Redefining the Public Golf Course

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“It is better to use what the land gives you�:

Redefining the Public Golf Course Thirteenth hole, Pacific Dunes, Oregon, USA (Daly, 2002)

Christina D. Gonzalez Edinburgh School of Architecture and Landscape Architecture, ESALA Masters of Landscape Architecture, MLA 2 University of Edinburgh 16 December 2011


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Contents • Abstract

v

• Introduction

vi

• The Impact of Golf Courses in the Urban Context

1

• Breaking the Public Golf Course Paradigm

5

• Come Together

9

• Conclusion

12

• References

15

• Picture Credits

17 Fourth hole, Ridgeview Ranch, Planco, Texas, USA (Daly, 2002)

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Abstract

Golf courses are a breed of large parks which are complex dynamic systems

that can positively benefit people’s mental and physical health and the natural habitats in that environment. However with a continuously increasing population and urban development in American cities, the need for green spaces which serve the general public has become more crucial than ever. Public golf courses in the urban context are struggling to keep afloat in today’s economic times and should begin to transition into spaces that have a porosity of uses and activities. This would maximize the potential of engaging a wide range of users and in turn create a more cohesive community network. A smaller golf course scheme or alternative golf facilities are less costly to maintain. Also, they would open up a sizeable amount of space which could be integrated into a revitalized park model that sustainably adapts to fluctuating ecologies and demands of the city over time. This prospective solution requires landscape architects to be in touch with the surrounding culture to create a robust and diverse park model with an appropriate sense of place responding effectively to the nature of the environment and community. Creating such green spaces would offer new experiences and opportunities to connect with others for the general public.

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Introduction The game of golf as we know it today

The word municipal, or public, tacked to the end

whether they are an efficient use of space today.

originated from the Kingdom of Fife in Scotland,

of a golf course name does little in terms of the

Golf courses do preserve ecological habitats and

dating back to the beginning of the 15th century.

space actually being accessible for the diverse

provide economic flow in certain communities,

Various landscapes around the world have been

community around it. Golf course environments,

but the current eighteen-hole model overall

shaped, created, and strategically designed

as well as other outdoor sports, are tailored for

cannot keep up with the continuous change of

so that people can experience these natural

a single function to one group of people which

the economy and society demands in the urban

environments through playing this sport. Golf

has questionable sustainable prospects in the

context. Golf course architects and landscape

has evolved significantly over the centuries

urban context. This issue primarily affects dense

architects alike, must accept this changing

from the gentlemen’s sport it began as to a more

American cities which nowadays have a high

nature of the environments which they are

accessible sport now played by women and

demand for public green space in response to the

designing and adapt to it in a more flexible and

people of all ages and abilities. Even though

increasing population and urban development.

responsive manner. All landscapes are not meant

today there are a growing number of public golf

Why should the public pay the price for spaces

to be designed as permanent spaces and instead

courses which outweigh private golf courses, the

which do not meet the general publics’ priority

need to be designed as transitioning spaces.

barriers the general public faces to access these

needs?

Multifunctional environments are necessary to

spaces are still relatively intimidating. In current

While golf courses are considered large

be able to move forward in creating sustainable,

economic times, it could also be argued that they

parks, generally ranging in size from 45 to 50

thriving spaces which everyone can benefit from.

are not the most efficient use of tax payer money.

hectares in the urban context, it is debatable

This further presents the opportunity to redevelop

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public golf courses to adapt more effectively to the urban context. These preserved mass of green spaces can be implemented into a new park model that is easily accessible and dynamically serves the broader community with a diverse range of uses and activities. Also fundamental to its sustainability, these parks would offer a public place for community involvement and empowerment of the diversity of voices, values, and participants. Does the public golf course fit in today’s growing urban civilization?

