9789871486731 English Language Learning and Technology. 1a. Ed. Leonardo Mercado. Cengage

INTEGRACIÓN DE LA TECNOLOGÍA EDUCATIVA EN EL AULA

English Language Learning and TECHNOLOGY Leonardo A. Mercado

INTEGRACIÓN DE LA TECNOLOGÍA EDUCATIVA EN EL AULA

English Language Learning and TECHNOLOGY Leonardo A. Mercado

Integración de la Tecnología Educativa en el Aula English Language Learning and TECHNOLOGY Leonardo A. Mercado

General Director Susana de Luque

Mercado, Leonardo A. Integración de la Tecnología Educativa en el Aula English Language Learning and TECHNOLOGY 1a ed. - Buenos Aires, Cengage Learning Argentina, 2012.

288 p.; 18,5x23,5 cm.

ISBN 978-987-1486-73-1

Production Project Coordinator Luciana Rabuffetti

1. Educación. 2. Enseñanza de idiomas extranjeros.

3. Uso de la tecnología. I. Título

ICT Series Coordinator Silvina Orta Klein

CDD 371.333 Fecha de catalogación: 23/12/2011

Editor Marina González Proofreader Verónica Pintos Designers Sebastián Escandell Verónica De Luca

Copyright D.R. 2012 Cengage Learning Argentina, una división de Cengage Learning Inc. Cengage Learning™ es una marca registrada usada bajo permiso.

Todos los derechos reservados.

Rojas 2128.

(C1416CPX) Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina.

Tel: 54 (11) 4582-0601 Para mayor información, contáctenos en www.cengage.com o vía e-mail a: clientes.conosur@cengage.com

Queda prohibida la reproducción o transmisión total o parcial del texto de la presente obra bajo cualesquiera de las formas, electrónica o mecánica, incluyendo fotocopiado, almacenamiento en algún sistema de recuperación, digitalización, sin el permiso previo y escrito del editor.

Su infracción está penada por las leyes 11.723 y 25.446

Index About the Author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xi

English Language Learning and Technology: Discovering a Whole New Potential for Language Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii

Chapter 1

Integrating Technology in the EFL Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 WHAT IS NEEDED FOR A 21ST CENTURY CURRICULUM?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 TEACHING AND LEARNING PHILOSOPHIES IN EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS: HOW THEY RELATE TO TECHNOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 How can technology enhance the ability to meet program level goals and objectives? . . . . . . . . . 5 What are some pre-requisites for the implementation of technology in a curriculum? . . . . . . . . . . 6 Are there ways in which technological resources can be used systematically to help students with their language learning? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11 CURRICULUM AND TECHNOLOGY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Connecting Curriculum Design and Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16 CHAPTER CONSOLIDATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25 Exploratory Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25 Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25

Chapter 2

Reading & Listening through Technology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27

INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27 READING. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27 READABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29 Making reading material ďŹ t our students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30 READING FLUENCY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35 Teacher Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35 Rereading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36 TEACHING READING STRATEGIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37 READING TO UNDERSTAND DISCOURSE STRUCTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

INTEGRACIÓN DE LA TECNOLOGÍA EDUCATIVA EN EL AULA

MOVING FROM INTENSIVE READING TOWARDS EXTENSIVE READING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43 LISTENING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 DETERMINING LEVELS OF DIFFICULTY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 WHAT DO WE NEED TO DEVELOP GENERAL LISTENING COMPREHENSION? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49 WHAT SHOULD TEACHERS PRIORITIZE AS THEY ENGAGE IN INSTRUCTION AND PROMOTE AUTONOMOUS LEARNING? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49 Intensive Listening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50 Task Listening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52 Tasks in Action. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53 Grammar Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Listening Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55 Academic Listening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57 WHAT ELSE CAN TEACHERS DO TO PROMOTE LISTENING COMPREHENSION SKILLS? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59 CHAPTER CONSOLIDATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62 Exploratory Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62 Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62

Chapter 3

Speaking & Writing through Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63

INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63 SPEAKING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63 HOW CAN WE PROMOTE SPEAKING IN THE CLASSROOM THROUGH THE USE OF TECHNOLOGY? . 66 Giving Prompts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67 Visual Prompts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 WHAT ARE SOME WAYS IN WHICH WE CAN PROMOTE EFFECTIVE SPEAKING THROUGH TECHNOLOGY WHILE BUILDING UP OUR STUDENTS’ CONFIDENCE AT THE SAME TIME? . . . . . . . . . . . . .71 Self-assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73 Videoconferencing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77 Role Play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78 Podcasts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Online corpora. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81 WRITING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82 WHAT WOULD THE APPLICATION OF SOME OF THESE RESOURCES LOOK LIKE IN A CLASSROOM? . .89 WHAT OTHER ISSUES RELATED TO WRITING COULD WE ADDRESS THROUGH TECHNOLOGY?. . . . . . .91 Using Prompts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91 Genre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91 Automated Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 Collaborative Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95 CHAPTER CONSOLIDATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98 Exploratory Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98 Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98

Chapter 4

Vocabulary, Grammar & Pronunciation through Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 VOCABULARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 CORPORA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 COLLOCATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 DICTIONARIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

English Language Learning and TECHNOLOGY

Index

GAMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 VOCABULARY ACCORDING TO THEMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 GRAMMAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 SUPPORTING AUTONOMOUS GRAMMAR LEARNING AND PRACTICE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 WHAT ELSE CAN WE DO TO PROMOTE THE LEARNING AND APPLICATION OF GRAMMAR? . . . . . . . . . 129 PRONUNCIATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 PHONETIC TRAINING. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 PRACTICING SOUNDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 CHAPTER CONSOLIDATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 Exploratory Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

Chapter 5

Project-Based Learning through Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 PROJECT BASED-LEARNING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 DESIGNING PROJECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 WEBQUESTS: PROJECTS IN THE WEB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 INDIVIDUAL PROJECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 SCAVENGER HUNTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 TREASURE HUNTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 BLOGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 CAN TECHNOLOGY PLAY OTHER IMPORTANT ROLES IN THE PROJECT-BASED LEARNING PROCESS? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 CHAPTER CONSOLIDATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 Exploratory Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

