D.Tumenjargal, and E.Vandansumiya, with the guidance of professor D.Sunjidmaa, completed a study on manufacturing unburnt, water resistant mud bricks using Nascon technology of Poland-Mongolian partnership Nascon Group LLC on Baganuur’s coal mine ground removal mud waste. The products of the students are shown in picture 33.

Picture 33. The affect of Duosolid on the water absorbance of muddy raw materials

This technology was introduced by Swedish scientist Гютер Шэрр and it is use for road work. Roads built with this technology is highly durable, water resistant, frost-resistant, and cost-efficient. The main criteria is that it is only suitable for muddy soil. The core substance used for this technology is a product made by nanotechnology called “Duosolid.” It is a chemical compound, when in contact with mud, makes it water resistant and hardens it. Using this characteristic, the first-ever experiment of 144

manufacturing unburnt water resistant mud bricks using muddy raw material waste was completed in Mongolia and should be further studied.

12.2

Use of thermal power plant ashes

Ash from thermal power plants take up the most percentage of waste from our country.

Ash, resulting from fuel combustion at thermal power plants, are divided into different types depending on its form. As follows: 1. Fly Ash: Product of coal combustion and composed of the fine particles that are driven out of the boiler with the flue gases.

2. Bottom ash: Ash that is fallen at the bottom of the boiler.

3. Pond ash: Ash ponds that are engineered structures for the wet disposal of bottom ash and fly ash.

4. Mound ash: Ash mounds that are engineered structures for the dry disposal of bottom ash and fly ash.

All the types of ash above are a crucial raw material to construction material manufacturing. Ash can be used as a raw material for a variety of construction material manufacturing. As follows: 1. Manufacturing fly ash-lime binder 2. Autoclaved and non autoclaved lightweight concrete 3. Use as filler and powder additive for manufacturing wall girder 4. Use as flammable additive in the brick production. Up to 60% of ash can be added to brick mix.

5. Use filtered ash as mineral additive in the cement production. By adding ash, the durability of cement will not deteriorate and the ability to withstand sulfate will increase. Production capacity can be increased by 30-40% with less investment by using ash.

6. Road dam 7. Use as water proof material in the building.

145

8. Use of low mark mixed binder. Scientists such as Doctor B.Namjildorj, Kh.Namkhai, and B.Ulziiburen, has derived a binder with a durability of 40MPa using ash.

Picture 34 shows building materials that can be manufactured by using ash.

Picture 34. Building materials that can be manufactured by using ash

Scientists from the Russian Federation have manufactured the following by processing 100 thousand tons of thermal power plant ash waste.  Secondary coal – 10-12 thous.ton;  Iron concentrate – 1,5-2 thous.ton;  gold – 20-60 kg;  building materials – 60-80 thous.ton.

146

12.3

Use of mining industrial waste

Surface mining /For example coal mine/ produces earth removal waste, and Underground mining /Erdenet and Oyu Tolgoi mines/ produce concentrated waste.

What does earth removal waste consist of?  Large and small pieces of rock. These can be used instead of aggregates in concrete production.Also, small sillica pieces can be used to produce light aerated concrete and other types of silicate product production.  Clay. After studying its characteristics, it can be used to produce ceramic bricks and other ceramic products.

What is concentrated waste.?  Concentrated waste is mostly crushed rocks of almost no value consists of natural minerals wet sand, substances and water used to excavate minerals.

Concentrated waste dust. What is white dust?  White dust is not a professional or scientific term. It is dust that gets blown by the wind from concentrated waste

Concentrated waste from the Erdenet Mining factory is mostly sandy waste containing silicon oxide, which can be used for the production of a variety of building materials such as silicate bricks, lightweight concrete, and dry construction mixtures.

Chapter 13. Building environmental labeling Content 13.1 Building environmental labeling benefits 13.2 Energy efficiency passport as part of labeling in Mongolia 13.3 LEED 13.4 Swedish environmental assessment system /Miljobyggnad/ Building sector uses about 40% of the energy for most of the countries. So international energy agency determines that most possible area to save green house 147

gas is building sector by reducing energy consumption and increasing energy system efficiency.

