The Chelt Scientist ISSUE 1

35

Jeannie Law

Lily Pfaffenzeller

Millie Yeo

Tanisha Gupta

Saphie Goad

Vanessa Yip

Cynthia Honig

Freya Dixon

Laura Nielsen

Louisa Willan

Lucia Lee

Muse Da

Pippa de Wilde

Sophia Joeng

Stephanie Cheng

Tanisha Gupta

Vanessa Tsui Head

41 Feature: Quantum Entanglement

33

29 Biography: Jocelyn Bell Burnell

23 Photography: Staff & Student contributions

25

Amandine Bourrier

27

31

32

43

44

Editor's Note

Science is factual, dull and devoid of creativity, right? This stereotype couldn’t be more wrong, and it is the versatility of science that we wanted to bring to light through this magazine And who would we be if we didn't start gushing about what science means to us?

During the making of The Chelt Scientist, we truly realised just how vast the world of science is Despite principally being the pursuit of objective truth, science is not so one-dimensional as such - its ability to take on both subjective and objective forms means it extends into the realms of ethics, philosophy, politics, our environment and more. This isn’t a characteristic commonly attributed to science because of its objectivity, so that became a major driving force behind the creation of Chelt Sci!

Stemming from our mutual love for science, the idea for The Chelt Scientist was born. We wanted to create a platform where CLC could share their passions (no matter how niche) through uniting scientific interest across College beyond school curricula, and ultimately encouraging collaboration in the form of a magazine

And so after countless cappuccinos (shoutout to Caffè Nero and school coffee machines), hours spent hopping between a mess of google chrome tabs virtually and coffee shops that kicked us out when we stayed past their closing times, the magazine is finally here! Evidently, it’s a tad late - the science news is so last year (literally) - but the great thing about science is that it’s timeless. The relevance of everything discussed, from the Nobel Prizes (p7-11) to COP26 (p17-18), is long-lasting Following these recent breakthroughs, read about a dazzling array of topics:

The world is dominated by mysteries scientists are trying to elucidate, and our brains, for one, is a perfect example. People love exploring the meaning of dreams (I’m looking at you Freud), because they tend to reveal something about our subconscious But what about dreams that you can actively, consciously control? This sounds contradictory to the concept of dreaming we’re generally familiar with. On p25-26, Amandine takes us through this bizarre phenomena of the brain, lucid dreaming, where she explores studies, benefits and even ways to induce lucid dreaming!

Another topic beloved by pop science that is infamously hard to wrap your head around which pop science loves is the tricky business of the quantum world, which Lana delves into in one of our feature articles (p41-42). While aspects of science such as quantum physics may seem so removed from our human experiences, it is hard to forget the ever-expanding volume of scientific research which has lent itself to a plethora of applications in our world, ones that have direct impacts on human lives Larissa highlights this amazing feat in her article about AMI (p32), a technology that ameliorates the lives of those with prosthetic limbs “It is evident that by combining man and machine, we could advance in medicine”, she writes. However, the impacts of science on humans isn’t always guaranteed to be positive, and this is when we truly see how science is often inseparable from ethics Is this the case in gene editing? In another one of our features exploring the ethics and legislation behind human gene editing (p35-40), hear some students and staff in CLC give their takes on this topical controversy! (Disclaimer: all views expressed do not reflect CLC’s viewpoint, but merely those of the individuals).

We hope that in reading our first issue of The Chelt Scientist - or at least cherry-picking the articles that speak to you - you learn something new, and maybe even feel inspired to write something for us in the future After all, the Chelt Sci isn’t just our magazine - it’s yours too

The Editors, Lily & Vanessa

We Want YOU!

Want to take part in the next issue of the Chelt Sci?

Look no further! We welcome anything and anyone, whether you're STAFF or STUDENT (of any department or year group), spanning from writing or editing articles to artwork Message the following contacts (via teams or email) with anything from an article submission, signing up for a role to just expressing general interest Article submissions can cover any remotely science-related topic, from AI to psychology, or even book reviews!

General Enquiries - thecheltscientist@gmail com

Articles and Editing (Submissions & Enquiries)yipva@cheltladiescollege.org

Graphics & Illustration (Submissions & Enquiries)pfaffenzellerl@cheltladiescollege org

Feedback & Suggestions - thecheltscientist@gmail.com

IllustrationbyCharmaineLai

TECHNOLOGY

Novel Army Device Stifles Speech

LilyPfaffenzeller

Anyone who's ever called into online school with poor wifi has experienced the dreaded echo. Someone says something, and the sentence reinstates itself out of some annoying abyss a split second later, overlapping with the person actually speaking It throws you off, and usually the individual just shuts up as a result

The US Navy have wielded this inconvenience as a non-lethal weapon: the handheld acoustic hailing and disruption (AHAD) system artificially summons this echo effect to render one speechless. A long-range microphone records the target and then plays the audio through a parametric speaker with a delay.

Parametric speakers are key to this, as they ensure that only those targeted can hear the echo Although Christopher Brown (at the Naval Surface Warfare centre) was granted a patent over AHAD in September, its potential is limited: the distance adds additional delay, reducing effectiveness Plus, the extent of AHAD's impact is very much subjective: it may not work on everyone, and could even enhance fluency: though counterintuitive, it is logical given speech delay is sometimes used as a therapy for stammering

Some just condemn the intention to stifle speech in the first place: "The desire to stop people from talking is chilling" states Sophie Scott, a neuroscientist at the University College London

New Material Made That Can Be Both Rigid and Flexible

MATERIALS VanessaYip

If you visit a history museum, you are bound to find a medieval armour hoisted up for display Medieval armour makes use of metal rings linked together to form chain mails. As cool as they look, they aren’t the most effective against blunt impacts, as this is traded off for its flexibi-

-lity Now consider the opposite - an armour made of rigid chain mail This would theoretically protect well against blunt impacts, but it would also make an uncomfortable armour. How do we achieve the perfect balance between rigidity and flexibility? Chaira

Daraoi and her team at the California Institute of Technology created a 3D-printed chain mail that finds a way out Their material uses linked rings of different shapes such as octahedrons and pyramids.

CONSERVATION

When compressed, or when tension is added, the links would jam into each other in a way that locked in the chain mail and restricted movement. Think of vacuum-packed coffee beans: when packaged, coffee beans jam into each other and are unable to move; when

poured out of the package, they flow out like a fluid This effect caused the plastic chain mail to become 25 times stiffer, producing impressive results: it managed to support 1.5kg, which was more than 50 times its own mass! The team envisions many exciting uses for the material, from creating more comfortable medical support for broken bones and inserting the material into clothing to create back support, to largescale applications such as bridges or tents.

Woylies Make a Comeback After Having Narrowly Escaped Extinction

Good news for biodiversity! The brush-tailed bettong (Bettongia penicillata), or better known as the woylie, was reintroduced into mainland South Australia Having once occupied more than 60% of Australia, these endangered marsupials were nearly brought to extinction by cats and foxes introduced by Europeans Woylies are essential to the workings of an ecosystem - they dig up 2-6 tonnes of dirt and leaf litter to aid the cycling of nutrients and seed dispersal, all key to maintaining biodiversity As part of an ambitious rewilding plan, 12 males and 28 females were returned to Yorke Peninsula on August 17th To protect their safety, predator control fences were built to barricade feral cats and foxes

In addition, ¾ of the woylies were fitted with radio-tracking collars to allow the monitoring of their progress. If all goes well, this will give the green flag for further plans to reintroduce other locally-extinct species, such as the redtailed phascogale and the western quoll

VanessaYip

AUSNavycruiser

Thechainmailisstrongenoughtosupportaweight

Dr YfanWang,Dr LiuchiL,andDr SitengFan

New Medal Honouring

Women in Astronomy

VanessaYip

The Caroline Herschel medal has been established by the Royal Astronomical Society (RAS) and the German Astronomical Society (AG) The medal was announced by Angela Merkel, Chancellor of Germany who herself has a background in physics, during her visit to the UK in July.

Named after Herschel, the first woman to win a RAS gold medal for her discovery of 8 comets and work in refining star catalogues, this medal will be awarded in alternate years to exceptional female astrophysics in the UK and Germany

An independent panel of experts from the UK and Germany will select recipients of the medal, which is accompanied by a £10,000 prize fund It marks a significant step towards recognising women in astronomy, a still frustratingly male-dominated field with women making up 12% of astronomy professors in the UK and 18% in Germany

COVID-19

COVID-19 May Have Driven Flu Strain Extinct

LilyPfaffenzeller

Perhaps there truly is a silver lining to every cloud. Though our hatred for the pandemic at hand runs deep, we can at least thank the coronavirus genuinely for one thing. According to two studies under Doherty Institute in Melbourne (with one study published in Nature), one of the four influenza virus variants may have been driven to extinction by COVID-19

In short, the pandemic's travel restrictions and tenacious hygiene regulations has broken the flow of any flu transmission from person to person circulation. Pre-pandemic (circa 2019), Australia recorded 300,000 cases. Compare this to the beginning of 2021 of only 550 cases (according to the National Notifiable Diseases Surveillance System of Australia)

Robins Can See the Earth’s Magnetic Field

Encompassing the Earth is a magnetic field, and robins use it to navigate Since 1968 researchers have been uncovering this phenomenon, known as magnetoreception, but have recently discovered one of the proteins that enable robins to literally see magnetic fields This protein - Cryptochrome 4 - is found in Cryptochrome, a molecule that affects light sensitivity that is built into bird retinas By isolating and sequencing Cryptochrome 4 a team at the University of Oxford proved its magnetic sensitivity that enables robins and many other European birds to see magnetic fields.

These magnetic fields manifest themselves as light or dark patches that appear on top of what birds usually see As a bird moves its head, these patches change to provide a visual compass from the changes in shade It is this biological compass that lies at the

heart of keeping flight patterns precise and on track

September

MEDICINE

Bacteriophages and Antibiotics: The New Power Couple

resistant bacteria can be targeted by bacteriophages (viruses that attack bacteria), focusing on Mycobacterium abscessus which those with cystic fibrosis (CF) are particularly susceptible to

Using zebrafish bred to carry a CF-causing genetic mutation, the team infected them with M abscessus After screening 10,000 bacteriophages, they identified one named “Muddy” and investigated its effects on the infection caused by M. abscessus.

Forget Blake Lively and Ryan Reynolds, another dynamic duo is on the rise: bacteriophages and antibiotics Together, they are more effective at targeting bacteria than if administered independently, as a study into zebrafish has shown Bacteria are acquiring resistance against the antibiotics we rely on in conventional medicine, a problem called AMR (antimicrobial resistance) which costs more than 50,000 lives in Europe and the US every year.

A joint study conducted by the Université de Montpellier and the University of Pittsburgh looked into the ways in which multidrug

Fish treated with Muddy had a 40% chance of survival, which was double that of the untreated fish When Muddy was combined with rifabutin, a conventional antibiotic used to treat M abscessus infections, they found the number rose to 70%, indicating increased efficacy.

This provides insight into novel ways of tackling antibiotic-resistant bacteria (or even superbugs) which is extremely pertinent given the inadequate pipeline in antibiotic discovery and production

VanessaYip

Scanningelectronmicrographof Mycobacteriumtuberculosisbacteria, whichisdistantlyrelatedtoM abscessusandcausetuberculosis

Will We Be Able to Meet Manny From Ice Age?

If you’re wondering who Manny is, he is a woolly mammoth that went extinct around 4,000 years ago! However, scientists Ben Lamm and George Church co-founded a new deextinction company called Colossal and have been working on a plan to restore the woolly mammoth to the Siberian tundra using the latest genetic engineering technology

They will tweak 60 genes of the woolly mammoth’s closest living relative (the Asian elephant) and make a hybrid animal that would

survive the arctic atmosphere, giving them traits such as dense hair, thick fat and a highdomed skull They are aiming to produce elephant embryos with these genetic edits and build an entire population eventually.

Their firm has already raised 15 million dollars for this project and are hoping to return other extinct species to their habitats Their plans also mean they can preserve severely endangered species from going extinct

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS

Marie Antoinette's Secret Love Letters Exposed

LilyPfaffenzeller

Using X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy, hidden text within historical letters were revealed. The non-destructive technique involved exciting the ink by X-rays and measuring the fluorescent X-ray emitted in response, a factor that varies depending on the atomic composition of the substance

Since the letters were encrypted in different types of ink, such spectroscopy could distinguish between layers of encryption as each ink would have a different composition of elements, thus a different chemical blueprint. These documents aren't your average historical letters, however

They're letters between the last queen of France, Marie Antoinette and Swedish Count, Axel von Fersen. The encoded text could reveal state secrets, escape plans for royals, and (more importantly) any saucy details of Antionette's and von Fersen's rumoured love affair

First Ever Exoplanet Orbiting Three Stars at Once May Have Been Found

ASTRONOMY VanessaYip

New observations of our universe are constantly flooding in, and here is something to get excited about: researchers may have spotted the first ever exoplanet to orbit three stars at once! In a stellar system (named GW Orionis) far, far away, there live two stars that orbit each other, with a third orbiting those two

A disc of dense dust and gas (protoplanetary disc) separated into three rings encircles the three stars These protoplanetary discs are what remain when a young star is born. If a triple-star system wasn’t cool enough, they discovered a huge gap stretching roughly 1.5 billion km between the innermost ring and the two others. There are two hypotheses for the source of this mysterious gap: one, it is created by the torque of the three stars’ gravities; two, a planet (circumtriple planet) within the disk is pulling the dust and gas in to grow

A team of researchers from the University of Nevada performed 11 simulations of the system and found that without a Jupiter-sized planet orbiting the three stars, torque from the stars alone was not strong enough to form the separate rings

Proving the existence of the planet will not be an easy task Ideally, this would be achieved by the direct imaging method, which uses the infrared wavelengths reflecting off of planets’ atmospheres.

However, the system being located 1300 light years away makes this tricky. Nonetheless, the ongoing effort in detecting the circumtriple planet (or even planets) in GW Orionis is a true testament to how much there still is left to be discovered in the universe

TwostrawmammothsinJapan

A redacted section in this 1792 letter written by Marie Antoinettesaying‘nonpassansvous’(notwithoutyou)

©2021AnneMichelnetal

GENETICS

Tomatoes Are the First Ever CrisprModified Product to Go on Sale

Japanese company Sanatech Seed has genetically modified tomatoes using Nobel-prize winning tool CRISPR-Cas9 technology CRISPR was used to increase amounts of the amino acid gammaaminobutyric acid (GABA) by four to five times more than a regular tomato With GABA aiding relaxation and lowering blood pressure, such tomatoes are expected to increase these health benefits through natural means.

CONSERVATION

Tusklessness Rises Due to Ivory Poaching

These tomatoes have yet to leave Japanese soil - international policies on genetic modification differ, so they can only be legally produced and sold in Japan Unless you’re flying there any time soon, you’ll sadly have to wait a while before getting your hands on one

Wooden Knife Beats

In 1977-1992, a civil war raged on in Mozambique It was financed by extensive ivory poaching, causing 90% of the elephant population to be slaughtered by armed forces During that time, those that were tuskless (which was once a rare trait) were left alone and thus survived, passing the tuskless trait onto offspring. Sadly, this has resulted in a surge in tuskless female African elephants in Gorongosa national park, Mozambique.

A group of researchers observed 800 elephants in the national park over several years and further concluded that tusklessness is a prevalent feature in females as the trait is fatal to male embryos

There is no room to deny the visible effects of ivory poaching now - we are “literally changing the anatomy of animals” in the words of Robert Pringle, who led the study However, all hope is not lost (yet) The elephant population has more than tripled since the 1990s, and scientists predict the rise in tusklessness may be reversible after all Of course, this is only dependent on whether efforts in conservation and tackling ivory poaching stay sustained, or better yet, increase.

Teng Li and his team at the University of Maryland fashioned a knife out of hardened wood This is no ordinary knife - it wields extraordinary strength and sharpness owing to cellulose, a major constituent of the wood Cellulose fibres are found in cell walls and have a higher strength to density ratio than materials such as ceramic and metals.

In the process of turning raw wood into hardened wood, which is 23 times harder than the former, the team first removed a component called lignin from the wood At 200MPa, the remaining cellulose fibres were then compressed for 6 hours and dried at 100 ℃ Given cellulose can absorb water, they coated the hardened wood with mineral oil to protect the knife when washed.

Not only is the wooden knife 3 times sharper than steel ones, it could also be a renewable alternative - less energy was required in its manufacture than that required in metal cutlery production, although a more in-depth analysis is needed The same process could be applied to wooden nails to enhance strength and avoid rust.

