“It is better to use what the land gives you�:
Redefining the Public Golf Course Thirteenth hole, Pacific Dunes, Oregon, USA (Daly, 2002)
Christina D. Gonzalez Edinburgh School of Architecture and Landscape Architecture, ESALA Masters of Landscape Architecture, MLA 2 University of Edinburgh 16 December 2011
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Contents • Abstract
v
• Introduction
vi
• The Impact of Golf Courses in the Urban Context
1
• Breaking the Public Golf Course Paradigm
5
• Come Together
9
• Conclusion
12
• References
15
• Picture Credits
17 Fourth hole, Ridgeview Ranch, Planco, Texas, USA (Daly, 2002)
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iv
Abstract
Golf courses are a breed of large parks which are complex dynamic systems
that can positively benefit people’s mental and physical health and the natural habitats in that environment. However with a continuously increasing population and urban development in American cities, the need for green spaces which serve the general public has become more crucial than ever. Public golf courses in the urban context are struggling to keep afloat in today’s economic times and should begin to transition into spaces that have a porosity of uses and activities. This would maximize the potential of engaging a wide range of users and in turn create a more cohesive community network. A smaller golf course scheme or alternative golf facilities are less costly to maintain. Also, they would open up a sizeable amount of space which could be integrated into a revitalized park model that sustainably adapts to fluctuating ecologies and demands of the city over time. This prospective solution requires landscape architects to be in touch with the surrounding culture to create a robust and diverse park model with an appropriate sense of place responding effectively to the nature of the environment and community. Creating such green spaces would offer new experiences and opportunities to connect with others for the general public.
v
Introduction The game of golf as we know it today
The word municipal, or public, tacked to the end
whether they are an efficient use of space today.
originated from the Kingdom of Fife in Scotland,
of a golf course name does little in terms of the
Golf courses do preserve ecological habitats and
dating back to the beginning of the 15th century.
space actually being accessible for the diverse
provide economic flow in certain communities,
Various landscapes around the world have been
community around it. Golf course environments,
but the current eighteen-hole model overall
shaped, created, and strategically designed
as well as other outdoor sports, are tailored for
cannot keep up with the continuous change of
so that people can experience these natural
a single function to one group of people which
the economy and society demands in the urban
environments through playing this sport. Golf
has questionable sustainable prospects in the
context. Golf course architects and landscape
has evolved significantly over the centuries
urban context. This issue primarily affects dense
architects alike, must accept this changing
from the gentlemen’s sport it began as to a more
American cities which nowadays have a high
nature of the environments which they are
accessible sport now played by women and
demand for public green space in response to the
designing and adapt to it in a more flexible and
people of all ages and abilities. Even though
increasing population and urban development.
responsive manner. All landscapes are not meant
today there are a growing number of public golf
Why should the public pay the price for spaces
to be designed as permanent spaces and instead
courses which outweigh private golf courses, the
which do not meet the general publics’ priority
need to be designed as transitioning spaces.
barriers the general public faces to access these
needs?
Multifunctional environments are necessary to
spaces are still relatively intimidating. In current
While golf courses are considered large
be able to move forward in creating sustainable,
economic times, it could also be argued that they
parks, generally ranging in size from 45 to 50
thriving spaces which everyone can benefit from.
are not the most efficient use of tax payer money.
hectares in the urban context, it is debatable
This further presents the opportunity to redevelop
vi
public golf courses to adapt more effectively to the urban context. These preserved mass of green spaces can be implemented into a new park model that is easily accessible and dynamically serves the broader community with a diverse range of uses and activities. Also fundamental to its sustainability, these parks would offer a public place for community involvement and empowerment of the diversity of voices, values, and participants. Does the public golf course fit in today’s growing urban civilization?
