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a case study on the innovation of the kindle Cheryl Edenfield // DMGT 702 History and Interpretation of Innovation // Summer 2014 // Professor Giselle Rahn Cheryl Edenfield // DMGT 702 History and Interpretation of Innovation // Summer 2014 // Professor Giselle Rahn

“Amazon Kindle, a revolutionary portable reader that wirelessly downloads books, blogs, magazines and newspapers to a crisp, high-resolution electronic paper display that looks and reads like real paper, even in bright sunlight. More than 90,000 books are now available in the Kindle Store, including 101 of 112 current New York Times Best Sellers and New Releases.�1

contents

what is innovation? definition...............................................................................................................5 antecedents and timeline..................................................................................6 heterogeneous engineering social......................................................................................................................8 social & natural....................................................................................................9 natural...................................................................................................................9 perceptual & contextual...................................................................................10 technical.............................................................................................................11 organizational....................................................................................................11 e-reader & kindle innovation driving forces......................................................................................................12 innovation & invention.....................................................................................13 creative destruction..........................................................................................14 incremental change..........................................................................................14 operationalization.............................................................................................16 unintended consequences.............................................................................. 17 industry impact.................................................................................................18 swarm creativity................................................................................................18 closure.................................................................................................................19

five attributes of innovation observability......................................................................................................20 trialability............................................................................................................21 complexity..........................................................................................................22 relative advantage............................................................................................22 compatibility......................................................................................................23 user groups types of adopters..............................................................................................24 shaping an innovation......................................................................................25 evolution ....................................................................................................................26 conclusion ....................................................................................................................27 citations sources................................................................................................................28 additional sources............................................................................................30 image sources....................................................................................................31

Cheryl Edenfield // DMGT 702 History and Interpretation of Innovation // Summer 2014 // Professor Giselle Rahn

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what is innovation?

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a case study on the innovation of the kindle // what is innovation?

Innovation is often confused with invention because both are defined as something new.

An innovation is the systematic application of an invention that satisfies a specific need; is converted to a useful service or product to create value; and influences lifestyle or culture.2

Cheryl Edenfield // DMGT 702 History and Interpretation of Innovation // Summer 2014 // Professor Giselle Rahn

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1455 The Gutenberg Bible, the first major book printed in Europe with movable metal type

timeline

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1377 Jikji (Selected Teachings of Buddhist Sages and Seon Masters) theearliest known book printed with metal movable type

The purpose of this study is to examine the process of innovation and diffusion of the Kindle, including the exploration of its antecedent, the e-reader and e-book.

The antecedents to the Kindle are the printed book, e-book, other e-readers and personal digital assistants (i.e. Apple Newton PDA and Palm Pilot).

1971 “Replicator Technology.�

The history of e-books begins with the formation of Project Gutenberg

e-reader: a portable electronic device used for reading books and other text materials that are in digital form.3 e-book: a digital version of a book4

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a case study on the innovation of the kindle // what is innovation?

March 2004 First EPD e-book featuring an E-Ink display launched in Japan 1993 Apple Newton PDA (personal digital assistant)

2000 Microsoft Reader (PC software)

1999 Rocket e-book

by NuvoMedia (the first handheld portable reader) e-Bookman e-reader could play and record sounds

2009 Barnes & Noble releases the Nook; Amazon releases Kindle for PC (Microsoft Windows 8, 7, Vista, and XP)

2006 SonyÂŽReader released

2007 Amazon releases the Kindle, the world’s best selling e-reader, selling out in five and a half hours and remaining out of stock for five months

2011 Android tablets hit the market including the Kindle Fire released by Amazon and Nook Tablet from Barnes & Noble

2010 Apple releases the iPad; Barnes & Noble releases the Nook Color; Amazon releases Kindle app for Mac, iOS device and Android

Cheryl Edenfield // DMGT 702 History and Interpretation of Innovation // Summer 2014 // Professor Giselle Rahn

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heterogeneous engineering

Heterogeneous engineering is comprised of multiple components including, but not limited to social, technical, natural, economic, political, organizational, informational, contextual, and perceptual forces. These components come together and shape the development of an innovation.9 Social, natural, perceptual, contextual, technical and organizational forces are the most germane to this case study.