ATusklessbullAsianElephantinHuaiKhaKhaengwildlifesanctuary

AlocalTomatofarminKigoma

LilyPfaffenzeller

VanessaYip

VanessaYip

Eco-friendlywoodenknifecutsevenbetterthansteel

The Chaos Behind

Climate models integral to our understanding of the climate crisis and patterns behind chaotic weather take their spots in the Nobel hall of fame reports Vanessa

Yip

Syukuro Manabe, Klaus Hasselmann and Giorgio Parisi are this year’s Nobel laureates. Half of the Nobel Prize in physics was awarded to Manabe and Hasselmann for their work in modelling the Earth’s climate, successfully “quantifying variability and reliably predicting global warming”. Their contributions are directly relevant to the climate crisis whose increasing urgency is reflected in the IPCC report which Manabe and Hasselmann’s models have influenced. The other half was awarded to Giorgio Parisi for discovering the “interplay of disorder and fluctuations in physical systems from atomic to planetary scales"

His discoveries are credited to be one of the most important contributions to our understanding of complex systems to date.

Carbon Dioxide as the Culprit of Increasing Temperatures

In the 1960s, Syukuro Manabe pioneered the creation of a climate model which was the first to involve the interaction between radiation balance, the balance between solar radiation received by Earth and the radiation Earth emits back, as well as the vertical movement of air masses due to convection. The model also incorporated the latent heat of water vapour (how much energy is released when water vapour condenses to form water droplets)

Equipped with this model, he varied the level of gases present in the atmosphere, identifying carbon dioxide as the gas responsible for raising global temperature. He found that when the level of carbon dioxide doubled, the global temperature was raised by over 2°C!

Manabe’s climate model showed that when carbon dioxide levels increased, temperature increased in the lower atmosphere with the opposite true for the upper atmosphere

Though seemingly paradoxical, increased carbon dioxide levels actually improve the emission of heat radiation from the upper atmosphere into space which causes the observed cooling effect

This was a key finding - it was previously thought that solar radiation took full responsibility for the increase in temperature If this were true, his models would show a uniform heating of the entire atmosphere Thus, Manabe proved this notion wrong, confirming increasing carbon dioxide levels as the real culprit behind global warming

Understanding how the climate system works fundamentally is essential, as Manabe notes in an interview shortly after the Nobel Prizes were announced

Bad News for Climate Skeptics...

Klaus Hasselmann’s work was centered around creating a climate model that tackled the chaotic nature of weather.

Chaotic weather refers to how rapidly it changes, where a slight variation in the initial conditions could shift the way a weather system unfolds massively Given the impossibility of inputting data about every aspect of every part of the atmosphere, predicting long-term weather forecasts reliably is a big challenge

To tackle this problem, Hasselmann described the fluctuations in weather as noise and created a model linking weather and climate with randomness incorporated into it (a stochastic climate model) Using this model, he showed how slow changes in oceans are caused by a rapidly fluctuating atmosphere

a fortune teller.”

"The prediction of climate change without an accompanying understanding of it is no better than the prediction of

SyukuroManabe

KlausHasselmann

NkasEmehed©NobelPrzeOutreach

the Storm

He also discovered that the impacts of natural phenomena and human activities on climate could be discerned by the unique signals, or fingerprints, that they left.

From there on, his findings proved that carbon dioxide emissions caused by human activities are, in fact, responsible for the increase in temperature

Parisi’s New Spin on a Frustrating Problem

Giorgio Parisi’s work was a revolutionary contribution to the theory of complex systems He focused on a disordered material called spin glass, and identified the hidden pattern behind its complexity and unpredictability

An example of a spin glass is an alloy consisting of magnetic atoms (e.g., iron) mixed in with non-magnetic atoms (e g , copper), which alters the material’s magnetic properties Normally, each iron atom’s spin (think of it as a tiny magnet) points in the same direction. However,

in a spin glass, imagine one spin pointing upwards and another pointing downwards This results in a third spin experiencing frustration - how does it decide on an orientation?

Hasselmann says, as he echoes one of the pressing issues we currently face that stands in the way of achieving substantial progress.

His words, along with those of other climate advocates, hopefully act as an urgent wake-up call for those who remain unwilling to take action, especially whilst climate change is still a relatively tractable problem at the present

Together, Manabe and Hasselmann’s invaluable contributions in climate modelling have proved that our accelerating carbon dioxide emissions directly cause the increase in temperature. Their unequivocal findings mean climate sceptics can no longer turn a blind eye to humanity’s environmental impacts, which is especially important in a time where they, together with major polluting corporations and countries, continue to thrive

Prior to his discovery, physicists have tried to use a mathematical technique called the replica trick to simplify the problem. Building onto this technique, Parisi identified a hidden structure behind these replicas through assessing how similar the state of two replicas are, a powerful idea transferrable to various fields of science studying randomness The countless possibilities range from explaining the behaviour of starlings to the randomness in artificial intelligence systems reliant on neural networks In his interview, Parisi echoes the same sentiment as Hasselmann regarding the value of fundamental science He also stresses the importance of applied science and fundamental science going hand in hand, saying “applications that can be useful to humanity come in some unexpected ways from your science”.

With the vast applications of their work, this year’s Nobel laureates have fuelled the fight against climate change and opened up further avenues of research into complex systems, an area of study that continues to fascinate and puzzle many

The discoveries being recognised this year demonstrate that our knowledge about the climate rests on a solid scientific foundation, based on a rigorous analysis of observations”

ThorsHansHansson,chairoftheNobel committeeforphysics

“We’ve been warning about climate change for 50 years or so”

GiorgioParisi

Chemistry How Do You Build A

Building Molecules is a difficult art - especially in organic realms, where molecules in question contain millions of atoms. The discovery of a new tool called Asymmetric Organocatalysis changed everything reports Lily

Pfaffenzeller

On the 6th of October , the Nobel prize for chemistry was awarded to Benjamin List and David Macmillan for their developments (independent of each other) of a 'new and ingenious tool' for molecule building: asymmetric organocatalysis

In wielding simple organic molecules to accelerate reactions (with 'organic' referring to molecules that build all living things), a new type of catalyst was discovered, initiating a gold rush of further developments To this day resultant benefits are ubiquitous, from greener chemistry to smoother pharmaceutical production

In The Beginning...

You may have come across the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in one of your chemistry lessons Add a catalyst, such as silver, to the hydrogen peroxide and it will quickly break down into water and oxygen gas. With a catalyst, this only takes a matter of minutes; without one, it would take 3 years. Swedish chemist Berzelius observed this phenomenon across multitudinous examples, coining the term 'catalysis' in describing a catalyst's ability to increase the rate of reactions

The type of catalyst used here, which is silver, would've fallen into one of two categories of catalysts - transition metals, with the other being enzymes (biological catalysts).

This however, shifted under the work of List and Macmillan, who introduced organocatalysts as a new, third type of catalyst

List's Lightbulb Moment

It all began when Benjamin List thought about enzymes - catalysts that drive the chemical reactions necessary for life. Take a string of beads, and imagine rolling it up and sticking it together into one big, bulky mass. This is how a protein is formed: the individual beads are called amino acids, each having an individual shape and property Enzymes are huge proteins, and so are built from hundreds of amino acids

However, only a few of these hundreds actually drive reactions Could these few amino acids single handedly catalyse reactions? This is exactly what List wondered, and consequently demonstrated...

The amino acid Proline acts as an efficient catalyst due to its nitrogen atom, which can provide and accommodate electrons during chemical reactions

Although researchers had previously discovered this, List was the first to recognise Proline’s enormous potential as a simple, cheap and environmentally-friendly molecule.

Working towards the same goal was Macmillan, albeit approaching the idea from an alternative pillar of catalysis: transition metals

BenjaminList

DavidMacmillan

NiklasElmehed©Nobe PrizeOutreach NiklasElmehed©NobelPrzeOutreach

Molecule?

An alternative to metal

David Macmillan learned the hard way that transition metals often aren't efficient catalysts Transition metal catalysts require conditions free of oxygen and moisture, which on an industrial scale, is far too complicated As a result, many catalysts developed were seldom used in industry.

Realising this, Macmillan began designing simple molecules that mimicked metals in catalysis. Metals accelerate reactions by temporarily providing and accommodating electrons, so Macmillan selected organic molecules with properties that enabled this For a simple molecule to catalyse reactions in this way, Macmillan knew it had to form iminium ions This involves a nitrogen atom, which has an inherent affinity for electrons

CATALYST

CopperAtom

MACMILLAN'S ORGANOCATALYST NitrogenAtom (formsaniminium ion)

Just like our hands, these molecules look identical in every respect, apart from one: they're mirror images of each other These mirror molecules are known as enantiomers

Many molecules exist in mirrored pairs, in which each can produce very different effects For instance, one version of the limonene molecule gives a lemon scent, while the mirror image gives an orange scent

During chemical construction, only one of these two enantiomers will be desired, especially in pharmaceutical production. Efficient methods for achieving this were difficult to find, and effects often had negative impacts The 1960s Thalidomide scandal demonstrates this, where one mirror image of the thalidomide pharmaceutical caused the death of approximately 2,000 children and serious birth defects in more than 10,000 children

children & serious birth defects in more than children 10,000 2000

Using Proline and other organocatalysts, researchers can now make large volumes of different asymmetric molecules with a 90% efficiency For example, large quantities of medicinal substances can now be artificially produced that could otherwise only be isolated in small amounts from rare plants or deep-sea organisms Other benefits include drug discoveries to HIV antiviral treatment, in addition to their sustainability and cheap production cost.

In taking these small molecules, Macmillan also demonstrated their efficiency as catalysts. Thus, organocatalysis was born.

Aside from their efficiency, both Macmillan’s and List’s developments also solve a key issue in molecule building: asymmetric catalysis

Building molecules is a difficult art. List and Macmillan’s solution to this complex dilemma was described as

Since their discovery, catalysts have been used in molecular construction by breaking down or joining up molecules The thousands of substances we use in our everyday lives, from plastics to perfumes, are a result of this However, during such chemical construction, unwanted complications can arise, many of which are solved by asymmetrical catalysis

in the words of Johan Åqvist, chair of the Nobel Committee for chemistry.

Indeed, organocatalysis offers an elegant, green and cheap solution to a decade-long problem

Nobel-winning research answers the age-old question of how we perceive heat and force reports

Vanessa Yip

How Do We Perceive the World?

Perceiving and interpreting the world around us is key to our survival, especially in events of danger such as instinctively withdrawing your hand upon touching a hot pan Sensory receptors are responsible for the communication between your internal and external environment - they can detect heat or mechanical force and convert this into signals used to alert the body.

However, the exact mechanism behind transducing, or converting, heat and mechanical force into electrical signals was unknown to scientists until Julius and Patapoutian identified the missing link, a seminal discovery that not only gives us a better understanding of our perception of the world, but also carries implications for potential advances in medical treatment.

How do we perceive heat?

David Julius’ discovery represents a breakthrough in the long history of research into this exact question René Descartes, the renowned French philosopher, theorised the existence of threads that connected different parts of the skin to the brain, thereby allowing our interpretation of heat

In 1944, Joseph Erlanger and Herbert Gasser won the Nobel Prize for discovering different stimuli are discerned by different types of sensory nerve fibers. Decades afterwards, David Julius sought to further this research by utilising capsaicin.

The reason why we feel a burning sensation in our mouths after eating chili peppers all comes down to this component, which activates neurones to produce the effect Julius collated DNA fragments of genes expressed in sensory neurons, and expressed each one in cultured cells These cells do not usually react to capsaicin unless activated by the gene Julius was searching for, and successfully located in the end - TRPV1 He discovered that this gene encodes for a capsaicin receptor, and eventually realised the identified receptor was a novel ion channel protein that responds at perceivably painful temperatures.

Equipped with this knowledge, further temperature-sensing receptors were discovered, such as TRPM8 which is activated at cold temperatures

The work of Julius has paved the way for subsequent research, with laboratories genetically removing said genes of mice to explore the role ion channels play in thermosensation

The ever-expanding knowledge surrounding thermosensation holds an exciting potential in developing treatments for conditions such as chronic pain

How do we perceive mechanical force?

Although the question had previously been answered in the context of bacteria, the mechanism of transducing mechanical stimuli into nerve impulses in vertebrates remained elusive prior to Patapoutian’s discovery While David Julius focused on locating the gene that sensitised cells to capsaicin, Patapoutian went about the problem with a different approach

Initially, he found a cell line that gave off electric signals when poked with a micropipette, indicating the cells’ mechanosensitivity. He then identified 72 genes that possibly encoded for receptors of mechanical force, and systematically inactivated each individual gene until the cell became desensitised to mechanical force Through his experiment, a novel class of ion channels were discovered, which he termed Piezo after the Greek word “píesi” meaning pressure Piezo1 and Piezo2 ion channels were found to be activated by pressure on cell membranes, where Piezo2 is specifically responsible for touch and proprioception, the ability to sense one’s position and motion Additional functions of the two ion channels are still being uncovered - scientists have identified both ion channels’ functions in blood pressure regulation, respiration, urinary bladder control and so on.

Patapoutian’s influential discovery once again holds incredible implications in medicine, for example in the investigation into several genetic disorders that arise from mutations in the PIEZO2 gene

This year’s Nobel prize in physiology or medicine was jointly awarded to David Julius and Ardem Patapoutian for discovering the receptors for temperature and touch.

ArdemPatapoutian

DavidJulius NkasEmehed©NobelPrzeOutreach NiklasElmehed©NobelPrzeOutreach

MATERIALS

DNA Plastic: A Greener Alternative?

LilyPfaffenzeller

What exactly is this cup made of? I'll give you a clue - it forms the very foundations of us, too

GENETIC ENGINEERING

Can Genetically Engineered Bacteria Cure Diseases and Combat Pollution?

VanessaYip

Bacteria are responsible for a whole host of illnesses, but what if we could turn them into something that heals us instead? Christopher Contag and his colleagues at Michigan State University were one of the teams that sought to explore this further.

These bacteria then released mammalian proteins that modified genes controlling cell behaviour In creating what scientists call “artificial endosymbionts” the team envisions its applications in everything from tissue regeneration and treating age-related illnesses

to agriculture: turning nitrogen-fixing bacteria, which “capture” nitrogen in the atmosphere for plants to use directly, into endosymbionts may reduce the need for nitrogen fertilisers which are large pollutants However, they found that

If the title wasn't already a massive giveaway, DNA has now been utilised to make plastic with a multitude of benefits by Dayong Yang and his team at Tianjin University in China. Short DNA strands under vegetable-based oil can be linked to produce a soft, gel-like material Through freeze-drying to remove water, this can then be shaped and solidified

Unlike plant-based plastics (such as seaweed or corn-starch), its production is much less energy-intensive, with carbon emissions 97% lower than that of polystyrene plastic DNAdigesting enzymes means it is also easier to break down and recycle. Its use right now however, is limited to packaging and electronic devices given its reduced strength and reliance on a dry environment

Not all bacteria are bad - in fact, some bacteria live in an endosymbiotic relationship in organisms such as plants or animals, that is, a mutually beneficial relationship Contag and his team genetically engineered Bacillus subtilis (commonly found in the gut microbiome) so that they entered mouse immune cells Usually, unmodified bacteria are engulfed on arrival in vesicles (phagosomes) that get digested by the cell in phagocytosis, the cell’s mechanism of taking in substances. However, the bacteria were edited to evade these phagosomes.

10% of the macrophages were killed by bacteria that divided too quickly after two days Their next step would be to ensure the bacteria divide only when the host cell does, and potentially to control the artificial endosymbionts using magnetism or chemicals.

Artificial endosymbionts are currently met with slight scepticism - “I’m not convinced that engineered endosymbionts would necessarily offer advantages beyond less complex approaches”, says John Rasko, a stem cell expert at the University of Sydney

NEUROLOGY

New Type of Nerve Cell Discovered

JamieHui

A study carried out in the University of Utah found an uncategorised retinal neuron, which they have now named campana cells after its resembling shape of a hand ball. Previously, there were five major groups of retinal cells identified: photoreceptors, horizontal cells, bipolar

cells, amacrine cells, and retinal ganglion cells It’s speculated they could be key to memory and learning, due to their long activating duration of 30 seconds when exposed to light stimuli. Overall, it brings neurology one step closer to understanding how the central nervous system processes stimuli as a whole

Campana cells are responsible in retinal synaptic relays, but more roles are yet to be discovered

AplasticcupmadefromDNA ©DayongYang/TanjnUniversty(China

Amicroscopepictureofairbornemicrobes

COVID-19 Pill Approved in the UK

Among all the doom and gloom surrounding COVID-19, here’s something to lift your spirits: the first ever oral medicine to treat COVID-19 has been approved in the UK! Developed by US companies Ridgeback Biotherapeutics and

127-Qubit Processor Is Taking the Quantum World by Storm

IBM’s new processor has surpassed previous processors in terms of scale. While information in classical computers is encoded in bits with states in either 0 or 1, quantum computers contain qubits (quantum bits) that exist in a hazy state of both 0 and 1, a phenomenon called “superposition”. Any attempts made to measure the state of qubits will destroy the data Scientists are making rapid strides in quantum computing in the hopes of creating a functional, reliable quantum computer that can solve complex problems outside the realms of what a supercomputer can do This can be achieved in different ways, one of them being scaling up existing quantum processors, as each additional qubit effectively doubles the computational power

It is different to the currently-used monoclonal antibodies (which block the virus from entering cells) and drugs that interfere with proteases. Molnupiravir works by targeting the enzyme needed by the virus to replicate itself, creating faulty RNA nucleotides as a result This introduces error into the virus’ RNA which prevents it from replicating, consequently reducing viral load and the severity of the illness Molnupiravir was approved in the UK on 4th November, with the UK aiming to purchase 480,000 courses Although this will be a useful weapon to fight the pandemic, it is equally important to remember it will only be effective given other strategies in place remain well-enforced, such as adhering to safety guidelines.

