Vaak December 2020

VAAK

devadasi

/ˌdeɪvəˈdɑːsi/

noun

A woman who is given in marriage to God. Their social status was high as dance and music were an essential part of temple worship.

From T.A. Joyce & N.W Thomas's 'Women of all Nations; their characteristics, habits, manners, customs and influence' (1908)

23

13 The Musical Legacy of T Balasaraswati Aniruddha Knight 31 Bhakti in Natyam Lakshmi Viswanathan Musical Portraits Amar Ramesh

49

39 Songs of the Sangam Era Prathik Sudha Murali Devadasi,1890

December Greetings!

In the last quarter, we have been thinking quite a bit about what Vaak means to us And we are not looking for definitive answers because we recognise that Vaak is a process; it’s a space for knowledge that all of us, we hope, will cocreate. While this vision guides our decisions at Vaak, our primary concern will also be to preserve, through rigorous documentation and scholarly engagement, the rich repository of the arts of South India.

How can we build world-class erudition around these artforms? Can we do form and function together in this space, catalyse useful conversations, help build unpretentious scholarship and a deep appreciation for South Indian arts? These are big questions to ask, but we have to start at some point Vaak is that point for us.

As you know, we are in very early stages and we are grateful for all the support we have received thus far We have immensely benefited from conversations with Dr Ritha Rajan, Keshav Desiraju, Shantha Guhan, Aravind Kumar Shankar, Nalini Chettur, B Balasubramaniam (of Wesleyan University), Donovan Roebert, Antony Arul Valan, Vinodh Venkatesan, Shreyas Gowrishanker and Lakshman Premi Our special thanks to them!

In Vaak’s Issue 02, we have featured a lot of photographs of the Devadasis of 19th Century In our cover is a rather solemn photograph of Devadasi Kannamanni She looks curious, confident and distant all at once, doesn’t she? We have also featured a few other pictures of the Devadasis to mark our tribute to their unparalleled contribution to South Indian arts

Rithvik Raja’s reflections on his directorial debut for Friends in Concert gives us a good peek into the process of creating a one-of-a-kind visual-musical experience for an online audience His is a thoughtful piece in that it truly captures the possibilities that exist in new media for artists. This construction of a digital infrastructure for the arts must also help preserve musical traditions of the past For that reason, our conversation with Aniruddha Knight on T Balasaraswati’s music is very unique He gives us great insights into her music, and discusses in detail about dance-music, a genre of classical music architecture by Balamma. In Rudraveena and Raga Janaranjani, Ravi Rajagopalan deconstructs a janya raga from the frame of a musical interlude in a television series titled Rudraveenai.

The second section of Vaak’s Issue 02 is a lot of poetry In Bhakti and my Natyam, Lakshmi Viswanathan anchors her dance expression in Bhakti poetry She reminisces on her illustrious dance career and discusses some inspirations that shaped her dance productions We are also very excited to feature Amar Ramesh’s portraits of Carnatic vocalist Bombay Jayashri They look like visual poetry! Lastly, we have Prathik Sudha Murali examine a few choicest verses from the Sangam anthologies The Sangam verses, their literary quality apart, showcase some arresting musical sensibilities that existed in the Tamil kingdoms of the past.

We hope you enjoy reading this issue of Vaak We are also particularly interested in reaching out to students and scholars of South Indian arts who are looking to publish their research. If you would like for us to feature your work, do write to us.

We look forward to your comments, suggestions and feedback If you liked reading Vaak, please do share this issue with your friends and family Vaak is an experiment and we need all your help in building this community

Team Vaak vaak me@gmail com

Shreeraam Shankar Vaak is Shreeraam’s brainchild. He curates music; designs and produces Vaak

Archana Sivasubramanian . Archana curates and edits Vaak . .

CONTRIBUTORS

Madurai Mani Iyer

This pandemic has been hard on everybody, especially those in the arts With a prolonged halt on live performances, artistes from across genres are taking to social media to share their art, making the digital space an important space to stay relevant and occupied during these difficult times Artistes went from performers to modern content creators Aspects like sound, audio, lighting, stage and visual decor, which were often taken for granted during live shows, suddenly became the job of the artistes to learn about, execute, and take responsibility for, to ensure decent quality content

In these times, how does an artiste create specially curated content for the online medium? The digital space is very different from a live space, with its own advantages and unique qualities There are two aspects to curating digital content. One is the production quality of how it looks, feels and sounds. The other is content, and how it can be conceived for the digital medium After many discussions and brainstorming sessions with some friends, all of them phenomenal sound engineers and photographers trying to adjust to the new reality, we began to truly believe that an alternative approach to presenting arts through the virtual medium was possible Instead of trying to recreate the impact of a live concert unnaturally in an ambience that has a different set of parameters, could we attempt to create a different digital aesthetic for a concert? Could we change the way in which art is received and consumed?

These questions got me working on some experimental ideas during the lockdown I created an album titled ‘#wfh’ (work from home) in collaboration with musicians, dancers, sound and visual designers, and we collectively released the album during the initial months of the pandemic I also launched my first YouTube series titled Tambura 101 that discusses the nuances of the instrument in detail As I learnt these many nuances in digital content production, I had an idea to do a larger production focussing on visual aesthetics and aural dynamics in Karnatik music I immediately turned to Krishna anna Needless to say, he was on board He came up with a concept, and worked

with all the other artists to curate segments that were all unique in content

This was titled Friends in Concert by the artistes collectively

just follow the music When I went to Dakshina Chitra to scout for locations, the choice was driven by the musical aesthetic and sound of each segment This is where I believe being a musician was a huge advantage. I also had to think about so many aspects of film making that I never knew existed Based on the location, each segment was conceptually visualised differently Seating positions were determined based on the camera angles that were possible at each location This was to capture interactions between the artistes accurately and showcase the visual chemistry that all of these artistes naturally shared All their costumes were picked together in combination with the others, keeping in mind the colour palettes that might work at their specific location This was just the beginning

I also had to effectively convey the vision I had for the visuals so that nothing was missed. I had to make sure that the frames were accurate and were as close to the storyboard that we created. Since all the recordings were done live in one single take, there was no chance of shooting just the visual again separately It would have affected the audio video sync, and visual continuity At this juncture, I have to mention the fabulous work of Gowrishankar and thank his video team for being extremely committed and professional. We spent hours discussing camera positions and placement

Left to right: Anirudh Athreya, Akkarai S Subhalakshmi, Poongulam Subramaniam, K Arun Prakash, T M Krishna, Praveen Sparsh, B Sivaraman, Sangeetha Sivakumar, N Guruprasad, R K Shriramkumar, G Chandrasekara Sharma, Dr R Hemalatha, H N Bhaskar

to make sure that all the five cameras were put to optimum use in capturing every possible detail and that every frame had meaning Given that the entire production took place in open spaces, lighting was important. We needed to understand the bandwidth of lighting, shadows and brightness before the shooting We visited the location a few times to plan this and also to prepare for additional contingencies when necessary

I would say that directing a production begins with having a concrete vison Once that is set, the director’s job is to bring the music, the camaraderie, the performance, the transitions, and the beautiful space together I was also keen to ensure that the visual must remain understated and must not overwhelm the artistes or overshadow the art

We tried a few unconventional visual techniques away from the traditional filming of arts. When one artiste was performing, the visual entry of the next artiste was established with suggestion shots This blended into a synchronised choreography of both their visual entry along with the aural entry of their instrument When the vocalist played the supporting role to the instrumentalist, we intentionally maintained the visual focus on the instrumentalist.

