Preview Politics Magazine

PREVIEW TH E POLITIC AL MAGA ZI NE OF C AT E RHA M S C H OO L

2021-2022 ISSUE

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Welcome to Preview 2022! its many viewpoints. That is what we are trying to achieve with Preview. To see the world from one perspective is to neglect an entire group’s experience. Yes, your perception of politics may be that it is tedious and tiresome, however, this must not deter you from getting involved because it is vital to our democracy that we ask questions and consider different political possibilities. We cannot turn a blind eye to the turmoil happening across the globe. As young people, we are the keys to the future and so we must understand the world we live in and remain open-minded to how we can improve it further. Despite not having an equal amount

W

hy should you care about politics?

Let me attempt to answer this for you. Politics impacts every aspect

of our lives, from our domestic, private, life to our lives outside the home, at work and at school. Therefore, it is important to be politically engaged and educated to adequately understand the world around us and to be prepared, to make well-informed decisions when voting.

Each and every day, the ever-shifting political climate leads to new events and occurrences to consider, whether you lie on the right, left, or centre politically, politics permeates society and our lives. Decisions made by politicians have an

of political influence as the Prime Minister and those in Parliament, it is not to say that change cannot happen through the will of the people.

The quality of the articles produced by the student body is incredible, our driven Caterham School politics students have demonstrated their key insight on the events we see in daily headlines. The articles in this issue range from doublethink within the Trump administration and Boris Johnson’s parliament, to the risks of being a politician and the issues surrounding civil rights in the US. A vast variety of engaging topics with multiple that are sure to get your attention, stimulate a debate, or conversation and expand your understanding of certain issues.

impact - whether that be to raise energy prices,

Being an editor of the magazine has been a

or to infringe on your right to protest. Those in

pleasure, as what I have wanted most was for

power are essentially in charge of our futures

people to find an issue they were truly passionate

– strangers who supposedly ‘know best’ are

about and have the urge to spread awareness

shaping the world as we know it, so it is integral you can express your opinions accurately and concisely based on your political knowledge to defend the rights that are currently at risk.

It is crucial to be able to learn from debates and discussions to ensure we look at the world from 2 Preview 2021-22

– something that is seen within these brilliant articles. My only wish is that you can open your mind up to the political debate and dialogue and most importantly enjoy reading.

Thank you for supporting Preview magazine.

Tomini Oyeniyi.

Content Question Time How close are we to living in a dystopia? Asha Nair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Modern-Day McCarthyism - is it back? Rosie Williamson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Can the general public trust politicians anymore? Sophia Hashemi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 The politics of sport James Harding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Are politicians at risk? Katie Davies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Should Finland join NATO Molly Meyer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Time to grow the union? William James . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Qatar World Cup 2022 Hamish Kennedy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Can the ´Land of the Castles´ bring down the EU? Leo Smith . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 The importance of COP26 Sorcha Burges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Home is where the heart is Feeding the children of England - Marcus Rashford Tomini Oyeniyi . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Brown’s gold mistake Ryo Baxter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 The people and events behind “New Labour” rise to power Charlie Beck . . . . . . . . 36 Covid Vaccines - The Diplomacy Behind the Distribution Rob Hunter . . . . . . . . . . 40 Feminism, Race & Intersectionality Elias Daryani . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Satire in Animal Farm by George Orwell Olivia Morley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 The downfall of Roman Abramobich and Chelsea Football Club Jacob Henderson . 48

You cannot change the past The Pakistan and India conflict Krishan Ahuja Hofheiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Calypso Cricket to Political Statement Ben Latty Dennison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Political philosophy in the 21st century Nico Wong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 The making of civil rights Eva Grace Tague . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

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Question Time

How close are we to living in a dystopia?

Asha Nair L6

Doublethink is a term coined by novelist, essayist, and critic, George Orwell in one of his best-known books, Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949). It means a sinister form of reality control. Some may believe it to live only within the confines of the pages of some frightening, fictional dystopian society. But on the contrary, it is more convincing to argue that it exists all around us today.

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eorge Orwell describes it in 1984 as, “To know and not to know, to be conscious of complete truthfulness while telling carefully constructed lies, to hold simultaneously two opinions…to use logic against logic…”. While JG Ballard, another dystopian novelist famous for novels such as The Drowned World (1962) and Crash (1973) stated that “Nineteen Eighty-Four has never really arrived,” it is more cogent to argue that Orwell’s novel was not only reminiscent of the post-World War II clash between superpowers, USA, and Russia, but it was deeply prophetic of the kind of control and manipulation that is so prevalent within modern day politics.

In light of recent events, it goes without saying that Prime Minister Boris Johnson possesses a passing relationship with the truth. Even before the start of his Premiership, he experienced many scandals, mostly with respect to his key role in the Brexit campaign. He infamously rode a large red bus around London, with a

blatant lie printed along the side: “We send the EU £350 million let’s fund our NHS instead.”

This was an outright attempt to sway the vote of the electorate in the EU referendum by lying to them, but this scandal didn’t end there. On TalkRadio, Johnson had an endearing response to a simple question about what he does to relax, to which he responded by telling the interviewer, “I make models of buses.” This is objectively charming as a story, and it all fits into the image Johnson has created of being a loveable, bumbling character. However, a far more sinister way of interpreting this, is that the entire image is instead a carefully calibrated act constructed

by Boris Johnson that enables him to slither out of scandals and difficult situations. Gizmodo wrote an article addressing the issue on the 27th of June, 2019, entitled ‘Did Boris Johnson Ramble About Model Buses to Manipulate Google’s Search Result?’ As a result of this strange story about painting buses in his free time, when people would look up something such as ‘Boris Johnson bus,’ they would instead see the clip of Mr Johnson discussing his penchant for painting buses onto wooden creates rather than the significantly worse lies on the side of the Brexit bus. Johnson himself even said “it is often useful to give the slight impression that you are deliberately pretending not to know what is going on, because the reality may be that you don’t know what is going on, but people won’t be able to tell the difference.”

The Prime Minister, Boris Johnson, quickly wiped the sweat beading on his brow as he stepped out onto the stage at the Cop26 Climate Summit. He told the people that the UK is “not a remotely corrupt country,” in an attempt to soothe the steadily rising concerns over his administration’s legitimacy, continuing to assure the public that, “the most important thing is those [MPs] who break the rules must be investigated and should be punished.”

However, if we are to accept his words on face value, the Prime Minister must answer to why he desperately evaded retribution for his own actions. The first whisperings of misconduct began to surface on the 30th November 2021, Preview 2021-22

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Question Time when the Daily Mirror published an article alluding to gatherings that were held by 10 Downing Street during the 2020 Christmas season, allegations which were met with swift denial from the Prime Minister who told the Commons during PMQs on the 1st of December that “all guidance was followed completely in No.10. His spokesman reiterated the Prime Minister’s denials: “[We] do not recognise these accounts and all Covid rules have been followed at all times.”

that members of 10 Downing Street staff threw, most importantly, our Prime Minister. It is now an indisputable certainty that Prime Minister Johnson broke the very same laws that he created, but why? Is it “one rule for them and another for everyone else,” as Sir Kier Starmer theorises, or is it instead the incompetence of not knowing the gravity of the laws Johnson’s own government passed? Is this the work of a dystopian nightmare, keen on pulling the wool over our eyes and holding the power of our taxmoney and freedom over our heads, or is this the mistake of an ignorant government that should be deposed for Spokesman for the both the sake of the people Prime Minister as well as themselves?

“there was no party and Covid rules have been followed at all times.”

Words that were almost repeated verbatim later, when the spokesman for the Prime Minister once again insisted that “there was no party and Covid rules have been followed at all times.”

However, how are we, as the public, expected to believe that “all Covid rules have been followed at all times,” and simultaneously believe the Johnson administration when they tell us that even if there was an event, it was not in breach of the law.

Kit Malthouse, the Minister of Policing, said on the 6th of December on BBC Breakfast. “I don’t know if an event took place, but if it did, no rules were broken,” Malthouse insisted firmly, despite the fact that during the Christmas 2020 season, the majority of England was operating within ‘tier four’ restrictions which meant that people should stay at home as much as possible, non-essential shops were closed, and you could only spend time with one other person as long as it was outside of your house.

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When examining Prime Minister Boris Johnson and pondering whether or not he is a corrupt liar or incompetent, it is vital that you look further into his background. It is easy to get swept along in each scandal as it comes along, forgetting those that really set the tone for his Premiership. From the very start, as Mayor of London, Boris Johnson presented himself to the people of Britain as a loveable mess, famously getting into situations such as getting stuck on a ziplne while promoting the 2012 Olympic Games, to which news broadcasters such as CNBC reported the incident in a jovial manner, saying “ isn’t that fantastic?

This is a man who some are tipping as a future Prime Minister?”

This would have killed most politicians’ careers, but Boris Johnson found a way to laugh at himself and charm everyone.

Question Time

Modern-Day McCarthyism is it back?

Rosie Williamson U6

McCarthyism has become a term used somewhat liberally in modern-day politics. Some may even argue that Trumpism, the new ‘woke revolution’ and even current fears of Russian intervention are all throwbacks to McCarthyism from the 1960s.

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he McCarthy ‘witch-hunts’, otherwise known as the ‘red scare’, were a series of investigations spearheaded by Joseph McCarthy into suspected communist infiltration of the US government. When the Cold War broke out between the US and the USSR there was an intense fear and hatred of communism among many Americans. Common slogans such as “better dead than red” and “there’s a red in every bush”, highlight the collective fear of a communist revolution in America.

This hatred was stoked by American leaders incessantly warning the public to be wary of communist influence in their lives. Fear of the unknown proliferated, and the belief that anyone could be the ‘enemy’ such as teachers, journalists or even police flooded society. It created a terror led environment resembling the historical regimes of the Nazis and Torquemada’s Spanish Inquisition, as those under investigation were coerced to falsely accuse anyone of being a communist to demonstrate their patriotism and save themselves. These mid-twentieth century hunts were later found to be a wild goose chase… without a goose.

Although, no one dared to question McCarthy for fear of being labelled a traitor.

Significantly Kurt Schlichter in a Twitter poll asked his followers, “Would you take up arms and fight to defend the US Constitution against a socialist coup/revolution?”. A worrying 63% said they would ‘fight back ruthlessly’, highlighting an emergence of suspicion, potentially rallying people into unfound paranoia, resemblant of the red scare.

Conservative critics have also argued that “cancel culture is the new McCarthyism of the ‘woke’ generation.” If you are not with us, you must be against us – no defence can be accepted, this mentality has been adopted by many who label themselves as ‘social justice activists.’ Society appears to be heading in the direction where a spectrum of opinions is no longer acceptable, with only one objective truth, and all other beliefs are deviant and unjustifiable. Rather than debate polarised opinions to find common ground, one side is shut down and ‘cancelled’ to avoid offending any individual.

“cancel culture is the new McCarthyism of the ‘woke’ generation.”

In a speech, McCarthy declared “Any man who has been named by either a senator or committee or a congressman as dangerous to the welfare of this nation, his name should be submitted to the various intelligence units, and they should conduct a complete check upon him. It’s not too much to ask.” This answers the question as to why McCarthy’s methodology was left unchallenged. And as Arthur Miller’s play, The Crucible, illustrated if you wished to square a grudge, all you had to do was whisper a name and say that they were a communist, and the state would come knocking at their door.

Signs of a rising neo-McCarthyism have begun to emerge in America and worldwide.

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“Cancel culture” is a phenomenon that stemmed from movements to end discrimination against victimised minority groups, especially racial minorities, and members of the LGBTQIA+ group. However, critics argue that this has gone too far and we are transmogrifying into an Orwellian dystopia where people are told what to believe; counterbeliefs are not tolerated, and standing against the accepted truth leads to protest, threat, and social exclusion by an often-faceless mob.

To overcome entrenched beliefs within a society, huge change is needed. But how far should this be allowed to go? The line between being ‘woke’ and forcing opinions on a populace is being blurred.

Prejudice, paranoia, and hysteria remain tools employed by the unscrupulous to manipulate society. But is McCarthyism re-emerging or are politicians just throwing the term around to disempower and attack their opponent?

Question Time

Can the general public trust politicians anymore?

Sophia Hashemi L6

A concerning study carried out by YouGov in December 2021 found 63% of British people saw politicians as only out for themselves compared to 35% in 1944. The decline in trust is likely due to the recent scandals within the governing party and the inability to follow the guidelines and laws that they set during COVID. Subsequently, this can lead to severe consequences, threaten democracy, a disengagement in politics by the general public and damage to political leaders’ authority.

