Cefc energy focus 2015 nuclear energy by China Energy Fund Committee

China Energy Fund Committee (CEFC) is a nongovernmental, nonpartisan Chinese thinktank registered in Hong Kong. It has Special Consultative Status with the United Nations Economic and Social Council (UN ECOSOC). With partners and associates in China and overseas, CEFC conducts research and related activities focusing on transnational topics such as energy security, issues relating to Chinaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s emerging place in the world, and Chinese culture and thought. CEFC is dedicated to promoting international dialogue and understanding via offices throughout China and the United States. Published by China Energy Fund Committee Hong Kong Office 34/F, Convention Plaza Office Tower, 1 Harbour Road, Wanchai, Hong Kong, China Tel: (852) 2655 1666 Fax: (852) 2655 1616 E-mail: coop@chinaenergyfund.org U.S. Office 25/F, 1100 Wilson Boulevard, Arlington, VA22209, U.S.A Tel: +1-703-260-1828 Fax: +1-703-666-8081 www.cefc-ngo.co

CEFC China Energy Focus 2015: Nuclear Energy CEFC中国能源焦点2015:核能

Editorial Board (编辑委员会) Chairman: YE Jianming (叶简明) Executive Vice Chairman: HO Chi Ping, Patrick (何志平) Vice Chairman: CHAN Chau To (陈秋途) Member: LO Cheung On (路祥安)

Editor-in-Chief (主编) HO Chi Ping, Patrick (何志平)

Deputy Editor (副主编) LO Cheung On (路祥安)

Executive Editors (执行编辑) LIU Yadong (刘亚东) ZHANG Ya (张雅)

Guest Editor-in-Chief (客座主编) XU Yuming (徐玉明)

Editorial Assistants (编辑助理) CHENG Waikin (郑伟健) WANG Haixia (王海霞)

Table of Contents 目录

Section One: Introduction 第一部分：简介...........................................................................................5 Chapter 1: Editorial 第一章: 主编寄语................................................................................ 6 Chapter 2: Guest Editorial 第二章: 客座主编寄语....................................................................... 17 Chapter 3: Executive Summary 第三章: 摘要...................................................................................... 21

Section Two: China Nuclear Power Survey Report 第二部分：中国核电调查报告.............................................................27 Chapter 1: Methodology 第一章: 调查方法.............................................................................. 28 Chapter 2: List of Interviewed Experts 第二章: 受访专家资料....................................................................... 29

Chapter 3: Background 第三章: 背景...................................................................................... 34 Chapter 4: Overview and Trend Analysis on China's Nuclear Power Industry 第四章: 中国核电发展概况及近期趋势分析..................................... 36 Chapter 5: Nuclear Power Safety Supervision and Public Acceptance 第五章: 中国核电安全监管和公众接受度......................................... 43 Chapter 6: Nuclear Fuel Supply and Recycle in China 第六章: 中国核燃料供应及循环利用................................................ 49 Chapter 7: Latest Developments on China's Nuclear Reactors and Technical Routes for Nuclear Power Generation 第七章: 中国核反应堆科研现状以及核电技术路线.......................... 54 Chapter 8:“Going Out” Status of China's Nuclear Power 第八章: 中国核电“走出去”状况.................................................... 59 Chapter 9: Economic Analysis on China's Nuclear Power 第九章: 中国核电经济性分析............................................................ 62

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分：中国专家观点..................................................................67 Chapter 1: China's Nuclear Competitive Edge and Going Out Strategy 第一章: 中国核电优势及“走出去”战略......................................... 68 Chapter 2: Nuclear Power Safety Oversight in China 第二章: 中国核电的安全监管............................................................ 76 Chapter 3: Development of Passive PWR Series as National Science & Technology Major Project (NSTMP) 第三章: 国家科技重大项目非能动压水堆系列的进展...................... 83

Chapter 4: Development Review of China Nuclear Industry in 20112015 第四章:“十二五”我国核能行业发展回顾....................................... 97 Chapter 5: The Role of Nuclear Power in Building a Sustainable Energy System 第五章: 以核电为支柱建立可持续能源体系.................................. 102 Chapter 6: Suggestions on “Going Out” Strategy of China's Nuclear Power 第六章: 对我国核电“走出去”的几点建议....................................111 Chapter 7: Three Strategies for Uranium Resource and Nuclear Energy Development 第七章: 助推核能发展实施铀资源三大战略..................................117 Chapter 8: The Cost-Effectiveness of Chinese Nuclear Power 第八章: 中国核电的经济性............................................................. 123 Chapter 9: Enhancing Open and Transparent Communication on Safety Issues 第九章: 开放透明，架起核电与公众的畅通桥梁............................ 134 Chapter 10: The Future of Green Nuclear: Energy Thorium-based Molten Salt Reactors (TMSR) 第十章: 未来绿色核能发展道路之一：钍基熔盐堆核能系统.................... 144

III

Section One: Introduction 第一部分: 简介

Section One:

Introduction 第一部分：

简介

Section One: Introduction 第一部分: 简介

Chapter 1: Editorial 第一章: 主编寄语

HO Chi Ping Patrick Editor-in-Chief Deputy Chairman and Secretary General of the China Energy Fund Committee

何志平主编中华能源基金委员会常务副主席、秘书长

We are at an energy crossroads. Climate

which cannot be brought about without

change and other environmental concerns

accessible and affordable electric power.

require energy sources to be clean, low

Demand for energy is huge. (1)

emission, and with limited environmental impact. On the other hand, billions of people

We urgently need energy solutions that will

are still in need of economic development,

light the decades ahead. Nuclear power is one

International Energy Agency, World Energy Outlook 2015 Factsheet: Global Energy Trends to 2040, http://www.worldenergyoutlook.org/media/weowebsite/2015/WEO2015_Factsheets.pdf.