Sound design was important to the success of this musical and it had to work in tandem with the visual design It was imperative that the live sound source recording was clean In many places, we had ideas that are not mainstream.

In mixed studio recordings that create a soundscape, we are generally used to the violin being panned to the right, the mridangam to the left and the voice in the centre However, in the segment with two violins, we placed their sound right in the centre while the mridangam was panned to the extreme left and the voice to the extreme right. This ensured that the visual and aural focus was on the sound of these two violins.

In the pallavi segment, four artists were made to sit in a circle facing each other We placed a dedicated camera to capture the structure and their interaction during the two-minute segment. Using a revolutionary technology called binaural sound, we moved the soundscape in a circular fashion in alignment with their seating arrangements. We also maintained the visual static in black and white

During the shoot, it was mainly down to executing the plans we had in place Everything else was taken care of so that the artistes came and just created music without any distraction. Unexpected situations arise no matter how much one plans For instance, a cyclone approached the coasts of Tamil Nadu and the entire shoot on the second day was dampened by the rain We had to think on our feet to accommodate for the weather and that added a very different and spontaneous dimension to the music and the visuals Through this process, I learnt that it is not only enough to have an idea but one must also take a step back many times during the process to reassess and reflect I also realised that some things may work conceptually, but might not be practical when it comes to executing these ideas It was important to accept that plans are going to change and one needs to have alternative ideas that can be implemented I would like to elaborate on a couple of instances to reinforce this point.

The first segment of the musical was a raga alapana exchange between Vid T M Krishna and Vid R K Shriramkumar However, we shot this segment only towards the end of our schedule at Dakshina Chitra It was raining heavily and we took shelter under the roofs of the village houses While we were waiting for the rain to subside, both the artistes were casually leaning against the wall on the verandah of one of the houses and were seen having a casual conversation The environment, energy and the visual felt right for a freewheeling unplanned segment like this We quickly set up the cameras and began to shoot right there, with a dedicated microphone placed to capture the sound of the rain as well. As the rain started to pour down, all the cameras which were in the open had to be moved away. But the artistes kept singing immersed in each other’s music, and one with the rain We quickly placed a camera inside the opposite house and captured the last few minutes with a single camera angle The visuals were so dramatic that having just one camera did not make a difference What elevated the visual truly was the rain and the music, and these two sounds coming together.

Another visual that really created an impact was the use of a drone during the pallavi segment with the circular amphitheatre structure Though this was not in the initial plan, the idea evolved on the first day of the shoot, leading to some adjustments in order to accommodate the drone shots. The drone flew out to a height of about 400 ft from right above the artistes, revealing the entire structure, greenery and life of the space they were performing in During this time frame, the section of the pallavi, known as

trikalam, was performed It means three different speeds in increasing order first, decreasing back to normal The movement of the drone was synchronised to match the singing speed throughout. The drone, in a way, was made to visually react to the sound of music Apart from the speed, we also worked with the sound mix As the drone moved high away from the artistes, the plug-ins and pans faded, stereo sound shifted into mono, and the volume was very low, the way one would hear it at that height As it swooped in again, all the aural effects came back along with it This was exciting to ideate and execute, and certainly opened up many possibilities for future ideas

The overall objective of this musical was to capture the intensity and joy in collaborative performance, while also focussing on showcasing the individual character, interaction and performance technique of each artiste. There were multiple conceptual layers that had to go right in order to achieve the final result This was an evolving process that continued into the editing table, with transition changes still happening until the final cut was ready As the video editor, I chose the final shots based on what worked visually More importantly, the transitions and cuts were made with sharp aural cues, adding another layer usually missing in musical productions.

I personally believe that this musical is an important step in how we capture the essence of live performance It was a thoroughly enriching experience and I learnt so much from the entire process. So many ideas can be expanded upon from this experience. This is just the beginning. Directing Friends in Concert only affirms my faith in the knowledge that with a little effort and creativity, we can really elevate the experience for both the artistes and the viewers I am honestly excited to see where this takes me, and what it brings out in other productions Like I said, I just followed the music

Picture Credits: Rithvik Raja

DISCOGRAPHY

Raga Darbar | Yochana | Tygaraja | Adi

Tambura 101 | A video series that discusses many facets of the Tambura

Trailer | Friends in Concert

Raga Nalinakanti (Samvada) | Manavyalakinchara | Tyagaraja | Deshadi

Rithvik is a versatile and accomplished musician, rooted in the Karnatik tradition Having risen steadily over the last decade through constant hard work, dedication and introspection, he has now carved a distinct niche for himself Apart from concerts, Rithvik has given many talks, lectures and demonstrations He is associated with many efforts that aim to break the conventional mould of how arts is perceived, pushes creative ideas of how the arts can be presented and works with a number of organisations to further this cause

Aniruddha Knight is a Bharatanatyam dancer and the Founder & Director of Balasaraswati Institute of Performing Arts. He has won several grants and awards for his excellence in Bharatanatyam.

Vaak: You are the 9th generation descendant of a 200-year old family of dancers and musicians

Aniruddha: Yes My ancestors learnt music from the disciples of various composers such as the disciples of Tygaraja, Muthusvami Dikshitar, Shyama Sastri and the Tanjore Quartet The cynosure is Veena Dhanammal who gave a new life to this tradition by adding a lot of Padams and Javalis from many sources, including from her own repertoire and from Veena Baldas’ After Dhanammal, slightly more contemporary composers and approaches to this music have been added to the repertoire.

Vaak: This musical tradition has never been stagnant and in your family, music was also an inherent part of the dance curriculum

Aniruddha: Certainly I was trained in music by my mother Lakshmi Knight My mother learnt her music from her mother (Balasaraswati).