Sharp Park Golf Course, San Francisco, California, USA (SF Natural Areas, 2008)
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The Impact of Golf Courses in the Urban Context Golf courses function similarly to large
irrigation systems more efficient in harvesting
parks, in terms of preserving green spaces and
and recycling stormwater, developed new species
habitats which are often more than 60 hectares.
of grass which require less water and is more
These green islands of biodiversity are precious
drought-tolerant, and with design advances have
resources to big cities, providing numerous
reduced areas of high-maintenance (Ballard,
environmental, economic and social benefits to
2011).
the citizens around it who breathe the air which
plant and weather sensors monitor water use
Pasatiempo Golf Club using goats for overgrowth clean-up, Santa Cruz, California, USA (GolfWeek, 2010)
golf courses help to clean. The Australian Golf
with new enhancements that recharge ground
by extensive overgrowth. This was a successful
Course Superintendents Associations found
water reserves, thus lessening the water taken
alternative that eliminated the use of harmful
an average golf course sequesters 80 tonnes of
from other sources and replenishing groundwater
chemicals and need for a maintenance crew or
carbon each year (American Society of Golf
resources. In terms of pesticides, there is an
equipment that could cause noise and damage to
Course Architects, 2009). Thus, golf courses
awareness of the harmful effects they pose on the
this sensitive environment (WorldGolf, 2010).
do work for the environment, especially in
environment and numerous golf courses are now
These advanced environmental approaches result
safeguarding ecological buffer zones which
reducing the use of them to implement natural
in a more cost efficient and sustainable golf
absorb noise and a sizeable amount of stormwater
methods.
facility that creates a sound platform for long-
drainage as well as pollutants in water that
Course in Santa Cruz, CA recently used goats to
run off highways, rooftops, and developed
clean up the characteristic steep, rugged canyons
From an economic standpoint, green
areas. Advances in technology have now made
and jagged edged barrancas, which had been lost
fees and club memberships do contribute
1
Furthermore, the incorporation of soil,
For example, the Pasatiempo Golf
term viability.
economically through admissions tax revenues.
of the golf course is generally high investment
the social level of the communities they serve.
In some communities, golf courses are vital to
lots which developers and owners want to build
Consequently, more park officials are overseeing
their success. St. Andrews in Scotland is a key
large, expensive homes on. Thus, the real estate
thousands of golf courses and working with golf
example in which golf is central to the community,
tax generated from these housing lots usually
course architects to maximize the concepts of
driving tourism which in turn provides jobs in
heightens the property value of the area. Even
golf as an asset and the ways the land can be used
hotels, retail shops, and restaurants. The golf
though the market value of many US golf courses
for other recreational and green space purposes
course industry is a very management intensive
is depressed at the moment due to the global
which is now a recognized necessity (Hirsh,
business, employing upwards of 50 people in
recession, there are a good number of courses
2010).
a variety of jobs, from management to skilled
which contribute economically and enhance
and unskilled labor to hospitality and service employees. In 2005, SRI International discovered that the US golf economy annually generates $76 billion in goods and services and employs two million people (ASGCA, 2010). Golf hot spots in the United States such as Myrtle Beach, South Carolina and the entire state of Florida also rely on the economic benefits golf courses bring. Additionally, real estate on the boundaries
This island community, twenty-one miles from Charleston, consists of 1000 acres of abundant wildlife and 126 golf holes designed by world renowned golf course architects and professionals, Pete Dye, Tom Fazio, Clyde Johnston, Jack Nicklaus, Gary Player, Tom Watson. Kiawah Island, South Carolina, USA (Golf Digest, 2010)
The Impact of Golf Courses in the Urban Context
2
However, public golf courses in American
courses. More and more people do not have the
where $36 is the national median for municipal
cities still pose an intimidating social and
time, the patience nor the willingness to invest
courses (Hirsh, 2010). Sequentially, with cities
economic hurdle to the majority of the population.
money on a game that on average takes four
tight on funds and open space, doubts have arisen
While golf has become more accessible and
hours to complete a round and even more hours to
in the present investment in golf courses as not
appealing to average people in comparison with
practice to enjoy playing the round. Such factors
being financially self sustaining. With only an
the past, the elitist edge and image of the sport
limit the number of people who use the space. In
average 12 percent of the population playing the
still remains. Accessibility is a key issue for golf
contrast to parks, all golf courses require entry fees
game today in the US, the rounds per year for the average course has now dropped to 33,000 compared to 40,000 in the 1980s.