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he huge decline in trust in political leaders is a consequence of the many political scandals in recent years with

Matt Hancock, the health secretary from 2018 to 2021 was exposed for having an affair during lockdown with his aide. Even though Hancock

politicians displaying a failure to follow their

was the primary source of guidance in the

own rules and being disingenuous with the

pandemic on how to stay safe; he ignored his

public. For example, the recent ‘Partygate’

calls not to even hug or engage in any physical

scandal in January 2022. It was reported that

contact with individuals outside of one’s home.

multiple parties were held at 10 Downing Street

Again, this infuriated members of the public

between 2020 and 2021 (with the Prime Minister

who endured funerals in the pandemic where

- Boris Johnson being present) breaking the

limited people were allowed to attend, and social

national lockdown rules and guidelines set by

distancing had to be maintained. This further

the government. Whilst Johnson claimed there

suggests that politicians are trapped in their

was “no party” and “no lockdown rules were

‘Westminster bubble’ and detached from the

broken”, once the police findings were declared

outside world. Their behaviour displays that

he issued an apology. He stated, “I fell short

politicians feel that they are above the rules, out

when it came to observing the

of touch with the public and

very rules the government, I

unable to connect with real-life

led had introduced to protect the public.” This was rightfully received with outrage from most of the public. An inability to follow lockdown rules disheartend the public who disrupted so much of their lives to comply. The overwhelming compliance rate to the lockdown of 95%

issues. Whilst Matt Hancock “I fell short was forced to resign, Boris when it came Johnson continues to defend to observing the his actions. very rules the Not only has there been government, I led distrust in political leaders had introduced but there has been a further distrust in the political media. to protect The Brexit campaign is a the public.”

in March 2020 conveys those

Boris Johnson

prime example, false facts and targeted advertisements were

politicians were one of the very few that felt

spread on social media to mislead voters and

above the rules. Johnson deceiving the public

potentially impacted the result. The striking

instead of owning up to his mistakes confirms

claim that appeared on leave campaign buses

the lack of accountability for politicians. The

stating, “we send the EU 350 million a week, let’s

absence of a resignation further highlights the

fund our NHS instead.” encouraged many voters

lack of consequences for these politicians as

to vote leave whilst it was entirely misleading

Boris Johnson continues to govern and dictate

and not factual. Truthfully, Brexit will negatively

laws after enduring a mild punishment of a fine;

affect the economy with less to spend on the

an insignificant consequence that the accused

NHS. Additionally, the U.K. has already lost

is more than capable of affording. There is no

5,000 EU health workers with more expected

doubt that this must have been disappointing

to follow. This was in conjunction with many

and disgraceful for over 173,000 families who

other false claims such as “Turkey is going to

had lost loved ones due to Coronavirus whilst

join the EU and millions of people will flock to

following government guidelines to social

the UK.” and “A free trade deal with the EU would

distance to keep others safe; the gatherings held

be the easiest thing in human history.”, which

potentially could have risked lives. Furthermore,

ultimately hindered the results and made a

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Question Time The decline of political participation could perhaps be a consequence of political leaders compromising the authority and legitimacy of the government. The inability to be transparent and truthful with the public distances politicians from normal citizens and makes them feel less cared for. Citizens feel less of an obligation to mockery of the referendum. False information being spread so easily undermines democracy and confuses voters. Furthermore, along with the leave campaign, the information of the remain campaign was not entirely truthful either. The statement claimed by the remain campaigning that “families would be £4,800 worse off under Brexit” was deemed untrue. The deceptive nature of both sides of the campaign leaves voters feeling confused and makes it difficult for them to form an opinion as they are unsure what they are voting for.

engage in politics as they do not feel considered by politicians who can ignore rules set for everyone. A 2021 YouGoV poll found that 63% of the public believe that politicians are only out for themselves. 5% believed that politicians were selfless and acted for the country. This further supports the breakdown of the relationship between politicians and citizens. Furthermore, the inability of politicians to follow their own rules suggests a lack of confidence and knowledge in what they are dictating damaging their authority and alarming the public with the

Arguably the distrust in politicians is dangerous

lack of sufficient leadership.

and has led to a rise in disengagement with

In the light of this view, to prevent a

politics. Whilst the rise of ‘clicktivism’ where

participation crisis and collapse of government

individuals engage in political discussions

authority, measures must be taken. The House

online has encouraged political participation, it is

of Commons and Lords should work harder to

undeniable that it is ineffective and discouraging

hold the government to account and ensure

due to the false information spread online (for

proper scrutiny of government actions. Under

example in the Brexit campaign). In addition, the

no circumstances should Prime Ministers be

recent ‘cancel culture’ which has become very

allowed to stay in office after blatantly ignoring

prevalent on social media platforms potentially

rules they put in place to keep the country

limits political discussion. This can lead to

safe. Furthermore, much stricter laws must

individuals siding with a political idea they do

be enforced to regulate political information

not fully understand. Meanwhile, voter turnout is

spread on large platforms such as Instagram,

increasingly declining. For example, the turnout

Facebook and TikTok. Currently, electoral law

for the general election in 1959 was 79% whilst

doesn’t require claims in political campaigns

the turnout for the 2019 election was 67.5%.

to be truthful or factually accurate. Therefore,

Furthermore, outside of general elections, local

the Electoral Commission and Advertisement

elections have an even lower turnout with the

Standards Authority must enforce stricter rules

PCC elections in 2016 having a turnout of 27%

and introduce more laws to regulate the spread

and the Welsh Assembly elections in 2021 having

of false information; especially in important

a turnout of 47%. Whilst non-voters are content

elections and referendums. The inability to have

and accept the result, the rising apathetic attitude

faith in politicians and the information they

to political matters is of increasing concern.

provide undermines the political infrastructure

The low turnout undermines the legitimacy of

and damages the honour and integrity of the

results and as a result, undermines democracy.

political system.

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Question Time

The politics of sport James Harding L6

Over recent years it is clear that politics is taking a greater role in sport. Whether it has had a positive or negative impact is up for debate.

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ne of the major examples of its role increasing was through the Black Lives Matter campaign taken by English clubs and was heavily encouraged by the FA. The BLM campaign started after the death of George Floyd - a black American citizen who was killed by a police officer who abused his power and ended in his death, this sparked outrage and had a global impact. The campaign was taken up and supported by the FA, leading to players and staff taking a knee before the start of every game. This political move by clubs and the FA had many repercussions, and varying reactions some good, others not – this included more awareness for the cause being made. However, the negative consequences included fans booing and certain players choosing not to take the knee. This included the black footballer, Wilfred Zaha. Zaha claimed that he thought that the gesture was meaningless and that he didn’t see a point in players taking it. However, he also stated that if players feel that it has a meaning then the players should take it.

Across the other side of the world, political tensions between two specific countries have meant that they aren’t allowed to play against each other. India and Pakistan are banned from playing against each other in cricket. It was only during the 2019 cricket world cup that the two sides faced each other, India almost forfeited due to a recent attack back in 2019 which saw Indian

Question Time personnel killed. The effect of this political rivalry on cricket is massive as Pakistan vs India is one of the most exciting games to watch and attracts hundreds of millions of people in terms of viewership. Furthermore, India has the best cricket league in the world (IPL) and has banned Pakistani players from playing in it. This is going to have negative implications for the sport as it means that fewer people are going to want to get involved as talented players aren’t playing.

Without a doubt, politics’ role has increased dramatically in sport, sometimes for the better and sometimes for the worse. However, the majority of sports fans believe and wish that politics’ role in sports was far less and the sports they love to watch, and play can be enjoyed without political interference. The whole point of professional sport is that players should be able to show their immense talents at the highest level possible and receive praise for doing it – however, with politics getting involved the spotlight can sometimes be taken of the athlete and the political implications will be the talk of social media in the aftermath of the event.

This is neither fair to the athletes nor spectators who have paid to come and watch these events.

So, even though there are times when politics could be argued to have a positive role in getting involved in sport, for the most part, it should keep its distance and that sport and politics should not be intertwined together.

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Question Time

Are politicians at risk?

Katie Davies L6

The role of politicians is to work in the public interest but to what extent does this threaten their safety? In general, involvement in politics is not seen to be a dangerous profession. Throughout history, we are taught of the bravery of soldiers and policemen who face great dangers to protect the public. Although, we rarely ever consider or are taught of the dangers politicians face, being in such public, exposing roles and making potentially controversial decisions.

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he motivations for those who decide to pursue a career in politics are not only satisfaction and the opportunity to make a positive difference in their country, but also the substantial salary, job security and a solid pension. However, whilst most are aware that there is a harsh selection process when considering a career in politics, few are aware of the potential threats, dangers and downsides that come along with taking up such a highly visible position. These negative aspects of becoming a politician must be viewed simultaneously with the positive features of pursuing this career. There needs to be an awareness that as a politician’s career progresses and they make decisions which impact not only their local community but also the population of the UK as a whole, the public attention and unpopularity arising as a result of those decisions can cause a danger to their safety and they can become vulnerable to violent protests and attacks.

Horrifyingly, there is a long list of MPs that have been attacked in the past two decades which brings the increased danger of the role into focus. The list includes attacks as recent as 2021 and involves the likes of Sir David Ames, Stephen Timms and many more. In the late 1900s politicians faced a large threat in the form of the IRA with Robert Bradford shot dead in Belfast in 1981, Anthony Berry killed in an IRA bomb attack in 1984 and Ian Gow killed in a similar IRA car bombing in 1990. This series of linked attacks emphasises the potential jeopardy to which politicians are constantly exposed. However, whilst reference can be made to historic attacks, this is a very current issue and the poignant story of the attack on Sir David Ames in 2021 will resonate more clearly with the readers of today.

Ames was a 69-year-old veteran MP who had represented Southend West in Essex since 1997 and had been an MP for Basildon from 1983 to 1997. He was a conservative backbencher who was devoted to his constituents, with right-wing views opposing abortion and same-sex marriage.

On 15th October 2021, Ames held a constituency surgery in Leigh-on-Sea in the Belfair’s Methodist Church - something he did regularly, twice a month on Fridays. At around 12.05 just 15

minutes after finishing a conversation with his constituents, Ames was brutally stabbed several times. Ames was supposedly savagely attacked by a man who emerged from a small crowd of constituents. Witnesses say the man ‘deliberately whipped out a knife and started stabbing’. David Ames was attended to by paramedics on scene and was worked on for a long time by these paramedics at the scene before being transported away in an air ambulance. However, just before 15:00, Sir David Ames was declared deceased.

Police immediately arrested a 25-year-old man named Ali Harbi Ali at the scene of the crime and the murder weapon was recovered as evidence.

The man was of Somali heritage and was the son of a former Somali prime minister’s advisor and nephew of the Somali ambassador to China. The man was initially arrested under the suspicion of murder but was later detained at a London Police station under the 2000 Terrorism Act. Ali Harbi Ali was charged with murder and preparing terrorist acts on 21st October 2021. He was believed to have acted alone and allegedly acted on the inspiration of Islamic ideology.

The attack reminds us of the risk to politicians not just in the past but also currently. The next day in an act of defiance many MP’s held constituency surgeries as normal, such as Alec Shelbrooke who held a surgery at a local supermarket but stated that he would continue to do so even if he had to ‘add a few more precautions’, the attack did increase concerns about the safety of MP’s who routinely hold surgeries. It led many MPs, like Tobias Elwood, to take a cautious approach and pause face to face meetings until safety had been reviewed MP Mike Peer told the Daily Mail he wears a stab vest and panic alarm after the Ames attack.

There is a universal fear MP’s have of experiencing an attack and the plethora of precautions some are forced to take to avoid such a situation highlights the clear dangers of being an MP. This forces individuals to consider whether the police should take protecting MP’s more seriously and whether we ought to be giving far more respect to those who risk their lives every day to serve the electorate.

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Question Time

Should Finland join NATO? Molly Meyer L6

The Paasikivi-Kekkonen doctrine, Finland’s post-war foreign policy of neutrality, named after its two long-serving presidents who between them spanned the majority of the Cold War, was to some by-word in Realpolitik. Critics believe it was shameless bandwagoning, the behaviour of a weak and dependent nation, earning it the pejorative label ‘Finlandization’.

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s the Greek historian and general Thucydides put it: “the strong do what they can and the weak suffer

what they must”. In the case of the Finns, this meant suffering day-to-day interference in foreign policy from the Soviet Union and even censorship of anything critical of their powerful neighbour in the printed press, music, and films.

of Finland joining the alliance. Now it is 62%, according to recent polls. But should Finland ‘poke the bear’?