Vaak: Your grandmother also introduced a lot of unique musical pieces into the dance tradition For example, she added Ka Va Va in Varali to the family’s dance repertoire

Aniruddha: That is correct. But more than a singular piece, I would say that she introduced the genre of dance music I am not talking about music as a dance composition here, but I am talking about her approach to the music itself

Vaak: And Jon Higgins’ wrote his PhD thesis (at the Wesleyan University) on dance music.

Aniruddha: Indeed His thesis captures the essence of Balasaraswati’s and Jayammal’s greatness In the Andhra system, music was more folkish It was Veena Dhanammal who rearranged and recodified this music. Jayammal and Balasarawati then worked with the tradition of Padams and Javalis to build a dance music curriculum. They designed this music in such a way that emphasis was given only to certain phrases in the Padams They

T Balasaraswati and Aniruddha Knight (1983)

Photo credit: Ram Rehman

understood how to work with music for a dance performance This was not a one-off construction, but it was a particular way of singing Also, we must recognize that Balasaraswati’s musical inspirations went well beyond South India She was very much influenced by the North Indian style I would say that she took a conservative approach to presenting music, but that conservative approach did not deny including other streams of music

Vaak: This is very important In one of our earlier conversations, you mentioned that Yen Palli Kondeerayya is not sung in the same way for a dance recital as it would be sung in a music-only concert

Aniruddha: Absolutely Whether Balasaraswati was a great dancer or not is a totally different thing but one cannot deny that she created another genre of music, which dance music literally is. For example: Payyada is sung differently for a dance recital. This is what she created. This is a separate genre The approach to this is completely unique They not only cut these pieces and made them dance ready, but they also created new sangathis for dance

Vaak: Has this tradition changed in the last three decades?

Aniruddha: Of course If you look at my mother’s work, she added Ashtapadis, Krishna Karnamirtham, and a lot of Tumris to the repertoire The musician K V Narayanasamy used to give songs to my grandmother and ask her to make my mother dance for these compositions.

Vaak: How different is the music even within the family?

Aniruddha: Everyone in my family had distinct ways of musical expression Veena Dhanam’s alapana was explorative whereas her renderings of compositions were very straight forward. The nuances were easy to miss. In Jayammal’s singing, one can sense courage. She was asthmatic, her pitch was low, but she had a lot of vairagyam She and Balasaraswati had a great range What made Balamsaraswati’s music different was also the way she utilised the jeevaswara to explore a raga It’s very very unusual, perhaps she was influenced heavily by the Hindustani system. She gave a new sound to the ragas My mother Lakshmi used dance to teach musical nuances to her students. Her hand gestures were very useful for her students to understand the gamakka movement As for me, I learnt music from my

T Balasaraswati and Aniruddha Knight at GK Vale Studio (1982) Balasaraswati institute archives

mother I also studied under T Viswanathan, Vegavahini Vijayaraghavan and T Muktha

Vaak: As the grandson of T Balasaraswati, your role as a flagbearer of this tradition must be very challenging

Aniruddha: I think my challenge has been to maintain and expand the repertoire at the same time My focus is on reviving some interesting Padams As an example, my mother and my grandmother did not dance for Mora topu in (raga) Sahana, but I have set a dance music for this I think of it as my job to take all these things that my ancestors had the luxury to miss out on, but I cannot afford to do it My other real issue in trying to revive this tradition has been to ensure the we have an active ensemble to accompany our dancers. It is challenging today to find trained musicians who want to be a part of this style. We have resorted to quick fixes. Balasaraswati used to dance for Thayumaanavar’s songs It is difficult to dance for such pieces today because you must really understand the philosophical purport In Balasaraswati’s case, she was very fortunate to have had a great ensemble to support her But today if you look at my students, what ensemble source are they going to use for their dance a few years down the line?

Vaak: How about Nattuvangam?

Aniruddha: The open-close technique of Nattuvangam that contemporary dancers do today comes from the Therukoothu tradition. But we follow a different style of Nattuvangam that came from chamber concerts Now this style of Nattuvangam is rare, I would say that they are extinct even In our style, we use both the hands to create a high-pitched tone, instead of the open-close method Voice modulation during Nattuvangam is also very controlled and straightforward. The intonation is more subtle. For us Nattuvangam shouldn’t sound like music. Musicality is layered, and this layering starts from Nattuvangam This was important because music played in the background during Nattuvangam in a dance concert, and we must show the contrast

Vaak: Balasaraswati is popular for her dance, but her music is not wellknown. There are also only few recordings of her music that we have access to in the public domain

T Balasaraswati, Walnut creek, California. (1965) Balasaraswati Institute Archives

Aniruddha: Balasaraswati never released any commercial records of her music. It was a conscious decision. They did not release anything because they were worried about the abuse of their music Today, we have small recording companies and Instagram artists releasing music for a particular niche sector, but I would prefer that we released these archives in a way that everybody has equal access to it One or two individuals have been releasing this music as if it’s their own. I don’t appreciate this at all.

Vaak: Was Balasaraswati okay with the fact that her music will be gone after her time?

Aniruddha: I don’t think she cared about all of that

Vaak: We often wonder what inspired Balasarawati’s art The obvious answer is that it was very internal, and that inspiration came from her inner world Was she also influenced by her contemporaries?

Aniruddha: Very much so For starters, she was influenced by Shambu Maharaj She appreciated the music of K V Narayanasamy, Semmangudi

From left: T Balasaraswati, MS Subbulakshmi and Lakshmi Knight, at Music Academy's Sangita Kalanidhi event (1973) Balasaraswati Institute Archives

Srinivasa Iyer, M S Subbulakshmi, M L Vasanthakumari and Ramnad

Krishnan There was a great camaraderie that existed between these musicians. They used to share ideas and there was a certain exchange of something that was always happening between these musicians She also listened to Amir Khan, Girija Devi and Gangubai Hangal She respected Alla Rakka as a percussionist She really doted over Birju Maharaj She had it in her to be curious This family’s tradition is what it is because these women appreciated anything that bore a stamp of quality They were very open to influences Dhanammal used to listen to Quartets and Trios of western music

Vaak: You once mentioned to us that Balasaraswati’s pain fed her creativity Both in her dance and in her music, there is something more than what meets the eye. Her dance repertoire was more focused on expositions of the rich internal as opposed to the geometrical external.