Currently
with a low cash flow, many of these municipal courses are left neglected, unable to keep up with maintenance costs. Lower cost recreation The course owners of the now closed Tam O’Shanter Golf Course claimed it was not feasible anymore to keep it as a golf course. They are planning to revive the green space as a memorial park and cemetary., Deerfield Beach, Florida, USA (Sun Sentinel, 2010, and Blog by Bett, 2010)
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The Impact of Golf Courses in the Urban Context
as running and cycling, and community desires for trails, pools, and gardens are nowadays dominating over golf. The reality is that golf’s popularity is not keeping up with the population growth and the fluctuating world economy.
San Francisco’s Sharp Park Golf Club,
many golf operations competing over a limited
designed by notable golf course architect Dr.
number of customers and cities trying to figure
Alistair Mackenzie, diminished to 11 holes
out what to do with courses that no longer turn a
from the original 18 due to a winter storm back
profit or even cover costs (Donahue and Harnik,
in 1938. The golf course has continued to be
2011). San Francisco is the second most densely
battered by the ocean waves of the Pacific year
populated city behind New York City in the
after year and though a seawall was incorporated
United States which cannot afford to support
three years ago, this has barely made a difference.
such underused and unsustainable golf courses
The annual flooding at Sharp Park cause it to be
where public green space is in demand.
unplayable for months every year and is one of a number of other American urban golf courses
The annual flooding and ponding which occurs at Sharp Park Golf Course which has caused it to lose significant revenue and most importantly community support, San Francisco, California, USA (Hawkes, 2011)
facing the same dilemma. The past decade has been characterized by a frenzy of constructing golf course communities and leveling off participation, with 42 percent of new golf courses developed in 2010 were within a tourist-oriented resort or a real estate community. This leads to
The Impact of Golf Courses in the Urban Context
4
Breaking the Public Golf Course Paradigm The
golf
notion known as biophilia, further rationalizes
golf course landscapes into diverse, complex, and
course model needs to be redesigned. At the time
the stress to maximize mix-land use and preserve
delightfully engaging outdoor spaces for a broad
of the Industrial Revolution in the late nineteenth
these rare open spaces to move us toward a self
range of people and communities (Czerniak and
century, there was a surge of expansion and
sustaining urban environment (Farr, 2007). To
Hargreaves, 2007).
production of golf courses being built throughout
see the golf course in an urban context resemble a
the metropolitan areas.
However, these days
bowling alley with narrowed fairways encroached
this golf course model does not have a place
by residential housing and single row irrigation,
in cities which have a shortage of green space.
then what is the point of having a golf course?
These substantial spaces belong more so where
In most cases, eighteen-hole golf courses today
the pioneering golf course architects, notably Dr.
have strayed far from this original idea of golf
Alister Mackenzie, Donald Ross and James Braid,
(Daley, 2002). The traditional golf course model
intended them to be, in the rural landscape. A golf
should first remain in the rural setting and be
course was meant to be a sublime place completely
modified to a smaller scale to be in tune with the
surrounded by nature with fairly length holes,
compact urban environment. These extensive
wide fairways and large greens to be enjoyed by
landscapes should be open to the public and are
people of all levels. Human’s instinctive need to
integral to the fabric of our cities. Landscape
be in touch with nature, a sustainable urbanism
architects have the capability to revitalize such
5
traditional
eighteen-hole
Pitch and putt, Brunstfield Links, in The Meadows is free for the public of all ages and abilities to play year round Edinburgh, Scotland, UK (Photo taken by Christina Gonzalez, 2011)
Continually, alternate golf facilities would
and are more convenient in that they can take as
to owners, requiring less maintenance, and
downsize the size of golf courses, freeing up a
little as 45 minutes to play. A space such as the
minimal construction costs. As a result, more
sizable chunk of land for other potential uses.
54-hole pitch and putt, Bruntsfield Links, within
and more property owners are looking to develop
Smaller courses are comparatively short at 6, 9, or
The Meadows in Edinburgh, Scotland provides
their properties as alternate golf facilities as a
12 holes and easier to play, allowing for quicker
opportunities free for anyone to turn up and play
sustainable way to endure the current market
rounds.
Courses such as Scotland’s Shiskine
with no need for a tee time or a particular dress
conditions (Daley, 2002).