Chapter 1: Editorial 第一章: 主编寄语

Section One: Introduction 第一部分: 简介

such solution, which the world can no longer

amounts of energy, on the order of millions of

afford to ignore. Fortunately, continuous

what had been possible through the burning

advancements in nuclear technology are

of coal or gasoline.

making nuclear power even more safe, clean, and efficient. Together with more

Unfortunately, the discovery of nuclear

sophisticated energy policy, the growing

fission paralleled the unfolding of the Second

approval of energy experts, and acceptance

World War. Thus, scientists were first tasked

by the general public, the stage is gradually

with weaponing atomic energy, an objective

being set for a nuclear renaissance.

they realized in August of 1945. Two nuclear bombs, dropped on Japan, demonstrated to

China, in particular, has much to gain from

the world the tremendous power unlocked

nuclear power, and is leading efforts to

from the nucleus of the atom. (2)

realize a nuclear future, for both itself and the world. Chinese investment in nuclear

It was not until the early 1950 ’ s that

power research, training, safety measures,

scientists were charged with utilizing “atoms

and construction is advancing the pace of

for peace” – employing nuclear fission to

nuclear development. These efforts promise

produce electricity. A variety of experimental

to enable a future where nuclear energy will

reactors were developed over the course of

serve as the bedrock of global sustainable

that decade, constituting the first generation

development.

of reactors. By the early 1960 ’s, the first Generation II civil and commercial reactors

A Brief History of Nuclear Power

started to come online. These reactors were

Decades of research in the early 20th century

the mainstay of nuclear power generation

culminated in the discovery of nuclear fission

until about the mid-1990’s. (3)

– the splitting of the atom. By 1939, the world’s leading scientists understood that a

The history of most Generation II nuclear

nuclear chain reaction could unleash colossal

reactors has generally been one of quiet

World Nuclear Association, Outline History of Nuclear Energy, http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/outline-history-of-nuclearenergy.aspx.

Stephen M. Goldberg and Robert Rosner, Nuclear Reactors: Generation to Generation, http://www.amacad.org/pdfs/nuclearreactors.pdf.

Section One: Introduction 第一部分: 简介

success. (4)

Chapter 1: Editorial 第一章: 主编寄语

Over the last fifty years,

Its accident rate is far lower than that

reactors were switched on in 33 countries,

exhibited by a multitude of other sectors,

together tallying more than 16,000 years of

including transportation, mining, drilling,

operation. (5) These reactors have generated

and manufacturing.(8) However, some notable

tremendous amounts of energy with almost

incidents have occurred, which have shaped

zero greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. (6)

much of the public dialogue on nuclear power.

They have been a boon for people, economies, and the environment.

Nuclear power’s most prominent incidents are Three Mile Island (1979), Chernobyl

France’s use of nuclear power presents an

(1986), and Fukushima (2011). These

illustrative case, with 59 reactors providing

accidents generated considerable pubic

75% of the country’s energy. As a result,

anxiety and alarm, notwithstanding that

its citizens and businesses enjoy some of

only Chernobyl resulted in direct deaths,

the lowest electricity rates in Europe. The

and in contamination beyond the immediate

country also has one of the lowest carbon

vicinity of the generating plant. (9) Most

emissions per KWh in Europe. (7)

epidemiological studies conducted in afflicted areas for all three incidents have

Today, nuclear power has the lowest death

demonstrated either zero or minimal adverse

per megawatt hour rate of all energy sources.

direct human health impacts. (10)

Rebecca L. Grant, Why Nuclear Power Is Part of America’s Future, http://lexingtoninstitute.org/why-nuclear-power-is-part-of-americas-future/.

World Nuclear Association, Safety of Nuclear Power Reactors, http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/safety-and-security/safety-of-plants/safety-of-nuclear-power-reactors.aspx.

Nuclear Energy Institute, Life-Cycle Emissions Analyses, http://www.nei.org/Issues-Policy/Protecting-the-Environment/Life-Cycle-Emissions-Analyses.

World Nuclear Association, Nuclear Power in France, http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-a-f/france.aspx.

James Conca, How Deadly Is Your Kilowatt?, http://www.forbes.com/sites/jamesconca/2012/06/10/energys-deathprint-a-price-always-paid/#7347ee0849d2

World Nuclear Association, Safety of Nuclear Power Reactors.

Id.; World Health Organization, Global Report on Fukushima Nuclear Accident Details Health Risks, http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2013/fukushima_report_20130228/en/; World Health Organization, Chernobyl: Thirty Years On, http://www.who.int/ionizing_radiation/chernobyl/en/.