Chapter 6

English Language Learning Assessment and Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 ASSESSMENT REVISITED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 SKILLS ASSESSMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Assessing Oral Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Assessing Writing Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 Assessing Reading Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Assessing Listening Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 DESIGNING TESTS THROUGH TECHNOLOGICAL TOOLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 Checking Good Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Grading/Scoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 LEARNING MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND THE PROVISION OF FEEDBACK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 Feedback to develop metacognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 Time Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 WHAT ARE SOME PROGRAM-LEVEL CONSIDERATIONS THAT WE SHOULD KEEP IN MIND? . . . . . . . . . 207 CHAPTER CONSOLIDATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 Exploratory Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210

Chapter 7

International Standard Compliance and Technology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 THE ROLE OF STANDARDS IN LANGUAGE PROGRAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 CROSS REFERENCING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 TECHNOLOGY IN STANDARDS COMPLIANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 SELECTING THE RIGHT MATERIALS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 INTERNATIONAL EXAM PREPARATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 DEVELOPING YOUR OWN CONTENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 STUDENTS’ 21ST CENTURY LIFE SKILLS THROUGH THE USE OF TECHNOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 INTEGRATING TECHNOLOGY FOR INQUIRY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 CHAPTER CONSOLIDATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Exploratory Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

Chapter 8

Standards for Teachers in the Age of Technology . . . . . . 241

INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 APPLYING TECHNOLOGY IN TEACHERS’ PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND TRAINING . . . . . . . . . 243 ONLINE PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT COURSE CHECKLIST. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 LEARNING FROM COURSE MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 DEVELOPING TECHNOLOGICAL LITERACY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 TRAINING TEACHERS ON TECHNOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 FURTHER ALTERNATIVES IN PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 CHAPTER CONSOLIDATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 Exploratory Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257

Chapter 3

Speaking & Writing through Technology INTRODUCTION In this chapter, we will try to present speaking and writing as amenable skills to the use of technology. We will discuss the importance of instilling confidence in our students before asking them to speak or write and we will learn how technology can be used effectively for that purpose. The process goes beyond the actual stage of production to include preparation and autonomous work, creating a cycle that links classroom experience to what students can do on their own. We will also see how we can gradually get our students to increase their ability to produce language, using technology to scaffold student progress. As in previous chapters, we will link the fundamental concepts and principles that are most associated with successful student learning and practice with actual technological resources that can serve to bring about better results than those that would normally be possible through more traditional means.

SPEAKING Of the four main language skills, speaking is perhaps the one that would seem to be least compatible with technology. This is mainly because of its apparent reliance on interlocutors, or the need for at least two participants in a conversation. In fact, second language acquisition theory would appear to confirm this. There is the position that conversational interaction in a second language is actually the basis for language learning or development. According to this view, the concept of negotiated interaction is central to the language learning process (Selinker, 2010). More specifically, Long’s (1985) Interaction Hypothesis upholds the belief that offering learners the opportunity to enter into meaning negotiation is essential if they are to make any progress. Therefore, the importance of speaking as a learning event between co-participants is clearly established. Yet, interaction can be considered only one of several factors that contribute to the development of speaking skills on the part of students. Kinds of input, variety of spoken language, and the design and use of tasks are among the other factors that should be considered (Flohr & Paesler, 2006). There is also the very basic element of providing appropriate input to 63

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stimulate conversation and discussion. Among the important variables to consider, we cannot fail to mention confidence on the part of the speaker. Scrivener (2005) points out that it is sometimes difficult for students to put their implicit or what he calls “up-in-the-head” knowledge into active use. When trying to speak, they may be nervous or fearful of making mistakes. Therefore, he contends that it is perhaps best to put them in less stressful situations where they may be more able to draw on their passive knowledge. Expanding that view, technology could very well provide students with the kind of support they need to build up their confidence as well as their actual skills. Through adequate preparation, this may be possible even when they are working alone.

By giving them enough time to think and prepare before answering a question or doing a speaking task, teachers can significantly increase students’ chances to succeed. When the classroom speaking task is multi-faceted or particularly difficult, it may be best to tell them the day before so they can prepare in advance. These strategies are most WW helpful with the weaker and shy students.

Sufficient time to think and prepare Technology can contribute towards this end before speaking increases students by letting students think and practice on their chances of success. own before being called upon to intervene in XX a classroom speaking activity.

Think about it: Do you agree with the concept that it is important for students to be exposed to theme or topic-specific content on the Internet before doing a speaking activity? Why? Can you give an example?

Speaking is a very broad term, so students may be expected to perform in many different ways depending on the task or activity. It is also important to consider the types of speaking samples we want our students to produce. Some are short and repetitive while others are longer and more spontaneous. Still, another group may be formed by extended monologues that are likely to be required at higher levels of proficiency. Technology can facilitate our students’ ability to practice one or more of these types to varying degrees, but teachers should be as familiar with them as possible in order to make a successful link between speaking and technology. Brown (2004) categorizes speaking types as follows:

English Language Learning and TECHNOLOGY

Speaking Type

Description

Imitative

The simplest form of utterance, students are expected to reproduce a language sample in the form of a word, phrase, or possibly even a sentence by repeating (imitating) the target model. The main focus is pronunciation.

Intensive

Interaction is kept to a minimum and students are only expected to produce short samples of language that are directly associated with grammatical form(s) or the ability to demonstrate phrasal, lexical or phonological relationships. The types of activities used for elicitation are directed response tasks, reading aloud, sentence and dialogue completion, picture-cued tasks designed for short responses, and translation up to the single sentence level.

Responsive

The primary characteristic is the fact that students are allowed more freedom to respond within the context of short conversations, standard greetings and small talk, simple requests, brief summaries, opinions and comments, etc., but the total length of the student’s spoken utterances is still very short. The stimulus is basically a spoken prompt on the part of the teacher or another student (much scaffolding through previously prepared material) with only one or two follow-up questions.

Interactive

The length and complexity of the student’s oral production are significantly greater as opposed to what could be expected in a responsive scenario.

Multiple exchanges and participants are possible for the purpose of exchanging specific information (transactional language) or maintaining social relationships (interpersonal exchange). These samples can be obtained through role-plays, extended picture prompt activities, pair work and group work activities in the form of discussions and conversations.

Extensive

These oral production samples include speeches, oral presentations, and story-telling with much planning on the part of the speaker. Interaction with other interlocutors is usually minimal or non-existent unless there is a provision for questions and answers during the episode.