Golf and Tennis Club and Toronto’s Derrydale
code to follow. This particular model works year
A less physical solution to breaking the public
Golf Club have cut down their size to 12 holes in
round and thrives with the rest of the park which
golf course paradigm, is to start sharing the use of
an attempt to keep their doors from closing and
caters to a range of activities from picnicking to
golf courses with other activities and expanding
now are thriving significantly (Tucker, 2010).
football. These compacted courses do not need
the range of users. In organizing activities by day
This provides a less intimidating environment in
to be trendy and could be simple yet innovatively
of the week or time of the day, this opens the space
making the game more accessible and affordable
constructed on no more than seven hectares of
for a variety of people to interact with others thus
for new players, especially for beginners and
land. According to the National Golf Foundation,
establishing a sense of community. This proposed
children, while at the same time helps sharpen the
shorter courses are so popular in Florida that they
porosity of uses and activities, a design concept
short game for experienced players. For instance,
compromise 19% of the state’s 1261 courses
developed by Italian urban scholars Bernardo
pitch and putts efficiently implement a smaller
(ASGCA, 2009). Small scale course models also
Secchi and Paola Vigano, is vital to the health of
version of a golf course at a cheaper playing fee
provide comparatively low costs and investment
the urban community in relation to the growing
Breaking the Public Golf Course Paradigm
6
urban density. The revitalized park should be
creation of connections which some function
habitats and exposure to sunlight, fresh air, and
planned and designed as a ‘democratic’ space,
as a destination for people to meet or come to,
water, proving the incorporation of public parks
such as the Paris Metropolitan Area and New
reinforcing these connections (Clemmenson,
as mandatory to reconnect people to nature.
York’s Central Park, which addresses economy,
Daugaard, and Nielsen, 2010).
Increasing the number of public green spaces
culture, and more-or-less manifest interests of
Human settlement has suppressed nature
will only improve our society’s mental and
people equally. Furthermore, accessibility should
to where most people today live out of daily
physical state and is necessary in relation to the
be established in multiple directions through the
contact with natural systems of vegetated
larger problem of future growth of cities (Farr, 2007). Public golf courses have an instant trail system with cart paths and could easily integrate safe perimeter trails for walkers and runners by using a combination of well planned routing, natural vegetation barriers and small sections of
Richard Crockett, a UC Berkeley student, proposed for a school project of Lincoln Park Public Golf Course to be revitilized as a community park. The proposal minimizes the golf course and incorporates a trail system, community composting facility, and ‘extreme’ sculpture garden. San Francisco, California, USA (Donahue and Harnik, 2011)
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Breaking the Public Golf Course Paradigm
fencing. National City in California has recently made an open space initiative to incorporate recreational trails throughout the National City Golf Course and potentially convert it into a public park due to the lack of green spaces.
Potentially, the space could also be a mix of
bring enough revenue to sustain. Now it consists
public and private functions to be economically
of two golf courses, a 50 acre big lake area,
supported and maintained by stewards, as well
offering residents a boardwalk and interpretive
as involved citizens and managers (Czerniak
trail system which passes through five regions of
and Hargreaves, 2007). Take for example, St.
the Louisiana landscape, a dock and a meadow
Andrews’ golf courses open as a national park
for concerts (Donahue and Harnik, 2011). Such
on Sundays and in Seattle, Washington, USA,
successful models demonstrate that the future of
golf courses are opening for nature lovers and
public golf courses in these cities desperate for
hosting children programs outside of golfing
flexible green space will have to be one of change
hours (Daley, 2002). Efforts of incorporating
and modification of the traditional length to better
profit generating features, such as urban farms
adapt with urban needs.
New Orleans City Park, Big Lake, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA (TPL, 2011)
or aquifer recharging and municipal composting facilities, with full public use are being initiated with San Francisco’s Lincoln Park Golf Course, in hopes to help replace lost golf revenue. The New Orlean’s City Park in Louisiana used to be four eighteen-hole golf courses which failed to Seymour Lieberman Excercise Trail in Houston Memorial Park gets heavier use than the golf course it surrounds. Houston, Texas, USA (Donahue and Harnik, 2011)
Breaking the Public Golf Course Paradigm
8
Come Together The
objective of providing spaces to
“We need the opportunity and inducement to
Therefore, an in depth cultural understanding is
encourage congregated human life is crucial to
escape at frequent intervals from confined and
necessary in further developing new attitudes
the city fabric which landscape architects must
vitiated air of commercial quarter and supply
and new relations between inhabitants and
consider in designing urban spaces for the public.