Chapter 1: Editorial 第一章: 主编寄语

Section One: Introduction 第一部分: 简介

Despite the continued successful operation of

On the other hand, many other countries are

hundreds of other reactors, nuclear power has

embracing nuclear power with a renewed

acquired a reputation in some circles as being

enthusiasm. Prompted by the urgent need

unreliable and dangerous, presenting a hazard

of a clean fuel to mitigate the deleterious

to both human health and the environment.(11)

effects of climate change, these countries are

As a result of this adverse publicity, and the

drawing from decades of lessons learned,

stringent safety requirements and austere

tempering their progress with an absolute

regulations that it subsequently drew,

commitment to safety. (14)

demand for reactors began to stagnate in the 1980’s. Since then, world share of electricity

Nuclear power is increasingly being advocated

generated by nuclear power has remained

as an essential option in tackling climate change

stable, accounting for approximately 16%.

and promoting economic development.(15) At the

(12)

same time, technological advancements promise Recent years have seen both rejection,

to address nuclear power’s shortcomings and

hesitation, and increased adoption of nuclear

strengthen vigilance for safe operation.(16) As

power. After Fukushima, public opinion of

a result, nuclear power is planned for 20(17)

nuclear power remained negative in many

countries that currently do not have it, and

countries, many of which have begun

under consideration by another 20. Nuclear

stepping away from nuclear power, including

power is returning to prominence.

Japan, Germany, and Italy.

(13)

George Monbiot, Power Crazed, http://www.monbiot.com/2013/12/16/power-crazed/.

World Nuclear Association, Outline History of Nuclear Energy.

Richard Anderson, Nuclear Power: Energy for the Future or Relic of the Past?, http://www.bbc.com/news/business-30919045.

World Nuclear Association, Plans for New Reactors Worldwide, http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/plans-for-new-reactorsworldwide.aspx.

International Atomic Energy Agency, Climate Change and Nuclear Power 2015, http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/Publications/PDF/CCANP2015Web-78834554.pdf.

Steven Kotler, Meltdown or Mother Lode: The New Truth About Nuclear Power, http://ecohearth.com/eco-zine/green-issues/391-meltdown-or-mother-lode-the-new-truth-about-nuclear-power. html.

World Nuclear Association, Plans for New Reactors Worldwide.

Section One: Introduction 第一部分: 简介

Chapter 1: Editorial 第一章: 主编寄语

Where We Stand Today

skilled operators. Stringent mandatory safety

There is considerable debate today on what

requirements further inflate investment costs.

role nuclear power will play in our future

Furthermore, because nuclear power has

energy mix. Like all other energy sources,

not yet become a primary power source,

nuclear power has its advantages and

the economies of scale have yet to truly

drawbacks, its benefits and risks.

develop. As a result, nuclear power facilities are expensive, and require significant capital

As has been mentioned, nuclear power offers

outlay. (20)

attractive advantages given humanity ’ s current circumstances: providing dependable

The second issue, waste, is closely tied

baseload energy while producing effectively

to the issue of safety. It relates, however,

zero GHG emissions during operation.

mainly to the byproducts of nuclear fission,

By efficiently providing baseload power,

rather than operational safety. The main

nuclear power can also help to balance the

waste problem of nuclear power is that the

output from renewables, thereby aiding the

waste is hazardous and, in some cases, takes

decarbonization of the power supply.

thousands of years to become safe. Thus,

(18)

disposal of nuclear waste must factor in long

Until recently, these advantages were

spans of time, adding to the complexity of the

countered by three principal shortcomings:

disposal. Waste also presents a terrorism risk,

(i) investment costs, (ii) waste, and (iii)

as the material may be targeted or utilized

safety. (19)

by terrorists in an attack. (21)

The first issue is mostly self-explanatory:

Issue three, safety, relates mainly to

nuclear power facilities are large, intricate,

operational safety. The main concern,

high-tech, and require the employment of

particularly in the case of Generation II

International Atomic Energy Agency, Climate Change and Nuclear Power 2015.

International Energy Agency, Energy Technology Essentials: Nuclear Power, https://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/essentials4.pdf.

World Nuclear Association, The Economics of Nuclear Power, http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/economic-aspects/economics-of-nuclear-power.aspx.

Gwyneth Cravens, Terrorism and Nuclear Energy: Understanding the Risks, http://www.brookings.edu/research/articles/2002/03/spring-weapons-cravens.

Chapter 1: Editorial 第一章: 主编寄语

Section One: Introduction 第一部分: 简介

reactors, is the risk of a meltdown and

that it is not only highly safe, but indeed

potential human health and environmental

much more so than most other power sources.

repercussions. There is, here too, concern

Whether one considers accident rates, loss of

for terrorism and nuclear proliferation. (22)

life, or human health consequences, nuclear wins over mainstream energy sources.(26)

The actuality and severity of these shortcomings is itself a source of debate.

It is puzzling that many express concern

A telling feature of the nuclear debate is

over the dangers of nuclear, while accepting

the discrepancy between public opinion

or ignoring the dangers and externalities

and the opinion of scientists and engineers.

presented by other mainstream energy

Support for nuclear power among the latter

sources. Far more people have suffered ill

group is significantly higher than for the

health and shortened lifespans from energy

general public. (23)

Among the general

sector generated air pollution alone than all

public, perceived risk for nuclear power far

nuclear incidents combined.(27) Mainstream

outweighs actual risk, with perceptions often

energy sources have, among other things,

founded on an antiquated understanding of

resulted in spills, exploding freight trains,

nuclear technology.(24) Most of the public

pollution of air, water, and soil, as well as

is not aware of the extensive gains made in

climate change.

nuclear technology and reactor management since the 1970’s.