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a case study on the innovation of the kindle // heterogeneous engineering

social The social factor began with the e-book and the Project Gutenberg Philosophy. It is â€œâ€Ś to make information, books, and other materials available to the general public in forms a vast majority of the computers, programs and people can easily read, use, quote and search.â€? The premise behind the e-book is that anything that can be entered in to the computer can be reproduced indefinitely, thus everyone in the world can have access to a copy of it.10

social & natural Another social consideration is the environmental impact that e-books make. The carbon footprint for e-readers and the Kindle is much less than a paper book. Emma Ritch, senior reporter for the Cleantech Group, recently conducted a story on the carbon footprint of a Kindle e-Reader vs paperback books. The Cleantech Group argues that the electronic reader industry can make a significant impact once people start transitioning from paper media en masse: “A user that purchases fewer

natural than 22.5 books per year would take longer to neutralize the emissions resulting from the e-reader, and even longer to help reduce emissions attributed to the publishing industry,” according to the study.11 One facet most people don’t consider outside of paper pollution or e-waste, is water. It takes about seven gallons to produce the average printed book, while e-publishing companies can create a digital book with less than two cups of water.12

The natural force behind the Kindle, other e-readers and tablets, comes from people’s desire for a handheld reading device versus reading with software on a Mac or PC. It feels natural to hold a book-sized device in one’s hand. While still not the same as a real book with ink printed on paper, as a second option it’s preferable to a computer.

Cheryl Edenfield // DMGT 702 History and Interpretation of Innovation // Summer 2014 // Professor Giselle Rahn

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perceptual & contextual The perception readers have of e-books versus physical books depends on context. Pew Research Center’s Internet & American Life Reading Habits Survey reported that: “As a rule, dual-platform readers preferred e-books when they wanted to get a book quickly, when they were traveling or commuting, and when they were looking for a wide selection.

However, print was strongly preferred over e-books when it came to reading to children and sharing books with others. When asked about reading books in bed, the verdict was split: 45% prefer reading e-books in bed, while 43% prefer print.”13

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a case study on the innovation of the kindle // heterogeneous engineering

technical The technical aspects can be broken down into two categories: delivery device and delivery format. delivery device • desktop or laptop computer software • tablet • electronic book reader device • electronic ink – the optical component of a film used in Electronic Paper Displays (EPD)14 • local and cloud (storage)

organizational delivery format15 • ePub – designed by the Open e-book Forum and developed by the International Digital Publishing forum based on XHTML and XML) • AZW – Amazon Kindle • LIT – e-book format developed for Microsoft Reader software • PDF – Portable Document Format created by Adobe • ODF – OpenDocument Format XML-based file format for OpenOffice (an open source productivity suite alternative to Microsoft Office) • MOBI – used by MobiPocket Reader originally made as a PalmDOC format for PDAs (personal digital assistant)

The organizational activity comes from the brands and manufacturers.

Amazon started out as an e-commerce site “with a mission to be Earth’s most customer-centric company…” and has significantly expanded its product selections.16 PCs, Macs and tablets – from the Apple iPad to the Google Nexus 7 or the Samsung Galaxy Note 10.1 – all have the ability to download the Kindle app, even if it competes with their own e-book reader and library of e-books. The opposite isn’t true for the Kindle. It doesn’t work both ways like its competitors. The Apple iBookstore and Google Books do not have apps available in the Kindle App store.

Cheryl Edenfield // DMGT 702 History and Interpretation of Innovation // Summer 2014 // Professor Giselle Rahn

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attributes of innovation

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a case study on the innovation of the kindle // e-reader & kindle innovation

driving forces The driving forces – social, economical and technical – behind the e-reader and Kindle began with e-books.