Sharp Park Golf Course, San Francisco, California, USA (SF Natural Areas, 2008)

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The Impact of Golf Courses in the Urban Context Golf courses function similarly to large

irrigation systems more efficient in harvesting

parks, in terms of preserving green spaces and

and recycling stormwater, developed new species

habitats which are often more than 60 hectares.

of grass which require less water and is more

These green islands of biodiversity are precious

drought-tolerant, and with design advances have

resources to big cities, providing numerous

reduced areas of high-maintenance (Ballard,

environmental, economic and social benefits to

2011).

the citizens around it who breathe the air which

plant and weather sensors monitor water use

Pasatiempo Golf Club using goats for overgrowth clean-up, Santa Cruz, California, USA (GolfWeek, 2010)

golf courses help to clean. The Australian Golf

with new enhancements that recharge ground

by extensive overgrowth. This was a successful

Course Superintendents Associations found

water reserves, thus lessening the water taken

alternative that eliminated the use of harmful

an average golf course sequesters 80 tonnes of

from other sources and replenishing groundwater

chemicals and need for a maintenance crew or

carbon each year (American Society of Golf

resources. In terms of pesticides, there is an

equipment that could cause noise and damage to

Course Architects, 2009). Thus, golf courses

awareness of the harmful effects they pose on the

this sensitive environment (WorldGolf, 2010).

do work for the environment, especially in

environment and numerous golf courses are now

These advanced environmental approaches result

safeguarding ecological buffer zones which

reducing the use of them to implement natural

in a more cost efficient and sustainable golf

absorb noise and a sizeable amount of stormwater

methods.

facility that creates a sound platform for long-

drainage as well as pollutants in water that

Course in Santa Cruz, CA recently used goats to

run off highways, rooftops, and developed

clean up the characteristic steep, rugged canyons

From an economic standpoint, green

areas. Advances in technology have now made

and jagged edged barrancas, which had been lost

fees and club memberships do contribute

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Furthermore, the incorporation of soil,

For example, the Pasatiempo Golf

term viability.


economically through admissions tax revenues.

of the golf course is generally high investment

the social level of the communities they serve.

In some communities, golf courses are vital to

lots which developers and owners want to build

Consequently, more park officials are overseeing

their success. St. Andrews in Scotland is a key

large, expensive homes on. Thus, the real estate

thousands of golf courses and working with golf

example in which golf is central to the community,

tax generated from these housing lots usually

course architects to maximize the concepts of

driving tourism which in turn provides jobs in

heightens the property value of the area. Even

golf as an asset and the ways the land can be used

hotels, retail shops, and restaurants. The golf

though the market value of many US golf courses

for other recreational and green space purposes

course industry is a very management intensive

is depressed at the moment due to the global

which is now a recognized necessity (Hirsh,

business, employing upwards of 50 people in

recession, there are a good number of courses

2010).

a variety of jobs, from management to skilled

which contribute economically and enhance

and unskilled labor to hospitality and service employees. In 2005, SRI International discovered that the US golf economy annually generates $76 billion in goods and services and employs two million people (ASGCA, 2010). Golf hot spots in the United States such as Myrtle Beach, South Carolina and the entire state of Florida also rely on the economic benefits golf courses bring. Additionally, real estate on the boundaries

This island community, twenty-one miles from Charleston, consists of 1000 acres of abundant wildlife and 126 golf holes designed by world renowned golf course architects and professionals, Pete Dye, Tom Fazio, Clyde Johnston, Jack Nicklaus, Gary Player, Tom Watson. Kiawah Island, South Carolina, USA (Golf Digest, 2010)

The Impact of Golf Courses in the Urban Context

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However, public golf courses in American

courses. More and more people do not have the

where $36 is the national median for municipal

cities still pose an intimidating social and

time, the patience nor the willingness to invest

courses (Hirsh, 2010). Sequentially, with cities

economic hurdle to the majority of the population.

money on a game that on average takes four

tight on funds and open space, doubts have arisen

While golf has become more accessible and

hours to complete a round and even more hours to

in the present investment in golf courses as not

appealing to average people in comparison with

practice to enjoy playing the round. Such factors

being financially self sustaining. With only an

the past, the elitist edge and image of the sport

limit the number of people who use the space. In

average 12 percent of the population playing the

still remains. Accessibility is a key issue for golf

contrast to parks, all golf courses require entry fees

game today in the US, the rounds per year for the average course has now dropped to 33,000 compared to 40,000 in the 1980s.