In addition to spoken language sample types, it is also important to consider the types of activities that promote second language acquisition through speaking. Of particular interest is Ellis’ (2001) taxonomy for form-focused instruction. One of the activity types he describes is planned focus-on-form. This describes situations in which students are paying attention mainly to meaning and communication whereas the use of a particular form is incidental, based on communicative need. In other words, tasks are designed in such a way that even though students are mainly concerning themselves with getting the meaning across, they have to use a particular form to do the activity or task successfully. Ellis (2006) has referred to this type of activity or learning event as one that contributes significantly to second language acquisition. Opportunities for speaking, aided by technology, can be more productive for students if we keep this in mind.

Another important aspect of second language acquisition to consider is the concept of discourse domains. Douglas and Selinker (1984) describe them as “’slices of life’, very personal ones, that are important and/or necessary for these learners to write and/or talk about” (p. 207).

Consequently, if a student loves jazz and seeks out vast amounts of input in English that is related to it as well as opportunities to discuss it, the person’s proficiency in speaking or writing when discussing the topic

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may appear to be higher as opposed to when the person is addressing another topic that does not have such direct relevance on her or his life.

This is related to what was said at the beginning of the chapter. Kinds of input and varieties of spoken language are also variables to consider.

Technology can provide us with the input and the opportunities to practice to reinforce the role of discourse domains.

To summarize, we need to build up the learners’ confidence. We must also provide appropriate input that can serve to stimulate spoken communication. To fine-tune the opportunities for practice so they promote higher quality learning as well as the ability to speak about topics that are related to the learners’ interests, there are two alternatives we can consider. The first is to make certain students are asked to think about meaning but at the same time they should be required to use a particular form for a communicative purpose. The second is that they be exposed to topic-specific input and practice that can help them speak with greater success about the things they like and prioritize in life.

Technology can help us a great deal with all of these points.

Think about it: Think of two ways in which you can promote students speaking skills through technology considering Ellis’ concept of planned focus-onform. How would you prepare them through input and how could they put it into practice through output?

HOW CAN WE PROMOTE SPEAKING IN THE CLASSROOM THROUGH THE USE OF TECHNOLOGY? In the classroom, speaking activities take place all of the time. In fact, they are perhaps the most common type of learning event in the ESL/EFL classroom. As part of the process, technology can contribute to getting students to speak better and more confidently. In terms of promoting speaking fluency, for example, McCarthy (2006) says that speakers should help each other during the communicative exchange and contribute to a “confluence in the talk, like two rivers flowing inseparable together” (p. 4). In relation, one of the most difficult things for speakers of a second or foreign language to do is initiate a conversation. Turntaking is also essential, as McCarthy points out, and yet it can inhibit fluency if the learner is not aware of how to be an effective participant who knows when to say something during a conversation.

English Language Learning and TECHNOLOGY

Giving Prompts The use of prompts that highlight key words, phrases, expressions and lexical chunks can facilitate our students’ speaking ability to contribute to a conversation and facilitate fluency. Teachers should choose the topic and have a clear idea about what the target language should be.

In other words, it is best to know what kind of speaking sample is to be expected and what the criteria for success are. Then teachers can proceed with choosing appropriate text prompts for display on the screen. As students are working on the speaking task, they can refer to the different prompts. This will help them initiate their conversations and turns, keep the discussion flowing, and finally provide a way to bring the interaction to an end. Here is an example:

Situation: Students are local residents who are offering a tourist suggestions on places to visit in Buenos aires.

Initiator: t

There are many places you can go to and visit in Buenos Aires.

t

Buenos Aires is one of South America's most important tourist attractions.

It's certainly a great place to do sightseeing (higher level).

Ideas: You may want to consider visiting…

Among the various choices…

A good place to go to is…

There's a great… in…

If that's not your thing, you can try…

Another nice place is…

Here the speaking task is a role play between local residents in Buenos Aires, Argentina and a tourist who is visiting the city for the first time. The information is projected by way of a PowerPoint presentation slide; in a more traditional classroom, everything would have had to be written on the chalkboard or whiteboard. The situation is described and a number of statements and parts of statements are provided so that students can get the conversation both started and flowing. First they practice in groups before going up front to do the role play. We can also apply the same concept to a course book, especially if the context of the content is particularly new:

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A

Source: World Link Book 3 (1st Ed.), Heinle Cengage

WW Clear assessment criteria are crucial to the assessment of speaking interventions.

Prompts are a useful tool to maintain conversational flow.

XX

In the second example, students are expected to look at four unusual holidays and describe what they think happens each day as well as which one they would celebrate and why. The holidays themselves are not easy to talk about since they are likely to be new to the students. Therefore, without prompts, they could have greater difficulty in doing the activity. But providing language prompts can make both the initiation and maintaining conversational flow less difficult.

Visual Prompts Another effective way to promote effective speaking in the classroom is through the use of visual prompts. In the traditional classroom, these were and still are mainly represented by flash cards. Nevertheless, using a technological medium to show a picture can be much more time efficient, both in terms of lesson planning and preparation as well as actual implementation in the classroom. In the first case, teachers need only search the Internet and find the images they think would be

English Language Learning and TECHNOLOGY

Chapter 3

most appropriate for the following day’s lesson. Teachers could show a collection of images by copying and pasting them, simply using Microsoft Word or PowerPoint. Flashcards require much more work, including printing out the picture, cutting the construction paper, and gluing the images onto the paper so they have an appropriate fit; flashcards are also prone to deterioration over time whereas electronic images do not have the same problem. In terms of implementation in the classroom, the teacher also has less work. Provided the medium for portraying the images is ideal, such as a projection screen or large 42-inch monitor, it is not necessary for the teacher to make the large flashcards, which are difficult to manipulate, especially if there are several. The teacher saves time by making certain the image is large enough for everyone in the classroom to see at the same time. With flashcards, sometimes several copies have to be made of the same images and then distributed among the different groups, or the teacher may have to show two or three and then return to the podium or desk to get some more.

Picture #1

Picture #2

For the pictures above, the teacher may have to decide on the situations beforehand in order to determine which may be most likely to promote extended speaking samples from the students. The pictures could be shown using Microsoft Word first, giving students a minute to view each one. The idea is for them to see the situation prompts and come up with stories that describe what is taking place. Depending on the discussion questions chosen by the teacher, students can be required to use a specific grammar form, such as the past simple, to do the activity. Here are some examples:

Picture #3

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General speaking task (pair or group work): t

Choose one of the three pictures and make up a story for it. Don’t forget to explain: t who the people are t what they are discussing or doing t why they are so happy t what will happen next

Focused speaking task (pair or group work): t

These pictures were taken last week. Choose one of the three pictures and answer the following questions: t Who got together? Where did they meet? t What did they discuss? t What happened next?