Aniruddha: Yes, there was a lot of emotional pressure in her dance and this really changed the magnitude and intensity of her performance You can choose to either take these emotions and shape them for yourself or drop them and let them go. Balasaraswati’s art was fuelled by sacrifice. This idea of sacrifice – just like a deal with the devil – made her art so beautiful. Her dance was very dense, it was on your face

T Balasaraswati, M S Subbulakshmi & M L Vasanthakumari, Tamil Isai Sangam's Isai Peraringnar event (1975)

Balasaraswati Institute Archives

Vaak: Her ensemble was also terrific

Aniruddha: Oh yes. Kuppusamy Mudaliar accompanied her on the mridangam from her arangetram till his death; K Gnani, Jayammal and K Narasimhulu sang for her; Ramaiyya did the Natuvangam and Radhakrishnan Naidu played the clarinet We also had K Ganesan, T Vishwanathan, T Ranganathan, and my mother Lakshmi accompanying her at different periods of time

Vaak: Surely this tradition has a lot to offer to serious connoisseurs and students of music

Aniruddha: For students of music, this tradition gives them a lot of scope to explore the emotional quality of their music. This tradition can offer a very essential kind of jeeva. We are not dismantling the music intellectually here, but we are feeling our way through these phrases And sometimes, you are even forced to feel this music You have the option of engaging with performance music in various ways, but dance music is not merely about the technique, or the sangathis, or the brighas This is a lot about how can you add emotive value to a piece of music It can revive something within

T Balasaraswati during an All India Radio performance. T Ranganathan on Mridangam; Geneki on Tampura; T Viswanathan on Flute (1957).

Balasaraswati Institute Archives

DISCOGRAPHY

Veena Dhanammal

A full list of 78 rpm recordings released by Dhanammal

T Jayammal

Raga Atana | Thiruvotriyur Thyagarajan | Rupakam | Ghanam Krishnayyar

Raga Khamas | Theruvil Varano | Adi | Muthuthandavar

Raga Pantuvarali | Vaddantene | Rupakam | Govindaswamy Ayya

Raga Shankarabharanam | Entanuchu | Adi | Subbaraya Sastri

T Balasaraswati

Vocal Concert

Raga Yamuna Kalyani | Krishna Nee Begane | Misra Chapu | Vyasaraya

Raga Madhyamavathi | Yen Pallikondeer Ayya | Adi | Arunachala Kavi

Raga Yamuna Kalyani and Sindhu Bhairavi | Shloka

Lakshmi Knight Dance Concert

Aniruddha Knight Dance Concert

Top to bottom: Veena Dhanmmal, T Jayammal T Balasaraswati, Lakshmi Knight, Aniruddha Knight

Tyagaraja was a trendsetter of our music, in that he bequeathed us a number of nouveau ragas with exemplar compositions in every one of them, to serve as an archetype of the raga’s lakshana. Examples include the ragas Nalinakanthi, Ravichandrika, Malavi, Nagasvaravali, Bahudari, Janaranjani and their ilk

In this article we will take up one such raga of his which has withstood the test of time and continues to be popular And we will encounter it in an odd setting, being the television serial of a Tamil novel with a musical background, written by the contemporary writer Indra Soundarrajan titled Rudraveenai

Rudraveenai– A novel by Indra Soundararajan

Very few Tamil novels have been written with Carnatic music as its core theme. For many the legendary T Janakiraman’s Mohamul would be the gold standard from the past A novel from contemporary times with music as the core plot of the story is Indra Sundararajan’s Rudraveenai, which is in the genre of musical-mystique-thriller fiction The story revolves around a legendary Rudraveena, which when played bestowed prosperity and alleviated sufferings of those around Played by a great musician by name Nawab Jan or Baba, the veena came to the village of Todipuram in Thanjavur District some time circa 1702 AD After the Baba’s demise, the veena comes into the custody of a courtesan, a resident of the village whose descendants take care of the veena All through the years, the strains of the music played on the Rudraveena is heard in the village Legend has it that the veena was lodged in a dilapidated old mansion at the edge of the village and strains of music heard throughout the village emerged from there Given that the place is inhabited by the spirit of Baba, which is said to guard the veena, nobody dared venture anywhere near the mansion Circa 2002 is when the protagonist of the novel steps in A Sakti Upasaka by name Narasimha Bharati lands up in Todipuram village vowing to attain this divine Rudraveena. The novel proceeds on this legend, and the narrative alternates in its course with the events in AD 1702 and 2002 being presented alternatively in every chapter Why and how Narasimha Bharati gets the Rudraveena forms the rest of the story

The proceedings in the novel are peppered with astrological, tantric as well as musical aspects. The author also imparts the quaint flavour of the village in the Thanjavur district, and life and society therein in the novel’s

From the Television serial Rudraveenai Radaan Media: https://www.radaan.tv/

Ascetics making music, illustrating the musical mode

Kedar Raga

Arki, Himachal Pradesh

Late 17th century. Photo credit: University of OxfordAshmolean Museum

proceedings This injects the characters with a distinct nativity of the land

The novel made it to the television as a serial also titled Rudraveenai, which was telecast in a private Tamil channel sometime between 2003 and 2004 Induced by the lockdown, I chanced upon the recorded episodes of this Tamil serial on YouTube While watching the episodes, out popped two particular episodes where the melodies of Tyagaraja were used to enliven the proceedings I deal with one of them in this article

Background and Context

Tyagaraja’s Vidajaaladura in the raga Janaranjani played on the Nagasvaram can be heard between 00:00 to 2:49 in Rudraveenai episode 03

The rendering on screen is by a character in the novel, the President of the village Panchayat, Kalyanasundaram Pillai, who is also the temple’s hereditary Nagasvara Vidvan. The clipping features the scene introducing some principal characters in the story, being the aforesaid Kalyanasundaram Pillai and the village karnam (accountant) Vaidyanatha Iyer, with the venue being the temple of Lord Todisvara who is the presiding deity of the village The precincts of a typical village temple in the Tanjore district, the ambience and native elements of the characters played by artistes Bala Singh (as Kalyanasundaram) and by S M Sivakumar (as Vaidyanatha Iyer), their accent and lingo remarkably agrees with such characters one would encounter in real life and is captured well in this clip

Saint Tyagaraja Singing Hymns in Praise of Lord Rama(1952–55), Y. G. Srimati.

The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, © M. Pellettieri https://www.metmuseum.org/ar t/collection/search/718434

RagaJanaranjani

The background musical score which permeates the clip is Tyagaraja’s Vidjaaladura The same is seen rendered by the Nagasvara Vidvan, featuring the pallavi and the anupallavi Attention is invited to the conclusion of the pallavi, the ensuing banter between the two protagonists and later, as the anupallavi is rendered seamlessly by the musician.