The social trigger was the philosophy to make books available to everyone by digitizing them. The funding and technology became available to Michael Hart in the form of $100,000,000 of computer time by the operators of the Xerox Sigma V mainframe at the Materials Research Lab at the University of Illinois. Hart announced that “... the greatest value created by computers would not be computing, but would be the storage, retrieval, and searching of what was stored in our libraries.”17

innovation & invention The areas where the Kindle innovation is inventive and new would be in the direction of technology, education and practicality. The technological aspects, when the Kindle was first released, were new because no other e-reader had a screen that could combat eye fatigue or have the capability to sync wirelessly. An article on Scholastic.com points to the facts about Kindles and e-readers entering the classroom as an additional resource, as well as the push of printed textbooks to extinction. The practicality of being able to store and carry hundreds or thousands of books as well as sync wirelessly across devices that have the Kindle app or cloud reader was inventive and new.18

in the hands of some 12,000 children. Risher said, “[E-readers] turn out to be remarkably well-adapted to the developing world, in part because they don’t take very much power, they are very portable. It’s almost like having an entire library in your hand…” The U.S. Agency for International Development found that it provided more access to materials, but is still assessing how access to books via e-reader is affecting learning in primary grades.19

The Kindle and e-reader is also new and innovative to other cultures. In a recent interview with NPR, David Risher, a former Amazon executive, relays how through schools and governments, he is fighting illiteracy around the world with Worldreader. The first program was in Ghana and has expanded to nine African countries. As of October (2013), Worldreader says, it has put more than 700,000 e-books Cheryl Edenfield // DMGT 702 History and Interpretation of Innovation // Summer 2014 // Professor Giselle Rahn

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creative destruction

incremental change

Creative destruction is when an innovation causes old inventories, ideas, technologies, skills, and equipment to become obsolete. This causes continuous progress and improves the standards of living for everyone.20

The innovation of the Kindle was incremental, with changes continuing to this day. From the original electronic paper Kindle with eInk technology, a keyboard, free 3G service, and a touch screen, the Kindle family of products has evolved to include the original e-readers, a tablet (Fire), TV streaming device (Fire TV) and a smartphone (Fire Phone).

The e-book and e-reader was a substitution for printed books. The Kindle is seen as “creative destruction” because it became a replacement for the first e-readers when it was introduced. Even more so now that the tablet form was released as the Kindle Fire. Prior to the Fire, it utilized a revolutionary new display technology called “electronic paper” with a screen as sharp and natural as reading ink on paper; with nothing like the strain and glare of a computer screen. It also had the capability of syncing wirelessly without a PC through their own wireless delivery system called “whispernet.”21 Now that tablets have overtaken the e-reader market, Amazon has to continuously innovate their devices to keep up with the competition.22 They’re doing so with the Kindle Fire product line.

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a case study on the innovation of the kindle // e-reader & kindle innovation

the incremental changes of the kindle

Original basic Kindle

Kindle with keyboard and 3G

First Kindle Touch

Kindle Paperwhite with backlit display

Kindle Fire Family: HD and HDX

Kindle Fire TV

Kindle App for tablets (iPad version pictured here)

Kindle App for smartphones l-r: Motorola DROID, Apple iPhone, Blackberry

Kindle Apps for Mac and Microsoft Windows PC

Kindle Fire Phone with Firefly, May Day and dynamic perspective Cheryl Edenfield // DMGT 702 History and Interpretation of Innovation // Summer 2014 // Professor Giselle Rahn

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operationalization The criteria that operationalize the Kindle innovation in this particular case study are based on its heterogeneous engineering and the problems it solves, which includes: •

•

•

textbook rentals versus purchase; and Kindle Unlimited (launched on July 18, 2014 separate lending from Prime).

the evolution of the original problem that was solved – digitizing a book to make it available to the world making it a single, lightweight, handheld device that causes less strain on the eyes than a computer multiple outlets for delivery of content and its ability to sync wirelessly across devices

The Kindle is an innovation because these factors, all being new and unseen before they were introduced, combined to create a product that has continually evolved to become better than its previous iterations.