Of course the questions can be modified to account for proficiency level and course goals and objectives. What is important is that the picture prompts have a potential for elaborated language use whenever possible. Such picture prompts would lead to speaking activities that are more interactive in nature according to Brown’s (2004) taxonomy.

YouTube videos can also provide excellent prompts for speaking activities. They can provide an endless number of topics and content students can talk about. However, videos need to be assessed very carefully for appropriateness. The vast majority of videos are authentic and were not made with the needs of English language learners in mind. Therefore, teachers need to be careful when working with them in the classroom or if they want students to watch them on their own as a preparation for the following day’s activities and tasks. A choice should be made on the following main criteria: 1. Topic Relevance

2. Length

3. Difficulty

4. Usefulness

The first refers to the topic of the video. It should be related to what is being discussed in class, either through the course book or the teacher’s own materials. This will provide the students with additional input related to the topic, some of which could be re-used by them later.

The length depends on their level of proficiency. Basic level students can only handle small amounts of input at a time whereas higher level learners could be asked to work with longer samples, as long as the content is not excessive and most of it is familiar to them. The difficulty of the language used in the video is also a key factor. Unless the teacher asks students to focus only on specific parts of the video, which she or he feels they can handle better, the overall sample should

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be assessed carefully; if it is too difficult, students will not comprehend the content and therefore will not be able to use it as a stimulus for conversation and discussion. In terms of usefulness, this refers to the videos overall potential for getting students to speak. This reflects the number of opportunities for speaking that could be gotten out of the video. For example, if the class were to watch the opening scene for a film like the Passion of the Christ, which is in ancient Aramaic and not in the students’ L1, students could be asked to produce the following: 1. Say what is happening as the film clip is playing the second or third time (intensive language sample: present continuous) 2. Describe what happened in the opening scene (use of past simple: responsive or interactive) 3. Describe how the scene made them feel or discuss what their opinion is regarding the behavior of specific characters (interactive) As we can see, videos can create opportunities for students to produce different types of speaking samples. They can also get students to produce specific language forms while they focus on meaning. These performances often take place in the classroom, but preparation and practice can begin outside of a classroom setting. Ideally, we want students to be exposed to as much input as the activity or task requires.

This will help build up the learners’ knowledge about the topic as well as the amount of content they can talk about and refer during a speaking WW activity. In this case, students can be told to The skill of the teacher in selecting watch the segment a day before, thinking about appropriate and challenging material some guiding questions if necessary. Then they extracted from the Internet will decide can come to class more confidently because of the success of students in performing their familiarity with the content and because the task set. of the additional language they will have at XX their disposal for speaking.

WHAT ARE SOME WAYS IN WHICH WE CAN PROMOTE EFFECTIVE SPEAKING THROUGH TECHNOLOGY WHILE BUILDING UP OUR STUDENTS’ CONFIDENCE AT THE SAME TIME? As we said earlier, students must be confident before they can do their best to develop their speaking skills. Undoubtedly, confidence has a direct impact on their willingness to participate in activities and tasks.

It also affects their wanting to take risks and negotiate meaning when

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interacting with others. When students lack confidence, they tend to get nervous and hold back. They also tend to over-monitor their speech, and this affects fluency and the complexity of the language they use. Technology, however, can play an essential role in getting students to feel confident so they can say more, negotiate, and link topics of their interest to conversation and discussion. Technology can get them to practice on their own before or with their friends outside of class before they are asked to do the real thing in front of a classroom audience or peers with whom they may not be as familiar. In the classroom, technology can facilitate the input and visual prompts that can facilitate discussion and an overall eagerness to talk. Interesting audio samples, pictures, videos and interactive activities that can be heard or seen on an intelligent whiteboard or large-screen monitor can mean the difference between a boring, routine class and a dynamic, engaging learning experience with enthusiastic students.

In relation, some webpages provide topic or structure related input, explanations on how to use vocabulary or grammar for a specific situation and then a video clip showing an example of a real-life situation, followed by a recycling of the information for the learner’s understanding. This is a more scaffolded approach that helps the learner make more sense of the video as well as how to use the new language being presented. This may take place during a grammar lesson, with a follow-up speaking activity to check understanding and use under teacher guidance. Or it may lead to a more open speaking activity, such as a role play, once the grammar or vocabulary has been learned. The presentation and speaking activity can take place together in class, or students can be asked to begin preparing on their own, whether in the multi-media lab, a public Internet booth, on the home personal computer, or even through their cell phones on the way back from class if it is a smartphone with Internet and video streaming capability. Finding the right content is also not very difficult. As an example, there are many free videos on the Internet that follow this format, such as Learn English. The following sequence is from the lesson called “Learn English 14: Crime”:

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Did you keep it inside?

No, I didn't.

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Lock

The sequence starts with a grammar point explanation. It is the grammar being focused on in the lesson. Then pre-requisite vocabulary is presented, followed by a video sequence in which a situation is roleplayed. The situation presents the use of the grammatical form being presented. Certain specialized software and multi-ROM applications that are commercially available, such as Heinle’s Grammar Clips, also follow the same format but perhaps with more detail, content and variety in the number of grammar forms available. The abundant information and the pedagogical sequence help students prepare themselves for specific communicative situations, especially the kinds they will encounter in real life.

Teachers can also work with specific statements and expressions using cell or mobile phones. A simple expression or phrase could be sent by text message to the students in class, or several could be sent at the same time. The language can be related to a particular topic, grammar, vocabulary or just about anything the teacher would like students to think about and practice. With the understanding that they will be asked to do a role-play, discussion or other speaking activity in class based on the assigned language, it is very likely students will want to take the time to comprehend and practice on their own. They can even join their friends to act out a role play. This concept, for example, has been implemented in China with success since 2003, namely between the British Broadcasting Company (BBC) and SINA, a leading Chinese media and Internet services company (BBC, 2011).

Simple speaking activities you can do with cell phones You can record your voice You can send audio or text ďŹ les to other cellphones in the area via Bluetooth You can plug your cell phone to a computer or any USB device and play the recorded sound.