Tyagaraja is credited with creating the raga Janaranjani under Mela 29 with the nominal arohana/avarohana as:

S R2 G3 M1 P D2 P N3 S/ S D2 P M1 R2 G3 M1 R2 S

He also created three beautiful compositions in this

raga: Vidajaaladura, Naadadinamata and Smarane sukhamu

The grammatical construct of the raga as well as that of the composition Vidajaaladhura is explained here

The raga overlaps with Purnachandrika It has to be pointed out that even the raga Purnachandrika has two forms, one being the archaic version seen in the composition of Muthusvami Dikshitar Sankha cakra gadha panim and the other being the modern version of Purnachandrika as seen in compositions such as Telisi Rama of Tyagaraja As Vidushi Sowmya points out, "the main distinction between Poornachandrika and Janaranjani would reside in the pa-to-sa regions, both in ascent and descent” I have tabulated the differences between the ragas:

Attribute Janaranjani Archaic Purnachandrika Modern Purnachandrika

Mela Mela 29

Mela 29 Mela 29 Arohana S R G M P D P N S S R G M P D P S S R G M P D P S Avarohana S D P M R S S N P M G M R S S N P M G M R S

Exemplar Compositions

Vidajaaladhura, Smarane sukhamu and Nadadinamaata

Muthusvami Dikshitar’s Sanka cakra gadha panim and Ramasvami Dikshitar’s varna Elanamne

Tyagaraja’s Telisi rama chintanato

Motif or leitmotifs and jivasvaras / strong notes

PMRS, PMRGMRS

with gandhara being a conspicuous note are the featured motifs/leitmotifs of this raga

dRSR and PMRS abound in this version of the raga. The repeated use of the motif d/RSR, commencing on the mandhara dhaivatha is the leitmotif of this form of the raga.

Professor S R Janakiraman, opines that the elongated dhaivatha and gandhara are hallmarks of Dikshitar’s archaic Purnachandrika, which now is part of Janaranjani as conceptualized by Tyagaraja

Commentary There is no composition of Muthusvami Dikshitar in this raga.

This raga does not have octaval symmetry. Thus, the prayoga PDNS in the mandhara stayi is seen in the compositions while the corresponding madhya stayi prayoga is PDPS only and not PDNS.

There is no composition of Muthusvami Dikshitar in this form of the raga. Sadly, many extant versions of Dikshitar’s Sanka cakra gadha panim is wrongly rendered normalizing the archaic version to the modern version of Purnachandrika

In sum, Janaranjani shines forth with a very prominent kakali nishadha together with the leitmotifs PMRS and RGMRS Tyagaraja’s Vidajaaladhura uses the gandhara, especially the tara gandhara note as a prolonged note as if to emphasize the importance of the note and the leitmotif SRGMRS (as at adiyasalace and ninnuga being the anupallavi and carana commencement portions).

Prof S R Janakiraman hypothesizes that Tyagaraja carved out both the modern Purnachandrika as well as Janaranjani from the musical material of the archaic Purnachandrika Hear him talk about the same in the links below:

Professor S. R. Janakiraman (parrikar.org)

https://www parrikar org/music/tyaga/purnachandrika_srj mp3

Janakiraman emphasizes the lakshana (parrikar org)

The above links have been extracted from this eminently readable article A Tribute to Tyagaraja » Rajan Parrikar Music Archive

EPILOGUE

The tele serial Rudraveenai makes me reminisce of the days bygone, with the flavours of an unpretentious and simple village life with the intertwined element of music heard at the temple by way of nagasvaram or over the radio And with it, one is enveloped by the strains of the rapturous raga Janaranjani which I have sought to briefly present in this article Needless to add, one is indebted in no small measure to Tyagaraja And as thanksgiving to that great colossus, I conclude with a benediction on him composed by his disciple Walajapet Venkataramana Bhagavathar:

gAna shAstra pravINAya kalikalmasha nAshinE sharaNAgata pOshAya tyAgarAjAya mangaLam (Gurumangalashtakam- 6thSloka)

Top to bottom:

Musiri subramanya Iyer

Semmangudi Srinivasa Iyer

Madurai Mani iyer

KV Narayanaswamy

Nenunuri Krishnaswamy Mani Krishnaswamy TM Krishna

DISCOGRAPHY

Raga Janaranjani

Ragam Tanam Pallavi | Kanda Chapu TM Krishna

Vidjaaladura | Adi | Tygaraja

Nedunuri Krishnamurthy Madurai Mani Iyer

Nadadinamaata | Misra Chapu | Tygaraja

Musiri Subramanya Iyer Dr Mani Krishnaswamy

Smarane Sukhamu | Deshadi | Tygaraja

Semmangudi Srinivasa Iyer

KV Narayanaswamy

Ravi Rajagopalan a lawyer based in Chennai is a musical enthusiast and a student of the music of Muthusvami Dikshita and that of the Sangita Sampradaya Pradarshini He blogs on music at: http://guruguha org/articles-ravi-rajagopalan/

Painting of Thyagarajas senior student Walajapet Venkataramana Bhagavathar Photo credit: www.sourashtralibrary .blogspot.com

Gouache painting on paper, depicting the story of Gajendra, being attacked by a crocodile in a stream. Viṣṇ u’s golden chakra

chakra is depicted first flying mid-air and then decapitating the crocodile. Viṣṇu is shown alongside Lakshmi and Garuḍa

© The Trustees of the British Museum

Thevaram, the songs of the Moovar, sung by the Odhuvars at the Mylapore Kapaleeswarar temple held us spellbound. The ones by Lalgudi Swaminathan, the temple Odhuvar in those years, and Sargurunathan, the current Odhuvar are my favourites Besides the singing of the Odhuvars, I was also inspired by the singing of sacred music by Dandapani Desikar The rhythms or what they refer to as chandams in some of Thirugnanasambandar’s verses gave me the additional advantage of movement with nrtta. A favourite which I presented even recently in Delhi is Sambandar’s Sirayarum madakkili

I had not seen anyone dance Munnam avarudaya namam kettal before I performed it at the Krishna Gana Sabha in 1982 after hearing Lalgudi Swaminatha Odhuvar. His singing had extraordinary passion and power. But the influence of these saints' songs was in a realm beyond mere dance. bhakti poems meant something extraordinary to me after hearing the congregations of Odhuvars in the Mylapore temple There is a mystic beauty in these verses, mingled with an intimate spirituality, a personal devotion to the Supreme.

Whether it was the Pasurams of the Vaishnavite saints or Thevarams of the Moovar, ideas couched in them gave me the scope for sattvika bhava in

Dandapani Desikar

dance It is difficult to analyse ideas and inspirations I received from these verses I can only say that an inner awakening took place and this showed in my dance

I recall how engrossed I was in researching and presenting verses from Nammalvar, Tirumangai Alvar, Manickavasagar and others at a lecture demonstration for the annual conference of the Madras Music Academy Using the appropriate ragas when singing these as virutthams took quite a bit of brainstorming between me and my singer The melody that enhances the words is very important. It is that combination which gives my abhinayam its soul, and also makes the audience relish the rasa The seasoned use of pann ragas by traditional singers in the temple have a unique appeal However, to dance certain adaptations it is necessary to choose appropriate ragas.