Currently

with a low cash flow, many of these municipal courses are left neglected, unable to keep up with maintenance costs. Lower cost recreation The course owners of the now closed Tam O’Shanter Golf Course claimed it was not feasible anymore to keep it as a golf course. They are planning to revive the green space as a memorial park and cemetary., Deerfield Beach, Florida, USA (Sun Sentinel, 2010, and Blog by Bett, 2010)

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The Impact of Golf Courses in the Urban Context

as running and cycling, and community desires for trails, pools, and gardens are nowadays dominating over golf. The reality is that golf’s popularity is not keeping up with the population growth and the fluctuating world economy.


San Francisco’s Sharp Park Golf Club,

many golf operations competing over a limited

designed by notable golf course architect Dr.

number of customers and cities trying to figure

Alistair Mackenzie, diminished to 11 holes

out what to do with courses that no longer turn a

from the original 18 due to a winter storm back

profit or even cover costs (Donahue and Harnik,

in 1938. The golf course has continued to be

2011). San Francisco is the second most densely

battered by the ocean waves of the Pacific year

populated city behind New York City in the

after year and though a seawall was incorporated

United States which cannot afford to support

three years ago, this has barely made a difference.

such underused and unsustainable golf courses

The annual flooding at Sharp Park cause it to be

where public green space is in demand.

unplayable for months every year and is one of a number of other American urban golf courses

The annual flooding and ponding which occurs at Sharp Park Golf Course which has caused it to lose significant revenue and most importantly community support, San Francisco, California, USA (Hawkes, 2011)

facing the same dilemma. The past decade has been characterized by a frenzy of constructing golf course communities and leveling off participation, with 42 percent of new golf courses developed in 2010 were within a tourist-oriented resort or a real estate community. This leads to

The Impact of Golf Courses in the Urban Context

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Breaking the Public Golf Course Paradigm The

golf

notion known as biophilia, further rationalizes

golf course landscapes into diverse, complex, and

course model needs to be redesigned. At the time

the stress to maximize mix-land use and preserve

delightfully engaging outdoor spaces for a broad

of the Industrial Revolution in the late nineteenth

these rare open spaces to move us toward a self

range of people and communities (Czerniak and

century, there was a surge of expansion and

sustaining urban environment (Farr, 2007). To

Hargreaves, 2007).

production of golf courses being built throughout

see the golf course in an urban context resemble a

the metropolitan areas.

However, these days

bowling alley with narrowed fairways encroached

this golf course model does not have a place

by residential housing and single row irrigation,

in cities which have a shortage of green space.

then what is the point of having a golf course?

These substantial spaces belong more so where

In most cases, eighteen-hole golf courses today

the pioneering golf course architects, notably Dr.

have strayed far from this original idea of golf

Alister Mackenzie, Donald Ross and James Braid,

(Daley, 2002). The traditional golf course model

intended them to be, in the rural landscape. A golf

should first remain in the rural setting and be

course was meant to be a sublime place completely

modified to a smaller scale to be in tune with the

surrounded by nature with fairly length holes,

compact urban environment. These extensive

wide fairways and large greens to be enjoyed by

landscapes should be open to the public and are

people of all levels. Human’s instinctive need to

integral to the fabric of our cities. Landscape

be in touch with nature, a sustainable urbanism

architects have the capability to revitalize such

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traditional

eighteen-hole

Pitch and putt, Brunstfield Links, in The Meadows is free for the public of all ages and abilities to play year round Edinburgh, Scotland, UK (Photo taken by Christina Gonzalez, 2011)


Continually, alternate golf facilities would

and are more convenient in that they can take as

to owners, requiring less maintenance, and

downsize the size of golf courses, freeing up a

little as 45 minutes to play. A space such as the

minimal construction costs. As a result, more

sizable chunk of land for other potential uses.

54-hole pitch and putt, Bruntsfield Links, within

and more property owners are looking to develop

Smaller courses are comparatively short at 6, 9, or

The Meadows in Edinburgh, Scotland provides

their properties as alternate golf facilities as a

12 holes and easier to play, allowing for quicker

opportunities free for anyone to turn up and play

sustainable way to endure the current market

rounds.

Courses such as Scotland’s Shiskine

with no need for a tee time or a particular dress

conditions (Daley, 2002).

