A Recipe for Disaster Dissemination Report
LA 461 Senior Project | Winter 2021 Claire Dosen
Table of Contents Introduction
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Incident response framework for WUI
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Strategies for designing new infrastructure in the WUI
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Bibliography
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Introduction The goal of this senior project is to explore, test and implement wildfire mitigation strategies in the built environment for communities in high fire severity zones throughout the Western United States. While the project is site specific, findings and design solutions are applicable to all wildland urban interface communities (WUI). This document contains a comprehensive guide on how to identify and prepare existing infrastructure to be used for incident response and how to design new infrastructure to mitigate wildfire and be “fire resilient” by incorporating mitigation techniques into site design. It has become increasingly clear that large portions of Western US are at risk for large, difficult to contain wildfire. Specifically, communities that interface with fire-prone open space are at an elevated risk. Fire, a natural ecosystem processes has shaped the landscape in the West, with many plant communities coined as “fire dependent”. It should be expected that at varying frequencies fire will return to the landscape, if not through human doing than by nature. If we are to continue to build in these naturally fire prone environments than we must design in a way that protects our communities and allows for natural fires to continue in a managed form.
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Incident Response Framework for WUI To prepare for an eventual wildfire, WUI communities should know what resources are available to aid in incident response and recovery. Any type of “incident” is addressed under FEMA’s Incident Command System (ICS). Incident response is a general term used to describes all large-scale disaster response from hurricanes to wildfires. Under ICS, incident response is organized under a chain of command system. This is a unifying system, allowing multiple jurisdictions to operate under one command. If a community is to be resilient and prepared for wildfire, a preexisting framework must be in place so that incident response can mobilize.
ICB Site Selection Criteria According to the ICS and the National Wildfire Coordinating Group (NWCG) field guide, sites for an incident base must be determined and scouted for continued response. The Incident Commander determines a location based on the following criteria: 1. Proximity to incident – unique for each incident. 2. Size – is there enough space for needed personnel? 3. Ingress and egress – are entrances and exits clearly demarcated, accessible, and close to major thoroughfares? 3
Incident command base (ICB) sites typically chosen are normally infrastructure like schools, fairgrounds, or parks. Eliminating site selection process by predetermining locations to house a ICB can increase response times and eliminate need for potential relocation. While the location of each incident varies, cities should locate existing infrastructure of sizable area and use the information to inform their hazard mitigation plans and publish information for use by local first responders. Incident Types Based on available acreage, each infrastructure recourse should be assigned a 1, 2 or 3, demarcating which type of incident it can house. Wildfire incident response is categorized into three tiers, largely determined by number of personnel needed for response. Type 3 Incident Exceeds initial attack, will need a significant number of resources. Requires 9.2 acres of space**. Type 2 Incident Type 1 Incident
Type 3
Type 2 Incident Incident is beyond the capabilities of local control and spans multiple operational periods*. Incident personnel does not exceed 200 people. Requires 23 acres of space**.
Type 1 Incident Most complex incident. Operation personnel exceeds 500 and incident spans multiple operational periods*. Requires 46 acres of space**.
Map of Suitable ICB Sites in Redding, CA
north
Cleared and Undeveloped Lots 9.6 acres
3 Caldwell Park & Lake Redding Golf Course 31.7 acres
Shasta High School 12.4 acres
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3
Proposed Project Location 300 acres
Highway 99
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Sacram ento R iver
Convention Center Grounds 21.4 acres
3 1
Cal Fire Station and Park Space 27 acres
3 2
Benton Field and Airport 178 acres
Sequoia Junior High School 11.7 acres
Juniper Elementary School 24.8 acres
2 Agriculture Plot 83 acres
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1
Industrial Park 19.5 acres N.T.S.
*Operational Period is defined as the time scheduled for the execution of a given set of tactical action specified in the Incident Action Plan. Periods do not exceed 24 hours. **Estimates of acreage requirements do not include helicopter bases.