I think my solo feature Nandanar Charitram is a good example of inspired bhakti in dance. The accolades I received proved that the work had substance Initially I had danced Vazhi maraithirukkudu, a breathtaking song in the raga Todi, composed by Papanasam Sivan My brother (K V Balu) told me about this fabulous tune after he heard the disciple of Sivan, Mani Bhagavathar, sing it during a margazhi bajanai in Mylapore. Charumathi learnt the authentic version from Mani Bhagavathar, and I danced it both at the Krishna Gana Sabha and at the Music Academy (1980) Enraptured by this moving number as presented by me, Mr Yagnaraman, the Secretary of Krishna Gana Sabha, suggested that we do the full Nandanar Charitram as a solo dance feature along with Gopalakrishna Bharathi’s compositions. A lot of work went into this, and the audience responded very positively when I danced at the ITC Vaggeyakara dance festival Asha Ramaswami (Ramesh) and Sangeetha Sivakumar worked closely with me on the music, as also Keshavan the expert percussionist. In my feature Nandanar Charitram, I did an elaborate Sanchari with the maddalam alone as a musical accompaniment, as in Kathakali and Koodiyattam The search by Brahma as the Hamsa bird, and Vishnu as the boar worked incredibly well as a narrative The poetess Soundara Kailasam used to speak of it so eloquently for many years, saying she saw Nandanar only for ninety minutes! My ultimate pleasure was to dance it at the Gopalakrishna Bharati Jayanti held in his village Ananda Tandava Puram.

Visiting temples became a cultural connection for me from a young age

Picture credits: Kalaimamani Yoga & SANT’s Photos

The vast spaces, the sculptural wonders and the festive processions were a source of aesthetic inspiration Myths connected to shrines work well in my sancharis in a Pada Varnam. I recall observing the quaint sculpture depicting the story of Manuneedhi Cholan in the Thiruvarur Tyagesar temple Through suggestive abhinaya, I portrayed this story in a Tanjore Quartet Varnam

It was quite an honour to be invited to dance in the first ever Chidamabram Natyanjali, a brainchild of Kapila Vatsyayan, in the late seventies I featured Chidambaram in all its mysterious and glittering ambience in my film Poetry of Dance I also choreographed Chidambaram, a dance feature based on the myths of the cosmic dance of Shiva My earliest brush with Thillai in dance was the famous Tamil padam Kalai thookki in Yadukula Kambhoji It took me many years to fully understand the myths of Patanjali and Vyagrapada, as well as the concept of the eternal pillar of light with no beginning or end

The mystic element in all our poems and songs have always engrossed me and I have absorbed them into my dance in suggestive and subtle ways I was introduced to the concept of nindha sthuthi, by Guru Ellappa when he taught me the Kalyani Tamil Padam Ethai kandu nee icchai kondai in 1970. There were also pieces like Nadamadi thirinda, a ninda sthuthi piece by Papavinasa Mudaliar, in raga Kambhoji that I danced for in the early eighties New pieces were always challenging for me I soaked in the music and lyrics, made notes and finally made it my own. When I danced, it all looked easy but a lot of thought went into the process. I often got obsessed with the song and it kept swimming in my head for days Perhaps there is a method to making visual music It cannot be formulated With me it has been a spontaneous flow of ideas, and a deep immersion in self-forgetful devotion

When I was invited to the Delhi International festival to perform in Madhu Kishwar’s festival of women poets, I explored some new possibilities Andal and Meera were obvious choices, but I wanted something unique I found it in both Avvayyar, and the inimitable verses of Karaikkal Ammayar She sings in praise of the dance of Shiva, whilst naming all the ancient musical instruments that the celestials played in their role as accompanists to the dance. She smiled, playing the cymbals with her head turned up, gazing at the wonder of that awe-inspiring Tandavam

Picture credits: SANT’s Photos

When the dancer Alarmel Valli curated a festival of bhakti poetry a few years ago, she invited me to present a special selection from my repertoire It was challenging to dance in bhakti bhava for more than an hour. But what helped in the seamless flow of ideas and emotion was the way I chose verses, and varied the themes and the tempo of singing Kulasekhara Alvar and his moving verses addressed to the Lord at Tirumalai took my abhinaya to the rasikas in a telling manner My special offering that evening was the profound verses of Manickavasagar, as he sang his passion and devotion to Shiva, imploring the Kothumbi to be his messenger Sargurunathan Odhuvar guided me in selecting raga Kambhoji for these magnificent verses

I have learnt that for my way of Natyam, Tamil bhakti poetry is the soul, source and inspiration. Always a student, I continue my deep study of Tamil bhakti poems. I bow my head down to those saints and savants who lived more than a thousand years ago, and wandered along the Kaveri river, lifting the spirits of their followers to a higher plane of consciousness then, and as they do so now

DISCOGRAPHY

On Manodharma - A lecture demonstration

Kambhoji - Kunitta Puruvamum - Appar Devagandhari - Enneramum Undan Sannidiyilae - Gopalakrishna Bharati

Lakshmi Vishwanathan is a Bharatanatyam dancer, teacher, writer, researcher and scholar. She is also a gold medallist in English literature from the Madras University Her articles on dance and music have been published in newspapers including The Hindu and many other journals of repute She is a recipient of many awards, titles and fellowships including the senior Tagore research fellowship from the government of India; the Nrithya Kalanidhi from the Music Academy and the Sangeet Natak Academy award for her contributions to the field of Bharatanatyam

Picture Credits: Lakshmi Viswanathan

Lakshmi Viswanathan speaking at Krishna Gana Sabha (2016)

I want people I work with to trust me in this journey where we try something that is not very mainstream

For a portrait photographer, building a rapport with the artist is most crucial. This is because portraits are an act of creation, meant to reflect a person’s nature. It is through conversations that a photographer begins to build a rapport with the artist. Conversations with Jayashri before shooting helped me understand her aesthetic world I recognised that I should work with her preferences and be in tune with her sensibilities, even if I were to try something unconventional.

