THE SCIENCE OF COMPASSION: IS OXYTOCIN INVOLVED?
Familial THANKS -
Especially to Stephen Porges and our Sons, Eric and Seth Porges, who stimulated my interest in the biology of positive social interactions, long lasting social bonds and the capacity of hormones to regulate maternal physiology and behavior Also to my collaborators and other researchers, whose work I will have the opportunity to describe, and especially Karen Bales, Angela Grippo, Jason Yee, Bill Kenkel and Hossein Nazarloo – whose contributions are represented here.
Scientific attempts to understand compassion bring up many questions – for example: What is compassion? Once a compassionate experience is initiated, does the object of the compassion matter? (Maybe not?) Is compassion similar in form and function to other forms of positive social behavior? (Probably) [And how does it differ? (Beyond the scope of this presentation?] Can the analysis of other types of sociality, including parental behavior, help us understand the mechanisms for positive social interactions? Are neuroendocrine systems that rely an ancient hormone, known as OXYTOCIN, involved in compassion? Can understanding oxytocin help explain the value of positive social behaviors in optimizing human health? Could knowledge of oxytocin help to explain why it is better to given than receive?
Can a knowledge of the nervous system, and in particular the chemistry of the nervous system give us a deeper understanding of THE SCIENCE OF COMPASSION? Does the knowledge of the chemistry of social behavior more generally help to explain the mechanisms thorough which both GIVING AND RECEIVING can protect or heal mental and physical health?
WHAT IS COMPASSION?
Compassion is that which makes the heart of the good move at the pain of others. It crushes and destroys the pain of others; thus, it is called compassion. It is called compassion because it shelters and embraces the distressed. -‐ The Buddha
Are there common elements in the neurobiology of social engagement and love, and those associated with compassion? YES‌
Are the behavioral and neural elements that make up compassion unique to humans?
Perhaps some elements are common to all mammals.
Abstract concepts like COMPASSION, are most easily understood in the context of their proximate & ultimate functions including: SURVIVAL social support & safety REPRODUCTION access to mates care of offspring genetic survival
It is a biological fact that most living organisms can NOT SURVIVE OR REPRODUCE ALONE.
The mammalian nervous system is designed to work in a SOCIAL environment. Social behavior is necessary for physiological and behavioral homeostasis.
What Myron Hofer called Hidden regulators
Positive social interactions including social bonds - are not limited to humans
The EVOLUTIONARY prototype for POSITIVE SOCIAL INTERACTIONS is the parent child interaction
The EVOLUTIONARY prototype for POSITIVE SOCIAL INTERACTIONS in mammals is the mother-child interaction
Care of infants (alloparenting) is not limited mothers, and is not limited to biological offspring or relatives.
Not everyone is prepared to show appropriate social behavior, and some of us may need hormonal help.
Is COMPASSION toward non-relatives
BASED ON THE SAME NEUROBIOLOGICAL SUBSTRATES THAT ARE NECESSARY FOR THE PARENT-CHILD INTERACTION? – PROBABLY
Lactation has major effects on the Maternal Brain & HPA axis, and is the most easily studied biological component of maternal behavior.
Lactation may allow a new mother to manage stress more effectively. Helping her to be less reactivity or more appropriately reactive to stressors. Lactation also is part of a physiological buffer between state of pregnancy & the postpartum period - possibly in part through effects of OXYTOCIN.
WHAT IS OXYTOCIN?
Oxytocin is a neuropeptide, made primarily in the nervous system, and central to understanding the biology of social behavior, social bonds and social support.
Oxytocin was classically viewed as a FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE Hormone, Acting primarily On the UTERUS And MAMMARY GLAND. This is only part of the story!
PVN
SON
Post. Pituitary
Oxytocin is released into the blood stream at the Posterior Pituitary, but is also released within the nervous system. Oxytocin can affect social behavior, the autonomic nervous system and the immune system,allowing the body to ADAPT, protecting and healing in the face of challenge.
Oxytocin is 1. made primarily in the brain (hypothalamus) & released into the blood supply at the posterior pituitary from which is acts on the ! uterus (birth) !and Mammary tissue (milk ejection) 2.also released into the brain & spinal cord where it binds to OXYTOCIN receptors OTRs) to influence behavior, the AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM and other aspects of physiology 3. possibly a major factor in the body s capacity to PROTECT or HEAL in the face of either emotional or physical challenge/stress. 4. capable of healing – partial list injured skin (burns), heart (cardiac infarct) bone (osteoporosis) intestines (intestinal bowel disease) brain (stroke) mental disorders (anxiety, depression autism, schizophrenia) 5. Oxytocin is an anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant
Oxytocin does not act alone OXYTOCIN has a sibling hormone – arginine VASOPRESSIN – from which it differs by 2 (of 9) amino acids. Oxytocin and Vasopressin can interact with each other s receptors, but tend to have different functions. Oxytocin is more important to immobilization without fear. Vasopressin may be more critical in mobilization and active adaptations to fear and anxiety.