In mid-April, Finland’s young woman Prime Minister, Sanna Marin, met with Sweden’s Magdalena Andersson in Stockholm to discuss NATO membership. She stated at a joint press conference that she saw no reason to delay the

Finlandization recently reappeared in early

decision. Her words coincided with a report to

2022 during a discussion of the options open

the Finnish parliament that warned that “Russia

to Ukraine to avoid war with Russia. Now the

jeopardises the security and stability of the

Finns for their part, fearing Putin’s aggressions,

whole of Europe”. however, it also cautioned that

far from wishing to appease their neighbour,

members of the alliance could induce “increased

are clamouring to join NATO, the US-led treaty

tensions on the border between Finland

system with its policy of collective defence. Just

and Russia”. Russia’s response was typically

a year ago, only 28% of Finns were in favour

aggressive. Dmitry Medvedev, a Putin ally who Preview 2021-22

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Question Time served a term as Russian President to Putin’s Prime Minister and is now deputy chairman of the National Security Council, issued a robust reply, threatening an end to a nuclear-free Baltic by deploying nuclear and hypersonic weapons to the Russian enclave of Kaliningrad.

Maria Zakharova, the Russian Foreign Ministry spokeswoman, has also talked of “military and political consequences” if Finland were to join NATO.

Prime Minister Marin maintains that she needs to join NATO to honour the will of the people.

She has also said that a decision could be taken within weeks.

Finnish commentators such as Risto Penttilä note the strong tradition of the Finnish people trusting their leaders when it comes to matters of defence and national security policy.

Back in 1990 with the collapse of the Soviet Union, whilst there was a widespread desire for Finland to become a member of the EU there was no groundswell of opinion in favour of joining NATO, especially given the comparative strength of Finland’s defensive forces and an unwillingness to break a tradition of neutrality, even one where nuclear warheads was still aimed at the country. But that is different now because of the geopolitical situation and the crisis in Ukraine.

It seems now that Finland’s joining the bloc is a question of “how quickly” rather than “if”.

A year ago, only 28% of Finns were in favour of Finland joining the alliance.

Now it is 62%.

Interestingly, Finland, already a member of the EU, of course, is closely aligned with NATO in any case. Its air force conducts frequent exercises with NATO member Norway as well as with non-NATO member Sweden. It has a sizeable standing army of more than 25,000 and it can call on the largest force of trained reservists in Europe, thanks to universal conscription and regular training.

It not only has a defence agreement with the United States but also it is a part of the Britishled Joint Expeditionary Force, a group of ten northern European countries each contributing mobile modern defence forces, and it took part in the recent “Operation Cold Response” exercises. If it were to join NATO, its equipment would be well aligned: back in February, it ordered 64 US-made F-35s, the world’s most advanced stealth warplane.

Could Finland stop short of full NATO membership?

It appears not, according to Finland’s Minister for Foreign Affairs, Pekka Haavisto, speaking on 14 April: “NATO doesn’t have any light versions of membership but you either are or aren’t a member”, he said. “But I’d say that if we started pursuing membership, I wouldn’t put together too long a list of restrictions to attach to the application.”

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Finlandization is indeed dead in Finland.

Question Time

Time to grow the union?

William James Fourth Year

A historic moment occurred on April 2nd, 1983.The United Kingdom suffered its first invasion since World War Two. However, it was not Great Britain, nor was it the Channel Islands. It was the Falkland Islands.

Despite the invasion resulting in British victory, Argentina still claims and sees Las Malvinas (the Falkland Islands) as their own. Although, this rhetoric is the opposite of what the inhabitants of the Falkland Islands believe, as witnessed in the 2013 referendum where 99.8% of the Falklanders voted in favour of remaining British.

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Question Time go as far as I am suggesting. This direct rule meant that a London-appointed governor held the power. What I am proposing is the full integration of the BOTs (apart from two) into the union and obtaining their devolved legislature, similar to the system in France. Regardless, this is extremely unpopular and creates many problems. In Guadeloupe, it is almost impossible to ignore the anti-French attitude of the island, with their independence flag being more The question remains – why does a place whereby inhabitants believe themselves to be British remain outside of the union?

This same question is being presented in different British Overseas Territories, the British

common than Le Trois Couleurs. This makes one contemplate whether this attitude would be replicated if the BOTs were incorporated into the union. Whilst this mindset would have people such as Enoch Powell turn in their graves, incorporation would be the best for the BOTs, and

Virgin Islands (BVI), but for various reasons. On

their security (we have already seen the Chagos

29th April, the premier of the BVI, Andrew Fahie,

Islands - part of the British Indian Ocean territory

was arrested in the US by DEA agents for drug

- invaded in February this year) and ultimately

trafficking charges. This follows over a year of

the UK as a whole. The two BOTs that I believe

investigations into corruption in the islands by

should be exempt from integration are the

former judge Sir Gary Hickinbottom. Also, the

British Antarctic territory (for obvious reasons)

2016 Panama papers leaks, in which the BVI are

and the territory of Akrotiri and Dhekelia as they

mentioned more than 113,000 times.

are military bases on the island of Cyprus.

Hickinbottom concluded that to combat corruption in the BVI they should be directly

Is direct rule popular?

ruled from London. The exposure of corruption

As already discussed, direct order may be

led previous Labour leader Jeremy Corbyn to state that direct rule from London was needed, in response to this declaration Graham Anderson QC stated that this would require multiple constitutional changes.

unpopular in the current BOTs, but is this reflected in the mainland UK? The only real way to see whether it is popular is either to have a referendum discussing the issue, or to impose it and see how the nation responds.

Is direct rule feasible?

What would the international view

The simple answer is: yes, it is. Nevertheless, this

be on the direct rule?

neglects to represent the legislative hurdles that

Nations with which the UK has disputes over

would need to be overcome. This includes the

the BOTs, namely Argentina (Falkland Islands),

repealing of the 2002 British Overseas Territories

Spain (Gibraltar) and Mauritius (British Indian

Act as well as the replacement of multiple

Ocean territory), would take a very negative view

constitutions. Direct rule was imposed on the

of integration into the union. However, this only

BOT of the Turks and Caicos Islands in 2009

reflects their self-interest. With two of the priorly

for three years after evidence of ‘widespread’

named nations (Argentina and Mauritius) having

corruption among its rulers. Yet, this did not

invaded the territories they dispute, they have

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Question Time

no recognition by international organisations with both territories being seen internationally as British.

Advantages and disadvantages Economic advantage is the additional $16.55 billion that will be added to the UK’s GDP, this

In Gibraltar and the Falklands, there have been

is enough to move it above India in the GDP

referendums about whether the British should

rankings. Regardless, one wonders whether

withdraw from both territories,

this increase in GDP would

however, both were rejected by

be sustained, as many BOTs

landslides (99.8% in the Falklands and 98.97% in Gibraltar).

From countries that do not dispute Britain’s claims, one expects there to be support from nations such as France and the US which have territories

Many would see it as a 21st-century version of colonialism

like the UK. Nevertheless, this would not be repeated throughout the world, as many would see it as a 21st-century version of colonialism. This would send nations already

have large GDPs for their rather lax tax regulations.

This would be removed unless each newly introduced region would be allowed to have their own tax rates.

The integration would allow 272,256 new people to

have British citizenship and a British passport.

Another advantage would be the limitation of corruption from the BOTs.

asking for reparations from the UK for slavery

To conclude, the integration of the BOTs into the

into delirium, focusing on this issue rather than

union would be a great advantage to the citizens

many of the problems that their nations face.

of the BOTs and even the UK itself.

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Question Time

Hamish Kennedy L6

The FIFA World Cup is the most prestigious global football trophy. It can unite and capture the attention of every nation.

Every 4 years the excitement of this incredible tournament builds up as we get closer and closer to the first ball being kicked. Yet, this World Cup has created unprecedented controversy because of the way this country was able to get the World Cup and the way they have prepared for it, but will all this western media scrutiny end once a team has lifted the famous golden trophy?

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Question Time Problems with the Qatar World Cup began in December 2010 when surprisingly the first Middle Eastern country had won a bid for the World Cup. The question of just how this country had been given the rights to host the World Cup arose, but it was not until one year after Qatar had won the bid that emails and letters began to expose details of bribery involving ex FIFA Vice President, Jack Warner, and the president of Asian Football Confederation Mohammed Bin Hammam. Reports claimed that the emails suggested that Qatar had bought the rights for the World Cup through bribery by Bin Hammam, all of which were quickly denied by the Qatari officials.

Nonetheless, more problems occurred three years later when in March 2014, a firm linked to Qatar’s winning World Cup bid had a bank transfer exposed - involving a payment of £2 million had been sent to Jack Warner and further money had been sent to Warners family. The Sunday Times which accessed the documents believe that the firm that helped Qatar win the World Cup bid had paid over £5 million to football officials to help Qatar win the bid. All these allegations of bribery forced Bin Hammam to state that all the claims against them of bribery were false. But despite all the denials from Qatari officials of

bribery uncertainty over the legitimacy of the World Cup bid had been damaged, dampening the excitement of the magnificent tournament that is the World Cup. More problems for Qatar started to occur once preparation for the 2022 World Cup had started.

To host the World Cup, it takes great standards as a county must hold 64 games of football in only 2 months which requires multiple high-quality stadiums to host these. This would be a tough challenge for any country but a mountain to climb for Qatar with only one established stadium.

Nevertheless, Qatar is incredibly wealthy and looking to show the rest of the world that it can host the World Cup. Construction of 8 brand new stadiums started immediately with all having in house air conditioning to accommodate the fans and the players. With Qatar needing to build 8 stadiums in such a short time high demand was put on workers, who were all migrant workers from across Asia. Reports started to suggest that over six and a half thousand migrant workers had died as a result of extremely poor and unsafe working conditions while building the stadiums. Further reports suggest that Nepalese were dying at a rate of one per day while working. This added extra scrutiny for Qatar and suggestions Preview 2021-22

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Question Time that its win should be revoked from them due to inhumane reports of multiple workers dying.

But once again Qatar officials were quick to deny all allegations against them about the deaths of workers with the Qatar World Cup chief Nasser Al Khater stating “I can assure him that if he comes here, speaks to the majority of the workers, they will tell you how they have their children through university, how they built houses for them and their families. These stories nobody hears.” It seems clear that Qatar is trying to cover up all the allegations against them stories about other workers whom they have helped, which only seems to be a few.

More issues have been brought upon Qatar over their treatment of women and LGBTQ people.

Qatar - a Muslim country - has strict rules regarding homosexuality - such as criminalising homosexuality with a sentence of up to 7 years in prison. Moreover, reports have stated that any LGBTQ flag brought into the stadiums by a fan would see the fan being brought down with great punishment, but recently head of security at the 2022 World Cup Abdullah Al Nasari stated “if you want to express your views on LGBTQ cause do so in a society where it will be accepted. Do not come and insult an entire

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society. We will not change the religion for 28 days.” He goes on to say “If a fan raises a flag in a stadium and it is taken away, it will not be because we want to offend him, but to protect him, if we don’t, another spectator could attack him. If you buy a ticket, it is to watch a football match and not to demonstrate.” It is clear to see that Qatar has acknowledged that its stance on LGBTQ rights does not align with more progressive countries.

The World Cup is the most prestigious football event in the world watched by millions across the globe so it should be allowed to be held by any country that wins the bid. Therefore, it is pleasing to see the first Middle Eastern Country hold the World Cup, but it is disheartening to witness fans experience both excitement and fear over what could happen at this year’s World Cup. Western media has shown a clear problem with the World Cup being hosted in Qatar with all the problems of the winning bid, workers dying trying to build stadiums and LGBTQ rights, but it will be very interesting to see if the scrutiny disappears once the first games kickoff and a team lifts the coveted trophy that all 32 teams all dream of winning.

Question Time

Can the ´Land of the Castles´ bring down the EU? Leo Smith L6

In the mountains of Spain, around every corner, you find yourself heading towards a large fortress sitting majestically atop a seemingly unassailable mass of rock. Some are crumbling ruins, some beautifully preserved, all are keys to understanding the geography and history of Spain.

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Question Time

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n early medieval times, these magnificent structures were the defining feature of a large area of the Meseta – the extensive plains of central Spain – to the extent that the region’s name derives from the Spanish word for castle, Castillo – Castile, the ‘Land of the Castles’. Spain is a vast fortress, twice as big as the UK and surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean, and is remarkably one of the most mountainous countries in Europe. At the heart of the country is Madrid.