Golf and Tennis Club and Toronto’s Derrydale

code to follow. This particular model works year

A less physical solution to breaking the public

Golf Club have cut down their size to 12 holes in

round and thrives with the rest of the park which

golf course paradigm, is to start sharing the use of

an attempt to keep their doors from closing and

caters to a range of activities from picnicking to

golf courses with other activities and expanding

now are thriving significantly (Tucker, 2010).

football. These compacted courses do not need

the range of users. In organizing activities by day

This provides a less intimidating environment in

to be trendy and could be simple yet innovatively

of the week or time of the day, this opens the space

making the game more accessible and affordable

constructed on no more than seven hectares of

for a variety of people to interact with others thus

for new players, especially for beginners and

land. According to the National Golf Foundation,

establishing a sense of community. This proposed

children, while at the same time helps sharpen the

shorter courses are so popular in Florida that they

porosity of uses and activities, a design concept

short game for experienced players. For instance,

compromise 19% of the state’s 1261 courses

developed by Italian urban scholars Bernardo

pitch and putts efficiently implement a smaller

(ASGCA, 2009). Small scale course models also

Secchi and Paola Vigano, is vital to the health of

version of a golf course at a cheaper playing fee

provide comparatively low costs and investment

the urban community in relation to the growing

Breaking the Public Golf Course Paradigm

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urban density. The revitalized park should be

creation of connections which some function

habitats and exposure to sunlight, fresh air, and

planned and designed as a ‘democratic’ space,

as a destination for people to meet or come to,

water, proving the incorporation of public parks

such as the Paris Metropolitan Area and New

reinforcing these connections (Clemmenson,

as mandatory to reconnect people to nature.

York’s Central Park, which addresses economy,

Daugaard, and Nielsen, 2010).

Increasing the number of public green spaces

culture, and more-or-less manifest interests of

Human settlement has suppressed nature

will only improve our society’s mental and

people equally. Furthermore, accessibility should

to where most people today live out of daily

physical state and is necessary in relation to the

be established in multiple directions through the

contact with natural systems of vegetated

larger problem of future growth of cities (Farr, 2007). Public golf courses have an instant trail system with cart paths and could easily integrate safe perimeter trails for walkers and runners by using a combination of well planned routing, natural vegetation barriers and small sections of

Richard Crockett, a UC Berkeley student, proposed for a school project of Lincoln Park Public Golf Course to be revitilized as a community park. The proposal minimizes the golf course and incorporates a trail system, community composting facility, and ‘extreme’ sculpture garden. San Francisco, California, USA (Donahue and Harnik, 2011)

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Breaking the Public Golf Course Paradigm

fencing. National City in California has recently made an open space initiative to incorporate recreational trails throughout the National City Golf Course and potentially convert it into a public park due to the lack of green spaces.


Potentially, the space could also be a mix of

bring enough revenue to sustain. Now it consists

public and private functions to be economically

of two golf courses, a 50 acre big lake area,

supported and maintained by stewards, as well

offering residents a boardwalk and interpretive

as involved citizens and managers (Czerniak

trail system which passes through five regions of

and Hargreaves, 2007). Take for example, St.

the Louisiana landscape, a dock and a meadow

Andrews’ golf courses open as a national park

for concerts (Donahue and Harnik, 2011). Such

on Sundays and in Seattle, Washington, USA,

successful models demonstrate that the future of

golf courses are opening for nature lovers and

public golf courses in these cities desperate for

hosting children programs outside of golfing

flexible green space will have to be one of change

hours (Daley, 2002). Efforts of incorporating

and modification of the traditional length to better

profit generating features, such as urban farms

adapt with urban needs.