Self-assessment To build up students’ confidence before engaging in a classroom speaking activity it is advisable that there be opportunities for selfassessment and monitoring as well. Although research has been unable

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to establish conclusive evidence on a direct correlation between selfassessment and performance in language production (Hudson & Brown, 2001), there is enough evidence to suggest that students’ perception of satisfactory performance and progress in their learning could have a positive impact on the learning process. Students are used to hearing the teacher and others. During their interactions, they process and monitor their classmates’ speech. Yet, rarely do they have an opportunity to hear themselves perform without having to worry about what they are going to say or do. Technology makes self-assessment possible by allowing students to record their performances and then listen to themselves afterwards. The self-assessment instance could consist of a simple listening of their speech followed by a reflection to share in class. Students could also be asked to fill out a self-assessment checklist or similar instrument.

In order to self-assess, there is a number of means that are available.

A cell phone often comes with a voice recording feature. In class, it may be difficult to carry out self-assessment since students tend to worry mainly about what they are going to say to each other and the content of the conversation. Also, if and when such recordings take place, the noise levels may not allow for a good recording that could lead to effective self-assessment. Therefore, perhaps it is preferable for learners to work on their own, either in a more controlled environment within an institutional setting or simply at home. They can use an online learning platform, such as Heinle’s Online Speaking Lab, for example. It provides carefully scaffolded opportunities for simulated conversation and speaking practice. Students are asked to participate in short conversations. They must respond using one of several alternatives that are provided on the screen. They can record their responses and the system can recognize when the right one was given and provide feedback when the response was incorrect. Visual prompts help the students understand the context and purpose of the conversation. Replaying the recording allows them to hear themselves speak in a variety of situations while the pre-determined answer choices provide security and help build up the learners’ confidence.

WW The possibility to replay, record and reflect while listening again to one’s own production promotes the skill of self-assessment.

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There are actually many applications with similar features. They all allow students to record their voices and play back what they said. Yet, if resources are limited and funding is an issue, a simpler approach could be to use a simple cell or mobile phone to record a practice speaking session. Teachers can ask students to practice sample dialogues from the course book and play back their performances for pronunciation and fluency self-assessment. They could also be asked to practice summarizing their knowledge about a particular topic using the 4-3-2 technique (Nation & Newton, 2009) for developing speaking fluency.

First, they say something in four minutes, then in three and finally in two. Then students can switch roles so the partner can also have the same opportunity. Each turn is recorded using the cell or mobile phone. Then, with a checklist the teacher may have provided or one that students may have been asked to create on their own, they can check to see if their use of vocabulary and grammatical structures has improved along with the overall quality of the language. Students can then listen to themselves and offer each other feedback, if working in pairs, or selfassess with a checklist or other student-friendly instrument. The next day, they can share with their classmates and teacher their impressions on how they did. Here are some other types of activities suggested by Nation and Newton that can help students with their speaking skills, which can also be recorded:

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Ask & Answer: Students are asked to read a text and then answer questions that have been provided by the teacher.

These questions require students to summarize what they have read. By repeating the questions and practicing the answers, students build up fluency and get prepared for presenting in front of the class the next day or responding to the teacher’s questions during a class discussion.

Rehearsed Talks: Normally, students prepare to give a talk by practicing individually first, then with a partner and finally with a group. At all three stages of practice, the performances can be recorded. As more people get involved, the task becomes more challenging and similar to what the students will eventually be asked to do on their own.

These are all activities that students can do on their own for practice by using their cell or mobile phone as the main recording device, if it has the feature. As Nation and Newton (2009) suggest, students can rerecord their performances until they are happy with what they hear. They also point out that what is most important is that there be limited demands, a focus on meaning, and a high expectation for improving performance. The first is to make certain students are not asked to do too much and risk failing from the outset, something that could affect their morale and motivation to continue practicing.

By focusing on meaning, their language becomes more natural and authentic. Resorting to memorized scripts and excessive attention to grammar and vocabulary could inhibit spontaneous thinking and decision-making, so fluency would not improve as much as it could.

The high expectation for performance simply serves to push students to continue improving on their own until an objective is achieved, either one established by the teacher or one that they may have set for themselves. These criteria should be made known to students from the very beginning of the course. Teachers should also work hard alongside the class to make certain students understand what is to be done and how to get the most out of the experience. Ultimately, students stand to gain a great deal in terms of their speaking ability if they use the technology at their disposal to practice a sufficient amount of time on their own.

Think about it: What role does student self-assessment play in enhancing their speaking skills in your classes? How can we get a class of 30 secondary school students to put it into practice?

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Videoconferencing

Students can also practice using videoconferencing applications, such as Google Talk, Skype, and MSN Messenger. Students can be asked to do an online role play through one of these applications and record the conversation for self-assessment and later viewing; to record, however, it may be necessary to download a separate application. For practice, they can pretend they are customer and sales representative at a store, tourist and local on the street, two friends catching up on things, or manager and employee discussing performance feedback at the end of a term, among innumerable possibilities. The videoconferencing feature allows students to continue as if they were in a classroom setting. Teachers can even come to an agreement with their students as to when they can meet virtually online outside of the classroom for brief Q&A sessions, where they can practice making questions. Here are some suggested steps to implement videoconferencing applications in an ESL/EFL program: 1. Identify the role of the videoconferencing application in the learning experience and highlight its benefits to students.

2. Take class to the multimedia laboratory to set up their accounts in the selected videoconferencing service.

3. Assign and explain a task for them to do on their own, for example adding their classmates and teacher as contacts.

4. Provide any instruments you have prepared for self-assessment, monitoring or task completion and explain them.

5. If recording, go over the specific features that are expected to be used to produce a video recording of the video interaction.

6. Go over the results in class and get different views on how well the task went and what students perceived to be the benefits of such practice for their speaking abilities.

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Role Play Another possible application of rehearsal for improved production in speaking activities is the case of role plays. Let us suppose we are teaching a class where we will perform a role play activity the following day in relation to weekend activities. Students are aware of this and advised to listen to examples first. They are given information on web sites where they can see examples of how people discuss their weekend activities using the past simple tense. They can also be referred to specific software applications that provide the same input either in the multimedia lab or through the institutional web page. By viewing sample conversations and listening to examples of how the target language is to be used, their level of preparation for the activity or task is higher.

Therefore, they stand a greater chance of succeeding. Eventually, they will go into the task with more confidence. Should they practice with their friends before, the quality of their language is more likely to be higher as well. So there is room here for us teachers to expand the horizons of our students to help them produce better. In the end, we want them to succeed, so this kind of input can only be helpful.