TECHNOLOGY

Facebook Rebrands as Meta:

In 2019, Google’s 54-qubit Sycamore processor claimed quantum supremacy, meaning it outperformed a classical computer. This was shortly overtaken by the 60-qubit processor designed by the University of Science and Technology of China Recently, IBM developed the Eagle processor which uses superconductors, a popular approach which was also used by Google’s Sycamore processor The powerful processor boasts 127 qubits, overtaking its predecessors and marking another huge step in quantum advancement Looking forward, IBM hopes to create a 400-qubit processor, and eventually transcend the 1000-qubit barrier in the next few years.

Envisioning the

Future or Disguising the Past?

Given the name “Facebook” has been such a staple in our generation, their announcement might have induced a little nostalgia in us. But this is more than just a name change - what does the shift really represent?

“Our brand is so tightly linked to one product that it can’t possibly represent everything that we’re doing today, let alone in the future”, CEO Mark Zuckerberg said On 28th October, Facebook announced their parent company’s rebranding to Meta. The name change reflects a wider project Facebook is working towards: building a metaverse. The word “metaverse” was coined by Neal Stephenson in his novel Snow Crash, although he has more than emphasised his lack of connection to Zuckerberg The company’s efforts (including billions of dollars) are devoted to creating a

When assessing performance, however, scale is not the only factor at play - error correction and scaling up go hand-in-hand Quantum computers can only be reliable if error rates of calculations are low For example, the additional machinery needed in the Sycamore processor introduced more errors than it fixed Hence, another popular route is the use of trapped ions rather than superconducting qubits, as it may have lower error rates

shared virtual space available to the public where users can do everything from create and exchange properties, to gaming, learning and shopping, all while using virtual or augmented reality In theory, users can log into the metaverse with a headset on as avatars, much like the usernames we have now

Despite their ambitious plans, many see this shift as the company’s means of disguising past controversies, such as leaked documents (The Facebook Files) that put them under fire. Some also criticise their past outages - if the metaverse were to become inseparable from our lines of communication in the future, what would the outcomes of an outage look like? There is no way of knowing, although the closest thing Facebook currently has to a metaverse is Horizon Workrooms for remote working.

VanessaYip

VanessaYip

VanessaYip

Merck, Sharp and Dohme (MSD), molnupiravir is an antiviral that can nearly halve the risk of hospitalisation or death, as clinical trials have shown.

Plyushkn/GettyImages

A Cure for Type 1 Diabetes?

LilyPfaffenzeller

Using stem cells, Vertex Pharmaceuticals has cured 64-year-old Brian Shelton from his lifelong condition: Type 1 Diabetes. The disease is caused by the immune system destroying pancreatic cells that secrete insulin - a hormone that regulates the body's blood sugar levels Often ending in blindness, limb amputations or kidney failure (to name a few), Type 1 diabetes was a chronic condition - until now

Stem cells were grown to mirror the nature of insulin-producing cells in the pancreas that Shelton lacked. Upon giving him an infusion of these cells, his body began to automatically control his blood sugar levels, effectively curing him of his Type 1 diabetes Although this supposed cure isn't set in stone, the study has been expanded to 17 more people So has a cure for Type 1 Diabetes been found? Only time will tell

Living Robots Made of Cells Can Self-Replicate

Imagine a group of people zipping back and forth to collectively piece a structure together. Now imagine this at the microscopic level - tiny blobs in culture moving around in a swarm, rotating and pushing cells together to construct a whole new generation of cells

Last year, Josh Bongard at the University of Vermont, Michael Levin at Tufts University in Massachusetts and their team created xenobots, miniscule living robots. They extracted stem cells from the embryos of the African frog (Xenopus laevis) that would differentiate into skin cells, and cultured them in salt water

Results from their experiments with these xenobots showed features such as selfassembly, group movement and ability to sense the external environment However, a recent observation in November this year has left them stunned - the xenobots were seen selfreplicating without any need for genetic intervention.

“This is profound”, says Levin, “these cells have the genome of a frog, but, freed from becoming tadpoles, they use their collective intelligence, a plasticity, to do something astounding ”

When these cells came close together, spheres of approximately 3000 cells covered with cilia formed the parent xenobot, all on their own. The xenobots worked collaboratively, amassing loose cells to produce a new generation of xenobot offspring

"Clusters of cells, if freed from a developing organism, can similarly find and combine loose cells into clusters that look and move like they

do”, their paper read. This demonstrates kinetic replication, a unique method of reproduction not known in any plant or animal so far This doesn’t happen perpetually, though - kinetic replication of xenobots eventually die out

To maximise the number of generations created, the team ran an evolutionary algorithm to find the optimal parent shape the xenobots should take to achieve this. After testing a variety of shapes, the simulation yielded an answer: when shaped almost like a Pac-man, they performed the best!

The team is already thinking of the multitude of uses their xenobots could have, from cleaning up microplastics and delivering drugs, to offering insight into how the first organisms on Earth may have reproduced. To take their research further, they hope to demonstrate kinetic replication in mammalian cells, and to increase intelligence so that human intervention is not required

CHEMISTRY

Scientists Invent Petroleum-Like Liquids From Renewable Plants

JeannieLaw

Scientists at the University of California, Berkeley and the University of Minnesota have invented petroleum-like liquids from renewable plants. Not only are the hydrocarbons made more sustainable than fossil fuels, but the process also allows the length of the chains to be adapted, meaning that they can be polymerized into plastics or even broken down into shorter chains to make

plastics Plants have not been the most ideal source for plastics as glucose in plants contains too much oxygen and it has too few carbons, problems that were tackled in the process.

Glucose obtained from plants was fermented with E.coli genetically modified to remove most of the oxygen (through converting glucose to eight-and-10-carbon hydroxy acids, which has less oxygen atoms at the end of the chain)

Metal nanoparticle catalysts stripped the remaining oxygen and combined molecules together to make alkenes. “By cleverly combining biology and chemistry, the Chang team has opened a new, potential biorenewable alternative to petroleum cracking,” said NSF Chemistry Division Director David Berkowitz

APac-Man-shapedxenobotparent(inredfalsecolour)and thenewly-createdxenobotoffspring(green)

VanessaYip

DOUGLASBLACKSTONANDSAMKRIEGMAN

Brian Shelton in Elyria, Ohio Shelton may be the first person curedoftype1diabetes AmberNFord/TheNewYorkTimes

Empathise the Right Way After a Mastectomy

Tanisha Gupta, UC5

TRIGGER WARNING for mastectomies and emotional description of experiences with cancer: some may find it difficult to read about but otherwise we encourage you to try!

Many of you reading this article may be unfamiliar with the term "mastectomy” Simply put, it is the surgical removal of your breast often used to treat breast cancer and is performed on both men and women It’s a horrible decision to have to make, and it can also take a toll on those supporting them

In this situation, most people have two choices. Try to imagine the following situation: (this might be triggering for some, so please feel free to skip these two paragraphs)

You’ve just learned that one of your best friends has breast cancer This information is tremendously upsetting to you, and your continuous thoughts about how they must be feeling just add to your distress You pick up the phone to call them but resist because you want to see them in person Besides, you don't know what to say to calm them down You get a call from their mother or father. When you answer the phone, you hear that they are having a mastectomy in two days and that they want you there to support them. You agree and start preparing for “the big day”. You spend hours planning what you'll say to avoid upsetting them

When you see them at the hospital, you give them a big hug They weep and you weep with them Before the mastectomy, they, like you, are very emotional When they emerge from the operating room, they are hoping that no well-intentioned relatives and friends will bombard them with unwanted inquiries and remarks They are undeniably vulnerable, and neither of you know what to do. You realise you can't comprehend what they're going through and aren't sure how to express your admiration, but you know it's important because you don't want their courage to be undervalued So, this is how you do it:

You assuage their fears by assuring them that everything will be fine You give them a pitiful look and treat them carefully Then you ask, "Why didn't you just have the lump removed?" and encourage them to flaunt their boobs

Or you do this…

Sit motionless, staring at where their boobs used to be. You've got stress lines across your brow, simply because you can't think of anything to say. You must be astute enough to recognize that both actions are foolish in this situation

“So, what should I say?”

You’re probably wondering to yourself

It's quite straightforward Let me explain

EditedBy:LauraNielsen

GraphicDesign:LilyPfaffenzeller

Illustration: SarahXie

Never say anything like, "Congratulations on your new boobs!" or, “What size did you go?” When discussing a mastectomy or breast reconstruction surgery, phrases like "cosmetic" should be avoided. A mastectomy can cause nerve discomfort, hormone -

imbalance, soreness, chest tightness, night sweats, and weight gain, among other things. Always remember that this wasn’t a choice they took. It isn’t a joke, their lives could hang in the balance. They will need time to recover, both mentally and physically.

Jokes or throwaway comments like, "Yes, my aunt had one and she died a horrible death!" or, "Look on the bright side, you might get hit by a bus tomorrow " can be extremely distressing to your friend Although these remarks aren't meant to be harsh, they can come off as such, particularly when someone is quite literally living a nightmare

Saying, “They’re just boobs, it’s not like you need them,” isn’t helpful either. No, you don’t need them to survive. But they are a visible part of our bodies and for some women, they are a symbol of femininity, sexuality and can be part of their identity. The physical and emotional effects of losing one or both breasts after a mastectomy can be devastating Everything, including your self-image, sex life, and day-to-day existence, is impacted by this Underplaying the effect of a mastectomy implies to the person that we think they’re shallow for caring about their appearance However, that is obviously not the case and it would seem insensitive to say so

Be caring and kind without pretending to know what the other person is going through through your actions. Try to treat them like you’d treated them before to show them that they still mean the same to you while remaining aware of their limitations. Imagine yourself in their shoes and do what you would’ve wanted them to do at that moment Love them with all your heart and respect that not many people like to talk after tough situations and that they want you there, quietly supporting them Be smart enough to know what you need to do next but don’t overcompensate because they will feel uncomfortable

Support, sympathy, and understanding are all that your loved one requires. If you're not sure what to do, look up their condition on the internet. Allow them to express themselves and listen to what they have to say. This is just one way to be considerate in such circumstances. It’s a good starting point on how to be there for someone and show them that you care

Be gentle, and everything will turn out fine!

What You Can Do This Year for

Breast Cancer

to Really Make a Difference

Breast cancer affects both men and women’s lives every single day across the globe It doesn’t wait until October (breast cancer awareness month) to get diagnosed, or sit patiently until the patient becomes aware to make an impact, so why wait around instead of helping all through the year? Now that October has come and gone in the blink of an eye, what can you do in the following months to actually make a difference and contribute to breast cancer awareness?

Something as simple as changing your mindset can be vital in protecting yourself and others from breast cancer Although it is true that symptoms which warn us of breast cancer can occur in many, most of the time breast cancer doesn’t come with a lump that’s easily detectable without a checkup However, despite that fact, around half of the UK’s women don’t even check for symptoms or signs of potential breast cancer! So just by making it clear to yourself and those around you the importance of being aware, it could help save a life. Even as you’re just starting to grow up and become an adult, early detection is the key to surviving breast cancer, so knowing how to check your breasts is very important. For older women, getting regular mammograms (x-rays to examine your breasts) at hospitals is extremely important for early detection Look into preceding cases of breast cancer in your family and speak to your doctor if it runs in the family Don’t wait until October to do this; be constantly aware! Don’t be scared or embarrassed to check your breasts regularly for around 7 to 10 days after periods, and don’t forget to tell everyone around you, even your dad, to check theirs!

It’s crucial to discern the facts and gain more understanding not only into what breast cancer is but also how common it is. The statistics are alarming; in a mere 2 minutes, a female is diagnosed with breast cancer A less-known fact is that breast cancer doesn't just affect women, but also men;

If spending your spare money isn’t an option, you can always participate in many events to help raise awareness and money for breast cancer For example, the shine night walk, organised by Cancer Research UK lets you either walk a marathon, half marathon or a 10k through your city and light it up. You can choose which cancer type you want to support and raise money for this charity. Although it’s something more physical and takes up more time, it’s one of the best things to do in order to raise money and awareness about breast cancer.

If you love fashion and dressing up or Mean Girls, during breast cancer awareness month we wear pink! This wear it pink day has now raised £36 million to date, which makes it one of the biggest fundraising events in the UK You can register to hold your own wear it pink event and raise money for this charity as well

If you are like me and want to do all you can to help, I hope this has given you insight into how important helping can be, and how we can create a better world every time we participate. No matter how small our contribution seems to be, it will make a difference

So, even after all this, why help?

Why should I go out of my way to do things that might not even make a big difference? If everyone thought like this, our world wouldn’t have advanced a single bit We wouldn’t have people like Greta Thunberg, Nelson Mandela, and many more who stood up for what they believed in and helped to change the world for the better. So, why not use your extra time to do a little something that’s good for the world?

As shown, early detection is absolutely vital for everyone

If you want to be more involved, you can also volunteer at numerous local or national charities that raise awareness for breast cancer. Some of these charities include the Pink Ribbon Foundation and CoppaFeel to list a few * Through volunteering, you can help these charities reach their goals and thereby help people affected by breast cancer All year round, you can regularly donate to the many breast cancer charities! Instead of going to Starbucks and getting a fancy and probably overpriced coffee (no matter how delicious it might be), give those 3 pounds to charity Although it may not seem like much, every penny counts!

EditedBy:SophiaJoeng,CynthiaHonig

GraphicDesign:LilyPfaffenzeller

Millie Yeo, UC5

Illustration: SarahXie

‘breastcanceruk’, ‘againstbreastcancer’, ‘breastcancernow'

COP 26

Saphie GoadSFC1

wrote amidst COP26, offering a window of insight into the conference, real-time.

A week into the race. The race to convince world leaders that this time, their so called ‘actions’ need to be for more than just vanity Because the finish line is fast approaching Sadly, I am not talking about the finish line for all our hard work in combating the climate crisis I am talking about the red ribbon that is our last chance to make the planet habitable in the future It’s big, it’s red and it screams ‘1 5’ At 1 5 degrees warming (above pre-industrial levels) 80% of the world’s coral reefs will have disappeared but at 2 0 degrees of warming, just half a degree more, they all would have At 1 5 degrees the Arctic would experience an ice-free summer every 100 years. But half a degree more? This devastating phenomena would happen every 10. This apparently minute change in warming would bring 50% more people into climate-related poverty. So it’s a race - a race that not everyone is running as fast as they should or could be. But that’s why we have COP.

Recent IPCC reports have stated the CO2 emissions need to be cut well before 2030. This means we have just over 8 years to decrease global emissions by half. One of the biggest aims for COP was to negotiate and come up with a plan to work together and achieve this

Other aims included adaptation to protect communities and natural habitats, mitigation to avoid the loss of more lives and livelihoods and the mobilisation of climate finance

hive of COP26 has attracted activists from across the world like bees to honey, and marches and strikes have been taking place across Glasgow all week. They are also doing a very good job of trying to keep leaders accountable and making noise when they fail to do so

So what is not going quite so well? To sum it up, here is the Prime minister of Costa Rica quoted:

So what has been achieved at COP so far? The headlining bits of good news thus far are Glasgow Leader’s Declaration On Forests and Land Use (a promise to end and then begin to reverse deforestation by 2030) and the Global Methane Pledge to reduce methane emissions by 30% by 2030 Disappointingly, India, China and Russia are not a part of the latter Twenty countries, including the US, UK, Denmark and Costa Rica have pledged an end to their financing of oversea fossil fuel projects from 2022

Five major UK supermarkets have vowed to halve the food system’s environmental impact by 2030 and financial organisations representing $87 trillion in assets have promised to stop funding deforestation Furthermore, the

world leaders

Climate activists in Glasgow are becoming increasingly frustrated with world leaders and their hypocrisy and inaction over reduction of emissions There has also (rightfully) been an outcry regarding the inclusion of COP26 - the exclusivity of the event due to inequity of COVID vaccines and eye-watering accommodation costs, as well as wheelchair accessibility issues and racism and transphobia experienced by protestors

2.0 degrees would mean the Arctic having an icefree summer every 10 years !

8 years to cut down CO2 emissions by 50%

"If were CEOs they would all be fired for failing to deliver results"

AschoolclimatestrikeinMelbourne

Furthermore, as of the end of Day 9, The Climate Action Tracker announced that temperature rises will top 2 4℃ (pre-industrial levels) by the end of this century, based on the short term goals that Countries have laid out at COP so far

So is it too soon to condemn COP as a failure? There are many activists that are doing just that but there are counter-arguments that suggest that writing off COP so soon is a dangerous move in terms of morale and any future advancements that there are still four days left to make Professor Michael Mann tweeted that:

‘#COP26 has barely started. Activists declaring it dead on arrival makes fossil fuel executives jump for joy. They want to undermine and discredit the very notion of multilateral climate action.’