AMAR RAMESH

I am the kind of photographer that prioritises the artist’s vision over mine when it comes to shooting portraits I do not like to impose my vision on the artist because I’ll lose the precious opportunity to try something very different

In my portraits, I always attempt to capture a little more than what the world has seen of someone. That’s my goal as a photographer. I exchange ideas with my subjects during the test shoots I try to get to know them as people first This process is not easy, but it isn’t too difficult either I genuinely listen. I want people I work with to trust me in this journey where we try something that is not very mainstream. I do not look at people I work with as mere subjects I look at them as people with unique quirks and characteristics Magic happens from there.

ahitya sangita kala vihina: saksat pasu: puccha visana hina: reads a Sanskrit proverb “A man without taste for verse, music and art is truly an animal without a horn or a tail”. From the Divje Babe Flute of the palaeolithic age to online concerts during the pandemic, expression through music has been an integral part of the human civilisation

Early literary evidences of a civilised society in the southern part of the Indian sub-continent is found in the poetry of Sangam era

Pre-Sangam conventions

Tolkappiyam, a work dated prior to the Sangam age (circa 3rd century BCE) categorises the landscape of Tamil country into 5 segments Each of these regions is characterised by a guardian deity, food, occupation, music, harps and drums. The word paṇ is attached to the name of a landscape to denote the tune that corresponds to it. For example, the paṇ of the kurinji land was called Kurinjippaṇ Some researchers have identified these as scales of the raga system that we use today, although this is still a controversial topic (1) Tolkappiyam lists four kinds of professional bards:

panar – musicians kuttar – dancers or dramatists porunar – another class of musicians virali – female musicians, dancers and instrumentalists

The categorisation of landscape and the classification of performers continue well into the Sangam period, both as geographical segments of the state and as poetic conventions

Sangam poetry

Sangam literature, variedly dated between 100 BCE and 300 CE, is not only a work of literary excellence but also a record that holds historical information about life in ancient Tamil society, including social customs, politics, wildlife, food habits, clothing, culture, dance and music K N Subramanyam (2) writes that “these anthologies speak of a primitive, but by no means an unsophisticated society even if we allow wide variation between literary conventions and practical life as lived from day to day.”

The poems written during the Sangam period were compiled into two broad categories called the eight works (Ettuttogai) and the ten songs

Cover image: 18th Century Nayak mural at Ramalingvilasam at Ramnad Sethupathy Palace

Photo Credits: The Unseen Sequence

Temple photograph by Wiele & Klein, Madras (c. 1890).

https://www.wikiwand.com/en/ Thiruparankundram

(Pattupaatu) We examine a few verses from these works to understand the social setting of music and the level of sophistication that the Sangam people had attained in their knowledge of music.

In Paripatal, we find a good example of how people of the Sangam era relished their music

Paripaṭal is a Sangam work whose 24 poems are available to us today The verses of Paripaṭal, penned by 12 different poets, were composed by 11 composers in different tunes Though the practice of singing these poems has completely vanished today, we must recognise that Sangam poems were meticulously set to music Although some contemporary musicians and scholars claim continuity with this earlier tradition, evidence to this effect is lacking.

The colophon of the work details the theme of the poem, poet’s name followed by the composer’s name and the tune in which it was composed For example:

“Invocation to God Verses of kaduvanilaveyinanar Music of pettanaganar paṇ – palaiyazh” (3)

The identity of the bards who sang music are often confused with that of the poets by some researchers. All poets were not people of music as is evident from Paripatal manuscripts (some researches even identify the poetess Auvaiyar as a virali, which is erroneous in my opinion) (4 )

Worship places served as concert platforms for the panars and their female counterparts. A variety of instruments were in vogue including various types of stringed instruments like harp (yazh), wind instruments like flute (kuzhal), and various percussion instruments like muzhavu, murasu, akuli etc

Poet Nallazhisiyar visits the shrine of Tamil God Muruga at Tirupparankundram near Madurai. The poet describes the setting of the shrine amidst nature, and how music and dance were part of the celebrations

We also see a connect between nature and music, as if nature wishes to lend its contribution to the musical evening. She writes in the Paripatal:

ṇars played their sweet-sounding harp on one side, while the humming bees lent their tone to it on the other side.

The flute was played on one side, while the tumbi bee buzzed on the other side.

A roaring drum made of clay is played on one side, While the waterfalls cascade with a thunderous noise on the other side. The viralis danced on one side, While flowering plants swayed in air, as if to imitate them on the other side

The female musician sang a tune on one side, while the dancing peacock squawked on the other side.”

These temple spaces not only witnessed the professional bard’s talent, but also provided a platform for common folk to showcase their music Maduraikkanji narrates the activities of pregnant ladies who offer oblations to Gods on Onam day:

“Pregnant women whose gait is like that of a peacock, pray and offer oblation to gods accompanied by women who are possessed, as akuli and mulavu drums are being played in a fine manner, and songs set to the aesthetic sevvali tune (6 ) are sung to the accompaniment of harps!”– (verses 604-610) (7)

Women in private chambers

Women of the Sangam era had a methodical approach to singing and playing their instruments. A poem detailing the women (kulamagalir) in their private chambers appears in the Maduraikkanji:

“they play different melodies on their lutes with seven modes of music and sweet strings, and sing softly along with it, after embracing their beloved partners ” (8 )

Scholars like Po Ve Somasundaranar have interpreted the phrase ezh punar sirappu as the seven notes (svaras) of music In Porunaratruppadai, a bard is addressed as ezhin kizhava (the man of seven) The reference to seven in conjunction to music may lead us to a conclusion that the concept of seven basic notes (sapta swaras) existed even during the Sangam times.

It is hard to say if the Sangam people believed that music had healing powers, but we have literary evidence to say that they used music as a healing tool

Poet Arisilkizhar in Purananuru (Poem 281) writes that women in nursing homes tuned their harps and other instruments to comfort sick men. They played soothing ampal tunes on flutes while spreading fragrant smoke, ringing musical bells and singing kanji songs (9)

Sanskrit texts on medicine like Caraka Samhita also recommend appointing musicians as hospital staffs to render services to the sick. It is held that such relaxation aids healing (tathā gītavāditrollāpakaślokagāthākhyāyiketihāsapurāṇa kuśal nabhipr ś (10)

Yazh,

Picture Credit: Napier Museum https://www.napiermuseum.or g/artifacts/musical-instruments

16th Century Vijayanagara mural at Thiruparuthikundram, Kanchipuram, Sangeetha mandapam

Music in the royal courts

The many courts of imperial kings along with those of local chieftains supported the livelihood of musicians and dancers during the Sangam era. In Maduraikkanji, the poet speaks of the king waking up in the early hours of dawn to the sweet melodies of musicians (11) Porunaratruppadai also discusses lute playing in a king’s court: “வாரிtம் , வtத்tம் , உந்ttம் , உறழ்ந்tம் , ttைட நன் ெமாt நீெராt tதt; “(Verses 23-24) (12)

“Stroking with the index finger, strumming with the thumb and index fingers together, plucking gently and strongly the different strings, it creates vibrating music, sung with lovely lyrics ” (trans Vaidehi Herbert)

Sirupanatruppadai adds that the lutes were played according to the grammar rulebook of the Sangam times (tல் ெநt மரtன் பண்ணி ஆtt).