New Orleans City Park, Big Lake, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA (TPL, 2011)

or aquifer recharging and municipal composting facilities, with full public use are being initiated with San Francisco’s Lincoln Park Golf Course, in hopes to help replace lost golf revenue. The New Orlean’s City Park in Louisiana used to be four eighteen-hole golf courses which failed to Seymour Lieberman Excercise Trail in Houston Memorial Park gets heavier use than the golf course it surrounds. Houston, Texas, USA (Donahue and Harnik, 2011)

Breaking the Public Golf Course Paradigm

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Come Together The

objective of providing spaces to

“We need the opportunity and inducement to

Therefore, an in depth cultural understanding is

encourage congregated human life is crucial to

escape at frequent intervals from confined and

necessary in further developing new attitudes

the city fabric which landscape architects must

vitiated air of commercial quarter and supply

and new relations between inhabitants and

consider in designing urban spaces for the public.

our lungs with air screened and purified by trees

their environment. Thomas Sieverts, a German

The design of these parks should essentially

and recently acted upon by sunlight, together

Urban Researcher known for Zwischenstadt and

reflect a tranquility and peace of mind. Frederick

with opportunity and inducement to escape

Fragmented Urban Landscapes, suggests that

Law Olmstead, who’s Central Park in New York

from conditions requiring vigilance, wariness,

each urban environment needs to contain a quality

City is still one of the most beloved and utilized

and activity toward other men; if these could be

of connectivity to its surroundings and offer a

parks in the world, believed the park is the most

supplied economically, our problem would be

mix of uses. This would allow different kinds of

valuable of all possible forms of public places in

solved.” (Sutton, 1971, p.18)

people to have the chance to meet and come into

which as humans:

contact with each other. Further conveying this objective is vital and needs to be achieved in the public spaces of our urban culture (Clemmenson, Daugaard, and Nielsen, 2010). Additionally, the first impression of a landscape is critical.

Englischer Garten is one of the world’s largest urban public parks, successfully attracting a mass amount of people and families to engage in outside activities such as cycling, walking, and picnicking. Munich, Germany (Photo taken by Christina Gonzalez, 2011)

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This proposed multi-

functional park framework will only be successful


if a sense of place which connects cohesively

approach through dunes to focus the visual

or a merely pragmatic sustainable infrastructure.

with the nature of the community is established.

attention on the 18 and 9th greens with the sea and

With increasing pressures to demonstrate long-

In golf course architecture the visual and sensory

whitewater prominently in view as the backdrop.

term viability and economic sustainability of

elements are the most important factors to

Considering the sounds and smells of the location

large parks, as well as golf courses and alternative

achieving a successful course environment. This

is no less important to the experience (Daley,

golf facilities, the design has to respect ecological

approach parallels with urban designer Gordon

2002).

Similarly, in landscape architecture,

and programmatic complexity, both biological

Cullen’s exploration of serial vision in the urban

this discovery of the vernacular landscape is

and sociocultural diversity and accordingly to

scene. The golf course architect must focus on

crucial to creating an appropriate design which

all facets of sustainability to accommodate the

a golfer’s visual experience beginning with the

will compliment and grow with the space while

demographic reality of the contemporary global

first impression of the clubhouse and parking

also considering the role it plays in the broader

city (Czerniak and Hargreaves, 2007). This new

outside. Then the walk through each golf hole

context.

park framework must have a solid foundation

must be thought out from each teebox to green,

Landscape

architects

and

golf

course

in an analysis of performance arising from deep

the connection to the next hole and the panorama

architects alike are problem solvers and must

concern, respect for natural processes, and the

which surrounds the course. Kingsbearns Golf

maintain an environmental awareness and

experiential.

Course in St. Andrews, Scotland is an example

sensitivity in the construction of our habitat.

park or a golf course, is about change and is in a

of a strong visual sense of place, with the set

The role of the landscape must move beyond

continuous cycle of life, structured with a complex

location of the clubhouse and grades of the

the mentality of a ‘decorative greening device’

layering of necessary habitats and functions with

The landscape, whether it is a

Come Together

10


a multitude of human activity and use. This is the direction landscape architects and golf course architects need to base their designs, according more so to the conditions of the changing environment rather than an intention of finishing. It is fundamental, with rising pressures of climate change, urban migration, and escalating world population that landscape architects in particular design public spaces to optimize the potential of a robust structure and identity to the given community with the resources available (Daly, Hicks, Keene, and Ricardo, 2011 and Czerniak and Hargreaves, 2007).