The city was chosen as the capital in the sixteenth century precisely because it is in the middle of the country, therefore, it could exert more centralised control, with less distance between it and potential rival centres of power.

Spain is one of the oldest European states, but with a young democracy of only 44 years, it can shatter the European Union. In a country where there are no lyrics for the National Anthem because they cannot agree upon any words for it, will the independence of regions in Spain spur other areas of Europe such as Corsica, Scotland, and Bavaria to also be independent?

changed the club badge so that the Catalan flag on it resembled the Spanish flag. But all this couldn’t alter the spirit of fans if anything it provoked thousands to sing in Catalan.

Furthermore, across the Basque Country, supporters of Athletic Bilbao showed their view of Madrid in the same manner and many in both cities still do to this day.

In November 2021, the Catalan Government reopened a rift between separatists and the state by refusing to obey the Supreme Court, which ruled that a quarter of all classes in the region wereto be taught in Spanish. Later an advisor in the Basque government concluded that using Basque as the primary language would impede the education of 80,000 children, however even this Basque education law would take effect in 2022 to make Basque the mandatory language. Language is a decisive issue in Spain, in which Pedro Sanchez the Socialist Prime Minister must contend with strong nationalist movements whilst relying upon nationalist parties to get legislation through the parliament in Madrid. As of now, the row is over and regional languages are used on international streaming platforms such as Netflix, HBO and Amazon and the prime minister, Pedro Sanchez has agreed to demands by the separatist Catalan Republican Left (ERC) party for quotas of programming in languages other than Spanish on streaming platforms. The ERC then helped to vote for a budget which allocates massive EU funds intended to revitalise the Spanish economy, thus helping Sanchez to stay in power. However, in the twists and turns of politics that followed, a draft of the law stipulates that the 6% quota in Catalan and other co-official languages does not extend to international digital platforms, just service providers based in Spain. As a result, the

If Catalonia were to go independent.

It would encourage other areas of Europe – Corsica, Scotland, Flanders, Sicily and Bavaria to potentially do the same.

In 1939, the period of Spain under Franco began and lasted until 1975, however, this was a time where regional identities were squashed and languages from the provinces were banned in public. Franco intended to create a homogenous Spain but, like many before him, was defeated by the geography which had kept alive the regional languages and identities for so long. For example, one of the fortresses he ran against was the Camp de Les Corts Stadium, home to Barcelona FC. Franco was known to support Real Madrid, not entirely as a fan, but to create a symbol of Spanish success. However, he could hardly promote a club from a region which wanted autonomy, the regime changed Barcelona FC’s name into Castilian and 26 Preview 2021-22

Question Time Spain does not want to lose Catalonia because of pride, economics, and geographical reasons.

Catalonia is located on the flatter side of the Pyrenees and has land trade routes to France, as does the Basque Country and the rest of Spain would be cut off. Spain will not want to lose two of its biggest parts, Barcelona, and Bilbao. If Catalonia were to leave the European Union, there would be other problems for Spain, as China and Russia are always looking to expand their territory. China offers trade and investment. The European Union blocks China, but an independent state of Catalonia outside the European Union would give China a foot in the door. Moreover, the European Union are worried about Catalonia’s 2021 elections and rightly so. Spain’s far-right Vox party entered the regional government for the first time due to their hard-line stance on the issue of Catalan independence, and so their support surged.

response from the Catalan separatist party has not been a positive one, however, neither side would want the budget to fail.

Nationalism, popularism and extremism are clearly on the rise showing that differences remain. In the north, there has been a campaign of terror in the Basque Country whereby extremists are willing to use violence to break free from Madrid through ETA. Catalonia’s political movement goal is to break free with an economy fit to back it, being the wealthiest region in the whole country.

A region with only 16% of the population, accounts for 20% of Spain’s total GDP and onequarter of all Spanish exports.

There are implications on a global scale if Catalonia were to go independent. It would encourage other areas of Europe – Corsica, Scotland, Flanders, Sicily, and Bavaria to potentially do the same. This presents a dilemma, if Catalonia is not part of the European Union, then China gains a foothold and gives the country a European status, in which it can be an active participant in breaking up European members.

An alternative to being a member of the European Union, is EFTA, the European Free trade Association. This would give Spain and the European Union more problems if Catalonia were to join. We already know that smaller states of their own have joined in, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, and Switzerland but if the UK joined too, EFTA would become a buffer trading block. Therefore, could Spain be the decider on whether the European Union survives or crumbles. So, like Spain’s Castillo’s, will the European Union crumble or move towards an ever-closer union?

if Catalonia is not part of the European Union then China gains a foothold

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Question Time

The importance of

Sorcha Burgess L6

Recently there has been quite a lot of discussion about the COP26 conference in the news, radio and on social media. However, there is a lot of confusion surrounding what COP26 is actually about and what occurred at the conference.

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Question Time

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OP stands for a conference of parties and it is one of the world’s most important international conferences. It consists of around 200 countries and is the main decisionmaking body of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. This year, the 26th COP was held from 31 October until 12 November, hosted by the UK Government in Glasgow - although it was originally scheduled to take place earlier, but it was postponed due to the Covid-19 pandemic.

The conference proposed several key aims it hopes to accomplish. One of their biggest pledges is to maintain 1.5°C. This means that world leaders at the conference have vowed to attempt to maintain global temperatures to well below 2°C compared to pre-industrial levels, and ideally below 1.5°C. Along with this promise, many incredible commitments were made along with an acceleration in progress towards tackling climate change. For example, over 90% of global emissions are now covered by netzero commitments and nationally determined contributions now cover 80% of global emissions.

The Glasgow Climate Pact was arguably one of, if not the most, important outcome of COP26. It saw climate commitments forged on four key priorities mitigation, adaptation, finance, and collaboration. Furthermore, it helped the UN commit to real action such as reducing methane emissions by 30% by 2030; phasing out coal faster; speeding up the switch to electric vehicles and ending deforestation. Agreeing on the Glasgow climate pact also accelerated progress towards closing the emissions gap and made the countries of the UN commit to come back and do more for our planet at COP27.

Additionally, the pact finalised the Paris rulebook, another influential outcome. This committed countries to rapidly scale up climate finance and double finance for adaptation by 2025 on 2019 levels. The Paris rulebook is noteworthy as it sets out guidelines for how the Paris agreement is implemented, including a common approach for countries to report their emissions and track progress on action and support, to ensure transparency, accountability, and confidence in the system. It also provides clear rules for international carbon markets Preview 2021-22

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Question Time that are robust and contribute to climate goals. The finalisation of the Paris rulebook at COP26 will now make the Paris Agreement fully operational, allowing for delivery of the landmark accord, to keep 1.5˚ alive.

designing and implementing climate action, showing that everyone has a part in keeping our world alive.

A key point of COP26 that is much more well known within modern society is the coal and fossil fuel subsidies that were also achieved.

A highly effective outcome, as countries have committed to stop subsidising fossil fuel extraction and to the goal of ending polluting coal power. 39 signatories agreed at COP26 to end overseas financing for fossil fuels.

These aims will be discussed at the next COP - COP27, - which will run from 7-18 November 2022, in Egypt. Alongside the main meeting, there has been much building up to truly work on the aims for COP27 whilst also pushing the agreements from COP into reality. The main aims that groups such as the European Greens would like to achieve and will call for at this coming meeting consist of many important factors ranging from climate-proofing trade, increasing international climate finance, protecting climate activists, and making polluters pay.

Other aims range from addressing international transport, by including emissions from international aviation and shipping in NDC and negotiating a treaty to phase out fossil fuels top the use of an International Fossil Fuel Non-proliferation Treaty to ensure an end to coal, oil and gas production.

This comes as more money than ever before is being dedicated to clean energy. Consigning coal to history is a vital step to keeping 1.5˚ alive and is one of the most likely outcomes to get the public’s attention.

But it is not over, although COP26 fought to keep 1.5˚ alive, we as people have to deliver.

It is not just the climate that COP strives to assist, but also indigenous people. COP26 recognised the important role of indigenous people in responding to climate change and decided to donate $1.7bn to advance land rights and forest stewardship for indigenous peoples and local communities.

Moreover, the UK dedicated funding a pavilion at the conference in order to amplify indigenous voices, and also the agreement for new local communities and indigenous people’s platform of work.

Furthermore, the Glasgow climate pact urged parties to involve indigenous peoples in 30 Preview 2021-22

So, what’s next? Where do we go from here in the battle to protect our climate?

We only have one earth; we must support it.

A collective effort is necessary to minimise the detrimental effects of climate change, take initiative and help save the planet.

If you would like to find out what you can do to protect our planet and to preserve the 1.5˚ goal, there are websites like COPs on you can visit, or even go to the main COP Instagram.

Home is where the heart is

Feeding the Children of England Marcus Rashford Tomini Oyeniyi L6

Child poverty. Never had any two words seemed so incompatible beside one another. Yet, it is a steadily increasing issue linked to inflation, rising unemployment levels, and stark social injustice.

Although the child is not at fault, they are the ones who suffer the most from the consequences of a country hungry for economic gain.

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Home is where the heart is

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arcus Rashford, 24, is a prominent and respected footballer, making his debut for Manchester United and the England national team as a forward, at the age of 18. Rashford was raised alongside his five siblings by Melanie Maynard, a tenacious and devoted single mother providing for her children on minimum wage – which would have been a measly £5.73 when Rashford was 10 years old.

Growing up in Greater Manchester, Rashford suffered from food insecurity and revealed in a heart-breaking statement in 2020, “There were times when there wasn’t any food, so you’d just

with 622 in the first three months of the year.

Desperation and uncertainty filled the air during what seemed to be a never-ending lockdown, situations changed abruptly, and some still are picking up the debris and sorting through the wreckage that the pandemic left in its wake.

go to sleep”. Something that no child should ever have to experience. Nonetheless, he persevered through this alongside his family to mature into the inspirational young man who has worked hard to feed England’s most vulnerable children.

to access and use online food vouchers worsened the problem. The government‘s failure to handle the situation resulted in the most harmless members of society going hungry – the generation who will lead the country in the future were put at risk by those meant to protect them.

The COVID-19 pandemic was a time of indescribable grief and hardship for everybody across the globe, however, it had detrimental effects on those from disadvantaged backgrounds that are often overlooked. The virus placed an estimated 700,000 people in the United Kingdom below the poverty line, 120,000 of whom were children. Despite government efforts to soften the harsh impact, of this crisis such as creating the furlough scheme and increasing Universal Credit by £20, the pandemic led to over 5 million households with children being food insecure, with an additional 200,000 children skipping meals due to the lack of food availability in the first month of lockdown.

An expanding number of people who previously had incomes that were sufficient to feed their families were forced to utilise food banks and claim welfare benefits after being caught up in the turmoil that was the pandemic. This new demographic was labelled the ‘newly hungry.’

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Children were almost forgotten during this unnerving time, and the importance of their struggles was displaced or disregarded. 31% of children who usually received free school meals before the lockdown did not receive a substitute after the closure of schools; furthermore, systemic challenges, for example, the inability

Having received free school meals himself, Rashford understood the heightened emotions of these families and wasted no time. He merged with the food charity FareShare and they attempted to provide free school meals to children in Greater Manchester, ultimately raising £20 million. His campaign used both insider and outsider methods. For example, having access to government ministers permitted the establishment of a task force and raising public awareness through social media and interviews subsequently weakened the government’s reluctance. Celebrity endorsement for an issue kindles attention and publicity and therefore pushes the government to listen to their cause. This is evident as Rashford’s campaigning led to thousands of businesses, cafes and restaurants providing free school meals during school closures and holidays; communities were coming together to support one another through this unprecedented time.

It is shocking how one man can make a more significant impact than the elected government itself. Boris Johnson soullessly rejected Rashford’s request to continue the

Home is where the heart is £15 weekly food vouchers for children into the summer holidays of 2020. Britain’s own Prime Minister denied his country’s young generation the right to food – a fundamental human right - the motion drew 261 votes in favour with 322 against in the House of Commons.