And After

Similar to the slogan ‘Rest is resistance (to capitalism)’, Mann is emphasizing that enthusiasm is resistance (to fossil fuel companies) I believe that we need optimism and enthusiasm for more advancements to be made - after all, what is the harm in believing in this unity of nations - but this is something only the next four days will tell.

Keep your eyes peeled and until then, remember: enthusiasm is resistance!

Lily PfaffenzellerSFC1

follows up with a summary of COP26 following its conclusion

The main aim still gravitates around 1 5: ensuring warming does not exceed this temperature is crucial, and even a matter of life and death for endangered regions. This would mean cutting emissions (namely carbon dioxide) by 45% this decade. The following were agreed on in working towards this:

Reduction of coal usage.

Increased financial support to poorer countries in aiding coping with the consequences of climate change and converting to cleaner energy.

The US-China Agreement: a cooperation between the world's two largest emitters in reducing methane emissions and converting to greener energy.

The cessation of deforestation (of 85% of the world's forests) by 2030: leaders from more than 100 countries agreed, but it's unclear how this will be regulated

However, scepticism surrounds such finalisations: most commitments are self-policed, with only a handful of countries making them legally binding. So, was COP26 a success? Only time will tell.

Clubs

What Have They Been up to This Term?

Eloise BolithoEnvironmental Society

We as a community, both within college and globally, have a responsibility to look after our planet. The safety and health of our planet is an issue that rests at the core of our existence, as it is the provider of so many natural resources that we are entirely dependent on, as individuals and as advanced civilisations. An extremely significant element of protection is always education, which is fostered through enrichment and discussion about relevant environmental topics At environmental society, we discuss current affairs within an environmental context, and encourage students to be conscious of their environmental footprint An example of a recent session we conducted was a presentation on the threat of water scarcity as a result of accelerated industrial development in the Middle East, and how water shortages and the manipulation of water supplies could be the leading cause of future global conflict

This Club Will Kill You Larissa Chan

What’s the deadliest poison in the world? No one expects Botox. How does politics influence healthcare? Could rabies have inspired the werewolf myth? From viruses like HIV to poisonous plants like belladonna, join us as we discuss the fascinating history and biology underlying different diseases and poisons We do not discriminate based on kingdom protozoan pathogens are pretty cool too We will cover everything from light-hearted fun facts regarding interesting Roman cures to the enraging failings of the Reagan administration in their response to the US HIV epidemic Every session is different, and you’ll inevitably walk out with something new to think about

Biology Club

Irene Liang

We explored the concept and mechanism behind gene editing, one of the most relevant techniques not only in laboratory research, but also in agriculture to increase the yield of plants, such as by reducing their attraction towards pests The mechanism of CRISPRCas9 (the most commonly-used technique for gene editing) was discussed, as was whether or not it should be used on humans in gene therapy (see The Human Hack, p35) One argument brought up was that it could help solve genetic diseases, but could also create inequality as genetic therapy would only be accessible to the wealthy. We discussed a case study on the CRISPR twins, which were genetically modified to be resistant to HIV Heated debate ensued Having looked at both ethical and scientific complexities, we ultimately concluded that gene editing is unethical to use on humans More interesting biological issues and fascinating concepts will be debated in the weekly Biology Club

Hear from our Bio Reps... Sophia Wolfram

The main biology event in College was 'Biology week' We began with the interesting (but a little gory) reality of biology gone wrong, with a prayers on 'what almost killed Snow White', featuring werewolves and rabies as well as 'what could've turned the Nile red (except for God)'. There were many other activities throughout the week There was a visit from a birds of prey handler, a biology treasure hunt and even a cryptic crossword!

Physics Journal Club Physics Reps

We kicked the club off by talking about the Ig Nobel Prize, an award for science experiments that make people laugh, then think By discussing past experiments such as answering the question “Are Cats Liquid?” and the 2020 Physics Ig Nobel Prize on subjecting drunk earthworms to high frequencies, members of the club shared their thoughts regarding the validity of the scientific methods mentioned and the practicality of such experiments. This led to thought-provoking questions which the club made insightful comments to; we overall really enjoyed the first session. Session two was on materials in aviation and graphene. After giving a brief overview of materials, we turned our focus to the fuselage of the plane Plane models were discussed, for example the SR-71 Blackbird, and we explained how carbon composites, fiberglass and aluminium possess qualities that make them suitable for constructing planes Indirectly, the mention of carbon composite materials served as a smooth transition to graphene We discussed its chemical structure and explained how its high electrical conductivity is linked to relativistic quasiparticles

They often say “third time’s a charm”, and that is exactly what our Christmas themed session three was. This time, we focused on the practicality and the application of physics in our daily lives. In the first half, we talked about the uses of physics in the field of medicine, and started off by listing technologies such as X-Ray, CT Scans, MRI, FMRI, EEG and ECG. By incorporating our knowledge of physics and biology, we explained what each type is used for and how they work; the technologies mentioned mainly revolve around the uses of EM waves, potential gradients and electricity As Christmas was drawing near, we dedicated the next half of the session to answering the question: How does Santa deliver all his presents in one night? By considering factors such as the amount of carrots needed to feed the reindeers and the energy lost to overcoming air resistance, we came to the conclusion that Santa would need at least 3 25 billion billion carrots for his reindeers Completing his mission within the thirty one available hours is simply impossible and that he is most likely to die from it. We all had a good laugh and ended the term merrily with that.

Medical Ethics Society Lizzie Fu

Perhaps more than ever, we are continuously faced with ethical situations regarding advancements in science, and this is particularly the case in Medicine Hot topics often include abortion, euthanasia, or cloning technology Medical Ethics Society seeks to engage students in discussion and education on these ethical issues Whether you are preparing for medical school interviews or just want to discuss some controversial ideas, come along to learn about how healthcare professionals tackle dayto-day life regarding patient care and ethics, as well as get the chance to debate about it.

Event Highlights

The annual Winchester science symposium held on 7th November saw a record number of CLC pupils taking part this year! Despite being held online due to COVID-19, as was last year’s symposium, the day was filled with fascinating presentations and discussion SFC1 pupils from Winchester and CLC were given the opportunity to jointly prepare presentations on any topic that suited their interests, whether that be in Biology, Chemistry or Physics. After weeks of hard work and insightful collaboration, this culminated in a day full of presentations on an array of topics. Pupils explored the sub-atomic realm in talks about neutrinos, antimatter and nuclear physics, delved into the inner workings of the human body in discussions about ageing, TB, hormones, COVID-19 and euthanasia, and tested the boundaries of knowledge in presentations on the origin of life, the beginning and end of the universe and so on There were no limits - we could take our presentation wherever we wanted to, and similarly, the Q&A sessions following each discussion took many interesting twists and turns! Here are some reflections from pupils that have taken part in the Winchester symposium:

Winchester-CLC Symposium

For me, the most exciting thing about the symposium was the freedom we had - as a group we could research whatever we wanted, in whatever level of detail we wanted. My group settled on the overall topic of ageing, but within that we each explored our own interests - I chose to explore the effects of ageing on the cardiovascular and the digestive system. I found the whole project extremely rewarding, to be able to see our research evolve from a list of rough notes to a fully-fledged presentation Although the symposium was disappointingly held online again, it was nevertheless a wonderful experience to listen to the other groups’ intriguing talks (ranging from antimatter and acoustics to serotonin and spectroscopy) with the Q&A sessions afterwards providing an accessible forum for us to further our knowledge or engage in some academic debate. Thank you very much to everyone who took part!

It was not easy - one thing I took away from participating was the need for good time-management That’s not to say I didn’t enjoy researching; instead, I realised how interesting science is I chose Chemistry with our presentation being "The Science Behind the Engine" I know that sounds like a physicsrelated topic, but the links to chemistry and chemical engineering was what kept me researching (despite wanting to switch to Penthouse) In the middle of my research, I found that chemistry was more than a subject for me or an interest – it was something that really fascinated me. It got me thinking STEM must be my path forward! I’ve been unsure for a long time but after doing all that work (which felt more like a hobby) I knew that this is what I really enjoyed! If you haven’t had that moment, don’t worry as you don’t need to figure it out now, but one day, just like how electrons flow and create a current, you might have that lightbulb moment too

Careers Insight Epidemiology Talk

The biology department enjoyed having guest speaker Fernando Capelastegui who gave us an insight into what it would be like to study epidemiology and perform research during a global crisis Fernando was a student at Cheltenham College and did Biology, Chemistry and Geography at A-Level He then went on to study Biological Sciences at Bristol University in 2016 and started his Masters in Epidemiology three years later He started working for Public Health England in early 2020, right as the pandemic began, leading to an exciting start to his career working in Epidemiology He started by telling us a bit about the field and being a “disease detective” - studying diseases and health outcomes through both clinical and drug trial research Understanding infectious diseases and using pandemic models have been critical in government responses to the crisis, meaning that epidemiologists like Fernando have been relied on more than ever to provide the research and information needed to manage COVID-19. Before this, he first completed a Masters in Epidemiology, which consisted of 5 overarching topics:

1. 2 3 4 5

Non-communicable disease

Communicable diseases

Public Health

Statistics -> coding using the programmes STATA and R(a statistical software used to analyse data)

Study Design and Dissertation

Fernando’s dissertation title was “Risk factors of HIV among people who inject drugs in Pakistan”, using government data to assess how different behaviours affect the risk of HIV. He hopes that this research will contribute to reducing the burden of HIV in Pakistan among vulnerable communities, and aims to publish it Fernando talked about frequent misconceptions surrounding epidemiology, such as that you have to be a medic and have a strong focus on mathematics

He highlighted the fact that there are many transferable skills from other backgrounds that are useful in this type of research He also talked about the correct use of statistics to support research, which plays a crucial role in how information is received by other people Studying epidemiology opens doors to a variety of careers, from teaching to playing a key role in emergency pandemic work Epidemiology also has lots of transferable skills (such as the coding involved in data visualisation and statistical work), and can be applied to the many different paths you could take after your Masters.

In conclusion, thank you to Fernando, who gave us this inspiring talk during Biology Week. We would encourage everyone to attend more insightful talks such as this one, as it is a great way to receive first-hand knowledge It might even inspire you to pursue the field after CLC and University!

A Talk by Epidemiologist and Biologist Fernando Capelastegui

Vanessa Yip Godsgift Ekoriko, CLC (Chemistry)

Sebastian Hamsher, Winchester College (Biology)

Maria Heppenstall & Freya Dixon

Up Close...

Natalie Lam

UC5

Miss Black

Lily Pfaffenzeller

SFC1

Drama, PGC

This was taken at 3am on a perfectly clear night at Durdle Door, Dorset. It was a 6hour round trip but the forecast was for crystal clear skies and a new moon meant this was the best chance of photographing the stars for months.

If you’ve never been somewhere dark enough to see the Milky Way arching across the sky you should add it to your bucket list! I was very pleased when a small group of stargazers lit a small fire on the beach below - I think it makes the photo.

...And Far Away

Mr White

Geography

Sarah Xie UC4

Isabella Berman LC3

Lucid Dreamers? Should We All Be

delves into an inception-like reality in her article on lucid dreaming Amandine Bourrier UC5

In our lives, a third of our time will be spent sleeping This essentially means that if you are currently 15, you’ve been asleep for 5 of those years and have actually only been living for 10 years. Even though you have experienced around 3-7 dreams on each of those nights, most people do not remember their dreams at all. In fact, most people only remember their dreams if they are lucid

So, how do you know if you’ve ever had a lucid dream? It is quite simply being aware that you are dreaming and having the ability to control what is happening

Lucid dreaming is generally quite rare and unknown with only about 50% of people knowing what it is based on personal experiences. 20% of those experience lucid dreams on a monthly basis and only around 1% of people have lucid dreams several times a week.

How Does Lucidity Occur?

The prefrontal cortex is where things, such as memories, cognitive control and thought processing occur. While it is usually inactive during sleep, studies and research showed lots of activity in this area when lucid dreams occur. Since the brain is active while the body is asleep, lucid dreaming is sometimes referred to as a wake-sleep state The prefrontal cortex was also sometimes found to be bigger in people who have frequent lucid dreams, suggesting that the prefrontal cortex plays an important role in inducing lucid dreams

As well as this, other studies have shown that age plays quite an important role in how frequent lucid dreams occur. In Germany, a study carried out on children aged 6 to 19 strongly indicated that lucid dreaming was a more frequent phenomenon in young children, with the frequency significantly decreasing as children aged. This suggested that the maturity of the brain played a role in deciding who experienced lucid dreams

Despite being aware of the fact that they are dreaming, only a third claim to be able to control and change their dreams Lucid dreams occur in the REM (Rapid Eye Movement) period, which is when your eyes are moving quickly, you are breathing faster and you have more brain activity The reason why people experience lucid dreams is still not entirely clear to scientists; however, it is believed that there is a link to the prefrontal cortex

Only 1% of people experience regular lucid dreaming each week

The study also showed that children who attended more academic schools often experienced more lucid dreams. It was noted, however, that there was not a link between the frequency of lucid dreaming and the amount of sleep an individual received

Research has also shown that lucid dreaming has many benefits, such as creating more logical and creative thinkers It has been shown that those who often have lucid dreams solved 25% more of the puzzles compared to those who had never experienced a lucid dream, suggesting the insight gained during lucid dreaming is remembered

According to results obtained from the International Journal of Dream Research, 81.4% of people used lucid dreams for fun and cosmic adventure, meaning that lucid dreaming was used as a method to explore what one desired to do in real life Lucid dreams are usually very vivid and the dreamer often feels strong emotions

Many people will try new things, such as flying, and have the ability to experience weight and wind in lucid dreams, which makes them realistic even though the dreamer is able to perform otherwise-impossible things.

Other benefits included having less anxiety, as the sense of control felt when lucid dreaming often makes people feel empowered and more secure With the ability to imagine yourself carrying out certain motions and actions, lucid dreaming can also be used to improve motor skills Since the same part of your brain is active when you are lucid dreaming and when you are awake, the brain is able to rehearse certain motions to provide some physical rehabilitation

How to Achieve Lucidity

There are many ways for you to improve your chances of experiencing a lucid dream. An example of this is Mnemonically Induced Lucid Dreaming (MILD), which is when you have simple reality checks that you do often and as a habit

This can be things such as pressing a finger against your palm or looking into mirrors In a dream, your finger will go through your palm, or your reflection will look distorted These simple reality checks can help you determine if what you are seeing is a dream or not, which can help you achieve lucidity. Another method used to induce lucid dreaming is Wake Induced Lucid Dreaming (WILD). This is more advanced: you trick your body into falling asleep while keeping your mind awake.

However, this can be quite dangerous as there is a risk of sleep paralysis, which is when you are awake but cannot move, or even hallucinate sometimes Other simpler ways of experiencing lucid dreams is keeping a dream journal in which you write what you remember of your dreams everyday, following a sleep schedule, exercising daily and avoiding caffeine before bed

However, it is important to not induce lucid dreams on a regular basis. A 2018 longitudinal study of students said that those who were inducing lucidity must be careful as there could be undesirable and possibly dangerous side effects such as subclinical psychosis Too many lucid dreams can lead to poor sleep quality, confusion between your dreams and what is real, as both are remembered in the same way

Lucid dreaming is an incredible phenomenon that takes place within the human brain, an organ with much mystery surrounding it Areas of research like lucid dreaming still have many questions that remain unanswered. Now, whether being aware of your dreams is something you would like to experience is up to you. Or would you rather keep your brief moments away from reality?

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The

Past andFuture of Buckyballs

Vanessa Tsui SFC1

writes about the uses and limitations of this Carbon allotrope

Buckminsterfullerene, also known as Buckyballs or fullerenes, are one of the physical forms carbon takes, alongside diamonds and graphite. They are made up of 60 carbon atoms, shaped like a ball and are unusual in the way that they are extremely stable and have high melting points for a simple covalent molecule Up until 2010, scientists thought these molecules could only be synthesized in a laboratory until a new study proposed that these molecules may have arisen in space, from the ashes of dying stars

The story of Buckyballs began in 1985 A scientist, Harold Kroto was observing the Red Giant stars from billions of miles away and he was puzzled by the long chains of carbons his instruments told him the stars were emitting. In order to solve this mystery, he teamed up with 2 other scientists, who were also studying clusters of atoms at that time to mimic the heat and pressure of a red giant to investigate these peculiar molecules To do this, they put carbon in a helium-filled chamber and vaporized it with a laser What they found earned them a Nobel prize in 1996

Prior to this discovery, the largest known molecule was only 12 atoms in size This opens a new door in astrochemistry, provoking the idea that there might be more complex molecules out there By researching the contents in astrochemistry, it helps us to understand more about what gives rise to stars, planets and eventually life itself.