Although no such musical treatise is available today, these verses make it clear that early Tamils had a well-developed system of music.

Apart from employing full time court musicians, occasional performances were paid for by the royals The nomadic bards halted in royal households and wrote songs in praise of the king and his court It was also considered an honour if the bards were invited to share wine with the king.

There is a striking conversation between a bard and his wife recorded by the poet Nedumpalliyathanar in Purananuru (Poem 64)

The bard tells his wife that if they perform with their harp, pathalai and akuli drums at Pandiyan Palyakasalai Muthukudumi Peruvazhuthi’s court, their lifelong curse of eating watery gruel would be rendered invalid and they can lead a happy life like the others (13)

There is a striking poem by Marokkathu Nappasalaiyar in Purananuru (Poem 280) that describes the melancholy surrounding the passing away of a patron The wife of the patron laments that she was witness to bad omens and that the wounds on her beloved’s body are deep. She turns to the musicians who were patronised by the man and says:

18th Century Nayak mural at Ramalingvilasam at Ramnad Sethupathy Palace

Photo Credits: The Unseen Sequence

“Oh, drummer of the tudi drum!

Oh bard! oh virali, who has mastered the art of music!

What will happen to you? You are full of pity!

It will be difficult for you to continue living here!” (14)

Time conventions in music

Through Poem 149 in Purananuru, we understand that time conventions were followed for specific tunes, much like how Bhowli is commonly thought of as a morning raga Specific tunes were considered fit for specific hours of the day Poet Vanparanar praises the chief Kandeera Koperu Nalli’s generosity displayed towards his court musicians Koperu Nalli’s gifts were so generous that the performers forgot all about time conventions, and played melodies considered unfit for the time of the day:

May your life be long, Nalli! The great wealth that you gave out of of your duty to be generous, has caused bards to lose music rules and play on their lutes marutham tunes in the darkness of evenings, and sevvali tunes in the mornings.” (Trans. Vaidehi Herbert)

Although the Sangam treatises give us a picture into the social setting of music, not much information is available on the music itself More research into the socio-cultural setting of this time may broaden our understanding of Tamil cultural life and the place of music in it.

Prathik studies Manuscriptology at IGNCA, Bengaluru He was also a Master's student on Historical Studies at the Madras Univesity His interests include temple traditions, literature and epigraphy He is a consultant for conservation architecture firms on history and morphology of temple architecture He runs an NGO called Sahagamana foundation on preservation of Indian heritage Prathik is also a teacher and a public speaker. His lectures can be viewed at https://www youtube com/channel/UCWeusBHDHbsIGFSb9uWOU8w

Galapra period coin Photo credit: Indian Express, 2 March 2017

References

1) Salem S Jeyalakshmi (2003) The History of Tamil Music Chennai, Tamil Nadu: University of Madras.

2) Ka Naa Subramanyam (1974) A Look at Some Tamil Classics Indian Literature, Sahitya Akademi, 17 (January-June), 204-216

3) Swaminatha iyer, U V (Ed ) (1918) Paripadal (p 22) Chennai, Tamil Nadu: Dr U Ve Swaminatha iyer library

4) Vijaya Ramaswami. (2006). Voices on Untouchability [Review of Untouchable Saints: An Indian Phenomenon] Economic and Political Weekly, (Vol 41, No 26), 2708-2710

5) Swaminatha iyer, U V (Ed ) (1918) Paripadal (p 127-128) Chennai, Tamil Nadu: Dr U Ve Swaminatha iyer library

6) Sevvali is considered to be tune fit to be played in the evenings as per the commentary of nachinarkkiniyaar

7) Swaminatha iyer, U. V. (Ed.). (1931). பத்tப்பாட்t tலtம் மtைரயாtரியர் பாரத்tவாt நச்ttர்க்tனியtைரtம் Chennai, Tamil Nadu: Dr U Ve Swaminatha iyer library

8) எட்tத்ெதாைக – tறநாtt 1-200 (1113114957 841166457 Vaidehi Herbert, Trans ) (n d ) Retrieved December 08, 2020, from https://learnsangamtamil com/ 9) Duraisami Pillai (Ed ) (1960) Purananuru Chennai, Tamilnadu: The South India Saiva Siddhanta Works Publishing Society, Tinnevely 10) Upakalpaniya Adhyaya (1113113573 841165468 Shrivastav V K , Srivastava A., Deole Y. S., Trans.). (2020). Retrieved December 08, 2020, from https://www carakasamhitaonline com/mediawiki1 32 1/index php/Upakalpaniya_Adhyaya 11) Tamil Virtual Academy (Ed ) (n d ) Pathupattu (Verse 714) Retrieved December 08, 2020, from http://www tamilvu org/ta/library-l1100-htmll1160101-120876

tளக்கம். Chennai, Tamilnadu: Amudha Nilayam doi:https://www.projectmadurai.org/pm_etexts/utf8/pmuni0599.html 13) Duraisami Pillai (Ed ) (1960) Purananuru Chennai, Tamilnadu: The South India Saiva Siddhanta Works Publishing Society, Tinnevely Retrieved December 08, 2020, from https://www projectmadurai org/pm_etexts/utf8/pmuni0494 02 html 14) Duraisami Pillai (Ed.). (1960). Purananuru. Chennai, Tamilnadu: The South India Saiva Siddhanta Works Publishing Society, Tinnevely Retrieved December 08, 2020, from https://www projectmadurai org/pm_etexts/utf8/pmuni0531 02 html

Top left: Madras dancer (c 1890)

Top right: Pushpakantha (c 1885-1890)

Bottom: Bottom: Tanjore (c 1876-1886)

Photo credits: Donovan Roebert

My own feeling about this depiction and others like it is that it served to perpetuate a collective trope and an aggregated persona that had come to be attached to devadasi dancers in the writings of both local and foreign commentators of the last decades of the 19th century.

This 'floating' persona (to some extent both ascribed to and adopted by its objects) seems to me to have acted to supersede and to suppress the strong individuality - often educated and highly literate - that was evinced by many of the most outstanding practitioners.

That photographs of this kind do make a worthwhile artistic statement too What I mean by this is that they tilt very nicely and very consciously towards the lyrical side of the ethos of the sringara aesthetic

Donovan Roebert

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