Some Members of Parliament went as far as to make disgusting comments such as “those who cannot feed should not breed” completely discounting those in difficult circumstances such as illness, bereavement, or unexpected unemployment. The level of disconnect from the working class is prevalent, those who are trusted

although, Rashford’s persistent campaigning confirmed the £400 million winter grant, providing free meals until Easter 2021. Some Conservative MPs suggested that this scheme “increases dependency” however in a time such as COVID dependency is necessary. Surely dependency is preferred over children suffering from hunger and families struggling daily to find their next meal? Additionally, at what age do the government expect a child to become fully independent of parental care and learn to fend for themselves? The government are asking for too much, to justify them continuously falling

to run the country cannot take the time to imagine how utterly frightening and challenging the pandemic may be for those who do not earn over £80,000 a year. Comments such as this mirror the Conservatives’ label as the “nasty party” which arose after David Cameron’s austerity policy and Margaret Thatcher’s neoliberal economy and neo-conservatism society approach. The impact of their governments was brutal. The effect of the ‘Welfare Reform Act’ (2012) alone increased the number of children in poverty by 650,000 in 2019. Nonetheless, when the British public proceeded to side with the children who were too weak and vulnerable to argue their case for themselves, the government made a U-turn on their decision, and via phone call, the Prime minister announced to Rashford the implementation of the ‘Covid summer food fund’ - a £170 million scheme to support vulnerable families ensuring around 1.3 million children in England receive free-school-meal vouchers over the summer holidays.

short. Turning a blind eye to vulnerable children is to say their struggles are not important enough for immediate government action.

Amid the chaos of the pandemic, Rashford through social media reminded the public of the difficulties of the most vulnerable. His determination and compassion gave children and their families the belief that their voices are heard, and hardships are recognised; his actions are outstanding and moving, to force the government into doing something beneficial whilst being a fantastic footballer, is why he deserved to be awarded an MBE in October 2020.

“There were times when there wasn’t any food, so you’d just go to sleep”

Unbelievably, there was a second government U-turn, after the rejection to extend the free school meal vouchers. Perhaps the government believed their previous policy had solved child poverty or that it was another lockdown oddity,

With the cost-of-living crisis only worsening, energy prices increasing by 54%, and inflation expecting to rise over 7%, the fight to reduce child poverty continues. “Actions speak louder than words” is an infamous saying. If applied to the government action regarding minimising child poverty, questions would arise as to whether the lives of struggling children are truly valued in the eyes of Parliament. Marcus Rashford MBE is a national hero; he has avoided making this cause of child poverty a political campaign, his plea is based on humanitarian grounds and has simultaneously united people in these devastating times.

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Home is where the heart is

Brown’s gold mistake Ryo Baxter L6

You may be wondering why central banks still hold gold today or even be surprised that central banks still have such a substantial amount of gold.

Collectively central banks hold the largest above-ground stockpile of gold with a collective 33,800 tonnes of gold bars, with some individual central banks holding thousands of tonnes, showing that it is still seen as a safe asset to hold.

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A

large part of this was due to the gold standard which was abandoned by the US 20 years before the sale in 1971, which is a monetary system where a country’s currency is directly linked to gold. With the gold standard, countries agreed to convert paper money to a fixed amount of gold. A country that uses the gold standard sets a fixed price for gold and buys and sells gold at that price.

Between 1999 and 2002 then Chancellor of the Exchequer Gordon Brown, who later became Prime Minister (2007-2010) decided to sell off 401 tonnes which made up 56% of the UK’s gold reserve for an average of $275 per ounce which today is worth over $1970 per ounce, which is over 7 times higher.

So, what happened? Brown worried that the price of gold would continue to fall, so he sought to sell to minimize the losses that the UK would face. At the same time, getting closer to the millennium, the US dollar was getting stronger under the Clinton administration, the stock markets were making steady gains and the interest in tech stocks was growing. The gold sale was initially intended to be secret, but was brought up in a question for the treasury in the House of Commons on the 7th of March 1999.

The confirmation of the intended sale alerted the markets, leading to an immediate fall in the price of gold by $10 per ounce as many traders began to short it.

The problem many have with the sale is that the UK Treasury was only able to raise $3.5 billion at an average of $275 an ounce, which is $100 million less than they would have raised before the sale was announced. It is difficult to look at the sale positively as at the current value of gold this sale would be worth almost $28 billion, meaning the decision of the sale has lost the UK treasury almost $24 billion.

Another factor is that London was viewed as the centre of the gold market for over 300 years, and the decision to sell much of the UK gold pushed the notion that a modern economy did not need gold, hence further decreasing the price before the sale.

Home is where the heart is Despite all this, at the time of the sale, it did not appear to be a bad decision as many other central banks were beginning to sell large amounts of gold. Belgium, Canada and the Netherlands sold a combined 1590 tonnes between them since 1990 which is much more than the 401 that the UK sold, and in 1997 alone Argentina and Australia sold a combined 290 tonnes of gold. Another large influence in the gold market was a referendum held in Switzerland in 1999 on severing their currency Franc’s gold backing, which approved a plan to sell 1300 tonnes from its 2590 tone reserve. All these uncoordinated sales by central banks are a factor which many attribute to the fall in gold prices during the 1990s. At the time gold was beginning to look less like the safe investment it used to be, meaning Brown’s sales looks less bad when compared to many other countries which were also selling gold at the same time.

Brown stands by his decision and stated “diversifying our portfolio and reducing the risks.

Actually, at the time, the governor of the Bank of England Eddie George said to the Treasury Select Committee that the decision to sell gold was a perfectly reasonable portfolio decision.”

What did they do wrong and what could they have done better? One large criticism of the sale was that it was publicly announced, which as explained pushed the price of gold down directly before the sale, leading to Brown raising less than could have if the decision was kept secret and gold was sold slowly. Furthermore, the time at which Brown decided to sell, was the lowest point in over 20 years and the lowest it has been since. It is easy to see why the gold sale remains controversial to this day.

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The people and events behind “New Labours” Rise to Power

Charlie Beck L6

When thinking of the ‘New Labour’ revolution within the Labour Party the names Tony Blair, Gordon Brown and John Prescott come to mind and although their significance cannot be questioned, the role of Alastair Campbell cannot be forgotten.

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fter Tony Blair was elected leader of the Labour Party in 1994, Campbell became his Press Secretary, later the Prime Minister’s official spokesperson (19972000) and then Downing streets director of communications from 2000-2003. Campbell is best described as a ‘Spin Doctor’. In his Autobiography Blair revealed that Campbell coined the term ‘New Labour’ labelling him a ‘genius’. He was Blair’s speechwriter and chief strategist- the brains behind ‘New Labour’.

Clause IV The reinvention of the party as ‘New Labour’ was first realised in 1995 after the amendment of Clause IV. The original version of this clause was written in 1918 by Sidney and Beatrice Webb and encouraged key socialist values such as ‘common ownership of the means of production, distribution and exchange’, these ideas were furthered by then-leader Michael Foot in 1983 whose manifesto was dubbed, ‘the longest suicide note in history’ who went on to lose 45 seats in this election. Labour had lost the last 3 elections before Blair came into power and it was evident the party required radical change this started with the removal of Clause IV. Blair outlined this move at a special conference in Easter 1995 where he stated, “The Labour Party is a democratic socialist party…. Where the rights we enjoy reflect the duties we owe”. The speech that Easter was the most significant in the modern history of the Labour Party and like so many of Blair’s great speeches- it was written by Alastair Campbell.

Acquiring The Sun Approaching the election in 1997, Labour was struggling to get the media onside, the biggest of them all - The Sun was their number one target with 10 million readers their influence was unmatched. The paper supported the Conservatives from Thatcher in 1979 up to 1997, and they had won every election in these years. The Sun had launched a tirade of abuse on Blair’s predecessor Neil Kinnock throughout his time in opposition, especially during the 1992 election which new boy John Major won comfortably - leading The Sun to famously claim ‘It’s the Sun wot won it.’ Blair and Campbell knew it vital that they stop this rot and get The Sun on their side. They worked in communication with the paper from 1994 to 1997, trying to convince The Sun’s owner Rupert Murdoch to switch allegiances, and finally, they broke through in 1997. The reason for this historical agreement can be attributed to two key relationships. The first between Tony Blair and Rupert Murdoch and the second between Alastair Campbell and editor of The Sun Stuart Higgins.

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Home is where the heart is The Independent wrote in 1997, “Murdoch makes it his business to meet rising political stars. Blair’s puppy dog, youthful, company lawyer image appealed”. When Mr Murdoch was in England, he would often ask to meet Blair and he was further impressed by his ‘Christian values’. This accumulated in Blair flying to Australia in 1995 to attend the News International Conference - this was a risk as many Labour members opposed Murdoch and his news empire but with little backlash, it paid off. By 1997, Murdoch was willing to back Blair only on TWO conditions- no more controls on the expansion of his empire as he prepared to dominate digital television (which he did through Sky) and that no privacy laws should impede the activities of his tabloids. Blair agreed to this in return as, Castle writes, “in general what Blair asked for was a chance to be reported fairly”. A week before the Sun officially backed Blair, he announced there would be no new legislation to limit Mr Murdoch. The agenda of the editor of the paper, Stuart Higgins was to clarify ‘New Labours’ position on Europe, he wanted to know how ‘Labour would defend Britain’s interests in Europe’. On the 15th of March 1997, Higgins and Campbell met at a football match, Higgins asked for assurance in Europe and Campbell replied “consider it done”this marked the final agreement in what was a triumph for Campbell and Blair but also for Murdochs’ empire.

On March 18th, 1997, The Sun headline wrote: “The Sun Backs Blair”- this support proved key in New Labours triumph, later that year. The Sun supported Labour until they switched back to David Cameron in 2009.

Personality, Manifesto and Election Campaign As the face of ‘New Labour,’ Blair was wildly popular throughout the country- charming and witty, Blair’s characterful public appearances only increased his popularity. He would regularly deflate PM Major in PMQs, most famously when Major questioned Blair’s support in his own party- Blair quipped ‘I lead my party he follows his’- that was the difference between the two rivals, Blair was assertive and 38 Preview 2021-22

confident whilst Majors conservatives were ridden with Sleaze and rebellion- stuck between Thatcherism and the future. Behind this great personality though had to be a convincing manifesto showing that Blair and ‘New Labour’ were serious about separating themselves from the left of the party. When releasing his manifesto in July 1996, he committed to ‘fast track punishment for young offenders, get 250,000 under 25s off benefits and pledged not to increase income tax’- these pledges seemed to go against the socialist engine within the party committing to neo-conservative policies such as being tough on crime and a pledge to stabilise income tax (previous labour parties would have pledged an increase), he also rejected the ideas of the social democrats instead aiming to get young people off benefits rather than supporting people from ‘cradle to grave’. This proved indefinitely that Blair was serious and assertive about this move away from the lefthe disassociated himself with the past and this, without doubt, appealed to new voters.

Although he moved the party to the centre- they were at the centre not the right, this is key as Blair remained an out and out socialist. Blair

Home is where the heart is to invest in state infrastructure, namely the NHS and ‘education, education, education,’ he believed equality of opportunity could be achieved through targeted investment in these areas whilst the state overall played a minimal role and encouraged individualism. Blair can be described as a Socialist who incorporated some liberal and conservative policies. It can be argued that Blair did this because he truly believed it was best for the country, or because it made labour more electable- both in my opinion, seem to be the truth.

When approaching the 1997 election, Labour was confident- as discussed previously Gordon Brown’s move to announce that income tax wouldn’t be raised boosted their campaign and wiped out the argument the conservatives used in the 1992 election to destroy the labour campaign in which they claimed Kinnock would skyrocket taxes.

Primarily Peter Mandleson along with the assistance of Alistair Campbell ran the campaign, using a large number of the parties’ resources to target 90 key marginal seats.

As reported by the BBC in their review of the election ‘Voters in these mainly ‘middleEnglish’ seats were bombarded with direct mail, canvassers (both in-person and by phone), and some were even sent Labour videos in which Tony Blair set out his vision for a new Britain.’

John Prescott, dubbed Labour’s “Mr Motivator”

by Tony Blair, was sent out on the ‘Prescott Express’, a huge couch that doubled as a campaign headquarters. During the campaign, the deputy leader was set to cover 10,000 miles and visit 65 key marginals. Blair promised that the ‘old tax and spend days are over’ and this appealed to the people. Towards the end of the campaign, the tories claimed that the Labour campaign was ‘cracking up’ as Labour promised to give workers the right to union representation where 50% of the workforce desired membership which the Conservatives painted as a return to the dark days of the 1970s. However, this had little effect as ‘New Labour’ went on triumphant.

Victory On the morning of the 2nd of May 1997, as the results poured in, the result was already known. Blair’s Labour gained 146 seats from 1992 losing no seats, taking conservative strongholds, namely Michael Portillo’s seat in Enfield Southgate. Blair’s commitment to low taxes, huge NHS investment and investment in education along with a persistent and targeted campaign led by Mandleson and Campbell, aided by the support of The Sun led to Blair bringing Labour back to power for the first time since the days of Jim Callaghan. ‘New Labour’ would now decide the future of Great Britain in what would prove a successful but turbulent 13 years in power.