In order to improve energy efficiency rules and policy regarding energy is required and moreover specific action to implement is required as well. Most suitable method to implement energy policy is certification system. Building certificate enables to provide real information about real energy consumption to the constuctors. Therefore building would be compared with other building and it would be possible to control policy implementation through certification.

13.1Building labeling benefits Benefits are as follows:  To consume resource as environmentally friendly and efficiently throughout building life cycle,  To save energy, water and other rsource,  To reduce environmental pollution /Environmental impact assessment will be done/,  To reduce operation cost,  To acquire data related to building /Survey data to develop lwas and rules/,  To enhance public’s knowledge about environment and energy , Either a newly constructed and existing buildings could be ladeled. Assessment and labeling system for each country differentiated by the criterias set based on local standards.

Fundament of sustainable building is to meet economic, social and environmental criteria. Environmental assessment and labeling system could be sub criteria based on sustainability three criteria. For example LEED /USA/, BREEAM /UK/. Some assessment system considers that most environmental effective sector as energy so it develops only one criteria on energy. For example:Energy efficiency passport of the Mongolia and MiljoByggnadsystem of the Sweden.

148

In order to label building assessment consists of calculation, testing shall be done by the professionals who have ability to calculate building envelope parameters and energy consumption. Following materials are required to audit energy.

Building shape, size, other data, Envelope thermal conductivity, solar gain, infiltration, Type of heating, water supply system and its efficiency, Ventilation and air conditioning system automation, efficiency , Lighting, Type of fuel used in the heat source and fuel consumption, Electric equipments ect.

Required amount of energy is determined at local weather condition based on above mentioned data. If labeling is issued by the government entity system reputation would be higher.

13.2 Energy efficiency passport as part of labeling in Mongolia Most of the time energy efficiency class is calculated by the simulation program. We have calculation to determine specific heating energy consumption namely energy efficiency passport and it could be implemented by the simulation program.

Building Norm and Code 23-02-09 “Building thermal performance” classifies buildings as follows based on amount of thermal energy required to per 1m2 area throughout heating season.

Class

Energy efficiency

Specific heating consumption deviation from the normative

New and refurbished building А High efficient

≤-51%

В

Efficient

-10%≤

≤-50%

С

Normal

+5%≤

≤-9%

Existing building D

Low

E

Very low

+6%≤ +76%≤

149

≤+75%

According to BNaC 23-02-09 new building shall be calculated against A, B or C class while existing or planned to be renovated building calculated to determine whether they are in E or D class which is required to be insulated. Buildings class shall be verified by testing after commissioning.

Specific heating consumption is determined by the following formula. =103*Qhy/(A*Dd) Here: Qhy–Net heating energy, кW.h А–Building net area, m2 Dd–Heating degree days Normative value of the specific heating consumption is shown in Table 8 and 9 of the BNaC 23-02-09. Normative value of the specific heating consumption (kW.h/m 20С)day for the residential building is shown below table.

Building heated aream2 Up to 60 100 150 250 400 600 Above 1000

Number of storey 2 3

1 39 35 31 28

38 33 29 25 22 19

36 31 26 24 21

4

32 29 25 22

Heating energy consumption is limited according to above mentioned building norm and as a result building thermal performance is improved and fuel for the energy production is reduced and green house gas that affect environment would be reduced.

Currently this building energy efficiency passport is calculated by the Building Enery Efficient Center and it gives related label based on result.

13.3 LEED

150

Developed by the non-profit U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC) it provides certificate and label for environmental leadership design. LEED is abbreviation of “Leadership energy and environmental design”. USGBC considered that green building shall be determined and tested. So it developed labeling system based on the assessment.

First version was developed in 1998 and this version had been being improved continuously. LEED standards have been applied to approximately 53000 registered and certified LEED projects worldwide without considering country where building built.

Both new and existing building could have LEED assessment. Possible environmental impact at design, construction and operation stage would be identified based on five basic criteria.