Although the research on fullerene is vast, its commercial value is minimal as there are no apparent uses for this discovery yet. At first, it was speculated that it could be used in the field of nanomedicine (the use of atomic substances in medicine) as a transporter of drugs due to its hollow sphere or its ability to be a lubricant to reduce friction due to its shape However, it’s unclear how effectively these properties could be exploited

One of the downsides of fullerenes is concerns surrounding their toxicity in that they might break down under sunlight to form carcinogens. They’re also insoluble in water, which is a problem for getting them into people. It is also expensive to make substituted fullerenes, so any treatment involving them is uneconomical.

25 years after the initial discovery on earth, a telescope in NASA captured a glimpse of the Buckyballs in space It was discovered that particles of Buckyballs were orbiting around a star In 2019, the Hubble Space Telescope spotted Buckyballs ions floating around in interstellar medium, the diffuse matter and radiation that exists in between solar systems. These observations defied a prevailing theory that only small molecules can be found in space as intense radiation, such as that emitted by a star would break down any complex molecules.

The story of the Buckyball is not finished yet They raise intriguing inquiries not only about the past of the universe, but also for material scientists who are still trying to utilize this potentially powerful tool for the future, paving the way for a more revolutionary scientific landscape

Editor:MuseDa

GraphicDesign:LilyPfaffenzeller

Illustration:MaiaCheung

Biodegradable Polymers

Georgina Griffiths SFC2

explores how different plastics, such as PET and PLA, are evolving alongside the environmental demands of everyday life.

As you all know the world currently has a problem with plastic. We simply use too much of it and it does not break down nearly fast enough to be a sustainable resource. One of the most common single-use plastics is PET which makes your water bottles, plastic bags and more In textiles, it is also known as polyester, so we wear it almost daily too Its chemical name is polyethylene terephthalate, and it includes a benzene ring in its structure

PET is the fourth most produced polymer behind polythene, polypropylene and PVC. While it can be recycled, the process of recycling plastics is an energy-expensive process and cannot be fully automated due to the requirement of sorting the different types of polymers

The process of recycling includes sorting, shredding, washing, melting into pellets and finally, being made into new products And, of course, if there is a wrong polymer type in the mix, (i.e., a mistake at the sorting stage) the new products will be of a lower standard. There are many common items which are made of recycled products such as some reusable crates and gardening items like flower pots, watering cans and wheelie bins However, recycling has limited capabilities and not all polymers are able to be recycled

Other than recycling, producing biodegradable plastics is another option in a plastic world An example of biodegradable plastics is polylactic acid (PLA) If you study A level Chemistry you will be aware of this polymer, especially as it can form a polyester with itself due to it having two functional groups (points on a molecule that contribute to its properties and can take part in certain reactions).

Although it shares similar characteristics to polypropene and other polymers, there is one key difference: it is derived from renewable resources and is biodegradable The process of manufacturing PLA uses preexisting equipment from the petrochemical industry which means it is cost-efficient and has a high production volume compared to any

other bioplastic It can be used in the same ways as PET such as in making water bottles It also can be used as shrink-wrap as it constricts when exposed to heat

PLA is a perfect alternative plastic as it is a non-petroleum plastic and will degrade when exposed to the environment. For example, a PLA bottle in the ocean will take 6 to 24 months to degrade - only a fraction of the time that other plastics require. And, what makes it degrade is its elements, meaning it can be used in electronics Another use is as an implant which is required to break down in the body over time The possibilities for this compound look hopeful for the future

One limitation of PLA is that it can deform in high temperatures, even at temperatures as hot as a car left out in the sun on a summer’s day However, that does not eliminate all its other uses and is still a big step for society.

We will not be able to stop using plastic, especially in a post-covid worldwe have become too dependent on single-use items, such as in the medical industry as the demand for medical equipment has increased massively Despite this, any alternatives which are less likely to damage the planet are a huge win

TheversatilityofPLAputtouseinthemanufacturingofPLAplasticbottles

Creator:StevenDepolo Copyright:StevenDepolo

TherepeatunitofPET

TherepeatunitofPLA

Significant Figures Jocelyn Bell Burnell

Exploring the scientists of the past and their unknown impact on the present.

In 1974 the ground-breaking discovery of pulsars led to Sir Martin Ryle and Anthony Hewish being awarded a joint Nobel Prize in Physics It was a lifetime of glory for these radio astronomers, but the woman at the centre of this discovery was left in the shadows. Her name is Jocelyn Bell Burnell, and while her lifetime of contributions changed our understanding of the world, her work in supporting minorities in science changed our world.

Northern Ireland, 1943

From a young age, Jocelyn Bell Burnell knew what she wanted to do when she grew up: radio astronomy Alongside trips to observatories, Jocelyn was surrounded by books about science. In particular, ‘The Frontiers of Astronomy’ - one of her father’s astronomy books - stood as a central cause for her passion for radio astronomy, naming the author Fred Hoyle as her inspiration. Thus, Burnell’s scientific journey began.

An Unconventional Start

Upon entering primary school, Bell Burnell was met with disappointment. Instead of sitting in a science lab, she was placed in a cookery class. Only boys were allowed to learn science because, after all, if the girls didn’t learn to cook, who would in their future families?

She was outraged Protests to teachers were disregarded, and only after her parents complained, Jocelyn finally stepped foot into a science classroom as one of the three girls there

'It's Just Interference'

Under her PhD supervisor Anthony Hewish, Jocelyn began her dive into radio astronomy The idea centred around using radio waves to pick out very distant objects in space To do this, they’d need a radio telescope, so Jocelyn joined a team of a dozen in building one under Hewish’s funding After two years of transporting, hauling and lifting 50m cables, Jocelyn could finally begin her actual work: running the telescope and analysing the data from the chart attached to it

The telescope would produce patterns from quasars on chart paperthese are a repeating string of radio pulses spaced roughly 1 second apart. However, in 1967, Jocelyn noticed a disruption in these signals: the pattern produced didn’t match the ordinary one quasars created Hewish simply dismissed this as artificial interference both times Jocelyn presented these findings to him, thinking she had simply wired up the telescope incorrectly

Jocelyn pursued the anomaly despite this After adapting her apparatus to high speed, these unusual pulses reappeared in their own regular pattern - this wasn’t just interference, and after Hewish saw this with his own eyes, he finally agreed. It turns out that these pulses were what’s now known as pulsars, which provided direct evidence for the existence of spinning neutron stars, the first two of which Jocelyn Bell Burnell had discovered by herself

And the Nobel Prize Goes To…

During her undergraduate degree at Glasgow, the case of sexism only went downhill. Being the only female in a class of fifty, it was completely conventional for men to catcall and bang on their desks whenever she’d enter the lecture hall With this passion driving Jocelyn forward, she began her PhD at the University of Cambridge

Everyone agreed that these pulses were hugely important. On gathering respected physicists (including Fred Hoyle) in an academic conference in Cambridge, Hewish explained these findings A 1968 paper soon followed, and after its publication in February under Hewish, Ryle (head of the PhD group) and Jocelyn’s name, Jocelyn

"If I hadn’t been clear what I wanted to do, I probably would’ve gone some other way"

Jocelyn Bell Burnell

JocelynBellBurnellasagraduatestudent

Auniversitylecturehallcirca1913

Vanessa Yip & Lily Pfaffenzeller

graduated with a PhD in radio astronomy from the University of Cambridge. Discussion soon followed, along with reporters and photographers from various newspapers: ‘New star sends code’ and ‘Is someone out there?’ were plastered across papers

This momentum culminated in 1974, the year the Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded for the discovery of pulsars to Sir Martin Ryle and Anthony Hewish For Jocelyn, it was bittersweet news:

Hardships

Things did not get easier going into graduate school at Cambridge

During her time as a research assistant under Hewish, she recalls how she was “quite sure they’d made a mistake admitting me [her], they’d discover their mistake and throw me [her] out” Despite her struggles with impostor syndrome, her determination never faltered. “I was a bit of a fighter and said that until they throw me out, I will work my very hardest, so that when they do throw me out, I won’t have a guilty conscience. I’ll know I’ve done my best,” she said.

Piled onto this was the unrelenting challenge she had to face in a society that fought hard to separate women from science Between discovering pulsars 2 and 3, she got engaged As she entered her lab happily with her engagement ring on, it was immediately assumed that she was abandoning her work, which is reflective of the climate in Britain at the time

Women did not work after marriage - it was considered an embarrassment on the husband’s behalf, as it supposedly indicated the husband’s earnings were inadequate People congratulated her on the marriage, but never her major astrophysical discovery When she had a son, the pressure for Bell Burnell to quit escalated

Meanwhile, Hewish thrived under the spotlight.

Following the publication of their findings, a significant amount of discussion was generated. Both Hewish and Bell Burnell were bombarded with questions. People turned to Hewish with questions about pulsars People turned to Bell Burnell with questions about her bust, waist and hip measurements Questions about how many boyfriends she had, questions about marriage Photographers wanted her to undo buttons on her blouse for the press The striking difference needs no further explanation

What happened afterwards?

Even after this, Bell Burnell placed herself above the Nobel incident In her interviews, she displayed much less resentment than one would simply after learning about her story While her career of research and teaching garnered respect for her within the field, what made her even more remarkable as a person and as a scientist was her push for diversity in the field. In 2018, Bell Burnell was finally recognised for her discovery of pulsars in the Breakthrough Prize, which was awarded for her “fundamental contributions to the discovery of pulsars, and a lifetime of inspiring leadership in the scientific community” With the award came $3 million, which she readily donated to help fund Ph D scholarships for women, under-represented ethnic groups and refugees in the UK Her story is undoubtedly inspiring and has far-reaching impacts as physics remains a male-dominated field, despite the rapidly increasing number of women going into the field

Where is she now?

Following her recent marriage, Jocelyn left the University of Cambridgebut this didn’t mean her scientific career was coming to an end Where Jocelyn went, opportunities of teaching and research followed, including a professorship in Physics at the University of London and the open University and a position at the Royal Observatory in Edinburgh. As of today, Bell Burnell is a member of the Royal Society in addition to previously serving as president of the Royal Astronomical Society. Look her up on YouTube, and you’ll find a myriad of talks at locations such as Google or Ted Talks

What Are pulsars?

Pulsars are spinning neutron stars, the dense remnants of when stars more massive than our sun use up their own fuel, collapse and explode in a supernova Short for pulsating radio stars, pulsars look like they flicker following a regular rhythm which can last from milliseconds to seconds As the stars collapse, their speed of rotation increases, while emitting two beams of radiation in opposite directions Think of a pulsar as a lighthousethe beam of light seems to flicker because the light is swept around and around Similarly, as a pulsar spins, its beam of radiation (which is generated by its spin and strong magnetic field) alternates between being in and out-of-sight (from the perspective of an observer on Earth)

Currently, over 2000 pulsars have been detected These astrophysical objects have far-reaching applications: measurements of the arrival times of their radiation can indicate gravitational waves caused by collisions of supermassive black holes; they can be used to test Einstein’s famous fundamental theories of relativity; they can be used to measure cosmic distances, to weigh the solar system and more.

‘It didn’t bother me - I was actually pleased, I was really pleased that pulsars were considered important enough to get a Nobel Prize.’

What Happens When You Can’t Count Past Five?

Explains that although culture's influence on maths may not be apparent at first glance, it pretty much shapes the world as we know it.

Do you ever feel like time is passing faster, the older you get? Or does yesterday seem longer than the whole of last week? Even though each day has exactly the same duration, it seems that the higher numbers are, the closer together we perceive them

Not convinced? What if I presented you with one carrot, and then with ten carrots in comparison. I doubt you’d confuse the two quantities - we all understand the difference between 1 and 10. But what about a billion and ten billion carrots? Even though the difference is even more substantial, we tend to view both through the same lens: a lot of carrots

Why is this? It is human nature to think in terms of ratios For example, the distance of the ratio of five to one is larger than the distance between ten and five In this way, our inherent understanding of numbers is said to be logarithmic That is, the larger numbers become, the closer together they get.

Hence, if you judge quantities using ratios, you will always get a logarithmic scale:

When presented with a random number of dots on screen and an unmarked number line, Mundurukú volunteers were asked to click on the line where they thought the number of dots should be located.

But does this not deviate from the traditional numerical scale - a linear scale - that we’re taught at school? A linear scale simply refers to numbers that are spread out evenly on a number line, like on this ruler:

Unlike American adults who had partaken in an identical study previously, a logarithmic scale was produced in contrast to their linear one (see figure 2&3). This is because the Mundurukú are immersed in a world reliant on human instinct to survive. In the absence of the social constructs that we’re so used to, like technology or numbers, it only makes sense for the Mundurukú to think logarithmically

It turns out that we think through a logarithmic lens by human natureopposingly, our processing of quantities by linear means arises from the way we’re educated at school. In other words, we’re taught to think linearly, but by instinct think logarithmically

Deep in the Brazilian Amazon lies an indigeneous tribe that proves this: the Mundurukú. The thing about the Mundurukú is that (similar to many other indigenous tribes), they lack the range of vocabulary and mathematical experience your everyday person has - a product of their disconnect from society and scarce formal education Take any tribal member and ask them how many hands a person has They’ll easily answer with two How many tribal members? ‘Many’ If you were to press further for a specific, numerical value, you’d only be met with confusion. On further inspection, it appeared that the Mundurukú could only count to five.

A team under Harvard University decided to dig deeper, focusing on the way the Mundurukú interpret numbers themselves in the first place

It can be hard to imagine a life without numbers, or such a limited range of them, when they seem to underpin our very foundations in society. But if you think about it for the Mundurukú, their drastically different livelihood demands a drastically different numerical picture The average 40-year-old individual in the UK may be commuting to some dreary office job, numbers ubiquitous around them: numbers in the coffee they buy, numbers in the seconds they work But the average Mundurukú member would only need to look at the sun to tell the time in comparison; they have no need to count extensively, so why should they?

While this is the case now, who knows how this may age Western clothes like shorts are widespread among the Mundurukú, and so it’s inevitable that other features of modern life like electricity will eventually find its place amongst their world Perhaps in the future we will see numbers crawl their way into Mundurukú foundations too

EditedBy:StephanieCheng GraphicDesign:LilyPfaffenzeller

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Lily Pfaffenzeller

Man and Machine

How can you rock climb again, after losing a leg? Jim Ewing fell fifteen metres during a climbing accident in the Cayman Islands, and he asked himself the same question.

The answer to this is the agonist-antagonist myoneural interface (AMI), a method invented by researchers in MIT that can connect nerves to a prosthetic, while allowing the user to retain proprioception-awareness of the position of your body, such as knowing where your arms are without looking at them Muscles contain ‘spindles’, which are sensors that provide information about tension and length Collectively, this i h b i i f h h b d i i i d

We are making advancements in imitating nature through our own lens, but what about going beyond? We’ve already built devices that contain a world’s worth of information, and we could even reverse blindness, under the right circumstances. However, we, as humans, are still fragile in flesh and bone. Could we augment ourselves, and extend beyond physical boundaries? According to Moore’s Law, the number of transistors on a computer chip will double every two years, exponentially increasing computing power This opens up possibilities to increase the complexity and speed of current technology, but also unlock possibilities for new inventions

echnology such as AMI has implications that stretch beyond limb placement. With the power to control a mechanical extension of us and e refined ability to be conscious of its position and movement, we ould augment our strength, speed and more. In Pisa, a wearable xoskeleton is being developed, with the ability to lift fifty kg per hand, nd apply ten times the force that the user applies to an object

arriers between the human brain and computers are already being urred In Florida, a ‘brain-controlled’ drone competition is being held he user wears an EEG device to detect the electrical signal in the brain specific signal is then tied to a ‘fly forward’ command in the drone, so hen the same signal is produced in the race, the drone will fly forwards.

However, most prosthetics are unable to send back information to the brain, therefore the wearer cannot retain proprioception in that area of their body – AMI has changed that An AMI is composed of two muscles – an agonist and antagonist, pairs linked mechanically in the remains of an amputation (or a muscle graft from another site of the body), which work in opposition to one another. When the agonist volitionally contracts, it generates an electrical signal, and the antagonist stretches. To retain proprioception, information about length and force from the antagonist passes to the brain Artificial electrodes placed over the AMI muscles communicate the signal to a myoelectric prosthetic device, decoding the signal and allowing the user to control the movement of the prosthetic limb

After Ewing underwent this procedure, he quickly learned how to move his ankle in different directions, and was able to navigate up and down a stairway. Due to the AMI’s ability to transfer information about proprioception, he could move it without being too conscious about itjust like an ordinary leg. In Ewing’s own words, the prosthetic became a ‘part of him’

rain-computer interfaces have been used for decades, in areas such as e control of prosthetic limbs Now, with further refining, it is used to etect and prevent seizures in the form of the NeuroPace Implanted under the scalp, with leads connecting to the area of the brain where seizures start, it monitors brainwaves and detects any abnormalities indicative of seizures, before sending electrical pulses to normalise the pattern - all in milliseconds The information regarding the activity of the waves can be uploaded to a database, and reviewed by a doctor

It is evident that by combining man and machine, we could advance in medicine, whether through preventing seizures or replacing limbs. We could even transcend the bounds of human capability, whether through exoskeletons, or controlling objects with our minds By redefining our very limits, we are redefining the meaning to live, and the world we stand on

EditedBy: VanessaYip

GraphicDesign:LilyPfaffenzeller

explores how the crossroads between technology and medicine is redefining us and the wider world.