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Covid Vaccines The Diplomacy Behind the Distribution Rob Hunter U6

As of the 4th of September 2021, according to Bloomberg.com’s vaccine tracker, there have been over 5.5 billion coronavirus vaccine doses distributed worldwide to 183 of 195 internationally recognised states around the globe, an incredible achievement just 18 months after Covid-19 became a disclosed virus to governments and health professionals alike.

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Soft Power Strategy The significance of such vaccines, particularly those produced by the Russian and Chinese states, in addition to the primary medical roles of limiting the harmful effects and mortality rate of the virus is to form and strengthen political ties and influence globally.

Such intentions were made evident as the EU’s vaccine rollout made alarmingly stuttering progress, particularly in comparison to their recently divorced neighbours the United Kingdom. With increasing mounting pressures on European governments from their citizens, the main pillar of the EU’s economy, Germany made clear its intention in March 2021 to purchase 2.5 million Sputnik V doses, with such discussions over vaccine supply being held with President Putin parallel to

the condemned arrest of Alexey Navalny and increasing Russian military presence along the Ukrainian border. Other EU member states such as Serbia, Czech Republic and Hungary, who became the first European nation to administer the Sputnik V vaccine in acts to highlight Russia and Vladimir Putin’s desire to maintain and extend their influence within Europe remaining from the Soviet era, Like Russia, China has made its intentions clear targeting low to middle income countries across the globe with early vaccine deliveries, most notably with the Hungarian president himself broadcasting his receival of the Sinopharm vaccine.

Hungary’s violation of EU protocol, stating that all vaccines within the EU are only to be used once approved by the EMA, prompted EU council member President Charles Michel to write publicly that ‘we should not be misled by China and Russia’ going on to say, ‘both regimes with values less desirable than ours’ and branding their rollouts as ‘highly limited but widely publicised’.

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View Behind the Vaccines Both Russia and China are seeking to expand their influence particularly across the Balkan states which have suffered from faltering EU

of doses that were pledged have been received by the scheme, with countries apprehensive to donate stock due to fear of new variants.

geopolitical strategy surrounding the region,

Can the World Cooperate after Covid?

emphasised by their deficient vaccine rollout

The initial response to the Pandemic in

and distribution across member states.

Europe in March of 2020 was viewed by former

The COVID-19 pandemic and intense demand

minister of foreign affairs to Argentina Susanna

for vaccines has offered the perfect opportunity

Malcorra as an ‘every country on its own

for China its BRI (Belt and Road Initiative)

approach’ stating her belief that ‘It remains to

aimed at showcasing the medical prowess and

be seen whether the COVID-19 crisis will make

advancement

leaders realize that no

of China, . The

one country can face

country stepped

twenty-first century

in early in the

challenges, such as

pandemic to supply

terrorism, migration,

essential PPE to

illegal trafficking,

countries across

cyber and bio attacks

Europe, targeted

or pandemics, alone’.

at fulfilling the

Further UN delegates

greater strategy of

such as Lynn Kuok

Xi Jinping to make

(Senior fellow

China the world’s

for Asian-Pacific

largest economic

security), have

superpower.

expressed their

To limit this soft power outreach, the EU has contributed 1Billion euros to the WHO’s COVAX scheme aimed at distributing WHO approved vaccines to lowand middle-income countries in which Balkan and other Eastern European states are eligible to participate. However, such efforts fall short of the resource requirement of these countries

reservations of future global cooperation stating that ‘The hope that the crisis provides oxygen to multilateralism already gasping for air before the pandemic.

Signs thus far however, suggest that countries are digging their heels into nationalist trenches’.

and the vaccination effort deployed across the

Overview

neighbouring EU member states, doing little to

Whilst the pandemic brings hope that lessons

endear the EU to former Soviet states.

are learnt and that nations across the globe

The Western led COVAX scheme, in cooperation

will join together to prevent such events from

with the WHO seeks to limit the influence of

reoccurring, both recent history and modern

the vaccine outreaches by China and Russia

events reservations point to an increasing

alongside the moral pledge to help save lives

desire for national preservation, at anyone’s

and alleviate healthcare pressure of developing

cost but their own, with the cost for those who

countries healthcare systems. However, since

fall victim to such strategic diplomatic warfare

its formation less than 1% of the original number

being the greatest.

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Feminism, Race & Intersectionality Elias Daryani U6

According to the Oxford Dictionary, feminism means ‘the advocacy of women’s rights on the ground of the equality of the sexes’. However, for intersectional feminists, sexism looks very different to different people. Intersectionality acknowledges how different parts of our identity shape our experiences in the world, these identities include, but are not limited to: race, class, sexual orientation, gender identity and religion. Thus, intersectional feminists argue that different types of women face different types of discrimination.

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uthor, activist, and intersectional feminist bell hooks suggested that the combination of sexism and racism led

women who do not fit into these categories.

Sabina Nessa did not fit into all those categories – she was British-Bangladeshi – and yes, all

black women to have the lowest status of any

women are let down by the patriarchy, with 109

group in American society. For example, during

other women thought to have been murdered

World War I, the National American Woman

by a man in the UK this year. But clearly, women

Suffrage Association (NAWSA) refused to allow

of colour are disproportionately affected and

Black women to attend certain marches and

treated as less important by the media. This is

protests. Furthermore, we celebrate the 19th Amendment for giving American women the right to vote in 1920, however, it was not until the 1965 Voting Rights Act where Native American women were guaranteed the right to vote. Often, history is oversimplified and while this was a landmark step in the feminist movement, it still left many disenfranchised. It is here we must further address feminism’s historical, and contemporary preference toward white, straight, middleclass women; highlighting how this affects women who do not fall into these categories.

On the 17th of September 2021, Sabina Nessa was murdered near her home in Southeast London, and her body was found the next day. Her disturbing story comes just months after the kidnap and murder of fellow Londoner Sarah Everard in March, and while both tragedies are examples of how all women are failed by the police, the government and society, Sabina’s

not a matter of putting one woman’s horrific case down and elevating another’s, and we must make sure we do not minimise the loss of any life, but we cannot be colour-blind in such circumstances. In the same way, we cannot be age or class-blind, because Sabina Nessa was a young, primary school teacher, and if she had what society generally views as a less ‘respectable’ job, or been elderly, she may have received even less media attention.

The real-life implications of disproportionate media coverage of women of colour are very apparent, with journalist Maria Schiavocampo telling CNN: “when there’s all this media attention, it puts pressure on law enforcement, it directs resources to these searches, it increases reward money. So these women are much more likely to be found because of this media attention.”

In 2019 and 2020, more white people went

story took longer to reach the public, and we have

missing than black people, however, the

to ask why this was? Would things have been

disproportionality of these incidents is

different if Sabina Nessa was a white woman?

apparent, with black people accounting for

Newscaster Gwen Ifill coined the term ‘missing

14% of all cases in England and Wales, despite

white woman syndrome’ to refer to the media coverage of missing-person cases involving

representing only 3% of the population. Despite that, many have come forward concerned that

young, white, upper-middle-class women

the police have let them down due to their race.

or girls versus the lack of attention towards

Mina Smallman spoke to ITV News about this

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Home is where the heart is feeling after her two daughters – Bibaa and

In addition, the disproportionate impact of

Nicole – were murdered by a stranger in a park

COVID-19 on people of colour in the UK was not

after celebrating Bibaa’s birthday in 2020. It was

raised at the Downing Street press briefings

alleged that police officers on the scene the

until two black journalists were allowed to

next day took selfies with the bodies.

ask questions. When speaking to the Metro

Ms Smallman said: “I think they looked at

newspaper, media expert Marcus Ryder stated

my daughter’s address, which was a council flat, and though they knew who she was: two women of colour out doing who knows what.”

In the USA, the search for Gabby Petito received huge media and authority attention, the nation was gripped by her disappearance. But according to a report this year by the University of Wyoming, 710 Indigenous people have been reported missing in the state in the past decade, and Indigenous people are more likely to still be missing after 30 days than white people.

Systemic racism can also be seen in domestic abuse cases, for example, Valerie Ford and her young daughter were murdered by her former partner in 2014. She had previously asked the police for help after her ex had threatened to burn down the house with her in

that this ‘illustrates that you have different news values and different issues are covered depending on the diversity and backgrounds of the journalists and the people with editorial control’. Therefore, he believes we must start holding the people who decide which stories are worth telling accountable.

Author and activist Angela Y. Davis once said: ‘one woman cannot stand-in for all women… if one woman moves forward

‘this illustrates that you have different news values and different issues are covered depending on the diversity and backgrounds of the journalists and the people with editorial control’

it, but this was recorded as a

but leaves everyone else behind, is this a blow for women’s equality?’. Thus, in simple terms, what intersectional feminism aims to achieve is the recognition of the diverse and complex experiences of women, as well as equality across all identities. This can be via the state – which can enact reforms to help women of various backgrounds, but it is ultimately a societal issue,

threat to the property.

where collectively we should all take into

Domestic abuse charity Sistah Space found

consideration that there are different levels of

that 86% of women of African and or Caribbean

sexism due to intersectionality.

heritage in the UK have either been a victim

Therefore, critiquing white feminism is not about

of domestic abuse or know a family member

silencing feminists who are white, it is about

who has been assaulted. However, only 57%

opening a conversation where even more diverse

of victims said they would report the abuse to

voices can be heard. The way white women

the police. In response to these figures, Sistah

experience misogyny is not the way all women

Space’s CEO Ngozi Fulani said: “There is a

experience misogyny, and we cannot be blind to

culture of not believing, stereotyping, and just

any aspect of another person’s identity. The most

generally ignoring the plight of black women.

important thing we can do is to educate ourselves

These are the things that stop black women

and engage with the experiences of all women,

from reporting domestic abuse.”

amplifying their voices.

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Satire in Animal Farm by George Orwell Olivia Morley L6

Animal Farm is a classic novel by George Orwell that has been treasured and appreciated throughout the years. Despite its short length, the powerful message of the satirical allegory presented using the simple images of farm animals has proven to be timeless since its publication on 17 August 1945.

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any choose to re-read it at different stages of life to see the message from different perspectives. For example,

police to get rid of enemies and assume the dictatorship of the Soviet Union. Both Napoleon and Stalin’s leadership led to many citizens

many read this novel at an early age with

being executed or starved to death.

childhood innocence and possibly see only the

Snowball the pig represents Leon Trotsky,

animals and the farmers. Whereas upon rereading at a later stage, they begin to grasp the depth of the satire and historical accuracy that Orwell cleverly provides through the completely different perspective of animals on a farm.

a Marxist revolutionary who developed a variant of Marxism, Trotskyism, he would later be arrested and deported. One of the largest similarities between the two is that Trotsky was exiled from Russia during the Russian

Historical context

Revolution, in the novel reflecting Snowballs

On the surface, the animals rebel against

exit. Mr Frederick symbolises Adolf Hitler and

a human farmer as they desire to create a

Germany in general. Much of Hitler’s power

society of equality, freedom and happiness.

came from spreading propaganda that promoted

This resembles modern ideas of liberalism and

antisemitism, in the same way, that Mr

communism within our society. However, Orwell

Frederick spread rumours about Animal Farm.

presents this in a very clever way via historical

Other than those main characters some other

context as this story depicts the Russian

links can be made between the novel to history.

Revolution, the early Soviet Union and attempts

Orwell uses the farmhouse, the barn and the

by the Western Allies to overthrow it.

windmill to exemplify the power of the pigs.

Character links

The farmhouse also denotes the authority and

Many of the characters in Animal Farm

corruption in society as well as the Russian

represent political leaders of the Russian Revolution. Mr Jones is a greedy and horrible master who indulges himself while his animals starve. Thus, representing Tsar Nicholas II. Tsar Nicholas II was a weak Russian ruler in 1894. Moreover, Russia suffered humiliating defeats resulting in the Russian Revolution of 1917.

Karl Marx is represented by Old

Kremlin, because only specific personnel were allowed in. The farmhouse is reserved solely for the leader of the communist pigs like how the Kremlin was reserved for the Tsar.

Karl Marx is represented

by Old Major as they both share a passion for unifying their community based on rebellion

Major as they both share a passion for unifying

Within Animal Farm’s allegory of Soviet communism, Foxwoods represents the United Kingdom and Mr Pilkington therefore the British ruling class, suggesting that

Britain is an old-fashioned country, poorly run

their community based on rebellion. Marx and

by self-serving aristocrats.