The technology is constantly being improved, as are the services through the Kindle Owners Lending Library that comes with Amazon with Prime membership; Kindle Kindle hardware, web services & other, and media revenues = $33.7 Billion “Estimating Kindle E-Book Sales For Amazon.”

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a case study on the innovation of the kindle // e-reader & kindle innovation

unintended consequences Books have become subject to the “digital divide.” An unintended consequence of the Kindle and e-reader is the destruction of the democratizing effects of reading. Due to Digital Rights Management, there a limits to sharing e-books — some have no sharing rights — and they cannot be gifted or resold. The e-book knocks out both the secondary book market and any control that libraries has over the copies of a text it has purchased.23 Even if a library provides digital copies, they are only allowed to loan out a fixed amount; it’s not unlimited. The Kindle Owner’s Lending Library, through Amazon Prime membership, allows a loan on only one book at a time once per month.24 There is a price to pay for unlimited e-book borrowing with Kindle Unlimited, and even then there’s a limit to ten books at a time. Other lending outlets, like public libraries through Overdrive Media only allow a combination of five e-books, audio books or video at one time.

Other unintended consequences worth noting are socioeconomic: • the decline of book stores from 20,000 more than twenty years ago to 2,000 a few years ago • publishers are raising prices on e-books and no longer waiting a year to release paperback versions of their best-selling books • mainstream authors are reaping the benefits of e-book sales alongside hardback and quick release paperback sales25 • royalty contracts for lesser known authors need to be scrutinized due to low prices for e-books versus printed versions; they’ll need to recoup any losses before receiving royalties • indie authors benefit with the option to self-publish, although they have to figure out how to market it to get their book out into the world • e-book piracy causes prices to go up to offset revenue lost to pirates26

Cheryl Edenfield // DMGT 702 History and Interpretation of Innovation // Summer 2014 // Professor Giselle Rahn

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industry impact

swarm creativity

Industries impacted by this innovation include publishing, education, business, entertainment, telecommunications, theological and spiritual. An example is by the types of books available for download to the Kindle including but not limited to: PDFs, textbooks, business manuals, business periodicals, and religious texts. Examples for the entertainment and telecommunications industries are: email can be sent to the Kindle Fire; phone calls can be made with the Kindle Fire Phone; and videos and music can be streamed on the Kindle Fire, Fire TV and Fire Phone.

Swarm creativity led to the innovation of e-readers. The Gutenberg Project, where the mass production of free e-books started, is a COIN (collaborative innovation network) made up of staff and volunteers. The individuals in this organization all have different motivations and interests, but “... have created standards of their own to work on particular authors, formats, languages, etc. so (they) can provide… either the freedom to create e-books for one’s own purposes and standards or to use prearranged standards.”27

a case study on the innovation of the kindle // e-reader & kindle innovation

closure Amazon allows authors to publish their books independently through Kindle Direct Publishing (KDP) on the Amazon Kindle Store. Swarm creativity comes into play when an author decides to join the KDP community to connect with experts and fellow authors in an online forum.28 Other notable COINs related to e-readers and e-books include the following who develop and maintain open source code to create compatible digital content: •

•

Open e-book Forum (e-pub) developed by the International Digital Publishing forum based on XHTML, and XML OpenDocument Format (ODF) XML-based file format for OpenOffice (an open source productivity suite alternative to Microsoft Office)

The Kindle met closure by redefinition. Instead of rhetorical closure, with stabilization and the disappearance of problems, Amazon sought to redefine the key problem.

E-readers have not completely taken over the printed book market.29 Amazon took another route and solved the problem of how to compete with the tablet. The Apple iPad was introduced in early 2010 and the Barnes & Noble Nook Color came out later that year. Amazon’s answer was the release of the Kindle Fire (tablet) running on an Android variant in 2011, followed by the Kindle app for iOS, Kindle Cloud Reader and Kindle app for PC or Mac.30

Cheryl Edenfield // DMGT 702 History and Interpretation of Innovation // Summer 2014 // Professor Giselle Rahn

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five attributes of innovation

observability Observability is the degree to which the results of an innovation are visible to others. The easier it is for individuals to see the resualts of an innovation, the more likely they are to adopt.31 The first generation Amazon Kindle asked early adopters to provide input on the device via email to kindlefeedback@amazon.com, but the best way others can find out how well the innovation works is built in to the Amazon.com shopping experience.32 Owners of the device could leave feedback of their first-hand accounts on the positive and negative factors of the product. The average customer review, out of 7,974, on Amazon.com was four out of five stars.33 This combined with the positive review on CNET.com (recommending it over the Sony Reader) made it highly observable and likely for new users to adopt.