our lungs with air screened and purified by trees
their environment. Thomas Sieverts, a German
The design of these parks should essentially
and recently acted upon by sunlight, together
Urban Researcher known for Zwischenstadt and
reflect a tranquility and peace of mind. Frederick
with opportunity and inducement to escape
Fragmented Urban Landscapes, suggests that
Law Olmstead, who’s Central Park in New York
from conditions requiring vigilance, wariness,
each urban environment needs to contain a quality
City is still one of the most beloved and utilized
and activity toward other men; if these could be
of connectivity to its surroundings and offer a
parks in the world, believed the park is the most
supplied economically, our problem would be
mix of uses. This would allow different kinds of
valuable of all possible forms of public places in
solved.” (Sutton, 1971, p.18)
people to have the chance to meet and come into
which as humans:
contact with each other. Further conveying this objective is vital and needs to be achieved in the public spaces of our urban culture (Clemmenson, Daugaard, and Nielsen, 2010). Additionally, the first impression of a landscape is critical.
Englischer Garten is one of the world’s largest urban public parks, successfully attracting a mass amount of people and families to engage in outside activities such as cycling, walking, and picnicking. Munich, Germany (Photo taken by Christina Gonzalez, 2011)
9
This proposed multi-
functional park framework will only be successful
if a sense of place which connects cohesively
approach through dunes to focus the visual
or a merely pragmatic sustainable infrastructure.
with the nature of the community is established.
attention on the 18 and 9th greens with the sea and
With increasing pressures to demonstrate long-
In golf course architecture the visual and sensory
whitewater prominently in view as the backdrop.
term viability and economic sustainability of
elements are the most important factors to
Considering the sounds and smells of the location
large parks, as well as golf courses and alternative
achieving a successful course environment. This
is no less important to the experience (Daley,
golf facilities, the design has to respect ecological
approach parallels with urban designer Gordon
2002).
Similarly, in landscape architecture,
and programmatic complexity, both biological
Cullen’s exploration of serial vision in the urban
this discovery of the vernacular landscape is
and sociocultural diversity and accordingly to
scene. The golf course architect must focus on
crucial to creating an appropriate design which
all facets of sustainability to accommodate the
a golfer’s visual experience beginning with the
will compliment and grow with the space while
demographic reality of the contemporary global
first impression of the clubhouse and parking
also considering the role it plays in the broader
city (Czerniak and Hargreaves, 2007). This new
outside. Then the walk through each golf hole
context.
park framework must have a solid foundation
must be thought out from each teebox to green,
Landscape
architects
and
golf
course
in an analysis of performance arising from deep
the connection to the next hole and the panorama
architects alike are problem solvers and must
concern, respect for natural processes, and the
which surrounds the course. Kingsbearns Golf
maintain an environmental awareness and
experiential.
Course in St. Andrews, Scotland is an example
sensitivity in the construction of our habitat.
park or a golf course, is about change and is in a
of a strong visual sense of place, with the set
The role of the landscape must move beyond
continuous cycle of life, structured with a complex
location of the clubhouse and grades of the
the mentality of a ‘decorative greening device’
layering of necessary habitats and functions with
The landscape, whether it is a
Come Together
10
a multitude of human activity and use. This is the direction landscape architects and golf course architects need to base their designs, according more so to the conditions of the changing environment rather than an intention of finishing. It is fundamental, with rising pressures of climate change, urban migration, and escalating world population that landscape architects in particular design public spaces to optimize the potential of a robust structure and identity to the given community with the resources available (Daly, Hicks, Keene, and Ricardo, 2011 and Czerniak and Hargreaves, 2007).