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Incident Response acreage requirements based on Dining: .7 Bath: .5
Sleeping: 3.6 acres
Fueling: .8 acres
Medic: .2 ICP: .4
Dining: 1.75
Bat
Staging: 3 acres
Type 3 Incident
0
1/2
1
2 1” = 1 acre
Sleeping: 18 acres
Type 1 Incident 5
Sleeping: 9 acres
Type 2 Incident
Parking/Staging: 15 acres
n use of space: Medic: .5
th: 1.25 Fueling: 2 acres
ICP: 1
Parking/Staging: 7.5 acres
Medic: 1 acre
ICP: 2 acres Bath: 2.5 acres
Fueling: 4 acres
Dining: 3.5 acres
No framework for required acreage existed at the start of this project. It is my assumption that this knowledge exists within the wildland fire fighting profession but has not been published for the use of the design profession. Acreage requirements were found via area takeoffs of ICB precedents - the 2018 Camp Fire and 2017 Lolo Fire. Those acreage estimates where then compared against the number of personnel involved in the response that is provided by the National Wildfire Committee Group and estimated for a Type 3 Incident. It is possible that an incident exceeds the estimated acreage requirements.
Additional Acreage Requirements In addition to overall acreage estimates, each incident requires a mix of open and interior spaces. The 2018 Camp fire used the Chico fair grounds as their ICB because it had enough space and a good mix of open space, typically used for vehicle staging and sleeping, and interior space for the Incident Command Post (ICP) to use. The ICP houses technicians who produce important firefighting resources like weather maps, updated fore boundary maps, as well as conceive initial attack strategies. This requires a quiet, separate workspace that can house computers. The graphic to the left provides a breakdown of the typical ICB requirements based on incident type. 6
Expanding Local Capacity The provided information can also be used to design new infrastructure. My site design features “dual use infrastructure”; space that serves a typical function but can be transformed to serve in incident response. After creating the space requirement guidelines, I used them to pick and size program elements within the park. For example, sports fields can provide a large space well suited for vehicle staging and sleeping.
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Based on community need and existing stock in the region, it was feasible to include 4-6 sports fields on site. The site has a proposed 17.9 acres that can be used for vehicle staging and sleeping, enough to serve a Type 2 incident response. This same process was used in choosing and sizing most program elements on site, including parking, the gymnasium, and community center. This process can be applied to any new project in a WUI community.
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ACTIONS TO INCREASE FIRE RESILIENCY
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1. Spatial Gradation Creating a gradation of space between wildlands and urban areas can help stop the spread of wildfire. When building new infrastructure, use the spatial gradation as a defense method. Areas adjacent to wildlands should be similar fuel types but have lower horizontal continuity. When fuels are managed and spaced further apart it breaks a portion of the fire triangle (fuels, heat, and oxygen) to stop the spread of fire. Areas closer to urban areas should feature fire breaks, extremely low fuel continuity and any structures in this zone should be constructed with fire resistant materials, adhering to California building code too.
ise ies ew nit Fir mu m Co
The following sections provides strategies for designing and maintaining landscape spaces in WUI communities. These strategies are meant to decrease the risk of wildfire in WUI communities while promoting controlled wildfire in wildlands to promote healthy ecosystems. Strategies are informed by fire ecology, wildland firefighting techniques, known wildfire mitigation techniques and California building code, as well as precedent projects within landscape architecture.