These are examples of videos in which the target language is explained and used. However, there is also abundant content with vocabulary and information related to an endless number of topics that students can use to fine-tune their performances. For example, if the role play is going to portray an outing to the movies or cinema, they can be directed one or two days in advance to movie-related web sites, such as the following:

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Vocabulary, Grammar & Pronunciation through Technology INTRODUCTION In previous chapters, we have seen how technology can be used to promote the four elementary language skills of reading, writing, listening, and speaking. However, technology can play an important role in developing other aspects of the second language learning process as well- specifically, vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation. Through Websites, specialized software, interactive CD-ROMS, and even their cell or mobile phones, students can learn new words, phrases, expressions and lexical chunks that will allow them to understand written text, write a message or essay, understand someone who is speaking, or engage in verbal communication and at the same time improve their flow of language and sounds. Grammar, or form-focused learning and practice, is another area for which students can use technology to understand what Larsen-Freeman (2003) calls form, meaning, and use for later application in communicative interaction in real life. Overall, we as teachers can provide an array of alternatives through technology so our students learn more vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation features, thus consolidating their progress in their language development.

VOCABULARY Learning new words is essential if students are to increase their proficiency beyond an elementary level. In fact, some would even say that lexis is the basis for language as a whole (Lewis, 2002). Technology can aid the process significantly. However, we will first discuss some of the basic concepts and principles that are most associated with successful vocabulary learning before we develop a technology-rich learning plan for our students. One basic principle is that language learners should learn a certain number of high frequency words as quickly as possible before they can consolidate themselves at a higher level of proficiency (Schmitt, 2000). As mentioned earlier in the book, it is believed that language learners should build a solid foundation of at least 2,000 of the most commonly used, high frequency words in the English language; this will allow them to engage in the vast majority of general, non-academic 99

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conversations they are likely to find in real life situations (Nation, 1990; Nation & Waring, 1997). In relation, Nation (2001) refers to evidence that supports the notion and says the following: The high frequency words of a language are clearly so important that considerable time should be spent on them by teachers and learners. The words are a small enough group to enable most of them to get attention over the span of a long-term English program. This attention can be in the form of direct teaching, direct learning, incidental learning, and planned meetings with the words… In general, high frequency words are so important that anything that teachers and learners can do to make sure they are learned is worth doing. (p.16) He goes on to say that for reading academic texts, the 2,000 most frequent texts cover an average of 80-82% of the running words. In order to set higher goals, as initiating studies at a university, language learners may need to acquire at least another 1,000 high frequency words (Nation, 1990). For even higher level situations, McCarthy (2010) explains that knowledge of approximately 6,000 words may be sufficient for a reader to accomplish 90% comprehension of most spoken and written texts but goes on to stress that knowledge of as many as 16,500 word families has been found among non-native higher achievers in university settings. Nevertheless, learning the highest frequency words in the English language is still an essential pre-requisite since they appear in most academic texts to a significant degree. This bears a direct relationship to target proficiency goals in a language program and the work we as teachers do each day, as well as any autonomous learning opportunities we may ask our students to engage in. The actual target that language learners may set for themselves will depend on their goals in the end.

As it is, for students to learn a significant number of new words in relatively short periods of time, much usually depends on what takes WW place in the classroom through more traditional A vocabulary of the most frequent means. The course book, workbook, teacherwords in English ranges from 2000 to made activities, readings, and videos all provide 3000 words. opportunities for students to learn new words.

XX Yet, the question is how can we use technology to enhance the conditions under which our students can learn these words effectively so that the ultimate result is as close to our goals as possible? We can begin by identifying the highest frequency words in the English language and knowing where

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to find them. There is a variety of word lists that have been created. The words are generally chosen on their frequency of use in the language, based on data collection through various corpora, as well as their applicability across different text genres and situational contexts. Most traditional dictionaries have an online free version that can be accessed by anyone. To name but a few, Collins Cobuild, Merriam Webster, and Cambridge dictionaries, as well as online dictionaries like Word Reference. Many offer Forums, Thesaurus, or Scrabble Checker (as in the case of the Collins Website). Oxford 3000™ is a free list taken from the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary. It contains the 3,000 most frequent words and presents them in an easy, user-friendly format.

Students can see the spelling and listen to the pronunciation in both British and American English.

Source: http://www.oxfordadvancedlearnersdictionary.com/oxford3000/

For instructional purposes, teachers can make reference to words during a lesson to point out that they appear on this list or any other that has a similar purpose. This will focus the students’ attention so they can take extra steps to add them to their own learning or vocabulary logs, something we will discuss at the end of this chapter. Teachers can also guide students by providing tips on how the words can be learned independently through a variety of techniques. What is important is

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that students become aware of the fact that there is a knowledge base of very frequent vocabulary in English that should be learned over a reasonable period of time. The sooner they reach the 2,000 - 3,000-word threshold level, the better.

CORPORA A corpus is yet another valuable technologically supported alternative.

Corpora are databases of text stored electronically, accessible by way of a computer and the Internet (McCarthy, 2010). Concordances are samples of how language is used in written or spoken form that can be found through corpora. With corpora, students can see how a word is used in real life situations. This is because they are comprised of language samples that have been collected over many years and through countless hours of research. One such corpus that is particularly useful for learning new words is the The Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA). It was originally created by Mark Davies from Brigham Young University in the United States. As shown below, it presently consists of some 425 million words, with data collected since 1990.

Source: http://www.americancorpus.org/

It is the largest corpus that is available online for free. It has a number of features that can be helpful for ESL/EFL learners. Once you enter a word or word combination, it gives you the total number of concordances

English Language Learning and TECHNOLOGY

or language samples that are available. However, it divides them into categories in terms of their origin. They go from spoken examples to printed texts, which include samples from fiction, magazines, newspapers, and academic publications. There is also the possibility of seeing them divided according to time period, from the most recent entries to those that were originally collected between 1990 and 1994.

Source: The Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA)

In the classroom, teachers can access this Website to clarify the meaning and use of a new word or word combination. Students usually want to see examples, so this corpus or any other could help with the presentation of the new language. Students can see examples of how the new vocabulary is used by native speakers, either in spoken or written form. In order to focus on the examples that would be the most helpful for the lesson, teachers can review the answers beforehand and filter them in order to focus on those that would be the most comprehensible to students.