OXYTOCIN (OT) Cys-Tyr-Ile-Gln-Asn-Cys-Pro-Leu-Gly-NH2!
Arginine VASOPRESSIN (AVP) Cys-Tyr-Phe-Gln-Asn-Cys-Pro-Arg-Gly-NH2!
Oxytocin and the related peptide, Vasopressin, evolved from an ancestral molecule, that preceded the evolution of Vertebrates
Mammals evolved from a reptilian ancestor. The capacity to show the traits associated with mammalian social behavior, including SOCIAL ENGAGEMENT and SOCIAL BONDING depend on adaptations that were acquired in the transition from reptiles to mammals. From Donaldson, ZR and Young, LJ. 2008. Science 322:900-904.
Oxytocin and Vasopressin evolved from an ancestral molecule, that preceded the evolution of Vertebrates
Vasopressin
Oxytocin
Defense territoriality
Love sharing
Vigilance
Relaxation
Mobilization
Immobilization without fear
ACTIVE
PASSIVE
NEUROCEPTION
HEALING
Compassion is probably specific to mammals. We can hypothesize that the EVOLUTION OF COMPASSION involves: A dynamic dance between Oxytocin and Vasopressin (both of which are critical to mental health) Oxytocin facilitates SOCIAL ENGAGEMENT (love, empathy, compassion, relaxation) Vasopressin may allow NEUROCEPTION (vigilance, hypermobilization,arousal)
Oxytocin intranasally also has been implicated in TRUST – At least as measured in a computer game, in which trusting others increases how much money you win.
Courtesy of Markus Heinrichs and Ernst Fehr, University of Zurich
Intranasal oxytocin increases the tendency to SOCIALLY ENGAGE, and during social engagement may increase the ability to READ THE EMOTIONS OF OTHERS, especially from their eyes or pictures of their eyes
Expressing compassion may indeed heal‌ And there is increasing evidence that oxytocin is a component of the healing power of positive social interactions.
WHAT IS OXYTOCIN?
A PHYSIOLOGICAL METAPHOR for SAFETY??
WHAT IS OXYTOCIN?
The tip of a physiological iceberg of interactive systems with effects throughout the entire body, which is only now being recognized
Particularly helpful to our understanding of social behavior, especially SELECTIVE social behaviors and social bonds, as well as the neurobiology of OXYTOCIN have been SOCIALLY MONOGAMOUS RODENTS including -
PRAIRIE VOLES, Microtus ochrogaster
Prairie voles can be studied in nature
And in the Laboratory
FEATURES OF PRAIRIE VOLE BEHAVIORAL BIOLOGY (SOCIAL MONOGAMY) HIGH LEVELS OF SOCIAL CONTACT and DEPENDENCE ON SOCIAL INTERACTION PAIR BONDING (male-female) BIPARENTAL CARE OF Y0UNG and ALLOPARENTING (baby sitting) HIGH LEVELS OF OXYTOCIN A HUMAN-LIKE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM HIGH LEVELS OF VAGAL ACTIVITYHUMAN-LIKE , WITH HIGH LEVELS OF VAGAL TONE (Parasympathetic activity- helping to explain in part why social interactions and social bonds play a critical role in emotional regulation)
Oxytocin may be released under conditions that involve positive social interactions, including: Social Engagement & Pair bonding
Sexual Behavior
Paternal Behavior Maternal Behavior
Alloparental Behavior (pup exposure)
Oxytocin may be released under conditions that involved positive social interactions, interactions.
Oxytocin may be released under conditions that involved positive social interactions, interactions. But also under conditions that are negative or acutely stressful, Possibly serving as a component of a coping strategy and buffering against the stressor.
Oxytocin also may be released under conditions that are negative or acutely stressful, Including in response to: 1.Social challenges (esp. same-sex intruders) 2. Forced restraint/immobility 3. Immune challenge (LPS) 4. Chronic social isolation (females)
Oxytocin serves as a component of an adaptive, coping strategy, buffering against stressors, with effects that in some cases differ in males and females.