Fuel R eductio n Co d Or es, P din la an ns & ce s
Strategies for designing new infrastructure in the WUI
Spatial Gradation in the WUI Unmitigated wildlands
Mitigated wildlands
Interface
Urban
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2. Fire Resistant Site Materials Anything new constructed in an WUI community should use fire resistant materials. Theses materials are not fireproof but are resistant to a certain heat threshold. Some landscape materials like metals or treated wood are appropriate while materials that release toxins under extreme heat should be avoided. Landscape plantings should be “firescaped” to be fire resistant. Plants should be planted in zones to protect your property but choosing the right plants for each zone is also important. Fire resistant plants typically have a high moisture content, may be broad leafed and deciduous and should be maintained to maintain a low fuel continuity. Zone 1 is 30’ surrounding the property and has low, high moisture plants. Zone 2 is a 40’ fuel break, zone 3 is 50’ wide with low fuel continuity and merges into the wildland in zone 4. Planting Zones zone 4: wildland zone 3: interface zone 2: fuel break zone 1: garden
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Fire Resistance of Site Materials least resistant
grass untreated wood conifers turf grass broad leafed plants treated wood concrete masonry
most resistant
metals
3. Local Capacity This topic was summarized in Section 2: Incident response framework for WUI. New projects in WUI communities should be “dual use” - serve an intended function but able to transition into a space to serve incident responders to increases local response capacity. Criteria and framework for designing spaces to serve wildland fire responders is summarized in Section 2 (pages 3-7).
4. Education Increasing ecological literacy rates in WUI communities is a crucial component to successful projects and well-prepared communities. Due to a history of fire suppression in the U.S. many are under the impression that fire in the landscape is unnatural and dangerous. While fire can be dangerous – it is an essential ecosystem component for most Western U.S. landscapes. It is important that people realize fire must have a place in their community if there is to be a reduction in wildfire risk. This can create a tolerance around controlled burning and destigmatizing wildfire. In addition, properly educated community members understand how to protect their properties against wildfire by changing out wood shingled roofs to tile, maintaining proper vegetation setbacks around their house and making sure house numbers can easily be seen from the street by emergency responders. Publicly known evacuation routes can reduce gridlock during evacuation and increase response time.
This strategy can be implemented in a variety of ways. On my project achieves this by having a fire ecology center as part of the park program. Park maintenance is carried out of this building, as well as staff who are available to interact with the public and provide information on fire’s role in the landscape as well as ways to protect your property. In addition, educational signage is used in the park when appropriate.
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5. Fuel Reduction Fuel reduction consists of removing excess fuel to decrease fuel loading in the landscape. In addition, ladder fuels like low hanging branches are removed to prevent fire from spreading into tree crowns. Crown fires are the most dangerous type of fore to fight and should be prevented via mitigation measures. Fuel reduction requires ongoing maintenance from trained crews.
Tools like chainsaws, loppers and handsaws must be safely operated by trained professional. Part of the project’s maintenance staff will work out of the fire ecology center and conduct regular fuel reduction throughout the park to mitigate wildfire risk.
Impacts of Fuel Reduction on Vegetation Pre-Reduction
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Post-Reduction
fast igniting light fuels
fewer light fuels
loading of surface and aerial fuels
low fuel continuity
6. Controlled Burns Allowing fire into the landscape may appear to be a contradiction but it has many benefits. Allowing for continual low intensity fires helps to reduce fire spread as horizontal fuel continuity is reduced. Small fuels such as grass are the main contributors to rapid fire spread as they take the least amount of time to preheat to ignition point. In comparison, larger fuels like pine trees can take up to ten hours to preheat and ignite if they have appropriate moisture contents. Light and medium fuels should be burned out regularly, every 1 – 5 years to prevent fuel build up. Controlled burns must be conducted when temperatures are low enough to limit fire spread – typically early winter to spring. Air quality restrictions also limit controlled burns. They should be conducted when wind will carry smoke away from populated areas. On the project site, controlled burns are a part of the park programming. When conducted, the public will be notified, and the area will be closed off. Routine controlled burns should be implemented when appropriate in WUI communities to reduce wildfire risk and raise awareness of fire’s ecological processes.
7. Fuel Breaks Fuel breaks are a common way to stop wildfire spread. By removing fuel from the landscape, the fire triangle is broken, and fire is theoretically stopped from spreading. Using fuel breaks as a landscape feature in new projects can help protect adjacent vulnerable areas. Corridors along hiking and biking trails can be cleared and maintained. Strategically paced roads can add an additional level of protection as roads are a form of fire breaks.
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