(25)

Nevertheless, public opinion remains a real challenge to the uptake of nuclear

An objective analysis of nuclear power shows

power – as do nuclear power’s fundamental

22 Id. 23

Cary Funk and Lee Rainie, Public and Scientists’ Views on Science and Society, http://www.pewinternet.org/2015/01/29/public-and-scientists-views-on-science-and-society/.

David Robert Grimes, Why It’s Time to Dispel the Myths about Nuclear Power, https://www.theguardian.com/science/blog/2016/apr/11/time-dispel-myths-about-nuclear-power-chernobylfukushima.

International Energy Agency, Technology Roadmap: Nuclear Energy, https://www.iea.org/media/freepublications/technologyroadmaps/TechnologyRoadmapNuclearEnergy.pdf.

Pushker Kharecha and James Hansen, Coal and Gas Are Far More Harmful Than Nuclear Power, http://climate.nasa.gov/news/903/.

George Monbiot, Power Crazed.

Section One: Introduction 第一部分: 简介

Chapter 1: Editorial 第一章: 主编寄语

drawbacks, which are true, if overstated.

efficient, implement passive nuclear safety,

Realizing the benefits of nuclear thus means

and standardize design (thereby reducing

not only addressing its shortcomings, but

costs).(30)

also addressing public perception of those

such as the advanced heavy-water reactor,

shortcomings and allaying the public ’ s

which uses thorium – also address fuel and

anxiety. (28)

waste safety issues. (31)

A Promising Future

Generation IV reactors promise even greater

Fortunately, new nuclear reactor designs

advancements. Breeder reactors, for example,

and technologies promise to address

are highly efficient and create more nuclear

nuclear power’s shortcomings. New reactor

fuel than they use. They could be used

designs further bolster nuclear power’s case,

to extend the supply of nuclear fuel for

augmenting its strengths while addressing

thousands of years, and possibly indefinitely.

its weaknesses. Many of the new designs

New breeder reactor designs can also be

are either already being fielded or are set

used to recycle and reduce existing nuclear

to be fielded in the near term, while other

waste.(32)

Some generation III reactors –

technologies are expected to be accessed in the coming decades. All this, in turn, bodes

Other advancements promised by Generation

well for turning public opinion on nuclear

IV reactors are passive safety – completely

power.

eliminating the possibility of a meltdown – and major improvements in efficiency.

Generation III reactors began fielding in the

Some Generation IV reactors also remove

1990’s.(29) These newer reactors are more

or reduce the risk of proliferation. Integral

OECD, Public Attitudes to Nuclear Power, https://www.oecd-nea.org/ndd/reports/2010/nea6859-public-attitudes.pdf.

Stephen M. Goldberg and Robert Rosner, Nuclear Reactors: Generation to Generation, http://www.amacad.org/pdfs/nuclearreactors.pdf.

World Nuclear Power Association, Advanced Nuclear Power Reactors, http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-power-reactors/advanced-nuclear-power-reactors.aspx.

Steven Kotler, Meltdown or Mother Lode: The New Truth About Nuclear Power.

Gen IV International Forum, Technology Roadmap Update for Generation IV Nuclear Energy Systems, https://www.gen-4.org/gif/upload/docs/application/pdf/2014-03/gif-tru2014.pdf.

Chapter 1: Editorial 第一章: 主编寄语

fast reactors, liquid fluoride thorium reactors,

Section One: Introduction 第一部分: 简介

six to eight nuclear reactors each year. (35)

and very high temperature reactors are other Generation IV designs that are being

Nuclear energy makes sense for China. China

investigated.

has committed to addressing environmental

(33)

and human health issues, particularly those Other advancements in nuclear power include

caused by coal power generation. Nuclear

small scale reactors, which could be used to

energy can help China meet its growing need

address emissions generated through air and

for power while simultaneously improving

shipping, as well as remote generators. (34)

the well-being of its people and fulfilling its commitment to reducing GHG emissions.

China’s Contribution: Bridging to

Nuclear power can also help China address

the Future

its energy imports, and thereby bolstering

China began its own foray into nuclear power

the country ’ s energy security, ensuring a

in the 1990’s, with the Qishan Nuclear Power

self-sufficiency of at least 85%. (36)

Station. Since then, China has incrementally integrated nuclear power into its energy mix.

Nuclear energy is also a long-term investment

In 2014, the country adopted an even more

for China. Much as it did with its space

ambitious program with its New Action

program, China hopes to use the development

Energy Plan. Today, China has 33 nuclear

of nuclear energy to spearhead innovation

reactors, amounting to a capacity of 28.8GW.

in science, industry, education, and society

Another 22, set to provide 22.1GW of power,

as a whole. Pursuing nuclear power creates

are under construction. Many more reactors

jobs – from construction workers, to nuclear

are already in planning stages. Under the

engineers, to plant managers – and increases

13 Five Year Plan, China is set to approve

the competitiveness of Chinese companies

33 Id. 34

World Nuclear Association, Small Nuclear Power Reactors, http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-power-reactors/small-nuclearpower-reactors.aspx.

World Nuclear Association, Nuclear Power in China, http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-a-f/china-nuclear-power.aspx.

Nuclear Energy Institute, Nuclear Energy in China, http://www.nei.org/CorporateSite/media/filefolder/Policy/Trade/China.pdf?ext=.pdf.