Larissa Chan, SFC2

Quarks, QED, & Other Questions

A conversation in Physics with Ms. Constantine

Science itself is undoubtedly interesting, but what about the people behind it all? Those who study, research and communicate science to a broader audience are some of the most fascinating people on this Earth. We wanted to hear from one of our Physics teachers, Ms. Constantine, so on a casual Thursday afternoon, we all sat down and had a discussion about all things physicsfrom researching quarks and discussing Feynman, to exploring what the pursuit of knowledge really means in the field of science. Thank you to Ms. Constantine for such a memorable conversation indeed!

When you were at university, was there a certain area in physics that really solidified your interest in the subject?

At university, the things that I really enjoyed were waves, astrophysics and radioactivity I really did like astro and I thought that was really interesting; but I also really liked particle physics, as particle physics is quite “new” - it’s one of the latest breakthroughs in physics So when I did my master’s project, it was on particle physics!

What was your project about? It sounds really interesting!

The project I did was looking at the decay of a top quark. There are six quarks - up, down, charm, strange, top, bottom - and two of them make up protons and neutrons Top quark, which is also called truth quark, was the last one to be discovered in Fermilab in 1995

Could you tell us about your project with top quark decay?

At CERN or Fermilab, they take particles and smash them together at very high speeds They see what comes out, and around the side they have loads of detectors to detect what gets made when these two things smash together. What happens is that you have thousands of events that happen, and you get lots of pointless things. So what we did is we essentially wrote computer programs to filter out the noise from the data

A few years ago, they discovered the Higgs boson (which is a very cool Nobel prize), but behind all that, there were loads of people writing programs that were based on readings in all the data sets which sifted out the data They use something called ROOT, which is a C++-based language And so you end up with a histogram of “here is the event and a certain amount is undergoing this type of decay.” If you get a random blip, that’s something new!

So what led you to teaching physics?

I did research during university with the Biology department, and while it was really interesting, the thing that I liked about physics was everything I wanted to be able to talk about all of physics with as many people as possible, rather than to narrow it down to one specific area And I’m good at it!

Why do you find astrophysics interesting or exciting?

If you think about astro or higher level particle physics, there isn’t really a use Those parts of physics are areas I find interesting for their own sakes because for me, the whole point of physics is to explain the universe

But then they blow so much money on astroOoh, that’s a very loaded question!

The whole point of physics is to explain the universe.

Surely, physicists should be focusing attention on our current earth? Do you think there is a certain use to astrophysics - is there a reason for how much money we put into it?

Actually, not very much money goes to astro But the pursuit of anything for its own sake is really important in my opinion If we try and reduce the world into something being “useful” and “not useful” to humanity, that’s very selfish in terms of human-centric views And fundamentally, you are not really in the pursuit of knowledge

Obviously, there are some people with completely different opinions to me and that is absolutely fine (I would argue with them *laughs), but if you argue it from a “it’s not useful” perspective, you can get so many -

- additional benefits that you would have never imagined If you’re only putting your time and attention into something that you think will be successful, you’re never gonna innovate You’re just gonna stay still because you’re not pushing the boundary You’re not trying to expand the sphere of knowledge we have

For example, the internet came from CERN The World Wide Web was developed by CERN scientists for them to send their data between each other quickly and easily. A lot of stuff comes from NASA as well! In astrophysics, there are particles and antiparticles. When they meet each other, they annihilate and produce energy. That’s used in PET scans (positron emission tomography) to image the brain!

Now, no one can know in advance if there will be a useful outcome - I’m not saying don’t put money into something that clearly is gonna help people I’m saying put money more evenly - that’s one of the problems at the moment: physics, biology and chemistry get loads of money, which is great, but areas such as archaeology don’t get much. Archaeology and anthropology are about understanding where humans came from and analysing patterns, and all that could be helpful in things like climate change to see how the climate was like back then.

Is there an area in astro you find particularly interesting?

I like the way in which we can use the stars to measure the universe There’s a specific type of star called a Cepheid Variable Henrietta Swan Leavitt realised that these stars change in brightness in a very fixed pattern So the time it takes to go from dim to dim, or bright to bright, is fixed for that star. But there’s a direct relationship between how long that is and the brightness of the star! Obviously, all the stars are different distances from us, so you have no idea how bright they areyou could have one that’s really close and looks really bright, and one that’s really far and looks really dim

She used this relationship to calculate the distances to stars, because she knew how bright they were given the time period Therefore, she could say, “that star is a certain amount of brightness but it looks brighter, so it must be much closer” as an example This is called Leavitt’s Law, and it allows us to find the distances to stars - which is amazing, right?

With things like Leavitt’s Law, I just think the process people have gone through is completely fascinating. Also, in astrophysics, consistently over the past 100-200 years, they have employed women to do their research They were the first lab in America that had desegregated research groups - that was in NASA They had one of the first areas of research where black people were able to be on a more equal footingnot entirely, that is a separate discussion - but it’s one of the areas of science where more people had more access to it over time That also makes astrophysics interesting in a way

So this is a separate question about Cepheid variables and pulsars. What’s the difference between them - pulsars spin and that’s why they have the difference between dim and bright. But do Cepheid variables actually pulsate?

They’re very cool! They actually change in size, that’s why they change in brightness It’s to do with the balance of forces What happens is they stop giving out as much light, so the gravitational force is more than the radiation pressure pushing out. It shrinks because gravity takes over, but then all the material gets closer together and heats up, so it gives out more light, and gets bigger again.

You were talking about how the process behind finding and using these Cepheid variables is really fascinating - do you think people should learn the history of physics alongside learning the actual physics itself? Do you think there are gaps in the content that we learn?

Yes! I would say I definitely, pro-actively make sure that, in my lessons, I put in the context For example, the fact that Hyugens was right about light being a wave in the time of Newton - it is interesting and relevant that people believed in Newton (because he was pretty much right about everything else), even though at the time of the evidence, Hyugens should have won out. I think the context around discoveries can help us understand them It allows us to understand how someone else was thinking about it because that’s the process of science - it’s asking questions, as opposed to purely accepting facts as facts Questions are important! It makes people understand concepts at a deeper level, and it means you’re better at tackling problems in the future as well!

The Human Hack

Vanessa Yip Unravels the Ethics and Legislation Behind CRISPR

When you sit down and have a discussion about science, as one normally does, someone is bound to bring up the contentious issue of genetic editing.

Among heated debates surrounding the topic, the prospect of changing human DNA has gained particular attention not only from the scientific field, but also the media, politicians, ethicists and more It has triggered polarising responses from the public - while the notion brought some families whose lives had been intertwined with debilitating genetic disorders to tears, some spoke horrifically of the world’s inevitable descent into a dystopian world dominated by “artificial” humans

Then came CRISPR, a novel tool that gave scientists the ability to selectively alter human DNA. Suddenly, predictions of a dystopian world became a genuine fear. As CRISPR made its way through the headlines, we found ourselves asking all kinds of questions we may never have thought of before What would a world with “designer babies” look like? What if the tool was seized by armies to generate pain-immune soldiers?

Before dismissing concerns about the slippery slope human gene editing might cause as fanciful, it is worth looking over both sides of the debate and the legislation surrounding it as well. This controversy is among one of my all-time favourites to read about: it is a perfect example of how the scientific community and society are so intrinsically intertwined, and it makes us think hard about what being human means.

And, after all, what science magazine would we be if we didn’t mention genetic engineering at least once?

The Building Blocks Behind CRISPR

Scientists have discovered a lot about genetics, the code of life that underpins everything from our appearances to how likely we are to contract a disease They’ve even created a whole library called the Human Genome Project (which has its own set of ethical considerations) which maps each gene out! If this wasn’t impressive enough, means to edit these genes were discovered later. In brief, gene editing entails changing a cell’s DNA, be it through deleting, adding or replacing certain DNA sequences, causing a change in the individual’s characteristics.

In the frightful year of 2020, one thing that lifted our lockdown spirits was Jennifer Doudna and Emmanuelle Charpentier's iconic Nobel win for their invention of CRISPR-Cas9

The tool was inspired by bacterial defense systems. Scientists discovered that when bacteriophagesviruses that specifically target bacteria - infected them, the bacteria would save a copy of the virus’ gene as a form of genetic memory.

Something else caught their attention - they realised bacterial genetic material consisted of repeating sequences separated by spacers, which was where the virus’ gene would be saved into (hence the name CRISPR - Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats). If the virus attacks the bacterium again, the spacer is transcribed into RNA. Remember how the spacer was taken from the virus’ genetic material?

The RNA can therefore guide an enzyme called Cas9 to the specific region of the viral DNA complementary to the spacer, and like a pair of molecular scissors, Cas9 can cut the gene out to protect the bacterium

EmmanuelCharpentier(left)andJenniferDoudna MiguelRopa/AgenceFrance-Presse GettyImages

IllustatedbyLilyPfaffenzeller GraphcayDesigned&

After seeing the potential of Cas9, the CRISPR-Cas9 tool was invented Scientists could now change something called a “Guide RNA” to customise which genes they want to target. They could even create DNA templates to be inserted into the new gaps created, which meant we could introduce changes into our DNA Although other means of gene editing existed prior to CRISPR-Cas9, this tool allowed scientists to manipulate DNA in a incredibly precise fashion, rendering it more powerful and easier to use

Gene Therapy: A Beacon of Hope

Gene editing has demonstrated its promise in a plethora of diseases that are mainly monogenic, illnesses caused by a single faulty gene, whose treatments would otherwise be limited to none Key diseases under the research spotlight span from sickle cell anemia, spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) to cancer and neurodegenerative diseases like Batten's disease!

Sickle cell anemia affects millions worldwide. Just a mutation in a single unit (nucleotide) of a gene can lead to deformed red blood cells in the patient. Although gene therapy for this disease is still undergoing trials to ensure its long-term safety, this option would provide immense hope as the only other option patients currently have would be a transplant, for which finding a suitable donor is difficult

Advances catalysed by gene editing reached cancer research too! Scientists developed a type of cancer treatment called CAR T cell therapy, where patients’ T cells (a type of immune cell) can be genetically modified to attack cancerous cells This falls under a branch of cancer treatment termed immunotherapy, which envisions treating cancer using the patient’s own immune system

The Science is Tricky Enough... Here Come the Ethics

Amidst all the busy research and discussion concerning CRISPR’s technicalities, scientists and ethicists stopped to take a serious look at the situation at hand. CRISPR wasn’t just a biochemical tool anymore. If we had the power to rewrite the code of life, we had the power to rewrite life, society and humanity as we know it. Put novel technology, massive implications that could transform society and polarising views in a tube, give it a little mix, and there you go - a heated philosophical debate will rage on

Amongst the myriad of ethical arguments sparked by CRISPR, two main categories arise: somatic cell and germline cell gene editing In this article, I will explore several famously controversial areas: gene therapy, safety issues and non-medical human enhancement I want to stress that all my opinions presented here are subject to change as the debate continues to unfold (Having had discussions with people with a range of opinions, my perspective on this issue has, at times, changed too!)

Hope For Incurable Diseases - too Good to be True?

Cells in our body can be separated into somatic and germline cells. Somatic cells are body cells, and when a genetic edit is introduced to an individual’s somatic cell DNA, that change is retained in the individual only. In contrast, germline cells refer to gametes (sperm and egg), and any genetic edits made will be passed onto descendants In this section, I will briefly explore the debate relating to somatic cell gene editing, both for medical and non-medical uses

Employing somatic cell gene editing in medicine has spurred excitement for decades The invention of this tool could mean patients could finally receive treatment for disorders such as Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) which leads to eventual muscle degeneration, or Leber congenital amaurosis (LCA) which takes away a child’s vision

So, although clinical trials are underway, what is causing the hesitation around somatic cell gene therapy?

Firstly, safety concerns still remain There is a risk of mosaicism which occurs when the edit isn’t received by all cells, meaning a faulty gene could be inherited Off-target effects are another concern - what would happen if a scientist mutates an unintended gene accidentally? How can we be sure this technology wouldn’t cause more problems than it would solve? There is still fear lingering from the shadow of gene therapy research which has cost multiple lives - one that alarmed the public greatly was the sad news of Jesse Gelsinger. But the field has grown massively in the past decades, with more and more gaps in research being filled, such as figuring out the pros and cons of different vectors used to deliver the gene therapy, which has been a large explanation for past failures.

CRISPR isn’t perfect at the moment, but with more research, we could perfect the technology so that one day, certain diseases could be treated by a mixture of conventional medicine and somatic cell gene therapy Hence, if research and clinical trials are carried out under strict regulation to ensure safety (and efficacy), such as under the FDA, the current technical limitations of CRISPR should not be a stopping factor Instead, the limitations should encourage further research After all, isn’t the drive for continuous improvement a fundamental feature of science?

Price and Prejudice

Inequity is arguably one of the biggest controversies surrounding gene therapy Despite optimistic results from clinical trials and heartwarming success stories, all discussions surrounding gene therapy cannot ignore the blatant problem of affordability. Just a onetime treatment for SMA developed by Novartis costs $2.1 million, ranking as the world's most expensive drug.

Imagine a world where human gene editing even beyond gene therapy is normalised for the wealthy, where it is about as commonplace as being prescribed antibiotics Only the rich can be genetically altered to be smarter, conventionally prettier, healthier

Would this create an even deeper social divide, given most healthcare systems already leave groups of people disproportionately affected? Would this also increase the societal pressure on parents to opt for gene therapy for their child, as not doing so would mean putting their child at risk of a genetic disorder, which could be seen as unethical in itself?

Although there seems to be no end to this avalanche of questions, they are increasingly relevant when we consider how gene therapy might exacerbate inequity, given it is likely to be a very expensive technology only accessible to a fraction of society That is, of course, if it becomes a socially acceptable treatment

Things get a bit trickier when we come to definitions What exactly constitutes a disorder? If somati gets to applicatio

In my opinion, gene editing should not be used for the purpose of non-therapeutic human enhancement, principally because of the inequity that would be caused. The usage of CRISPR to perpetuate eugenics is not an entirely far-fetched consideration. If opened up to the public for use, cherry-picking certain aesthetic traits to modify may reinforce the societal labelling of “good” and “bad” traits

In the documentary Human Nature, Jennifer Doudna recounts her nightmare following her realisation of what CRISPR could mean for the future:

“I walked into a room and a colleague said, ‘I want to introduce you to someone and they want to know about CRISPR’ There was a silhouette of a chair with someone sitting with their back to me As they turned around, I realised with horror that it was Adolf Hitler He leaned over and he said, ‘so tell me all about how Cas9 works ’”

This opens up the discussion of human enhancement. Theoretically, someone like an athlete could request for somatic cell gene therapy to increase their muscle mass, claiming it would be for medical purposes Whether this is ethical or not may be subjective, but what remains unanimous is the need for strict definitions to be agreed upon internationally, a lacking issue at present.

Furthermore, if we use CRISPR to genetically enhance certain traits, such as eye colour, height or even musical skill, this could place those without the means for CRISPR on an even more unequal footing

The Human Upgrade

We share the common desire to continually improve ourselves, and scientists reckon gene editing provides a shortcut to that. While the term “upgrade” might feel uncomfortable as it seems to reduce humans to nothing but machines, the birth of gene editing urges us all to ask ourselves this: what does being human truly mean? Does tampering with our fundamental code undermine our humanity, and the moral (and legal) idea that all humans are equal?

Human enhancement is an implication of gene editing that particularly polarises the scientific community and the public While there are some that warn strongly against what they deem an unnatural or dangerous application, some are excited by the prospect and have leapt to designing experiments and even experimenting on themselves. A famous example is the biohacker Josiah Zayner, who proudly injected himself at a biotech conference to supposedly boost muscle growth. It didn’t work.

A Transhumanist Take

However, if CRISPR theoretically became universally accessible, would using it for non-therapeutic human enhancement still be ethical? Transhumanists would say yes

Transhumanism is a social and philosophical movement encouraging research into technology that could enhance humans and the human condition. From their perspective, there is almost a moral imperative to improve humans - it’s what drives society forwards. However, I would argue there have been many instances in the past where a novel technology has done more detriment to society.