Engels were both active in various revolutionary

Boxer symbolises the loyal workers known as

groups and worked out the theory and tactics

the proletariat whom often suffer the most from

of communism. Animal Farm therefore, mainly

the decisions of the bourgeoisie ruling class.

depicted the consequences of Marxism. Orwell

Finally, the Hoof and horn flag is linked to the

also uses pig characters to represent the Marxist

hammer and sickle flag of the Soviet Union.

followers and the progress of Marxism in Russia.

To conclude, Orwell has used historical events to

The character of Napoleon, a threatening

create the context of a powerful message that he

Berkshire boar, links to Joseph Stalin, a Russian

has portrayed through a hierarchical system of

leader who also used fear through the secret

animals on a farm.

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The downfall of Roman Abramovich Jacob Henderson L6

One of the most prominent political issues is the ongoing Russian invasion of Ukraine. Whilst on the face of things, it would appear that the consequence is solely rooted in the destruction of Ukraine the actual consequences and actions taken by Russia extend further.

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n support of Ukraine, the UK government is heavily sanctioning Russia’s elite businessmen and Putin’s oligarchs who have wealth in the UK. One of these businessmen, Roman Abramovich has been at the forefront of the news due to his ownership of Chelsea Football Club.

Home is where the heart is more than £150 million. Furthermore, many of the clubs’ sponsors withdrew their backing of the club, the main one being the mobile phone service provider ‘Three’ who asked for all of their brandings to be removed from the ground, Stamford Bridge, and for it to also be removed from their matchday kits.

The main reason for Abramovich’s sanctioning was his close ties to the president of Russia, The main assets to be sanctioned are Chelsea Vladimir Putin. Boris Johnson said Abramovich Football Club, as well as a Jersey court seizing had been targeted because of his links to Putin, and freezing over $7 billion of assets linked stating “You have to have clear evidence that to Abramovich including his stately home they are connected to the and apartment in London.

Putin regime, and that has Abramovich’s sanctioning Abramovich had been established. That’s why leads to the prevention of so-called “privileged selling merchandise, tickets we are going ahead with the access” to Putin as and the sale of the club This sanctions that we are,” It was also ruled by a high court judge well as having “very caused outroar amongst the in 2012 that Abramovich had football community, with many good relations” so-called “privileged access” fans saying that it was unfair to Putin as well as having “very good relations” on them as they were not involved with their hence why the UK government felt the need to owners operations and urged the government to press sanctions against him. The government grant the club special permission to sell tickets says Mr Abramovich, who has an estimated net and the club. Fortunately, this permission was worth of £9.4 billion, is “one of the few oligarchs granted and an official license to allow the sale from the 1990s to maintain prominence under of the club was issued. Abramovich was also Putin”. Mr Abramovich has stakes in steel giant forced to move out of his London apartment and Evraz and Norilsk Nickel. He sold a 73% stake in back to his home in Russia.

Russian oil firm Sibneft to state-owned gas titan In conclusion, the impact of the sanctioning of Gazprom for £9.87 billion in 2005. He is believed Abramovich runs much deeper than just the to own several properties in the UK, including freezing of his assets. It has a huge effect on a 15-bedroom mansion at Kensington Palace the supporters and even the players at Chelsea Gardens in west London, reportedly valued at Football Club.

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The Pakistan & India conflict Krishan Ahuja Hofheiz L6

At midnight on the 15th of August 1947, the British Raj officially split British India into India and Pakistan. This careless decision propelled the region into chaos causing as many as 2 million deaths both Hindu and Muslim, as well as displacing around 15 million people. Citizens were forced to flee their homes by bloodthirsty mobs of the opposing religion, many of whom had once lived shoulder to shoulder, regardless of faith.

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hese mobs were ruthless, killing any who moved too slowly, raping young women, torturing pregnant mothers, and killing babies as their husbands, brothers and fathers watched, too battered to intervene. The brutality and violence of the months directly after the Partition were not the only consequence of the divide, one such example is the persisting sectarian violence and mistrust between Pakistan and India plaguing the relationship between Hindus and Muslims to this day. With the rate of attacks on Muslims in India only increasing. In the years since the Partition, there have been many cases where the supposedly secular Indian state has allowed extreme violence against Muslims living in majority Hindu communities. Since 1950, over 10,000 people both Muslim and Hindu have died in sectarian violence between the two communities.

The issue has carried onto the present day with a new surge of Islamophobia, as a result of a right-wing government, which victimises the Hindu population in a Hindu Nationalist charge spearheaded by Narendra Modi.

Narendra Modi ascended to the position of Prime Minister on the 26th of May 2014 as the leader of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), the Indian Peoples Party, with a long history of encouraging persecution of Muslims in his time as the Chief Minister of Gujarat. The most significant example of this was the 2002 Gujarat riots. After 60 Hindus died in a train fire, Modi made a statement in which he called it a terrorist attack planned by local Muslims.

Only two days later another Hindu Nationalist

You cannot change the past right-wing party, the Vishwa Hindu Parishad called for a general strike which was endorsed by the leader of the BJP despite its illegal nature. These strikes escalated into intense violence with most deaths being Muslims and over 150,000 people forced into refugee camps. In the time after the riots, those who had entered refugee camps were not allowed to leave despite inadequate living conditions.

To add insult to injury, Muslims were offered half the compensation Hindus were to receive from the state. This was overturned but even with a curfew imposed over 26 cities, held in place by patrolling military units with a shoot on sight order, the violence continued to escalate.

These factors only point to a planned act of ethnic cleansing with a complicit government.

Modi’s role in this act of state terrorism has been brought up many times. However, even as Modi admitted his only regret was in his handling of the media, he faced no real backlash and was even able to use the increased polarisation of the voter base in Gujarat to remain in office for a second term by using heavily anti-Muslim rhetoric throughout his campaign alongside the BJP focussing on its terrorist rhetoric.

Throughout his second term, Modi continued to show his bias against Muslims and other non-Hindu groups with many of his policies increasing social inequalities.

In his 2014 campaign, Modi chose to focus on a developmental outlook, choosing to publicly condemn and alienate the members of the BJP who continued to use anti-Muslim rhetoric.

Despite this outward change, a top aide to Modi was banned from rallies due to having made a speech against Muslims. Furthermore, many of the BJP and their allies remain steadfast in their Islamophobia, using ‘Jai Shri Ram’, meaning Glory to Lord Ram, which is very commonly chanted by Hindu hate mobs. On top of this, the BJP has notoriously been anti-Muslim with extreme Hindu Nationalist views, examples showing this date back to 1992 when the BJP organized a protest at a Muslim landmark which was built instead of a Hindu monument.

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You cannot change the past landmark and denied any responsibility for its chain of actions by the state and the people of destruction. Throughout the 2014 campaign, India which were aimed at forcing out the 200 Modi and the BJP sought to identify themselves million Muslims living in India. Many activists with famously anti-nationalist political leaders commented that the life of a Muslim was less and even promised a Uniform Civil Code to valuable than that of a cow in India. An idea paint a more accepting picture of themselves. made even more poignant after 3 Muslims Modi had already started this process in 2002 were tied up and thrashed for hours by ‘Cow after the fallout of the Gujarat riots put him Vigilantes’ who suspected them of carrying in political danger. He stopped preaching the beef. Because Cows are holy for Hindus with extreme Hindu nationalist beliefs of Hindutva their killing outlawed in many states, not only as heavily so that he and the BJP were able to were the Muslims thrashed, but they were also pull focus away from their past and win votes placed in judicial custody. The men responsible based on Modi’s economic successes in Gujarat. for the thrashing chanted Jai Shri Ram, the The BJP were able to win their first majority Hindu Nationalist chant, and one of them is a since 1984 and began centralising power into close friend of a newly elected BJP MP. Such the government. Due to his lack of majority incidents of violence against Muslims have in the Upper House of the become commonplace in India, Indian parliament, he passed with poorly hidden links to the Most disgusting ordinances to bypass this and state and interference to ensure of all is the lack of a bill giving the government international outcry their actions go unhindered. more power to choose judges Villages of Muslims are being and reducing that of the forced out to make room for judiciary. These changes massively increased ‘indigenous Hindus’ even as the police shoot a the power of the government and with the BJP boy who had just received proof of his indigeneity holding a majority in parliament Modi had to the region. The most recent example of the immense power. violence against Muslims is the 2020 Delhi riots where scenes not unlike those of the Partition Modi and the BJP secured a second majority in were enacted. Houses of Muslims were destroyed the 2019 elections the building blocks Modi had and 53 died. More and more it seems India is no set out in his first term allowed for large scale longer a home for Muslims and dragging men to persecution of Muslims with schemes going the streets and beating them has become routine. both below the surface and surging ahead in public view. Beginning his second term with the Citizenship Amendment Bill which was marketed as an extension of the 1951 National Register of Citizens. However, while the Bill was very religiously tolerant and allowed anyone of any religious faith who came to India before 2015 to become a citizen, Muslims were the only major religion excluded. In a statement from the Home Minister Amit Shah, Modi’s closest aide, it was made clear how purposeful this omission was with him saying “Not one refugee will have to leave. And we will not allow even one infiltrator to stay back.” This statement solidified the stance the government held, that Muslims were infiltrators that needed to be forced out. This was one of the first in a long 52 Preview 2021-22

Most disgusting of all is the lack of international outcry. Prime Minister Boris Johnson solidifies new trade deals with Modi even as the Hindu Nationalists, he represents organise meetings to try demand genocide of the remaining Muslims. The EU, UK and US denied him entry to their countries after seeing his role in the riots of 2002, but the UK and EU revoked these as he grew in power. Later, Modi was invited to Washington after his election, with no sign of any punishment for Modi’s blatant disregard for human rights. Biden even celebrated India’s place as the mother of democracy and underlined Gandhi’s values as more important than ever. The hell that Muslims face in India seems unending.

You cannot change the past

Calypso Cricket to Political Statement Ben Latty Dennison U6

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You cannot change the past

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partheid, meaning apartness in Afrikaans, was the ideology supported by the National Party in South Africa adopted in 1948. Apartheid forced different racial groups to live separately and develop separately in a completely unequal manner, forbidding marriage and social integration between different racial groups. Apartheid was a social system which severely disadvantaged much of the population, specifically those who were ‘non-white’.

This was the case in sport and no ‘mixed sport’ was permitted under the official organisations.

Initially, there was a lack of action from international teams against the atrocities taking place in South Africa. For example, South Africa did not establish bilateral links with teams that were not white such as India, Pakistan, and the West Indies. South Africa lost its membership in the Imperial Cricket Conference (ICC) after it left the commonwealth in 1961. Despite this, white teams continued to tour South Africa despite the apartheid regime. Countries like England and New Zealand decided to nonetheless invite all-white teams to their countries. A disgraceful act.

Sport is a system where teams should be picked on merit and not the colour of their skin.

This went against the values of sport and infringed upon the human rights of South Africans. Countries that were willing to accept tours from all-white South African teams encouraged the idea that racism in sports was acceptable. It was an extension of apartheid overseas and no country was willing to act. A spark for the boycott against sporting relations with South Africa occurred when a coloured cricketer travelled with an M.C.C team to South Africa. This led to the whole team being banned from entering the country.

A move for non-racial sport first occurred in table tennis in 1956, when the International Table Tennis Federation removed the allwhite South African Table Tennis Union and recognised the non-racial South African Table 54 Preview 2021-22

Tennis Board as the sole controlling body in South Africa. Actions like these continued throughout all sports but lead to negative repercussions for those involved; they were condemned by the apartheid sports bodies and victimised by the government. The first major victory against apartheid sport was the persecution of Dennis Brutus. Brutus was persistent in campaigning against racism in sports and had become a target by the South African regime. A raid occurred on his home, and he was put under a banning order that prevented him from gathering with more than two people. Despite this, he met Mr Balsiger a Swiss journalist and some of his SAN-ROC colleagues to discuss racialism in sports so that Mr Balsiger could report these findings to the IOC. This meeting was interrupted, and Brutus was arrested for violating his banning orders. Trying to escape he was shot and then sentenced to 18 months imprisonment for contravening his banning order. After serving his imprisonment he was exiled to England and continued the work of the SAN-ROC. This was the first major example of government action to intimidate and silence sportsmen who work for nonracial sport. An act as shocking as this started building support for the cause.

Eventually, the apartheid movement was not accepted globally and resulted in a boycott of playing sports against other countries. The turning point for this in Britain came about in 1968. Basil D’Olivera a South African rounder was not able to play representative support as he was coloured, he later left South Africa and in 1966 was picked to play for England in test cricket. D’Olivera was omitted from the test team despite his outstanding performances.