Regarding the learning of vocabulary that is appropriate for the comprehension of academic texts, Nation (2001) refers to Coxhead’s Academic Word List (AWL). It contains approximately 570 word families with 3,000 running words. Should students learn the 2,000 most frequent words in the language along with the items in the AWL, only one word in ten encountered would be unknown instead of one word in five. The AWL is actually available online through the Website for Using English for Academic Purposes (UEFAP). All of the words in the AWL are available as are the definitions for each as provided by the Collins Advanced Learner’s Dictionary.

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Source: http://www.uefap.com/vocab/select/awl.htm

To promote effective vocabulary learning throughout a curriculum, it is advisable to have some form of referential data on how many words our students know. From time to time, teachers can obtain this information either through activities in the classroom or after the students have assessed themselves. A vocabulary-size test (VST), for example, can provide teachers with the tool they need. It can also allow students to self-assess their knowledge of vocabulary to measure their own progress as they systematically learn new words on their own. At the program level, such information is particularly important since knowledge of vocabulary is generally considered a strong indicator of a learner or language user’s proficiency. These tests are usually closedended and require the test-taker to choose the alternative that is closest in meaning to the target word in the question item. Since the options usually have disparate meanings, test-takers can make an accurate association between the test item and the correct answer even if they only have a vague knowledge of the target (Schmitt, 2000), thereby reducing the influence of guessing. A web site that offers several adapted versions of assessments that measure knowledge of vocabulary is Compleat Lexical Tutor. The options include Nation’s (as cited in Schmitt, 2000) original Vocabulary Levels Test, his 1K–14K Vocabulary Size Test, and Schmitt, Schmitt and Clapham’s (2001) 2K–10K test.

English Language Learning and TECHNOLOGY

Source: http://www.lextutor.ca/tests/levels/recognition/1_14k/

For Nation’s (1990) 1K–14K assessment, shown above, the automatic scorer will determine how much vocabulary the test-taker knows in ranges, from the first 1,000 to the top 14,000 most frequent words. In the example, only the items for the first 1,000 word level were completed correctly to illustrate how the automatic scorer works. The assessment is referential in nature, but it could guide curriculum developers, teachers and students in planning and carrying out a variety of vocabulary teaching and learning processes. As a program level check, one or more intermediate level classes could be taken to the multimedia laboratory in order to take a VST. Depending on the results, program and curricular modifications could be made. Advanced level classes could also be taken at some point to see if students have, at the very least, a 2,000 or 3,000-word level, depending on the goals and characteristics of the program.

COLLOCATIONS It is also important to recognize that single words are not the only kind of vocabulary that should be prioritized in the language learning process. There are also hundreds of thousands of multi-word items, such as collocations and institutionalized expressions, as well as polywords (Lewis, 2002). Collocations are basically the way pairs

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or groups of words go together and are vital to developing a robust lexicon, so opportunities should be created to learn and practice them (Schmitt & McCarthy, 1997). On the Internet, there are many web sites that provide such practice. These can be accessed in the classroom, with students working in pairs or groups to arrive at the right answer or they can be done as independent study.

Source: http://info.smkb.ac.il/home/home.exe/5953/13026

In the example above, students are asked to choose the word that is most appropriate for the context being presented. It will remind students that even though some words could be matched to others grammatically speaking, they would either not sound right or be wrongly applied considering the context of the statement. Over time, students can develop a stronger command of collocations if they practice them frequently enough and apply them when they are engaged in productive practice.

Similarly, students can practice fixed expressions such as idioms, which are multi-word combinations that carry a singular meaning.

For example, “saved by the bell” is a very commonly used expression that means that a difficult situation comes to an end before you have to say or do something you do not want to (Cambridge Dictionaries Online, n.d.). You can find the meaning and supporting examples for countless numbers of idiomatic expressions on the Internet. Here is an example taken from a list of idiomatic expressions that appear on the free Cambridge Dictionaries Online, with the option selected for idioms:

English Language Learning and TECHNOLOGY

Source: http://dictionaries.cambridge.org

In this example, the first step was to select idioms under the different options in the upper-right hand corner. Then the word by was typed in the field that corresponds to “Look it up!” A list of over 40 different idiomatic expressions appeared, including play it by ear.

When that particular entry is selected, an explanation is offered along with an example, as shown above.

There is a general consensus supported by abundant research that ESL/EFL students are more likely to learn new language when it is presented in context. Moreover, the use of pictures and other visual materials can enhance comprehension of L2 text, especially in the case of lower proficiency students (O’Maggio, 2001). Additionally, it seems that in the case of vocabulary learning, the quality of the context in which the language is presented can have a greater positive effect than simply the number of repeated exposures (Webb, 2008). It should also be noted that pictures can also be used as mnemonic devices to support vocabulary learning and recall; the keyword technique, for example, relies on visuals along with key words that learners can choose to help them remember the meaning of a new word they are trying to learn.

Considering these points, a task for curriculum planners and teachers is to find the best ways to associate new words with pictures that depict their meaning or the situations in which they are likely to be applied.

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DICTIONARIES What we have seen thus far offers some insight on what we can prioritize or highlight when we are teaching new words and how we can determine the progress that is being made. For the actual learning of new words, electronic dictionaries can serve as a vital resource. There are many varieties of electronic dictionaries that come with features that are truly learner-friendly. Merriam-Webster’s Online Learner Dictionary, for example, provides a list of what it considers to be the 3,000 most commonly spoken words in English. Once the user has registered with the Website for free, there are several helpful features that are available. It has a My Dictionary feature that allows students to select the words they want to focus on at any one time. It becomes a personal log of lexical items that are considered top priorities for the student. The site also allows them to drag and drop these words into personalized flashcards. This can be very helpful for vocabulary learning and practice.

Source: http://www.learnersdictionary.com/search/carry

As we can see in the example, there is a plus sign to the right of the entry. By clicking on it, students can add the word to their My Dictionary list at any one time. Once it has been added, they can drag and drop the word into the flashcard box that appears in the lower right hand corner of the screen. With the flashcards, students see the word and

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try to remember the meaning. Then they can WW flip it over to see the actual definition to see if Online technology allows for personathey were right. Again, with this personalized lization of data so searches may be feature, they can build their own collections of personally kept. flashcards, depending on their needs.

The process of getting students to work with XX electronic dictionaries begins in the classroom.