Those advocating for using gene editing for non-therapeutic human enhancement also argue that it is merely a sped-up version of evolution However, this argument assumes that evolution handpicks “good” traits, when in reality, it doesn’t guarantee goodness

If we extend this (inaccurate) comparison of evolution with gene editing, those against non-therapeutic human enhancement would stress how unnatural gene editing is, as opposed to nature’s mechanism of evolution. Despite my participation in the “I don’t think we should genetically modify humans for non-medical purposes” club, I don’t see this as a valid argument since medicine can be seen as ultimately “unnatural” in itself

Overall, I don’t believe gene editing is a harmful tool in itself, but without strict definitions specifying the boundaries of gene editing, we will find ourselves in a moral and legal grey area that could pave the way to a deeper divide in society. It is worth considering how everyone is brought into this world with a random set of genetics that we can’t control. There is an element of unfairness within it - some may luck out, some may not

However, if everyone is subjected to this unfairness, does that make it fair? Regardless, even though gene editing could mean an individual’s genetics don’t have to be their static, defining destiny, this could only be the dream of the wealthy

News of GM Babies Spark Uproar

Germline gene editing, the genetic modification of gametes and embryos, heralds a whole other set of ethical considerations.

In November 2018, researcher He Jiankui dropped the bioethicsequivalent of an atom bomb: he genetically modified two human embryos which were carried to term He edited the CCR5 gene to supposedly fend off HIV resistance for the two babies - this is because if CCR5 is non-functional, HIV cannot destroy a type of immune cell called Helper T cells This landed him 3 years in prison, having been found guilty for “forging ethical review documents and misleading doctors into unknowingly implanting gene-edited embryos” Horrifying stuff

Apart from the outrageous lack of informed consent, this event caused alarm in the scientific community, leading to an international summit on Human Gene Editing which heavily condemned He As discussed earlier, gene editing is far from perfect The risks are still high: the wrong gene could be targeted, there could be off-target effects, there is a risk of mosaicism and more

Off-target mutations are particularly dangerous since it would impact all the other cells in the body, amplifying the unintended effect. With the already sky-high stakes, what makes this more dangerous in germline editing is the fact that any genetic edit made in germline cells would be passed onto the rest of that individual’s descendants Thus, implanting the edited embryos knowing the risk of error is high was highly unethical, and led to an influx of criticism from the public

As with somatic cell gene therapy, using germline editing therapeutically would be very promising, since it could alleviate the challenges faced by families living with genetic disorders. However, focusing on the present, using germline gene editing in a stage where technical errors are still high would be unethical if we consider the problem of autonomy.

Autonomy is one of the four main pillars of medical ethics, and it safeguards an individual’s right to their own medical decisions

When a mistake occurs during the process of gene editing germline cells and this is carried to term, the baby, along with all its future descendants, will not have consented to this genetic mistake that will unfortunately remain with them. If we zoom out and consider consent more broadly, the baby and its descendants will not have consented to that genetic edit its parents have chosen for them in the first place. Is this moral? Does it violate a fundamental human right?

This question sent an uncomfortable shockwave through the world, its impacts felt in every corner of academic (and non-academic) realms

Following the 2015 International Summit on Human Gene Editing, a group of prestigious scientists co-authored the paper “A prudent path forward for genomic engineering and germline gene modification”, condensing their views on the topic

“At present, the potential safety and efficacy issues arising from the use of this technology must be thoroughly investigated and understood before any attempts at human engineering are sanctioned, if ever, for clinical testing”,

they noted Assuming safety and efficacy are ensured, they further explained how our knowledge of gene-environment interactions and pathways of disease is still limited. This is a vital point to consider, since

Currently, somatic cell therapy for medical purposes is legal in the UK, while germline cell therapy is not as simple as that Under the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act (1990, updated in 2008), germline gene editing is regulated by the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority

The law states that only permitted embryos/gametes can be inserted into a woman. For gametes or embryos to be permitted, they have to meet 3 criteria: the gametes must be from a woman and a man; the gametes must not have altered DNA; the gametes must not have any other cell added to it In other words, implanting genetically modified gametes/embryos into a woman is illegal by UK law

However, the HFEA doesn’t entirely restrict germline gene editing research The HFEA can license this type of research, however, any nonpermitted embryos must be discarded within 14 days as this marks the start of cell differentiation (when cells start to take on specific roles). e full impacts of cacy completely. r more scientific

Although there are national regulations (that require more substantiation to keep up with the constant research in science) overseeing gene editing, international regulations are tenuous at best We are heading in the right direction, though: the International Summits on Human Gene Editing in 2015 and 2018 are proof of this progress, and in August 2019, WHO helped improve transparency through launching a public registry for all somatic and germline clinical trials!

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r our flight or, plified the need what it means the words of s this world has nd create more use CRISPR to out of fear for discussion we o the next level eversibly messy

I was interested in hearing the opinions of different people, so I went around College and asked them this:

In your opinion, is it ethical to genetically edit human DNA?

It was fascinating to hear such a variety of views:

Chloe Ching UC4 Helena Ahrens UC4

The ethics of editing human DNA depends on our understanding of what it means to be human If humanity is seen as the creation of a divine being, then this kind of intervention can be seen as deontologically and absolutely wrong, in any circumstance, for any reason

If this is not the view, then more scope can be given to this kind of intervention The utilitarian view would support either somatic or germline editing as long as the consequences produced create a greater balance of pleasure or greater decrease of pain and as long as no harm is done to others. The ethical argument against either type of editing stems from exactly this premise - how can we be sure that no harm will be done? What constitutes harm? It can be argued that these questions cannot be definitively answered and therefore, using consequences as the basis for supporting gene editing is flawed

The issue of defining harm also presents problems for those who wish to argue that somatic gene cell editing is ethical as long as it is only used for medical purposes. If this includes preventing disabilities, at what stage does a certain height, for example, become a disability?

If societal norms determine that a certain height presents a significant disadvantage, might it be termed a medical issue that justifies this kind of gene editing? The issue of the slippery slope arises: if gene editing is used for one kind of purpose, it opens the door for it to be justified for an increasing range of issues or situations.

In my opinion, these issues should not be ignored and the seriousness of the questions at stake should never be forgotten Advances in science such as somatic gene editing, which indicate they are likely to bring about positive benefits and reduce pain and suffering, should be seen as ethical, but should be approached with caution and with constant debate and review.

I would say it’s wrong because it could allow richer people to take advantage of genome editing to ensure that they live longer and that their children are smart, etc. It takes away fate and breaks natural selection because, in a way, you are deciding someone’s future

Lana Howell SFC1

I think gene editing shouldn’t be banned outright Ideally, there should be a conference with people from different fields - such as philosophy, medicine, science, history, economy etc - where boundaries and definitions are agreed upon, such as the distinction between medical and non-medical applications But at the moment, germline editing should be prevented to guard against a potential slippery slope.

Vanessa Tsui SFC1

It's hard to draw a line What makes life exciting is the fact that everything is so random Also, if the technology is not available to everyone, there will be more discrimination

Sarah Xie UC4

I personally think it would be ethical (under legal circumstances), as the intention behind editing DNA is making things better by, for example, treating genetic disorders which could save many lives It would therefore be unethical to ban human DNA editing as it would indirectly kill lives.

While it could spare future generations in a family from having a particular genetic disorder, it might affect the development of a foetus in unexpected ways. Embryos whose DNA are being genetically edited cannot choose whether or not to have the treatment This goes against freedom of choice and is therefore unethical

Gene editing is still in its early stages, but I think that if the technology improves in 20-30 years time , it could become more ethical and I would support that For now though I think it would be best to simply continue genetically editing plant DNA first until the technology becomes more stable and entails less risk.

Ms A Saunders teacher of R.S & philosophy

Quantum Entanglement

Lana Howell SFC1 takes us through the quantum world, exploring non-locality, faster-thanlight communication and more

The word ‘quantum’ gets thrown around a lot, particularly in sciencefiction movies, but what does it actually mean? ‘Quantum’ comes from the word ‘quanta’ for discrete (individually distinct) quantities of energy, which exists in packets rather than on a continuum. From this ‘quantisation’ of energy by Max Planck in 1900, came the rich field of quantum physics. The ‘quantum world’ describes the behaviour of anything smaller than an atom It is very different to the classical world with which we many-atom organisms are familiar with

Aside from this, quantum weirdness involves wave-particle duality, the uncertainty principle (which states that the position and velocity of an object cannot both be measured exactly), and quantum entanglement If two objects are ‘entangled’, then their physical properties are related in such a way that any measurement done on one will instantly improve knowledge about the other.

For example, imagine two electrons in a system. Each electron has an inherent property called spin, which can be up or down In this system there are four possible combinations of spin measurements: up, up; up, down; down, up; and down, down Quantum physics tells us that when these electrons are not being measured, they are in a superposition of all possible states, and when we do a measurement, they collapse into one of these four There is a mathematical expression describing the superposition of the states and the probabilities of finding each one during measurement. If this expression can be separated into two parts, the electrons are not entangled; if you cannot separate it, the electrons are entangled. In an entangled system, the probability distribution of finding electron B in a certain state (e g up) changes after we interact with electron A (e g by individually measuring A’s spin)

Unentangled states in quantum systems are rare, because whenever systems interact, correlations between states are produced Despite the general application of this definition of entanglement, it is often illustrated using special cases such as Bell States, where the probability of both particles having spin up or both having spin down is zero. Before measurement, each particle has a 0.5 chance of having either spin. After measuring particle A to have spin up, you know particle B will have spin down: the probability of B being up becomes 0 and down becomes 1

The Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen (EPR) experiment seeks to demonstrate entanglement Because it is quite complicated, I’ll outline the simplified version later proposed by Bohr, which is reminiscent of Bell States

Suppose you have a particle with total spin 0. The particle decays into two other particles and conserves the spin. One particle goes left, the other right. Neither particle can have spin 0, they must each have an absolute value with a spin of 1; since the spins must add to 0, the spins, if thought of as arrows, must be in opposite directions These particles are entangled, because information from one instantly conveys information on the other This experiment has been done many times and the spins proven to correlate in the proposed way

At first, this does not seem particularly impressive, since such correlation can be obtained in non-quantum experiments, for example a pair of shoes separated over a long distance. If one person opens a box to reveal the left shoe, they instantly know that their friend’s box contains the right shoe. But this analogy is not actually applicable because the left-right quality of the shoe is determined before anyone opens any boxes In contrast, quantum physics dictates that a particle does not have a distinct property until a measurement is made

N Hanacek/NIST

In other words, the two particles of the EPR experiment cannot have their spins determined locally before a measurement is made; instead, measuring one particle’s state instantly determines the other, entangled particle’s state.

'Spooky action at a distance'

Einstein himself disliked this idea, calling it ‘spooky action at a distance’ for its implication that entanglement could violate locality, which states that an object is only influenced by its immediate surroundings In 1964, John Bell devised a test that could prove whether information about entangled particles was encoded within a particle, then maintained when separated (as Einstein preferred), or if correlations were non-local. His inequalities give the degree of non-locality that requires a quantum explanation. They were first violated by Aspect et al in 1982, and the predictions reconfirmed many times since. The observed correlations between particles’ spins are stronger than they could possibly be if their spins were determined before measurement – quantum entanglement is indeed, non-local

Experiments show that if the entangled particles communicate to produce their correlations, such communication would be at least 10,000 times faster than the speed of light. This violates Einstein’s theory of special relativity which limits any possible speed to that of light. So does that mean there is no communication? How then, can particles be entangled? Do we just have to accept this paradox as a part of the quantum world?

Can we exploit entanglement for faster-than-light communication? The first three questions are unresolved, but the last is an unfortunate ‘No’ Although quantum mechanics seems nonlocal, there is no observable nonlocal communication, and we cannot use the correlations to transmit information of any kind from one particle to the other. This is because you cannot force an entangled particle into a particular state without disturbing the entanglement, nor can you force a measurement to produce a particular state, because measurement outcome is always random The hypothetical physicists ‘sending’ information through quantum correlations can only see these correlations when they return together and compare measurements, a process done at or below the speed of light

Luckily, entanglement is more successful in quantum computing

Computers use electrical pulses representing zeroes or ones called bits to store data and process information. Quantum computers use subatomic particles called qubits which exploit quantum phenomena to provide a much greater processing power. Entangling qubits exponentially increases computational power, partly because processing one qubit reveals information about other, entangled qubits

So far, I have only considered spatial entanglement – entanglement of particles across space What about temporal entanglement? Imagine a single polarised photon. Person A measures it, then person B measures it. Instead of two photons being separated by space, there is one separated by an interval of time, and the correlations familiar to spatial entanglement are replicated in this temporal case. At first, this seems obvious – of course actions on a particle affect its later properties!

But we know by now that quantum physics will surprise us Stephen Brierley at the University of Cambridge led a team in showing that the correlations are too strong to be explained classically, especially when one increases the number of possible polariser orientations and measurements made. The reason for this ‘supermemory’ is still undecided.

Deepening our understanding of temporal entanglement may lead to advances in quantum cryptography For example, Jay Olsen and Timothy Ralph, both at the University of Queensland, proposed quantum time capsules that encode information into photons in such a way that they can only be decrypted in the future, by exploiting temporal correlations Furthermore, some cases of temporal entanglement suggest blurring of the causal order of events Časlav Brukner, a physicist at the University of Vienna, performed experiments on particles that did just this. The loss of a ‘well-defined causal order’ may remove fundamental space-time, thus galvanising new theories on how quantum physics builds our classical universe.

To conclude, I have introduced you to some fundamental ideas about quantum entanglement, delving into what it means for particles to be entangled across space, and the experiments that proved that quantum correlations are too strong to be locally determined I crushed all our hopes for using entanglement to communicate faster-than-light, but raised them with possibilities in quantum computing and cryptography. I examined entanglement across time. Ultimately, its weirdness is an inescapable part of our reality. Steps to decoding why entanglement works as it does are steps to uncovering yet another of the universe’s secrets

An extract from the episode ‘Quantum Entanglement’ in Lana Howell’s science podcast ‘What We Don’t Know’ (available wherever you listen to podcasts)

The Earth is NOT a Pancake

Azra Bakrie SFC1

hopefully teaches you nothing new about the shape of the earth, but instead delves into the reasons why some 'theorists' believe otherwise

Conspiracy theories are fun and all to read, but I wouldn’t expect people to take them too seriously, especially that of our planet being the shape of a plate. On Twitter, 95.2K people follow the Flat Earth Society which makes me think: is this some sort of inside joke, or do they actually believe this? Just thinking that the Earth is some sort of frisbee shape is ridiculous in itself I plunged through the world of “Flat Earthers” and found absurd theories that can easily be disproven through basic science

To try and understand the flat earthers, we must look into their ‘theories’ They theorise that the Earth is a pancake-like shape According to their ‘US model’: the Sun and the Moon moves oppositely, back and forth from the North and South Pole, and that both the Sun and the Moon is 50km in diameter. The ‘UK Model’ suggests the disc is accelerating upwards at 9.8m/s^2 to create the illusion of gravity. After finding about those two ‘models’ already there are an infinite amount of flaws So are we just hoping to assume that there’s a never ending void and the Earth is just travelling through that upwards? And if the Moon and Sun are moving in total opposite directions, how can they explain the Total Lunar Eclipse?

A way to disprove that the earth is flat is through Foucault’s Pendulum In 1851, Foucault hung a 27kg weight on some chains and swung it around All pendulums move in accordance to Foucault’s Sine Rule; it states that the path of the pendulum is distorted according to the latitude, due to the coriolis effect, which is essentially the spinning motion of the Earth You can find the amount of time needed for one full rotation by dividing the time for one day (24 hours) by the sine of the latitude of the location (i.e: North Pole is sin(90) which is 1).

If the Earth wasn’t rotating, then the pendulum would swing back and forth on one plane for eternity, but that’s not the case. Unless of course, you’re on the equator where it would be sin(0) which is 0, since the coriolis effect of the equator is at a minimum. This provides direct evidence that the Earth is rotating, and that contrary to the belief of the flat-earthers the sun is not rotating around the Earth Despite this, Flat Earthers who see the demonstration first hand at museums believe it’s fraudulent!

EditedBy: VanessaYip GraphicDesign:LilyPfaffenzeller

The flat-earthers also have an unusual way to explain the Total Lunar Eclipse. They say the phenomenon happens due to a ‘mysterious object’ that occasionally passes and blocks the Moon. I wonder: why do they believe the Moon and the Sun are spherical and the Earth is flat? And how is this ‘mysterious object’ invisible 99.5% of the time?

The Lunar Eclipse occurs when the Earth is directly between the Sun and the Moon The umbra, which is the shadow the Earth casts on the moon, darkens it When the moon is entirely within the umbra, a reddish tinge is cast on the moon due to the reflection of sunlight from the Earth’s atmosphere If the Earth was flat, the shadow would be a straight line on the Moon Additionally, the Total Lunar Eclipse would never be a thing as according to the US Model, the Sun and Moon are always moving back and forth from the North and South Pole, thus the moon would be on the opposite side of the Earth from the Sun. This just proves that the Earth orbits around the Sun, and the Moon around the Earth.