Sustainable site, Water efficiency, Energy and atmosphere, Material and resource, Indoor air quality.

Except from above main criteria two criteria such as innovation in design and regional priority had been added.

LEED assessment system main and sub criteria are shown in below table. №

Parameters 1

Criteria

Credit



1

S ite selection



D evelopment density, community connectivity

 rownfield development Sustainable site

 lternative transportation  ite development 

1 5 1 6+1+3+2 1+1 1+1 1

B A S S

tormwater management 

L ight pollution

2

2 Water efficiency



W ater use reduction

2-4



W

ater efficient environment Energy and



1-19

151

O

atmosphere

ptimize energy performance 

3

enewable energy  nhanced commissioning

1-7 2 2 3 2



R E R

efrigerant management 

M easurement and verification



G reen power

4



B uilding reuse



4

M aintenance of interior non structural element

 onstruction waste management Material and resource

 aterials reuse  ecycled content 

1-3 1 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2

C M R R

apidly renewable material 

C ertified wood



O utdoor air delivery monitoring



I ncreased ventilation

 5

I AQ management plan-during construction

 AQ management plan-before occupation  ow emitting materials  Indoor air quality

ndoor chemical and pollutant source control  ontrollability of lighting system  ontrollability of thermal comfort  hermal comfort design 

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

I L I C C T T

hermal comfort verification 

D aylighting



V iew

Innovation in design Regional priority

1-5 1-4

152

All criterias have credit points and based on the average points earned platinum, gold, silver and certified label will be provided..

13.5 Swedish environment and energy assessment system- Miljobyggnad Environmental assessment system has huge impact on property or building industry’s sustainable development. This system has three criterias as energy, indoor air quality, material and provides a lable with a certificate by the Swedish green building association. This system is developed related to the two requirements such as owners interest on verifying their property free of environmental impact and users requirement on how the property meet criteria on health, climate, environment.

In order to get label the owner shall submit following materials to the green building association via internet. 

General design data,



Payments of electricity and heating,



Ventilation system measurement result,



Radon and other pollutants measurement result,



Calculation result,



Other test result.

A specific expert team shall be appointed to do assessment. Team will give points for each 15 sub criteria and give gold, silver or bronze label depending on total points collected.

153

What assessment would be for each general criteria depending upon sub criteria are shown below table. Sub criteria are shown in alphabet while general criteria are in words.

Energy

Criteria

Parameter Consumed energy Heating consumption

Indoor air

Silver

Gold

<SBC

<SBC*0,75

<SBC*0,65

≤60Втon/m2

≤40Втon/m2

≤25Втon/m2

Energy fraction by various source

<50% /4/

>10% /1/ >50% /2/ <25% /4/

Noise protection

≥С class

≥50% of B class

≥С

Air change rate

≥7l/s person+0,35l/m2 >40μg/m3

Depending upon room volume

80% of satisfied

≤40 μg/m3

<20 μg/m3

N2O content

Material

Bronze

Note SBC-Swedish building code 20

>20% /1/ >50% /2/ <20% /4/

1-Renewable 2-Bio 4-Other

users

Moisture protection

BBR 6:5

Bygga F

A class by expert

Thermal comfort /winter/

PPD≤20

PPD≤15

PPD≤10

Natural lighting

>1%

>1,2%

Ligionelle

DHW ≥600С

SWS

Material documentation

Building material record

Digital journal

Free of hazardous substance

No information

List of accepted hazardous material

>1,2% 80% of people shall be satisfied Thermometer shall be installed at the all water supply circulation pipe Journal shows where the product was used and what amount Hazardous material content shall not be exceeded accepted limit

Protection from hazardous substance

Energy А, А, А-Gold А, А, М-Gold А, М, М-Silver А, А, Х-Silver А, М, Х-Silver

Indoor air quality А, А, А, М, М, М-Gold А, А, М, М, М, М-Silver А, А, М, М, М, Х-Silver А,А, А, Х, Х, Х-Silver А, А, Х, Х, Х, Х-Bronze

154

Material А,А,А-Gold А, А, М-Gold А, М, М-Silver А, А, Х-Silver А, М, Х-Silver

BBR-Swedish building code Bygga FMoisture control method PPD-Percentage of un satisfactory

SWI-Safe supply

water

Journal shows manufacturer name and produced date

All "targets" must be if the building is to be considered sustainable by assessment this system. This means that a building in class Gold meets the criteria for class Gold in the areas of energy, indoor environment and materials. Like this if result of those criterias shows silver general assessment result will be silver for labelling.