The opening hole at Kingsbearns Golf Links which has a defined sense of place and blends effortlessly with the native landscape. St. Andrews, Scotland, UK (Daley, 2002)

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Come Together


Conclusion On a closing note, golf courses do offer

efficient use of space when the community who

and are more practical in the city. These facilities

an open space to breathe and experience nature

pays the price has other priority needs. While

are convenient in accessibility, time, and money

which is a sound barrier to the urban buzz. They

public golf courses also create jobs and increase

with no large investment in the construction and

play a substantial ecological role in storing

the property value of particular golf communities,

generally results in high earnings in dense urban

and processing stormwater, to channeling and

the majority are barely sustaining to make a profit

areas. Accordingly, this approach would not only

cooling air temperature in the urban core while

in today’s economic times. Such a model is no

attract new players to the game but more so open

providing habitat for rich ecologies of plant,

longer appropriate in American cities which will

up a considerable amount of space to provide

animal, bird, aquatic, and microbial life. In the

continue to grow in density and have a rising

more activity opportunities for a wider public use

same way to large parks, they contribute to the

demand for public green spaces.

and community involvement. With a balanced

cleaning, refreshing, and enriching life in the city

The time is now to break the public golf course

combination of the ecological context, economic

(Czerniak and Hargreaves, 2007). However, golf

paradigm within the urban context. Traditional

health and cultural vitality this revitalized

courses which are categorized as public should

eighteen-hole golf courses have failed to adapt

park model has potential to give the public a

indeed be public, especially on an economic

to the constant fluctuations of the economy

multifunctional space which is culturally valued

and social level in the urban context. The lack

and environmental ecologies. Alternative golf

and brings them in touch with nature.

of accessibility to these spaces is emphasized by

facilities which are smaller scaled, such as

What landscape architects do with urban

the fact they are generally tailored to one group

pitch and putts and nine-hole courses, provide a

spaces today is critical to planning for a

of people serving one function, which is not an

variety of golfers closer to the scale of the game

sustainable future which can efficiently support

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the pressures of a growing population. In turn,

spaces with a sense of place, based on cultural

world renowned golf course architect, Gil Hanse,

both professions of landscape architecture and

understanding, which encourages humans to

whose philosophy is, “It is better to use what the

golf course architecture need to re-evaluate the

congregate and interact with each other and

land gives you than re-arrange the site in order to

foundation of their designs to be according to a

the outdoor environment.

A resilient urban

find the perfect balance in the design.� Perhaps,

timeless process and not a final product, because

framework unifies the general community by

if we redefine what is most appropriate for a

the landscape is always changing. For the sake of

utilizing these green spaces that are sufficiently

given urban landscape from the beginning then

human health, it is the professional responsibility

compliant within the natural environment. The

we may achieve public green spaces which are

of these problem solvers to further design

underlying motive for this notion is best said by

truly open to everyone.

The Great Lawn, Central Park New York City, New York, USA (Peterson, 2011)

13

Conclusion


14


References •

American Society of Golf Course Architects., 2009. Golf and Water, By Design, Winter Issue 1 [online] Available at:< http://www.tudor-rose.co.uk/bydesign/By%20Design%20-%20Issue%20 1,%20Winter%202009.pdf> [Accessed 14 September 2011].

American Society of Golf Course Architects., 2010. Value of the Golf Course Talking Points, ASGCA, Available at <http://www.asgca.org/news/495-value-of-course-message-resonates- internationally> [Accessed 14 September 2011].

Ballard, S., 2011. How golf has changed its spots, By Design, Summer Issue 7 [online] Available at:< http://www.asgca.org/images/stories/by-design/ByDesign_Issue_7_Summer_2011.pdf> [Accessed on 14 September 2011].

Clemmenson, TJ. Daugaard, M. and Nielsen, T., 2010. Qualifying Urban Landscapes, Journal of Landscape Architecture, Autumn Issue 10 [online] Available at:<http://www.jola-lab.eu/www/is sue-10_autumn-2010.html> [Accessed on 05 October 2011].

Czerniak, J. and Hargreaves, G., 2007. Large Parks, Princeton Architectural Press, New York.

Daley, P., 2002. Golf Architecture - A Worldwide Perspective, Volume One, Full Swing Golf Publishing, Victoria, Australia.

Daly, C. Hicks, S. Keene, A. and Ricardo, R., 2011. Manifest-Orial for Production, Kerb 19 Journal of Landscape Architecture, pp.4-5.