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a case study on the innovation of the kindle // five attributes of innovation

trialability Trialability is the degree to which an innovation may be experimented with on a limited basis. New ideas that can be tried on the installment plan will generally be adopted more quickly than innovations that are not divisible.34 In November 2013, Amazon VIPs were given the opportunity to try the latest Kindle Fire HDX model free for one month to see if they liked Amazon’s new device.35 There aren’t many (found just the aforementioned one) published accounts of trying out the Kindle device before purchase. Amazon does offer free 30-day trials for Kindle Unlimited and seven day trials for Kindle e-textbooks.

Kindle Unlimited allows borrowing up to 10 books for an unlimited amount of time.36 Kindle e-textbooks allows users to test how digital features including keyword

search, swift navigation, multicolor highlighting, and X-Ray for Fire tablet and iPad work.37 If the user decides to rent or purchase the e-textbook, all the notes, highlights and annotations will be kept and not lost. Amazon also allows a free one month trial of their Prime service – which includes shipping benefits, Prime Instant Video, Kindle Owners Lending Library and Kindle First (the opportunity to download one of four editors’ picks one month before the official publication date, either for free or at a reduced price).38

Cheryl Edenfield // DMGT 702 History and Interpretation of Innovation // Summer 2014 // Professor Giselle Rahn

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complexity

relative advantage

Complexity is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as difficult to understand and use. Some innovations are readily comprehended by most members of a social system; others are more complicated and are adopted more slowly.39

Relative advantage is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as better than the idea it supersedes.41

One of the factors that spurred the success of the first Kindle is because by the time it was released, consumers were already used to reading text on their cell phones and Blackberrys.40 The technology wasn’t perceived as difficult to understand and use. E-readers had already been around, and it wasn’t too complex. By the time the Kindle Paperwhite and Fire was introduced, consumers were already used to the touch screen and gestures required to select options and turn pages.

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a case study on the innovation of the kindle // five attributes of innovation

A year after it’s release, Amazon sold more than a quarter million units and sold out. Even though e-readers had been on the market for almost a decade, marketing played a big role in the relative advantage of the Kindle.

Where other e-readers failed, the Kindle connected with consumers. With media savvy Jeff Bezos as a change agent, and the prominence of Amazon behind the product, their clout helped garner people’s trust that the Kindle was a better product. Social prestige was another factor. Oprah Winfrey along with prominent writers, Nobel laureate Toni Morrison and bestselling thriller author James Patterson,

compatibility

Kindle Fire HDX, Jeff Bezos

Compatibility is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as being consistent with the existing values, past experiences, and needs of potential adopters.43

became change agents promoting the Kindle.42 One hindrance to adoption in the beginning was the price tag. $359 was a steep price for the average reader in the 2007 economic climate, and still is today. Since then, the price of the basic Kindle has dropped to $69 with the family of products ranging from $69 upwards to $399 for the largest Kindle Fire, and $649 for the Fire phone.

A change agent is an individual who influences clients’ innovation-decisions in a direction deemed desirable by a change agency.44

It took a while for the Kindle to hit the mainstream. With the advent of tablets, the basic e-reader still does not have the tangible quality that many readers like – the look, feel, smell of holding, reading and turning the pages of a printed book. The Kindle Fire, positioned as a tablet, gave the Apple iPad a run for it’s money with it’s lower price point of $199 when it came out. This innovation made it more compatible to the needs of potential adopters because it wasn’t seen as just a reading gadget, but a media rich content streaming device.