References: 1. www.forum.mn 2. ASHRAE handbook fundamentals-2009 3. BC 23-103-10Building thermal performance 4. ISO7730:2005 Ergonomics of the thermal environment -- Analytical determination and interpretation of thermal comfort using calculation of the PMV and PPD indices and local thermal comfort criteria 5. EN 779:2012 Particulate air filters for general ventilation. Determination of the filtration performance 6. CIBSE interior lighting code 7. ISO 15686-1 Buildings and constructed assets - Service life planning: Part 1, General principles and framework 8. ISO 15686-2 Buildings and constructed assets - Service life planning: Part 2, Service life prediction procedures 9. ISO 15686-3 Buildings and constructed assets - Service life planning: Part 3, Performance audits and reviews 10. ISO 15686-4 Buildings and constructed assets - Service life planning: Part 4, Service Life Planning using IFC based Building Information Modelling 11. ISO 15686-5 Buildings and constructed assets - Service life planning: Part 5, Lifecycle costing 155

12. ISO 15686-6 Buildings and constructed assets - Service life planning: Part 6, Procedures for considering environmental impacts 13. ISO 15686-7 Buildings and constructed assets - Service life planning: Part 7, Performance evaluation for feedback of service life data from practice 14. ISO 15686-8 Buildings and constructed assets - Service life planning: Part 8, Reference service life and service-life estimation 15. ISO 15686-9 Buildings and constructed assets - Service life planning: Part 9, Guidance on assessment of service-life data 16. ISO 15686-10 Buildings and constructed assets - Service life planning: Part 10, When to assess functional performance 17. ISO 15686-11 Buildings and constructed assets - Service life planning: Part 11, Terminology 18. ISO 14040:2006Environmental management -- Life cycle assessment -- Principles and framework 19. ISO 14044:2006Environmental management -- Life cycle assessment -Requirements and guidelineswww.fuktcentrum.lth.se 20. https://www.cas.org/content/chemical-substances/faqs 21. Building Energy Software Tools Directory 22. Ashrae Fundamentlas 2009 23. BNaC 2.01.01-93 “Geophysical and weather parameters used for the building design” 24. MNS 5825:2007Residential and Apublic building. Room indoor parameters 25. БНбД 40-05-98 Indoor water supply and drainage 26. БНбД 23-02-09 Building thermal performance 27. М.Sugar, N.Batzorig. Insulated concrete building 28. B.Tsolmon. Passive building 29. B.Tsolmon, B.Munkhbayar. LEED.Leadership energy and environment design 30. N.Gerelttsolmon. A brick masonry house 31. Т.Bayasaa. A wooden framed house 32. М.Sugar. SIP house installation technology 33. J.Gankhuayg. Energy efficient building design and its installation technology 156

34. “Solar energy utilization”manual В.ВЕЕC. 2010 .

35. The Global Buildings Performance Network (GBPN), www.gbpn.org 36. www.buildingsdata.eu 37. www.iso.org 38. www.nist.gov 39. http://srdata.nist.gov/insulation/ 40. http://www.ieaebc.org/fileadmin/user_upload/images/Pictures/EBC_Annex_24_Report_3.pdf 41. http://www.ebd.lth.se/program/parasol 42. http://www.pilkington.com/products/bp/downloads/tools/spectrum/default.htm 43. http://windows.lbl.gov/software/therm/therm.html 44. www.ec.europa.eu/enterprise/policies/sustainable-business/ecodesign 45. http://www.wufi-pro.com/

157