Prairie voles, as an animal model, have been particularly useful in the study of the functions of peptide, including OXYTOCIN. Which kinds of social stimuli release OXYTOCIN? Adult-adult social interactions - yielding social bonds In Post Weaning or Adult Voles as little as: 10 min of Exposure to PUP Adult/Weaning-infant interactions - Presence of INFANT a. Releases Oxytocin b. Reduces Corticosterone c. Facilitates subsequent Pair Bonding
OXYTOCIN (ICV) FACILITATES PARENTAL BEHAVIOR & INHIBITS AGGRESSION IN ADULT FEMALE PRAIRIE VOLES Proportion displaying behavior
0.7 0.6 0.5
Parental Attack
0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0
Bales & Carter
CONTROL
OXYTOCIN
Exposure to an infant can release oxytocin in a male prairie vole
Baby vole
Prairie Voles – When presented with a Pup most will show Alloparental Behavior, Including Reproductive Naïve Females and Males
In Male Prairie Voles that have NO previous experience with young, a single brief exposure to a pup can release a brief surge of OXYTOCIN
Blood levels of OXYTOCIN increased in MALES, but NOT females immediately following 10 min PUP EXPOSURE
900
800
700
MALES
n=8
*
FEMALES Empty Cage
600
Pup-exposed
500
n=8 400
400
n=8
350
n=9
300
n=8
300
n=9 n = 20 n = 18
250 200
200
150 100
100
50 0
0
15 min
45 min
15 min
45 min
Kenkel, Paredes, Yee, Pournajafi-Nazarloo, Bales, & Carter, JNE, 2012; and Bales, unpublished data on females.
SOCIAL BOND FORMATION WAS FACILITATED IN TESTS GIVEN AFTER A PRIOR BRIEF (10 min) EXPOSURE TO A PUP Partner Stranger
*
Time in Side to Side Contact
1
Control (n=11)
2
Pup-Exposed (n=9)
Kenkel, Paredes, Yee, Pournajafi-Nazarloo, Bales, & Carter, JNE, 2012
*
200
150
*
100
150
100
50
50
OT-ir Cell Density
OT CELL DENSITY In PVN of HYPOTHALAMUS
250
EXOGENOUS OXYTOCIN TREATMENT (14 DAYS) INCREASED SYNTHESIS OF ENDOGENOUS OXYTOCIN (in HYPOTHALAMUS) (especially $in females living in pairs?)
0
P
P PAIRED
PAIRED
+ SALINE
+OXYTOCIN
Pair + V
Pair + OT
FROM GRIPPO,, ET AL, STRESS 2012
I ISOLATED Isol + V
+ SALINE
I ISOLATED Isol + OT
+OXYTOCIN
Repeated injection or release of Oxytocin may feed forward to INCREASE SYNTHESIS OF OT in the HYPOTHALAMUS (X14)
oxytocin
(X14)
OT Oxytocin-stained cells
saline Oxytocin-stained cells
From J. Yee, et al., in prep
WHAT IS OXYTOCIN?
A PHYSIOLOGICAL METAPHOR for SAFETY?? Possibly with the capacity to amplify it s own effects and its own release by feeding-forward .
WHAT IS OXYTOCIN?
One component of a complex and interactive systems of feedback loops with effects throughout the body, which may indeed allow us to shift to states compatible with SOCIALITY and HEALING
WHAT IS OXYTOCIN?
One component of a complex and interactive systems of feedback loops with effects throughout the body, which may indeed allow us to shift to states compatible with COMPASSION.
WHAT IS OXYTOCIN? An important neuropeptide with broad effects on physiology and behavior, in BOTH SEXES and during DEVELOPMENT.
WHAT OXYTOCIN IS NOT?
NOT a substitute for compassion or love. NOT well understood or studied, esp in humans. NOT something to be treated casually, since preliminary data suggest that oxytocin has the capacity for epigenetic effects. For example: even in animal models we do NOT KNOW the effects of CHRONIC oxytocin on BRAIN? BEHAVIOR? IMMUNOLOGY? etc
By understanding the causes and consequences of mammalian sociality and the social nervous system, we are gaining a deeper understanding of the biology of human emotion, and natural factors, such as compassion that contribute to human health and well being. Because of the fundamental role of sociality in human behavior, concepts like social support or social bonds translate into a sense of SAFETY. A concept that may be permissive for the expression of compassion, and which is at the heart of enduring loving relationship and also most successful therapies - of all kinds. A perceived sense of safety is necessary to allow the body to grow, heal and restore itself in the face of the stress of life . OXYTOCIN may play a critical, central role in sociality allowing the human nervous system to feel safe, and thus permitting the expression of and benefits of compassion to emerge.
Is the expression of Compassion good medicine and if so how does it work?
Science does not have all the answers.. But it does help us to ask new and potentially important questions