The opening hole at Kingsbearns Golf Links which has a defined sense of place and blends effortlessly with the native landscape. St. Andrews, Scotland, UK (Daley, 2002)
11
Come Together
Conclusion On a closing note, golf courses do offer
efficient use of space when the community who
and are more practical in the city. These facilities
an open space to breathe and experience nature
pays the price has other priority needs. While
are convenient in accessibility, time, and money
which is a sound barrier to the urban buzz. They
public golf courses also create jobs and increase
with no large investment in the construction and
play a substantial ecological role in storing
the property value of particular golf communities,
generally results in high earnings in dense urban
and processing stormwater, to channeling and
the majority are barely sustaining to make a profit
areas. Accordingly, this approach would not only
cooling air temperature in the urban core while
in today’s economic times. Such a model is no
attract new players to the game but more so open
providing habitat for rich ecologies of plant,
longer appropriate in American cities which will
up a considerable amount of space to provide
animal, bird, aquatic, and microbial life. In the
continue to grow in density and have a rising
more activity opportunities for a wider public use
same way to large parks, they contribute to the
demand for public green spaces.
and community involvement. With a balanced
cleaning, refreshing, and enriching life in the city
The time is now to break the public golf course
combination of the ecological context, economic
(Czerniak and Hargreaves, 2007). However, golf
paradigm within the urban context. Traditional
health and cultural vitality this revitalized
courses which are categorized as public should
eighteen-hole golf courses have failed to adapt
park model has potential to give the public a
indeed be public, especially on an economic
to the constant fluctuations of the economy
multifunctional space which is culturally valued
and social level in the urban context. The lack
and environmental ecologies. Alternative golf
and brings them in touch with nature.
of accessibility to these spaces is emphasized by
facilities which are smaller scaled, such as
What landscape architects do with urban
the fact they are generally tailored to one group
pitch and putts and nine-hole courses, provide a
spaces today is critical to planning for a
of people serving one function, which is not an
variety of golfers closer to the scale of the game
sustainable future which can efficiently support
12
the pressures of a growing population. In turn,
spaces with a sense of place, based on cultural
world renowned golf course architect, Gil Hanse,
both professions of landscape architecture and
understanding, which encourages humans to
whose philosophy is, “It is better to use what the
golf course architecture need to re-evaluate the
congregate and interact with each other and
land gives you than re-arrange the site in order to
foundation of their designs to be according to a
the outdoor environment.
A resilient urban
find the perfect balance in the design.� Perhaps,
timeless process and not a final product, because
framework unifies the general community by
if we redefine what is most appropriate for a
the landscape is always changing. For the sake of
utilizing these green spaces that are sufficiently
given urban landscape from the beginning then
human health, it is the professional responsibility
compliant within the natural environment. The
we may achieve public green spaces which are
of these problem solvers to further design
underlying motive for this notion is best said by
truly open to everyone.
The Great Lawn, Central Park New York City, New York, USA (Peterson, 2011)
13
Conclusion
14
References •
American Society of Golf Course Architects., 2009. Golf and Water, By Design, Winter Issue 1 [online] Available at:< http://www.tudor-rose.co.uk/bydesign/By%20Design%20-%20Issue%20 1,%20Winter%202009.pdf> [Accessed 14 September 2011].
•
American Society of Golf Course Architects., 2010. Value of the Golf Course Talking Points, ASGCA, Available at <http://www.asgca.org/news/495-value-of-course-message-resonates- internationally> [Accessed 14 September 2011].
•
Ballard, S., 2011. How golf has changed its spots, By Design, Summer Issue 7 [online] Available at:< http://www.asgca.org/images/stories/by-design/ByDesign_Issue_7_Summer_2011.pdf> [Accessed on 14 September 2011].
•
Clemmenson, TJ. Daugaard, M. and Nielsen, T., 2010. Qualifying Urban Landscapes, Journal of Landscape Architecture, Autumn Issue 10 [online] Available at:<http://www.jola-lab.eu/www/is sue-10_autumn-2010.html> [Accessed on 05 October 2011].
•
Czerniak, J. and Hargreaves, G., 2007. Large Parks, Princeton Architectural Press, New York.
•
Daley, P., 2002. Golf Architecture - A Worldwide Perspective, Volume One, Full Swing Golf Publishing, Victoria, Australia.
•
Daly, C. Hicks, S. Keene, A. and Ricardo, R., 2011. Manifest-Orial for Production, Kerb 19 Journal of Landscape Architecture, pp.4-5.