Section One: Introduction 第一部分: 简介

Chapter 1: Editorial 第一章: 主编寄语

in the energy sector. (37)

already developed its own reactor designs – CPR-1000, Hualong-One (HPR-1000, a

China is also in a unique position to take

generation III reactor), and ACP100 (a small,

on the challenges of improving nuclear

multipurpose, modular reactor) – all of which

power. It can bear the high capital costs

feature domestically developed intellectual

of nuclear, having access to vast amounts

property. (40)

of both physical, financial, and human resources. It also has the economic power

Other advanced reactors currently being

– such as manufacturing scale – to bring

developed in China include the Shidao Bay

down the cost of nuclear power, something

HTGR (high temperature gas-cooled reactor)

that will ultimately be of benefit to both

plant – the first modularized HTGR nuclear

itself and the world. Finally, China also

power plant in the world that is equipped with

has the resources to invest in research and

a Generation IV nuclear power safety system.

development, helping to realize innovative

Construction of the plant started in 2012 and

reactors that overcome nuclear power ’ s

is scheduled to finish by 2017. China has

traditional shortcomings.

also developed an experimental fast reactor

(38)

(2011), and is working on a pilot compact All this means that China has been doing

reactor (construction slated for 2017). Other

more than merely building power plants.

reactors China is currently exploring include

China has actively pursued advancement

a super-critical water-cooled reactor (SCWR)

in the entire chain of nuclear development.

and a thorium molten salt reactor (TMSR).

It has invested heavily in research, schools

and training, as well as refined construction

China has also committed to achieving

techniques.

the world ’ s best nuclear safety standards

(39)

Most notably, China has

Kathleen McLaughlin, Science Is a Major Plank in China’s New Spending Plan, http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2016/03/science-major-plank-china-s-new-spending-plan.

Camila Ruz, Why Does the UK Need China to Build Its Nuclear Plants?, http://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-34329617.

World Nuclear Association, Nuclear Power in China.

Brian Spegele, China Inc.’s Nuclear-Power Push, http://www.wsj.com/articles/china-inc-s-nuclear-power-push-1456251331#:WJtGIwmPb_48ZA; World Nuclear News, First HTR-PM Construction Progresses, http://www.world-nuclear-news.org/NN-First CAP1400-reactor-under-construction-0404144.html.

Chapter 1: Editorial 第一章: 主编寄语

Section One: Introduction 第一部分: 简介

and reviews. Since its first nuclear power

to export, its nuclear technology include

unit went into operation in 1994, China

Pakistan, Romania, Iran, South Africa,

has maintained an admirable safety record,

Egypt, and Kazakhstan. (44) Nuclear power

without incidents of grade 2 or higher,

and engineering design have become a

thus leading the world in all operational

trademark export of China, thereby also

indicators. China has requested and hosted

benefitting the infrastructure objectives of

12 Operational Safety Review Team missions

the One Belt, One Road Initiative.

(45)

from the International Atomic Energy Agency since 2011, and each of its nuclear plants

The export of China’s nuclear technology

receives one external and independent (non-

underscores how China’s pursuit of nuclear

domestic) safety review every year. China is

power is beneficial for the whole world.

also collaborating with the ASEAN+3 Forum

China is unlocking nuclear power’s benefits

on Nuclear Safety and the OECD’s Nuclear

and turning nuclear power into a global

Energy Agency. (41)

solution for sustainable energy development.

As a result of all these efforts, Chinese

Towards the Holy Grail of Energy

enterprises have already begun exporting

Imagine a tomorrow where energy is abundant,

their work abroad. China National Nuclear

accessible, affordable, non-polluting, and

Corporation (CNNC) has won bids to build

safe. The benefits would permeate society,

two nuclear reactors in Argentina;

China

with enormous ramifications for human

General Nuclear Power Group (CGN)

health, the environment, and the global

will build the new reactors at Hinkley

economy. This is the holy grail of energy, a

Point, in the United Kingdom. (43) Other

destination that has been sought across the

countries where China is exporting, or set

globe by generations of researchers.

(42)

World Nuclear Association, Nuclear Power in China.

World Nuclear News, Argentina and China Sign Two Reactor Construction Agreements, http://www.world-nuclear-news.org/NN-Argentina-and-China-sign-two-reactor-construction-agreements-16111501.html.

Cecily Liu, EU Gives Regulatory Approval to CGN, EDF for Hinkley Point, http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2016-03/11/content_23819726.htm.

World Nuclear Association, Nuclear Power in China.

Jeremy Kang Deng, How is China Planning to Execute One Belt One Road for Nuclear?, https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/how-china-planning-execute-one-belt-road-nuclear-jeremy-kang-deng.

Section One: Introduction 第一部分: 简介

Chapter 1: Editorial 第一章: 主编寄语

Perhaps in a not too distant future, some

China is making this future a reality, writing

technological breakthrough will make that

the next chapter of the nuclear power story.

vision a reality. For now, the world must

While much of the world has hesitated with

make do with what it has: employing a mix

nuclear power, China has become a bastion

of energy sources, balancing the “pros and

for its research and development. As the

cons” of each while factoring in market and

only country to embrace nuclear energy in

environmental realities.

a significant way through investments and policy, China presents an unprecedented

Among the existing energy options, nuclear

opportunity for nuclear professionals around

power presents a clear, inevitable option for

the world to develop their careers and pursue

our energy future. Given the circumstances

their dreams. In time, by bringing together

that humanity finds itself in – pressed on

the best brains in the world and fostering

one side by environmental limits, and

a globally cooperative spirit, China will

on the other by development needs – the

capitalize on its investment. In doing so, it

most reasonable choice is to go nuclear.

will make nuclear power an affordable, safe,

We should recognize the powerful solution

clean, and healthy option, for the benefit of all.

presented by nuclear energy, and embrace its future.