Cheryl Edenfield // DMGT 702 History and Interpretation of Innovation // Summer 2014 // Professor Giselle Rahn

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user groups

The early adopter is respected by his or her peers, and is the embodiment of successful, discrete use of new ideas.

The early majority adopt new ideas just before the average member of a system. The early majority interact frequently with their peers but seldom hold positions of opinion leadership in a system.

Innovations are approached with a skeptical and cautious air , and the late majority do not adopt until most others in their system have already done so.

Laggards are the last in a social system to adopt an innovation.45

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a case study on the innovation of the kindle // user groups

types of adopters The early adopters of the Kindle were technology geeks who read and compared reviews about tech gadgets on sites like Technology Review, Tech Radar, engadget and Gizmodo.46 They are also likely to be Amazon shoppers who could seamlessly interface with Amazon’s online store. When the first Kindle sold out in five and a half short hours, this sent a signal to the early majority.47 The early majority had time to deliberate for five months while the product was out of stock, giving enough time for the early adopters to share their reviews. This also gave time for publications, like Business Week to share their reviews and promote buying the Kindle. Members of the early majority would include business people who traveled for work and/ or commuted via public transportation (it’s lighter to carry than a book or several books), and students or scholars who would use it for textbooks.48 The late majority and laggards are more likely to either be book aficionados who prefer the tangible aspect of a book, or of lower socioeconomic profile because the Kindle would be seen as a luxury electronic device.

shaping an innovation Amazon shoppers, tablet users, business people, scholars and students all have influenced the Kindle innovation.

The shopping habits of Amazon users and Prime members can be collected to make improvements in the Kindle store. Tablet users expect certain features from their tablet – like WiFi, 3G or 4G service, text to speech, entertainment and video streaming with more clarity than other devices, and ample storage space to name a few. Tablet users, business people, scholars, students and the like also consider the weight, the feel, the look (both aesthetic and screen resolution) as well as less eye strain as features to be continuously improved upon. Amazon has answered these social groups’ reviews by their foray into the tablet market with the Kindle Fire which later evolved to the Kindle Fire HD and HDX -- higher resolution and bigger screen size options.

Cheryl Edenfield // DMGT 702 History and Interpretation of Innovation // Summer 2014 // Professor Giselle Rahn

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evolution

It’s no big surprise that the tablet has overtaken e-readers as the most popular device among consumers who read e-books.49 The Kindle has already evolved and diversified so that Amazon can sell its content to every person possible. The Nook from Barnes & Noble and Kobo, a smaller eReading and e-bookseller, have been following Amazon’s lead by doing the same. Amazon’s strategy isn’t to sell the devices, but to make money on the content it sells.

Per Forbes, the next step is for “... book publishers to find ways to take advantage of this shift in digital reading.”

What will the next generation of content be, and what kind of device will deliver it?50 An article on Publishing Technology reminds Google Glass users not to read long form text with it, but begs the question of “how long will it take for it be possible to read a book (or e-reader) without

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a case study on the innovation of the kindle // evolution

holding it in one’s hands?”51 Maybe a device like Google Glass will read it to you. It’s not a far stretch since the Kindle has already made it’s way into entertainment and telecommunications industries — with Fire TV to compete with Google Chromecast for TV, Apple TV and the Rokus player; and the Fire Phone with other smartphones like Android, Windows Phone and the Apple iPhone.

Amazon Kindle Vision Statement We envision wireless electronic reading devices that embrace a traditional book's simplicity,

conclusion

utility, and the ability to disappear as we read,

In conclusion, the Kindle and it’s family of products is the systematic application of content streaming devices and apps that satisfies the need for multimedia consumption; it has converted the e-reader to both a useful service and product to create value; and influences those who live a digital lifestyle.52 The evolution of the original problem solved – digitizing a book to make it available to the world – has far reached its goal. What started as a single, lightweight, handheld device that causes less strain on the eyes than a computer now provides multiple outlets for delivery of content.