Many believed he was dropped because the MCC did not wish to embarrass the South African authorities by selecting him. After a player was injured D’Olivera was selected. South Africa did not accept this, so the MCC was left with

You cannot change the past no alternative but formally call off the tour. The British public finally saw the full implications of the apartheid regime and condemned the actions of the MCC and South Africa. This led to the anti-apartheid movement and the Stop the Seventy Tour to organise demonstrations and direct action at every match played by the Springboks on its 23-game tour of Britain.

In January 1983 17 West Indian cricketers went against the advice of their cricket authorities, their own government and the United Nations and decided to play against South Africa. The decision to play was highly controversial as the West Indian team consisted of only black players and the response by a highly discriminatory South Africa was questioned.

Captain Lawrence Rowe believed as a black team winning in South Africa it would be a moral victory. By showing the excellence of black cricket players, the West Indies team thought that it would bring hope to young South Africans to join the world of cricket.

They stated that they were not supporting the apartheid movement despite the sanctions and regulatory bodies and believed that they did more good than bad. When returning they received life bans and the players believed

these bans damaged West Indies cricket. They thought the tour progressed the movement for more black South African cricket players. When considering the motives for these players money was the reason for most. The rebel players did not have jobs in the offseason and were not paid much as professional cricketers.

Dr Ali Bacher organised the rebel tours and Sir Vivian Richards was quoted to say ‘Mr Bacher put an open cheque on the table and said fill whatever you want’. Despite this incentive Richards decided to stay. However, Vivian Richards he the life ban was too harsh.

Some may ask whether a sports boycott was beneficial to those living under the apartheid regime and whether it helped rebuild a nation with greater equality and inclusivity. Nelson Mandela believed that sport was more powerful than politics or government in breaking down racial barriers. Despite the controversies over the West Indian cricketers their actions showed the power of black cricketers and helped remove racialism from the sport. Even though it is impossible to quantify the impact of a sports boycott in effecting the apartheid regime, there was power in the actions of all countries against the apartheid regime.

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You cannot change the past

Political philosophy in the 21st century Nico Wong L6

Political philosophy is a means by which we can debate and determine the ideal form of government, which has been a hotly debated topic in recent times. The fall of the Soviet Union in 1991 was widely considered by contemporaries as ‘the end of history – the triumph’ of Western liberal democracy as the superior form of government, with hopes that countries around the globe would gradually adopt the doctrine of democracy.

Yet only three decades have passed since the end of the Cold War, and it is evident this has not been the case.

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You cannot change the past

vents such as the Taliban takeover of Afghanistan, the increasing economic tensions between the US and China, and more recently, the Russian invasion of Ukraine have shown that not only has democracy not entrenched itself as the sovereign ideology in the modern world, but its status is also becoming increasingly challenged. Through studying political philosophers, past to present, we can challenge the status quo and examine ways the state can be improved for the common good.

in the United States. In modern times, having

Political philosophy is usually written in

should be run, without challenging the

response to current affairs. In ancient times, Plato argued against democracy due to the ignorance of citizens in Ecclesia, while Locke criticised the concept of divine right and absolute monarchy following the Glorious Revolution of the 17th century. More recently, Rawls theorised the ‘veil of ignorance’ in response to growing socioeconomic inequality

premises of democracy itself.

endured the horrible consequences of fascism and communism during the 20th century, liberal and representative democracy is widely accepted as the ideal form of government, bringing about great leaps in standards of living and respect for individual rights. Even authoritarian governments attempt to enhance their democratic legitimacy by holding elections and emphasising the rule of law.

Therefore, modern political philosophy has stressed how a representative government

On the contrary, as monarchies and rule by the few were common in the past, philosophers argued that autocracy was the key to a stable, prosperous society. Hobbes, for example, wrote about the need to control man’s barbaric nature through an all-powerful ruler, having seen the aftermath of the regicide in England. Therefore, classical, and contemporary philosophers had very different outlooks on the nature of government. The ideas of a select few thinkers will be examined, alongside their relevance in the modern-day.

Recognised today as the ‘birthplace of democracy’, the ideas of a rule of the people first emerged in Athens in Ancient Greece. However, Athenian philosophers did not embrace the ideas of liberal democracy we, today, are familiar with. In fact, many opposed it. In his renowned work Republic, Plato discussed the flaws of democracy: rule of an undereducated majority, leading to unorganised rule, failing to bring about justice. He criticised the direct democracy seen in Athens, stating that the ignorant masses were not capable of making political decisions.

Plato compared ruling a country to steering a ship; selecting a captain by a popular vote would fail to select the most qualified person with the relevant expertise. He believed that like ship navigation, only those with the relevant aptitude to govern should be placed in a position to Preview 2021-22

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You cannot change the past lead, while a democratic system would enable

have become a thing of the past, evidenced by

charismatic and manipulative, rather than just

the failures of Mao and Stalin to bring about

and able persons to take positions of power.

collectivisation and state ownership in the 20th

Today, this phenomenon can still be observed in

century. The modern emphasis on the role of the

democracies. Political participation by ignorant

economy in political decisions may, however, be

masses may be democratic but may not lead

overstated. In Philosophy of Right, 17th-century

to desirable results. After the decision to leave

German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Fredrich

the European Union marginally passed in the

Hegel first proposed the concept of the ‘struggle

2016 Brexit referendum, ‘What is the EU?’ was

for recognition’, stating that the fundamental

the second-most searched question on the EU

difference between man and animal was his

amongst the UK populace. Although the decision

desire to be recognised as a human being with

to leave the EU was democratic, considering the

worth and dignity. Hegel believed that this

consequences the UK has suffered, experiencing

desire for prestige was what drove humans

an economic slowdown and

into conflict with one other

labour shortage, one must

throughout history. He

question whether Brexit

believed that a democratic

was the right decision.

transformation was the only

In Republic, Plato suggested

way to overcome the lack

that the ideal state would

of recognition of human

be ruled by a philosopher-

worth seen in autocratic

king, who would be fair and

societies, enabling citizens

just in his rule. In today’s

to recognise others’ dignity

democratic societies, where

through a set of rights. Hegel

major decisions are voted

dismissed the importance of

on by an uninformed and

material prosperity, which

uneducated electorate,

he thought could equally

and where many popularly

be achieved by autocratic

elected politicians are

regimes, as he believed that

criticised for their ignorance

the longing for recognition

and incompetence, perhaps Plato had a point – if those in power were better morally educated, or virtuous, as he would put it, society could be better off.

as a fundamental feature of human nature.

Nowadays, rights are a distinctive feature of democratic societies. In France and the US, the groundwork for a constitution of rights laid by

As economies have flourished and standards

the revolutions of the 18th century has persisted

of living have skyrocketed in democratic

to this day, while the development of rights in

countries, recent economists and politicians

the UK can be traced back even earlier to the

have advocated for democracy to bring about

Magna Carta of 1215. Although the issue of rights

economic growth. This may well be true – the

is controversial, with arguments for and against

profit incentive of humans leads to the most

the codification of rights in the UK, as well as

economically efficient outcomes in unregulated

the highly disputed right to bear arms in the

free markets. Non-democratic regimes have

Second Amendment of the US constitution, it

recognised this phenomenon and adapted

is undoubtedly so that the existence of rights

accordingly, engaging in global free trade to

plays a major role in respecting individuals as

avoid falling behind. Command economies

ends, giving way to democracy as the superior

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You cannot change the past form of government as it ensures the protection

were kept behind a ‘veil of ignorance’, ignorant

of rights. Even today, those who live under

about their position in society, it was not only

autocratic governments fail to receive their due

fair but also logical that an equal society would

respect and recognition due to the inherent

be formed. Rawls was not the first to argue for

imbalance of dignity between the masses and

egalitarianism but faced with the growing fears

their despotic rulers.

of communism due to the Cold War, he needed

In modern-day democracies, the concepts of

to establish arguments against the common

freedom and equality are often thought to be at odds with each other, with governments having

objections against equality. In response to the criticism that complete economic equality led

to trade-off between efficiency and equity

to a lack of incentives and a fall in productivity

when considering their political objectives.

and welfare as seen in communist Russia,

This is captured by the conflict between the

Rawls put forward the ‘difference principle’,

left and right wings in Western democracies,

which allowed a degree of inequality for the

with the left seeking social justice through

sake of incentivising improvements to those

egalitarian means and the right advocating

worse off in society. For example, doctors would

personal freedom and free-market efficiency.

receive higher pay not because they deserved

In 1971, American political philosopher John

more, but because their work would lead to

Rawls attempted to reconcile the seemingly

increased standards of living for the sick and

contradicting ideals of freedom and equality

impoverished. The argument for meritocracy,

in A Theory of Justice through the concept

which contended that talent and hard work

of ‘justice as fairness’. He argued that in a

should be rewarded and that inequality was

hypothetical social contract where individuals

natural was a widely held view in liberal democracies. Rawls contended that people were unequal in natural talent, and meritocracies did not necessarily reward hard work but the inborn abilities that individuals did not have control over. He argued that individuals’ ability was subject to contingent circumstances, therefore there was no scenario in which an individual deserved more than another. His works were greatly influential, enabling philosophical reflection on the principles of equality in a time where free-market capitalism was widely viewed as superior, linking the ideas of the rule of law in democratic institutions to a fight against poverty and inequality.

Faced with the challenges of global and domestic conflict in an increasingly polarised world, we must be able to challenge entrenched political ideas. Through political philosophy, we, as observers, can learn from great thinkers of both past and present, gaining a deeper insight into the world, and think independently above

John Rawls

the chaos of misinformation and propaganda.

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You cannot change the past

The making of civil rights

Eva Grace Tague L6

The civil rights movement of 1954-1968 in the USA shaped politics, the political system, and the government as we know it today.

The movement was a struggle for social justice so that Black Americans could gain equal rights under the law in the US. 60 Preview 2021-22

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lthough the Civil War in the 1860s had abolished slavery, this did not end the discrimination, segregation, and ill-treatment of black people. In addition, the government and certain laws needed to be put in place to end this discrimination took a lengthy amount of time to even be considered.

By the mid-20th century, Black Americans still face prejudice and violence against them, with the justice system and government quite frankly not taking them seriously.

The Start of the Movement The 14th Amendment to the Constitution in 1868 was the first of protective rights for Black Americans; it gave them equal protection under law. Following this the 15th Amendment in 1870 granted Black American men the right to vote – a significant sign of progress. Yet this was not even half of the journey as many white Americans, particularly in the South were unhappy about these amendments, hence the ‘Jim Crow’ laws established in the 19th century.

Although these laws were not adopted in Northern states, they limited African American progress by preventing black people from using the same public facilities as white people, with interracial marriage being illegal and most black people not given the opportunity to vote without passing impossible literacy tests.

Key Events Moving ahead, the civil rights movement in 1954 gained momentum when the US Supreme Court made segregation illegal in public schools under the case of Brown v Board of Education of Topeka.

Another key event was on September 3rd, 1957, where nine black students known as the ‘little

You cannot change the past rock nine’ arrived at Central High school to begin classes but were instead met by the Arkansas National Guard on the order of Governor Orval Faubus, and a screaming mob. They were removed for safety after 2 weeks of trying to get into the school, finally President Dwight D. Eisenhower intervened. He ordered federal troops to escort the Little Rock Nine to and from classes.

Changing history The real success of the movement was most definitely the Civil Rights Act, which was passed once in 1957 and again in 1964. President Eisenhower signed the Civil Rights Act of 1957 into law, and this was indeed the first major civil rights legislation since Reconstruction. This act allowed federal prosecution of those who tried to prevent black people from voting, while also creating a commission to investigator voter fraud. This acted as headway for more laws and changes to occur, as the government began to see through many protests and tragedies the significance of the problem. In the 1964, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act, with the legislation initiated by President John F. Kennedy before his assassination, signifying the support of multiple political members for this issue.

Perhaps the second most significant act passed after the Civil Rights Act was the Fair Housing Act, which became law on April 11th, 1968, days after the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. This act prevented housing discrimination based on race, sex, national origin, and religion, so essentially paved a way of freedom from a variety of minority groups. It was also the last legislation enacted during the civil rights era, and hence arguably one of the most significant.

And so, all these movements –Brown v Board of Education, Little Rock Nine and sit-ins - led to the political change of rights for black people by introducing the Civil Rights act. These laws have stayed in place and been maintained from the 20th century to the present day.

Essentially, the efforts of civil rights activists, the public and supporters in countless protests overthrew segregation laws, restored voting rights, and brought about legislation to end legal discrimination.

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C AT E R H A M SCHOOL caterhamschool.co.uk

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