They stand to gain the most if teachers provide adequate orientation and practice. It is even better when dictionaries, both printed and electronic, are integrated into the learning experience.

Students must first come to realize how valuable dictionaries can be as learning tools. Second, students need to understand how to make effective use of dictionaries, and that can only take place if they are shown how. Through periodic reference and practice, students can build the awareness, motivation, and competence that are needed to value the dictionary for what it is and to make effective use of it. The following is an example of how dictionaries, both printed and electronic, can be integrated with the learning experience effectively: 1. Teachers can provide their students with an orientation on why dictionaries are such an important tool for language learning and what their most important features are.

They should be shown how important it is to refer not only to the definitions but also to the antonyms, synonyms, pronunciation (phonetic symbols), word type, examples, and other relevant information. This can be done in the classroom with printed materials and in the multimedia laboratory for electronic versions. They are not mutually exclusive. They can both be done at different times to maximize effect.

2. Whenever students are learning vocabulary in the classroom, either through the course book materials or by way of an online web site, teachers can make periodic requests to borrow a set of similar dictionaries from the institution’s resource center.

Then students can use them to annotate new words in their notebooks or learning logs along with their definitions and other relevant information.

3. Whenever the class is taken to the multimedia laboratory, the teacher could set aside some time for vocabulary learning and practice. For the occasion, teachers can get students to use an electronic dictionary, like Merriam Webster’s Learner’s Dictionary, to find the new words they may have learned during the lesson that day.

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4. Teachers should encourage students to keep a learning log that includes vocabulary items. It can be in printed form, but it would be best if they could eventually transfer that information to electronic form so the content does not get lost over time.

When looking for technological resources that can provide visual materials to support vocabulary, it is best if the alternative can WW be applied to multiple settings: classroom, Vocabulary presented in rich contexts multimedia laboratory, and home. Today is more likely to be recalled. picture dictionaries are common, but not many XX come with a technology-friendly interactive CD-ROM. The Heinle Picture Dictionary is a valuable alternative that provides context to vocabulary learning as well as numerous alternatives for practicing the application of new words and even pronouncing them.

Source: Heinle Picture Dictionary Interactive CD-ROM

New vocabulary is supported by richly detailed pictures. The words are presented together in a situational context, such as shopping at shops and stores, food, work, leisure activities, and others. Words can be heard and then pronounced through the application’s recording feature, allowing students to improve their pronunciation as they learn

English Language Learning and TECHNOLOGY

each new word. The Words in Context feature presents the words in a reading text that is simply for upper basic learners and higher. Word Partnerships presents the words as they would be associated with others, including common collocations. Activities for practice include flashcards, matching, spelling, dictation, reading, and word search. Overall, students have an opportunity to learn up to 4,000 individual words presented in context and by way of practicing the four essential language skills: reading, writing, listening, and speaking. The ultimate feature is that students can monitor and save their progress as they move from one unit to the next until they complete all sixteen.

Think about it: How do you now think technology may help to establish meaning through context when teaching vocabulary?

GAMES Of course, applications that are purchased tend to offer many more features and benefits than those that are freely accessible on the Internet.

Yet, if a teacher or institution is looking for lower cost alternatives, there are many web sites that teachers and students can work with. There are also other resources, practices, and strategies beyond the Internet that can put technology to work in favor of vocabulary learning and practice. Again, as always, the key is to find a variety that can cater to student needs and preferences. The more varied the offering, the more likely students will remain engaged. Also, when seeking alternatives to build an inventory of vocabulary learning resources, it is important to keep in mind what is generally accepted in the field as good practice.

For a variety of free Internet-based activities that promote vocabulary learning and practice, a page such as the one in the following example could be very helpful:

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Source: http://www.vocabulary.co.il/

This web site offers an endless variety of games and resources, most of which could not be included in the screenshot because of space considerations. Depending on the actual game or activity, students can even select the timing and difficulty level. Here is a sample screenshot that comes from the same web site. It is a game for practicing suffixes, an area that according to studies should be practiced along with prefixes:

English Language Learning and TECHNOLOGY

Source: http://www.vocabulary.co.il/sufďŹ xes/intermediate/elementary-sufďŹ xmeaning/

Some of the games on this and other web pages can be played in the classroom. This leads to a nice change of pace and a high level of engagement, apart from making the vocabulary lesson more memorable.

The example below is a game in which students must hear for the antonyms, calling out their positions until all of the pairs have been found. This can be but one of a battery of games that teachers can use at different times throughout the course. The image can appear on the large-screen monitor or the projection screen, depending on the hardware being used.

Source: http://www.eslgamesworld.com

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English Language Learning and TECHNOLOGY La tecnología está asociada a la enseñanza de idiomas y del inglés en particular. Los últimos desarrollos en tanto a la Web y a los dispositivos móviles presentan nuevas oportunidades para su incorporación en el aula de lenguas extranjeras.

Los docentes que recién se inician en la integración de las tecnologías de la información y la comunicación (TIC) a su práctica profesional, necesitan recursos tecnológicos adecuados y esperan recibir una capacitación tanto instrumental como pedagógica intensiva.

Este libro procura transmitir a los docentes una idea sencilla: que la integración de TIC a la enseñanza es posible y puede alcanzarse con naturalidad si se respetan los principios más básicos de la pedagogía, en particular aquél que señala que “A hacer se aprende haciendo”.

Plena de recursos actualizados y estrategias concretas, la presente obra ha sido concebida para motivar y acompañar a los educadores en el proceso de integrar las TIC a sus labores cotidianas, una tarea ineludible en los tiempos que corren. Asimismo, podrán obtener material adicional de los contenidos correspondientes a esta disciplina en www.cengage.com/tecnologiaeducativa

Technology is strongly linked to language teaching, and to EFL teaching in particular. The latest developments both in the Web and in mobile devices newly challenge educators as regards the way these will be incorporated into the foreign language classroom.

Teachers who are starting to integrate new ICT technologies to their teaching practice need proper ICT resources as well as intensive pedagogical and technical training.

Our intention in the present volume is to transmit a simple concept. ICT integration is possible when core pedagogical tenets are respected, in particular that of “Learn by doing”.

It has been our purpose to motivate and guide teachers in the incorporation of ICT tools in their professional lives, thus the wealth of updated resources and clear strategies the book provides.

Furthermore, additional material can be accessed in www.cengage.com/tecnologiaeducativa

www.cengage.com