Finally we’ll discuss mirage Something that flat-earthers believe can be used in their favour, as they don’t really understand the science behind it In certain scenarios, skyscrapers and mountains can be observed on the horizon despite the curvature of the Earth Fear not, as there’s an actual scientific explanation and it’s not the Earth being flat Mirage is created when the hot ground heats up a couple centimetres of the cool air above it, resulting in warm, less dense air beneath cool and denser air instantaneously. Light rays travel at different speeds in accordance to the temperature of the air (due to density). The light rays refract when crossing the boundary from cold to warm air. When your sight is right above the warm air, the light bends in a parabola like shape and creates a Superior Mirage Your brain perceives it as straight lines which makes objects appear taller than they actually are So no, the Earth is not pancake-shaped

Foucault Pendulum showing the rotation of the Earth

TotalSolarEclipseon2017-08-20

The World of Dune

by Frank Herbert

A BOOK REVIEW BY KATIA ZYKOVA

Dune has been labelled by many critics as one of the founding books for science-fiction, some even claiming that it is the greatest novel of the genre

Whilst being dense and full of layers - some say too complex for the average reader - there is no doubt that Herbert manages to create an intense feeling of intrigue and wonder in this strange world

The book is set far in the future, where Herbert introduces the idea of extreme biological evolution in humans - as humans are genetically modified over years of specific breeding to create human creatures such as ‘Mentats’: humans who can process and calculate information at the same speed as supercomputers

In this way, one of the main questions on the reaches of human potential is drawn out in the novel

The focus is drawn to the people Paul resides with - the Fremen.

The Fremen are an egalitarian society – free of any inefficiency or laziness – who demonstrate the best of human moral and productive potential

They become the central figures of morality throughout this novel, as well as the people who demonstrate humanity's ability to utilise ecology in order to change the environment of an entire planet and preserve their culture, providing abundance and prosperity for future generations.

This motivation to work and suffer in the hopes of creating a better future for their children, their children’s children, and so on, leaves the reader in awe of them throughout the novel, while creating an ideal image of human potential

While Paul remains the Messiah, and on the surface the main protagonist of the novel, the reader understands that the Fremen are the true heroes of the novel

This human potential is explored in many of the characters, including the central protagonist of the story, Paul Atreides, later known as Muad’Dib He demonstrates the effects of the central resource in this future world – an addictive spice, or 'melange', that allows those who take it to gain precognitive abilities whilst turning their eyes a characteristic blue.

Indeed, Paul is able to see into the past and future with clarity beyond the average resident of the spice planet - Dune, and in this way, he becomes somewhat of a Messiah to the native people called the ‘Fremen,’ reminiscent of the Bedouin This is where Herbert strays from the average tale of a protagonist being defeated by a villain and rising again – in this story, the villain is Baron Harkonnen

The idea of religion is also explored throughout the novel – how religion affects politics, or how politics affects religion.

With Paul consistently re-evaluating his own role in ‘extreme political actions’ in the name of his Messiah-like powers, the reader is exposed to his internal conflict, adding yet another layer of human nature versus potential in the novel

In summary, this novel is a Marvel.

It manages to explore almost all the questions humans have had about our nature and how this plays into our future.

Through the portrayal of all extremes, and of course, the middle ground as well, it inspires us to re-evaluate the trajectory of our actions, while encouraging us to strive towards ‘human ideals'.

EditedBy:FreyaDixon GraphicDesign:

Too For School and... Cool

I hope that a crazy musician flailing his arms around is not the first thing that comes into your mind when you see the word “superconductor” Just what exactly does it mean, if not a musical conductor high on energy drinks? This term is self-explanatory – a superconductor is a material that conducts electricity with nil power dissipations below a certain temperature, at which the electrical resistance of the material drops to zero. This temperature is known as the critical temperature and is represented by the symbol Tc

Nil electrical resistance implies that we can achieve maximum efficiency and utilise electrical energy without wastage Adding to such a cool concept, critical temperatures are in fact extremely low The first discovery of the superconducting phenomenon came about in 1911 Mercury had become superconducting when Dutch physicist Heike Kamerlingh cooled it down to the temperature of liquid helium, which is around 4K / -269°C. As of 2021, even after more than a hundred years of research on superconductors, the majority still require critical temperatures way below what humans are used to, ranging from 0 1 K125K / -272 9°C to -148°C Why exactly are most critical temperatures so low? Why are they just so cool?

To answer the question, we first have to understand how superconductivity works It is more than electrical resistance magically disappearing at the right temperature You might have heard of atoms and their structure consisting of protons, neutrons and electrons. Protons and neutrons are fundamentally made up of smaller particles called quarks, whereas electrons are just electrons. They are elementary particles, meaning that they cannot be broken down into any smaller constituent parts

Electrons are also a type of particle called a fermion It has a property known as 'spin'; in simple terms, 'spin' is the intrinsic angular momentum of an electron, in which the angular momentum is the property of any rotating object given by moment of inertia multiplied by the angular velocity. More importantly, what we need to know for now is that electrons have a spin of ±½, which is not an integer.

The mechanism behind conventional superconductivity can be explained by the BSC theory proposed by and named after American Physicists John Bardeen, Leon Cooper and Robert Schrieffer in 1957 When electrons move through the lattice of a superconductor, they attract positively charged nuclei with their negativity As a result, more positive areas are created Such distortions caused by various attractions between electrons and nuclei are known as phonons This is not to get confused with their similar-sounding counterpart, the photon, which is a force particle responsible for the electromagnetic force.

A phonon is a type of quasi-particle that seems to behave like a particle but is actually not It can be considered as a product of a quantum effect caused by the vibrations of molecules in a crystal lattice An analogy would be to compare quasi-particles to tornadoes. Tornadoes are temporary vertical funnels of rapidly spinning air, but they are persistent, discrete and tangible enough to be considered as actual 'things'. Phonons are the same: they are quantised, discrete, and in the case of superconductivitythe lattice distortions

For the electrons, instead of repelling each other as they normally do, new incoming electrons are drawn to positively charged areas as a result of lattice distortion, and this forms attractions with the electrons responsible for the distortions As mentioned, phonons are equivalent to the distortions, hence we can see phonons as the media between the interaction of the incoming electrons and the other electrons. These electron-phonon interactions are pivotal for forming Cooper pairs, which are pairs of electrons that collectively behave as bosons. A boson is a type of elementary particle that has an integer spin; again, spin is only an intrinsic property

Remember how electrons have a spin of ±½? Perhaps look at it in this way; when the electrons couple, their respective spins cancel each other out to form an overall spin of 0, which is an integer Starting to get the idea here?

What is really interesting is that the Cooper pair behaves like a boson, despite being made up of two fermions Unlike fermions, bosons are not subject to the Pauli Exclusion Principle, which states that no two electrons can occupy the same energy state Since Cooper pairs behave like bosons, the electrons are capable of condensing to the ground state altogether at the same time

Superconductors?

At the ground state, electrons cannot lose any more energy, so they d not collide with the surrounding nuclei at all As a result, electric resistance drops to zero; The Cooper Pairs are able to move unhindere in the superconductor. In addition, they can form a massive entangle network, where the electrons move as a giant bunch throughout th superconductor.

Maia Cheung, SFC2

This is advantageous when some atoms get in the way of the electrons, a they could simply rearrange themselves to form new Cooper pair Furthermore, the network of Cooper pairs is more resistant than an thermal vibrations in the lattice as the electron-phonon interactions ar in the order of milli-electron volts.

At this point, you may have already realised why such low critic temperatures are needed for superconductors This is because th Cooper pair simply breaks apart at higher temperatures, and alongsid any superconducting behaviours vanish The electrons stop behaving lik bosons and are bound to experience resistance in the lattice

So, there you have it, the reason why superconductors have to b refrigerated at gelidity. It is fascinating to think about how differen particles can interact with one another to form particle-like entities an to display properties that are completely different to their own I hop that this article was chill enough of a read and has successfully served as brief introduction to the mechanisms of conventional superconductivity

EditedBy:JamieHui

LilyPfaffenzeller

GraphicDesign:

Vanessa Yip

Chameleons Rather Th

Change Their Colour Blend In

One of the largest misconceptions of all time is a chameleon’s ability to change colour and camouflage against their surroundings There is some truth to it - when perched atop a tree in the heart of a forest, their skin can darken to mirror the dimness of their environment. But this isn’t primarily why their skin changes colour. As it turns out, they change colour to reflect moods, demonstrate intentions and even to regulate temperature!

Chameleons are ectotherms, meaning they cannot generate their own body heat. However, they have developed a way to get around this - when cold, their skin darkens to absorb more heat; when hot, their skin turns paler to reflect more heat

Male and female chameleons also change their skin colour to indicate different things A male may take on a bolder, brighter colour in the face of threat, in order to assert dominance and defend their territory In aggressive encounters where chameleons compete to show off all their dazzling colours, the weaker chameleon may surrender by turning off its own display

first. As protection, a male may even mimic a female’s colour to sneak past other males, bypassing any threat. While males change colour to attract mates, females also do this to indicate willingness to mate.

So, what brings about their change in colour? A chameleon’s skin is made of several layers, with the outermost one being transparent What give them their special ability are specialised cells called chromatophores found in several layers of skin underneath the outermost layer These cells, which contain different pigments, come in 4 different types: melanophores, iridophores, xanthophores and erythrophores Melanophores are situated in the deepest layer of their skin, and contain the brown pigment melanin For example, when melanin moves around and concentrates at the dendrites (extensions of nerve cells) of melanophores, the chameleon’s skin turns darker Above that layer are iridophores, made of tiny guanine crystals that act as little mirrors reflecting wavelengths of light selectively Layers sitting above that house xanthophores containing yellow-orange pigment, and erythrophores containing red pigment. All these pigments are what allow chameleons to change their skin colour to suit specific situations, whether it be because of a particularly chilly day, or accidentally stumbling upon an unfriendly-looking chameleon.

Can You Solve These Puzzles?

If the myth Vanessa just debunked wasn't mind-boggling enough, have a go at these puzzles she's written up, courtesy of TedEd:

Diamond or death? It’s your choice…

You are presented with two chests, one contains treasure and the other is filled with a noxious gas that will bring you to your imminent death if opened The golden rule is this: you are allowed to make a statement about what is inside the chests. If your statement is true, the “true” chest will open Conversely, if your statement is false, the “false” chest will open Without knowing the contents of each chest, what statement can you make to ensure the chest with treasure opens, and that the fatal chest remains closed?

Solve this to prevent an(other) epidemic!

Here’s a very seasonal one for you to mull over:

You are working with a deadly virus in a lab and today, everything goes horribly wrong. The layout of your lab is simple: picture a 4x4 grid, where there are four rooms on each of the four rows Now, the virus has contaminated all rooms except for one: the top-left room, also known as the “entrance” The bottom-right room is the “exit” To contain this epidemic as quickly as possible, you are given the following rules: you must enter the lab from the “entrance”, and leave via the “exit” Upon entering each contaminated room, you must pull a lever that would magically clear the room of contamination Here’s the catch: you cannot enter a contaminated room twice. How can you work your way through the lab and prevent the next big epidemic?

MarkBridgerviaGettyImages

QUICK AND CRYPTIC

Crossword

BY

QUICK QUIZ

Which planet has the most moons?

Which two periodic elements are the only ones to exist in liquid state (at standard conditions)?

On the Periodic Table, if hydrogen plus boron equals carbon, what is nitrogen plus oxygen?

Thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid, pyridoxine, biotin, folate, and cobalamin (all in numerical order) are better known collectively by what name?

In cytogenetics, what term describes the entire chromosomal complement of a cell which may be observed during mitotic metaphase?

Which scientist produced photograph 51?

ANSWERS

ACROSS (CRYPTIC)

1 Find the 98th element in depleted state and hesitate. (11)

7 What's in orbit? (3)

8. A cow and I stand around, with ozone and halogen, for example (8)

9. Snap Newton with a little bit of light. (6)

11 Begins jumping over upright log ends to measure energy (5)

14 Bring up the sound of sun beams (5)

17. Went along, but had a certain avarice. (6)

20 Life form seen in swirling smog and rain (8)

21 Something scrambled in three legged race (3)

22 Unfortunately, there's no hard regal type of collider near Geneva (5, 6)

DOWN (QUICK)

1. Climbing plant. (7)

2 Tell an untruth (3)

3 A hobbit (5)

4. Precipitation. (4)

5 US State (5)

6 Eg, Fe, Au, Pb, Sn, Etc (5)

10 Yes, to a Parisian (3)

12. Employ. (3)

13 Palm, grass or banana for example (7)

15 To do with the 21 down (5)

16. Drummer (or a committe prefect). (5)

18 Type of radiation (5)

19 Steven Hawking, A brief history of (4)

21 Organ of hearing (3)

Sendattemptstothecheltscientist@gmailcom;thepersonwiththemost rightanswerswillgetaprize!

Answerspublishednextissue

AND NOW...

Dr Gamblin's

Joke Bank

"Lost an electron - you really should keep an ion it - classic!"

Two chemists walk into a bar One tells the bartender, “I’ll have an H2O.” The other says, “I’ll have an H2O too!” The second chemist dies

The Dichotomy Paradox

Is Motion Possible?

That title sounds absurd - of course motion is possible, we experience it every day! However, the Greek philosopher and mathematician Zeno of Elea constructed a paradox which seemed to distort this familiar everyday experience.

Picture this: the weather is nice and Zeno decides to take a stroll along a path. He first walks half the path’s length, which takes a finite amount of time (½ of the path) To complete the rest of the journey, he must travel half of the remaining distance, which again takes a finite amount of time (¼ of the path) However, to walk the remaining distance, he must travel half of it again (⅛ of the path), and this seems to spiral on and on ad infinitum The crux of his paradox is this: you can continue halving the distance to no end, so surely, this must translate to Zeno having to travel an infinite amount of steps, which would take an infinite amount of time, meaning he will never reach the end of the path. From this logical reasoning, we seem to arrive at the conclusion that motion is an illusion. But, of course, we know this to be false, so don’t bother using this n you unpick it?

WHAT WE'RE READING

BIOETHICS/HISTORY:

The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks

Rebecca Skloot

The Paradox of The Central Dogma

Where Did Life Come From?

Lily Pfaffenzeller

At first, the Central Dogma may sound foreign, but even the most basic biologist will have stumbled across it:

That is, DNA undergoes transcription to produce RNA, which is then translated into proteins (biomolecules essential to life) It is this fundamental flow (coined 'The Central Dogma') that underpins the existence of every single living being at present But what happens when we trace this back to its origins? In other words - which came first: DNA, RNA or proteins? What we get is an extremely convoluted 'Chicken or the Egg' paradox: proteins are needed in the form of enzymes to transcribe DNA into RNA, but DNA is needed to code for and resultantly produce proteins. It seems you can't have one without the other. The same goes for RNA, as it too requires enzymes to produce proteins. From this interdependence arises the paradox that many have been trying to solve. One leading theory called 'the RNA world-hypothesis' comes pretty close, proposing RNA came first as it can both store genetic information (like DNA) and catalyse certain chemical reactions (like enzymes) Though experiments support this, the flaws limit it from becoming anything beyond what it is: a hypothesis For one, RNA is notoriously unstable, so the rate of degradation would exceed the rate of RNA's formation in the first place So until proven otherwise, the paradox of the Central Dogma remains unsolved

GENETIC ENGINEERING: A Crack in Creation: Gene Editing and the Unthinkable Power to Control Evolution

Jennifer Doudna & Samuel

H. Sternberg

ETHOLOGY: Are We Smart Enough to Know How Smart Animals Are?

Frans de Waal

CHEMISTRY: The Elements of Murder: A History of Poison

John Emsley

Reading something interesting? Why not drop us a quick message to let us know at thecheltscientist@gmailcom! Reviews are welcome alongside your reading recommendations too (but not necessary)! They'll be published in our next issue's back pages under your name (or anonymously, at the sender's discretion)

"Zeno'sParadoxes"byMartinGrandjeanislicensedunderCCBY-SA40

Vanessa Yip

DNA -> RNA -> Proteins

Thank You...

We would love to say a massive thank you to those who made this magazine possible.

Firstly to all students and staff across year groups & departments who have contributed to the Chelt Sci in some shape or formall credit is recognised on p1 and p2 Thank you for your openness and enthusiasm (not to mention the high quality of all contributions)!

Thank you to Mrs Thomson for teaching us the basics of magazine printing and image copyrighting, and ultimately making this accessible to everyone - whether that be online on Issuu, or printed on paper

An absolutely humongous thank you to Mr Gill - whenever we’d burst into your office unannounced with a magazine update, you would nevertheless receive our rather relentless questions and excitement with reciprocated enthusiasm and unwavering support. In the grand scheme of things, without you the Chelt Sci wouldn’t be here today.

When we set out on making the Chelt Sci from scratch, we were pretty much foreign to the world of magazine-building. Thankfully, both of us are avid readers of popular science magazines - namely New Scientist, BBC science focus, Scientific American and more. 99% of the Chelt Sci's layout is some sort of mash up of their pages - and thank the magazine gods we had them as a source of inspiration. Who knows what sort of monstrosity would be printed on these pages otherwise.

So last but certainly not least, thank you to you, the reader. Thank you for picking up or clicking on the Chelt Sci and making it this far to the very end. We hope you enjoyed this issue, and look forward to the future ones to come!

(IMAGE ATTRIBUTIONS SO THAT WE DON'T GET SUED)

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