China has come of age, in the nuclear age.

Chapter 2: Guest Editorial 第二章: 客座主编寄语

Section One: Introduction 第一部分: 简介

Chapter 2: Guest Editorial 第二章: 客座主编寄语

XU Yuming Guest Editor-in-Chief Deputy Secretary General of China Nuclear Energy Association

徐玉明客座主编中国核能行业协会副秘书长

Energy constitutes the foundation and

development and people’s living standards as

driving force for a civilized modern society.

well as huge increase in energy production and

Energy consumption, especially electricity

consumption. In 2015, energy consumption

consumption, has become an important

in China (mainland) totaled 4.3 billion tonnes

hallmark of where a country or region stands

of standard coal and electricity consumption

in its development.

5.55 trillion KWh or 4,100KWh per capita, four times that of year 2000 and ranking

Since reform and opening up, China ’ s

first in energy production and consumption

economy has been growing by leaps and

worldwide. Compared with advanced

bounds, with substantial progress in social

countries, however, China remains low in

Section One: Introduction 第一部分: 简介

Chapter 2: Guest Editorial 第二章: 客座主编寄语

terms of per capita energy consumption, less

1980s. By the end of January, 2016, China

than 40% of that of the U.S., leaving ample

has 54 nuclear power units in operation or

room for energy production and consumption

under construction in eight provinces or

growth in the next 20 years.

autonomous regions including Zhejiang, Guangdong, Jiangsu, Liaoning, Shandong,

In 2015, non-fossil energy consumption

Fujian, Guangxi and Hainan, with a total

accounted for 12% in China’s primary energy

installed capacity of over 55 million KW.

consumption mix, far below the targets set by

Among them, 30 units are in operation,

the government to increase the share of non-

with an installed capacity of 28.31 million

fossil fuels in primary energy consumption

KW; and 24 units under construction, with

mix to 15% by 2020, and 20% by 2030.

an installed capacity of 26.72 million KW.

In primary energy consumption mix, coal

Besides, another two units have already been

consumption in 2015 accounted for 64.4%.

approved for construction. In 2015, China

Though a remarkable drop compared with the

ranked fourth globally in installed capacity

past, it was still twice the world’s average.

and generation of nuclear power.

It is urgent and also tough for China to shift the energy consumption mix from a coal-

In China ’ s future energy development,

dominated one to a modern energy system

nuclear power will play a significant role.

that is green, low-carbon, safe and efficient.

Based on the 58 million KW of installed capacity in 2020, installed nuclear capacity

To achieve such a modern energy system,

will exceed 120 million KW in 2030, when

the share of low-carbon energy consumption,

estimated nuclear power generation will

such as renewable energy, nuclear energy

reach about 900 billion KWh, accounting

and natural gas, must be gradually increased.

for 8-10% of China ’ s total electricity

With long operating period (over 7,500

consumption. By then, with nuclear power

hours a year), high energy density, low

generation, coal consumption and CO 2

operating cost, and barely no green-house

emission can be reduced by about 300 million

gas and pollutants emission, nuclear power

tonnes and 800 million tonnes respectively,

generation is an important choice for the

contributing greatly to the development of

development of green and low-carbon energy.

low-carbon and green energy in China.

China started nuclear power generation in the

China is faced with both precious opportunities

Chapter 2: Guest Editorial 第二章: 客座主编寄语

Section One: Introduction 第一部分: 简介

and challenges as well in its development

and breaking Generation-III technology

of nuclear power. In the development of

bottlenecks has been prioritized in the 13th

nuclear power, we must stay committed to

Five-Year Plan (2016-2020), and the industry

safety and efficiency while upholding the

is encouraged to gain a good grasp of all

concept of “innovative, coordinated, green,

key technologies concerning Generation-III

open and shared development” so as to serve

nuclear reactors, including Hualong-One,

as a strong support to fuel China’s economic

CAP1000 and CAP1400, so as to improve

and social development.

domestic technological capabilities, design, construction and operation. China is already

Safety represents the lifeline of nuclear

a nuclear power but it has yet to become a

energy. Since commercial operation of the

nuclear superpower. This will require greater

first nuclear power unit in 1994, China has

indigenous innovation on advanced nuclear

maintained good safety record, without

technologies catered to the country’s needs.

incidents of grade two or higher and leading

China should be innovative with institutional

the world in all operating indicators. We

mechanisms and management, further

should continue to put safety first and ensure

consolidate resources, optimize its nuclear

safety for the whole life cycle including

industrial structure, and improve government

design, construction, operation, and

administration, so as to foster a more

decommissioning, and for the entire nuclear

enabling internal and external environment

industrial chain. For operating units, a high

for innovation-driven development.

level of safety must be maintained. For new units, the most advanced international safety

The development of nuclear power requires

standards must be adopted. For the whole

long construction periods, huge investment

industry, we must exercise scientific and

and demanding technologies, therefore, China

effective supervision and promote nuclear

must formulate scientific and authoritative

safety awareness in a constant effort to

plans for coordinated development of nuclear

enhance safety.

power. At present, China is compiling the 13th Five-Year Plan and mid-and long-term