Donahue, R. and Harnik, P., June 2011. Fairways under fire, Landscape Architecture Magazine, Volume 101 - Number 6, pp.42-49. Map of the fourth hole at Bali Handara in Bali, Indonesia by golf course architect Michael Wolveridge. (Daley, 2002)

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Farr, D., 2007. Sustainable Urbanism and Urban Design with Nature, John Wiley & Sons, Inc, Hoboken, New Jersey.

Hirsh, L., 2010. How Golf Supports its Communities, By Design, Winter Issue 5 [online] Available at:< http://www.asgca.org/images/stories/by-design/By_Design_-_Issue_5_ Winter_2010.pdf> [Accessed on 16 September 2011].

• Sutton, S.B., 1971. Civilizing American Cities, Frederick Law Olmsted’s Writings on City Landscapes, MIT Press, Cambridge, USA. •

Tucker, B., 2010. Golf courses with fewer holes could be the games next wave, WorldGolf, [online] Available at <http://www.worldgolf.com/column/12-hole-golf-courses-11475.htm> [Accessed 05 October 2011].

World Golf., 2010. Pasatiempo Golf Club in Santa Cruz, California to use goats for clean-up, WorldGolf, [online] Available at <http://www.worldgolf.com/newswire/browse/64648- Pasatiempo-Golf-Club-start-Operation-%E2%80%9CLandscape-Goat%E2%80%9D> [Accessed 05 October 2011].

The 18th hole on the Black Course at Bethpage State Park Golf Course, on the outskirts of New York City, is one of the few public courses to have hosted a major professional golf tournament. Farmingdale, New York, USA (The Golf Guru, 2011)

References

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Picture Credits •

Blog by Bett., 2010. Deerfield Beach’s Tam O’Shanter Solution, Blog by Bett, [online] Available at < http://blogbybett.blogspot.com/2010/07/deerfield-beachs-tam-oshanter-golf.html> [Accessed 11 December 2011].

Daley, P., 2002. Golf Architecture - A Worldwide Perspective, Volume One, Full Swing Golf Publishing, Victoria, Australia.

Donahue, R. and Harnik, P., June 2011. Fairways under fire, Landscape Architecture Magazine, Volume 101 - Number 6.

7, 8

Golf Resorts Digest., 2011. Golf Resorts Digest, [online] Available at < http://www. golfresortsdigest.com/california-golf-resorts/torrey-pines-golf-course/> [Accessed 12 December 2011].

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GolfWeek., 2010. GolfWeek, [online] Available at <http://www.golfweek.com/photos/2010/ oct/26/11188/> [Accessed 12 December 2011].

Hawkes, A., 2011. Enviro groups sue San Francisco over Sharp Park Golf Course,Way Out West Bay Area Green News, [online] Available at < http://www.wayoutwestnews.com/2011/03/02/ enviro-groups-sue-san-francisco-over-sharp-park-golf-course/> [Accessed 12 December 2011].

12

Peterson, D., 2011. Style Peterson, [online] Available at < http://stylepeterson.com/new-york- photos/the-great-lawn-central-park-nyc> [Accessed 12 December 2011].

13

SF Natural Areas., 2008. Sharp Park Golf Course Must Close!, SF Natural Areas, [online] Available at <http://sfnaturalareas.org/entries/72> [Accessed 11 December 2011].

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Szurlej, S., 2010. Golf Digest, [online] Available at < http://www.golfdigest.com/golf-tours- news/2010-03/golf-kiawah-russell-0308> [Accessed 12 December 2011].

The Golf Course Guru., 2011. PGA Championship Coming to Bethpage?, The Golf Course Guru [online] Available at <http://www.thegolfcourseguru.com/2011/08/11/pga-championship- coming-to-bethpage/> [Accessed 12 December 2011].

The Trust for Public Land., 2011. Big Lake Restoration, NOLA City Park, TPL, [online] Available at < http://www.tpl.org/what-we-do/where-we-work/louisiana/big-lake-trail-new- orleans.html> [Accessed on 12 December 2011].

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8

The fourth hole at Torrey Pines Municipal Golf Course San Diego, California, USA (Golf Resorts Digest, 2011)

Picture Credits

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