•
Donahue, R. and Harnik, P., June 2011. Fairways under fire, Landscape Architecture Magazine, Volume 101 - Number 6, pp.42-49. Map of the fourth hole at Bali Handara in Bali, Indonesia by golf course architect Michael Wolveridge. (Daley, 2002)
15
•
Farr, D., 2007. Sustainable Urbanism and Urban Design with Nature, John Wiley & Sons, Inc, Hoboken, New Jersey.
•
Hirsh, L., 2010. How Golf Supports its Communities, By Design, Winter Issue 5 [online] Available at:< http://www.asgca.org/images/stories/by-design/By_Design_-_Issue_5_ Winter_2010.pdf> [Accessed on 16 September 2011].
• Sutton, S.B., 1971. Civilizing American Cities, Frederick Law Olmsted’s Writings on City Landscapes, MIT Press, Cambridge, USA. •
Tucker, B., 2010. Golf courses with fewer holes could be the games next wave, WorldGolf, [online] Available at <http://www.worldgolf.com/column/12-hole-golf-courses-11475.htm> [Accessed 05 October 2011].
•
World Golf., 2010. Pasatiempo Golf Club in Santa Cruz, California to use goats for clean-up, WorldGolf, [online] Available at <http://www.worldgolf.com/newswire/browse/64648- Pasatiempo-Golf-Club-start-Operation-%E2%80%9CLandscape-Goat%E2%80%9D> [Accessed 05 October 2011].
The 18th hole on the Black Course at Bethpage State Park Golf Course, on the outskirts of New York City, is one of the few public courses to have hosted a major professional golf tournament. Farmingdale, New York, USA (The Golf Guru, 2011)
References
16
Picture Credits •
Blog by Bett., 2010. Deerfield Beach’s Tam O’Shanter Solution, Blog by Bett, [online] Available at < http://blogbybett.blogspot.com/2010/07/deerfield-beachs-tam-oshanter-golf.html> [Accessed 11 December 2011].
•
Daley, P., 2002. Golf Architecture - A Worldwide Perspective, Volume One, Full Swing Golf Publishing, Victoria, Australia.
•
Donahue, R. and Harnik, P., June 2011. Fairways under fire, Landscape Architecture Magazine, Volume 101 - Number 6.
7, 8
•
Golf Resorts Digest., 2011. Golf Resorts Digest, [online] Available at < http://www. golfresortsdigest.com/california-golf-resorts/torrey-pines-golf-course/> [Accessed 12 December 2011].
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•
GolfWeek., 2010. GolfWeek, [online] Available at <http://www.golfweek.com/photos/2010/ oct/26/11188/> [Accessed 12 December 2011].
•
Hawkes, A., 2011. Enviro groups sue San Francisco over Sharp Park Golf Course,Way Out West Bay Area Green News, [online] Available at < http://www.wayoutwestnews.com/2011/03/02/ enviro-groups-sue-san-francisco-over-sharp-park-golf-course/> [Accessed 12 December 2011].
12
•
Peterson, D., 2011. Style Peterson, [online] Available at < http://stylepeterson.com/new-york- photos/the-great-lawn-central-park-nyc> [Accessed 12 December 2011].
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SF Natural Areas., 2008. Sharp Park Golf Course Must Close!, SF Natural Areas, [online] Available at <http://sfnaturalareas.org/entries/72> [Accessed 11 December 2011].
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3
i, iii, 11, 15
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Szurlej, S., 2010. Golf Digest, [online] Available at < http://www.golfdigest.com/golf-tours- news/2010-03/golf-kiawah-russell-0308> [Accessed 12 December 2011].
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The Golf Course Guru., 2011. PGA Championship Coming to Bethpage?, The Golf Course Guru [online] Available at <http://www.thegolfcourseguru.com/2011/08/11/pga-championship- coming-to-bethpage/> [Accessed 12 December 2011].
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The Trust for Public Land., 2011. Big Lake Restoration, NOLA City Park, TPL, [online] Available at < http://www.tpl.org/what-we-do/where-we-work/louisiana/big-lake-trail-new- orleans.html> [Accessed on 12 December 2011].
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The fourth hole at Torrey Pines Municipal Golf Course San Diego, California, USA (Golf Resorts Digest, 2011)
Picture Credits
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