China’s nuclear industry is faced with an

(by 2030) plan concerning the development

important mission to improve capacities for

of nuclear power in five years, 15 years and

indigenous innovation. By 2020, enhancing

even longer. For long-term and sustainable

capacities for indigenous innovation

development of nuclear power, the scale and

Section One: Introduction 第一部分: 简介

Chapter 2: Guest Editorial 第二章: 客座主编寄语

pace of development must be compatible with

capacity and accumulate experience over

nuclear equipment manufacturing capacity

time with an aim to enhance indigenous

and the development of nuclear fuel supply

innovation.

chain. The management of spent fuel and treatment of radioactive waste, among other

Public support and understanding are

things, must be properly handled.

essential for the development of nuclear power and development achievements must

We must stay committed to green development

be shared by the whole society, especially

during the construction and operation of

areas in the vicinity of nuclear power plants.

nuclear power units, as it is a type of green

We must establish an open and transparent

and clean energy. We must further reduce

information release system and a reasonable

energy and raw material consumption to

and effective benefits-sharing mechanism

lower cost and enhance the competiveness of

to further communicate with the public

nuclear power. We must implement the idea

for understanding and support, in order to

of minimum radioactive waste by reducing

promote the smooth development of nuclear

discharge of various wastes.

power.

China ’ s development of nuclear power is

China has already become the most dynamic

closely tied with the world. In terms of

country in the development of nuclear

nuclear safety, the world is a community with

energy, attracting worldwide attention

shared future, bound together for good or

to its development of nuclear power. We

ill. With regard to nuclear fuel supply, R&D

compile and release the China ’ s Nuclear

on advanced technologies, key equipment

Power Development Research Report (2015)

manufacturing and supply of raw materials,

with an aim to present with detailed data a

China needs to collaborate with international

true and objective general picture and latest

peers and has offered opportunities for

progresses on the development of nuclear

engagement and common development.

power in China, and provide a transparent

For years, China’s nuclear sector has been

window for friends both home and abroad

longing for presence and expansion overseas,

to know more about the development of

which is necessitated by development and

nuclear power in China. China stands ready

yielding initial results. As a strategic task for

to share development achievements and

the long term, we will make progress with

tackle common challenges with the rest of

going global step by step, explore, build

the world.

Chapter 3: Executive Summary 第三章: 摘要

Section One: Introduction 第一部分: 简介

Chapter 3: Executive Summary 第三章: 摘要

China has witnessed a slowdown in its

most obviously for the environment and

economic growth recently, but it will still

human health.

maintain a medium-high speed in the long run. In addition, the energy demand will

However, arriving at these benefits means

notably increase in China, but with high

addressing and working through many

dependence on oil and natural gas imports,

issues. These issues are well known. First

it will be a huge challenge to guarantee

and foremost is safety, followed by waste

a sufficient domestic energy supply. At

disposal, large initial investment costs, and

the same time, recognizing the fact that

concerns over a limited supply of usable

China has committed to reducing its

uranium.

greenhouse gas emissions by around 2030, the country’s power sector will be urgently

Recognizing the importance and urgency

shifting from fossil fuels to cleaner and

of developing nuclear technologies in

more efficient energy sources.

China and its critical role for the country’ s sustainable development, CEFC decided

Among the existing energy options, nuclear

to present this publication to introduce the

power offers some strong and unique

latest developments, challenges, as well as

advantages. It produces a base power

market opportunities of China ’ s nuclear

load that is reliable and predictable, it is

development to a broader audience.

powerful and efficient, and it is clean and zero carbon in operation. Replacing power

This report consists of two main sections.

currently generated by fossil fuels with

The first is a summary of the views and

nuclear would yield enormous benefits –

opinions collected from the leading experts

Section One: Introduction 第一部分: 简介

Chapter 3: Executive Summary 第三章: 摘要

in China through interviews conducted by

of articles written by ten Chinese scholars

CEFC between January and February in

and experts who provide their analyses on

2016. The second section consists of a series

nuclear from multiple perspectives.

Summary of Key Findings

1 With the exception of two heavy

water reactors account for about

water reactors and one high

two thirds of all nuclear power

temperature gas cooled reactor

units. In the future, nuclear power

(HTGR), all Chinese nuclear power

units that adopt Generation-

units, whether in operation or

III technologies will serve as

under construction, are pressurized

mainstream reactors, including

water reactors. In terms of reactor

Hualong-One, CAP1000 and

models, CPR1000 pressurized

CAP1400.

Whether China will be able to

period of 2020-2030. Efforts have

secure a sufficient supply of

b een m ad e o n tap p in g as man y

natural uranium in the long run

natural uranium supply sources

is a major issue. By 2020, China ’ s

as possible, including domestic

real demand for natural uranium

production, international trade,

will reach around 14,000 tonnes.

development of overseas uranium

Nevertheless, the supply of natural

resources, and building up of

uranium to China is considered

both commercial and strategic

to be secure, at least within the

reserves.