but offer consumers capabilities that are only possible through digital technology and wireless connectivity. Starting with Kindle, which enables consumers to think of a book, newspaper or blog and be reading it in less than a minute, we will build tightly integrated products that bring together great devices, powerful software, Amazon services, and unmatched content selection.53

Cheryl Edenfield // DMGT 702 History and Interpretation of Innovation // Summer 2014 // Professor Giselle Rahn

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citations

1. Dudley, Brier. “Kindle Hacking, iPod Parallels and a Chat with the Kindle Director.”

The Seattle Times. November 19, 2007. Accessed August 14, 2014. http://blog. seattletimes.nwsource.com/brierdudley/2007/11/chatting_with_amazons_ kindle_d.html.

12. Kozlowski, Michael. “Are E-Readers Environmentally Friendly?” Good EReader EBook and Digital Publishing News. March 24, 2014. Accessed August 15, 2014. http://goodereader.com/blog/electronic-readers/are-e-readers-environmentally friendly.

2. Crawford, C. Merle. New Products Management. Homewood, IL: R.D. Irwin, 1983.

13. Rainie, Lee, Kathryn Zickuhr, Kristen Purcell, Mary Madden, and Joanna Brenner.

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November 14, 2011. Accessed August 15, 2014. http://www.heterogeneities.net/ publications/Law2011HeterogeneousEngineeringAndTinkering.pdf.

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11. Ritch, Emma. The Environmental Impact of Amazon’s Kindle The Environmental Impact of Amazon’s Kindle, 2009. Accessed August 15, 2014. http://www.tkearth. com/downloads/thoughts_ereaders.pdf.

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14. “Ink Technology Electrophoretic Ink, Explained.” EInk:.com. Accessed August 12, 2014. http://www.eink.com/technology.html.

a case study on the innovation of the kindle // citations

18. “Will the Kindle Change Education?” Scholastic Publishes Literacy Resources and Children’s Books for Kids of All Ages. Accessed August 14, 2014. http://www. scholastic.com/browse/article.jsp?id=3752572.

19. Risher, David, and Anthony Bloome. “E-Readers Mark A New Chapter In The Developing World.” Interview by Robert Siegel and Lynn Neary. NPR.org. December 2, 2013. Accessed August 15, 2014. http://www.npr.org/templates/transcript/ transcript.php?storyId=248194408.

20. Schumpeter, Joseph A. “Chapter VII: The Process of Creative Destruction.” In Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy. New York: Harper, 1950. Accessed August 14, 2014. http://digamo.free.fr/capisoc.pdf.

21. “What Is Amazon Kindle--is It Similar to a PDA or Other Hand-held Computers?”

Wayback Machine Internet Archive. November 22, 2007. Accessed August 14, 2014. http://web.archive.org/web/20071122184210/http://www.amazon.com/gp/help/ customer/display.html?nodeId=200127480&#;whispernet.

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23. Mims, Christopher. “Will E-Books Destroy the Democratizing Effects of Reading? | MIT Technology Review.” MIT Technology Review. September 21, 2011. Accessed August 14, 2014. http://www.technologyreview.com/view/425503/will-e-books destroy-the-democratizing-effects-of-reading/.

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31. Rogers, Everett M. Diffusion of Innovations. 5th ed. Kindle. Free Press, 2003. Kindle locations 606-07.

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Accessed August 15, 2014. http://www.cnet.com/products/amazon-kindle-first generation/.

33. ”Customer Reviews Kindle: Amazon’s Original Wireless Reading Device (1st Generation).” Amazon.com. Accessed August 17, 2014. http://www.amazon.com/ Kindle-Amazons-Original-Wireless-generation/product-reviews/B000FI73MA. 34. Rogers, Everett M. Diffusion of Innovations. Kindle locations 600-602.

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additional sources 43. Rogers, Everett M. Diffusion of Innovations. Kindle locations 590-592.

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a case study on the innovation of the kindle // citations

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Cheryl Edenfield // DMGT 702 History and Interpretation of Innovation // Summer 2014 // Professor Giselle Rahn