Chapter 3: Executive Summary 第三章: 摘要

Section One: Introduction 第一部分: 简介

3 China

has

made

effective

experimental fast reactor in

progress on development of high

May 2000, and the arrival of its

temperature gas cooled reactors

criticality was first seen in July

(HTGR) and experimental fast

2010. Fast reactors could raise the

r e a c t o r s . To w a r d s t h e e n d

u t i l i z a t i o n e ff i c i e n c y o f n a t u r a l

of 2012, Huaneng Shandong

uranium from pressurized water

Shidao Bay Nuclear Power Co.,

reactors’ 1% to fast reactors’

Ltd. launched the construction

60% to 70%. China has also

of a demonstrative HTGR,

achieved significant progress in

which features high thermal

basic research and development

e f f i c i e n c y, d e e p b u r n - u p a n d

of Generation-IV nuclear power

a high conversion ratio. The

t e c h n o l o g y. P r o g r e s s h a s a l s o

demonstrative HTGR is now

been made with work on passive

expected to come into operation

pressurized water reactors, as

by the end of 2017. China had

part of the nation ’ s major science

also started construction of an

and technology program.

Section One: Introduction 第一部分: 简介

Chapter 3: Executive Summary 第三章: 摘要

4 There are a number of advantages

capacity of nuclear power equipment.

and challenges with regard to the

Main challenges include fierce

“ going out ” strategy of China ’ s

competition in international markets,

nuclear power industry. Advantages

lengthy technical examinations

include the promotional efforts by

of foreign countries, a general

state leaders, implementation of the

reluctance to accepting Chinese

“ Belt and Road ” Initiative, a good

nuclear power technology, as well

safety record, relatively competitive

as slow approval of related project

pricing and improved manufacturing

financing.

Construction costs for the eleven

the on-grid price (including tax) of

nuclear power units built before

Generation-II plus nuclear power units

2010 ranged from US$ 1,286/KWh

operative after 2013 remains at 0.43

to US$ 2,068/KWh. The average

yuan (US$0.07)/KWh, lower than

construction costs for units put

local benchmark electricity prices in

into operation in 2010 moved up

general. This shows the commercial

to 13,000yuan(US$1,975)/KWh.

competitiveness of nuclear power.

In recent years, costs for building

Compared with either wind or solar

Generation-III nuclear power units

power, nuclear power enjoys a strong

have surpassed the 20,000 yuan

edge in terms of economics and on-

(US$ 3,038)/KWh mark. At present,

grid ability.

Chapter 3: Executive Summary 第三章: 摘要

Section One: Introduction 第一部分: 简介

6 Coastal areas in China are

beginning there have been no

increasingly limited in terms of

separate standards of safety for

their potential for further nuclear

nuclear power units located by

p o w e r d e v e l o p m e n t . Wi t h t h e

the coast or inland. Site selection,

slowdown of economic growth in

exit arrangements, construction

these areas and the depletion of

standards

site resources, the general trend

requirements are no different, and

is to focus on the development of

should not be. Currently more than

nuclear power in the hinterland

half of operational nuclear power

provinces. Indeed, from the very

units worldwide are located inland.

and

supervision

7 Several European countries

wind and solar power generating

have long imposed protective

units accounting for nearly 9%

t a r i ff s t o s t i m u l a t e g r o w t h o f

of her total installed power

renewable energy. This practice

generating capacity, the Chinese

usually ignores the resulting costs

government is closely monitoring

brought to the overall power

the situation, and carefully

system by renewable energy

preparing responsive measures to

power generation. The practice

ensure safe and stable operation

also limits the competitiveness

of the many diversified energy

of nuclear power. In China, with

systems.

Section One: Introduction 第一部分: 简介

Chapter 3: Executive Summary 第三章: 摘要

8 F a c t o r s a ff e c t i n g t h e p u b l i c ’ s

to promote public acceptance, due

acceptance of nuclear power are

to a divergence of risk perceptions

complex and diverse. Opinion

between the general public and the

surveys in China show that

experts. Public opinion on risks is

technological opinion and expert

influenced by various social and

assessments have very limited

psychological factors. In addition

effectiveness

changing

to public concern over nuclear

public opinion. The continuous

power safety, insufficient public

improvement

education on nuclear power is also

nuclear

technologies has not and is unlikely

an important factor.

Chinese nuclear power enterprises

to identify key stakeholders,

understand

for

launch active communication

building open and transparent

campaigns to gain and consolidate

communication

mechanisms

support, solicit neutral groups, and

with the public. Hopefully these

persuade opponents to consider

e ff o r t s w i l l e n a b l e t h e p u b l i c

the arguments of the other side.

to gain a rational and unbiased

Nuclear power enterprises have

understanding of nuclear power.

also been asked to ensure sufficient

Nuclear power enterprises are

operational transparency and

therefore committed to mapping

periodically carry out effectiveness

out their communication strategy:

assessments.

the

need

Section Two: China Nuclear Power Survey Report 第二部分中国核电调查报告

Section Two: China Nuclear Power Survey Report 第二部分: 中国核电调查报告

Section Two:

China Nuclear Power Survey Report 第二部分：

中国核电调查报告

Section Two: China Nuclear Power Survey Report 第二部分: 中国核电调查报告

Chapter 1: Methodology 第一章: 调查方法

Ten experts within China’s nuclear power

the following survey report. This report is

industry were interviewed via telephone and

written on the basis of the viewpoints from

they were asked to write specific articles in

these exports, but not just including their

terms of their research directions and our

viewpoints, it also contains a good deal of

requirements. These experts elaborated on

the latest data and information of China’s

certain topics that were assigned to them

nuclear power industry. The personal profiles

and we integrated their viewpoints into

of these experts are listed below.

Chapter 2: List of Interviewed Experts 第二章: 受访专家资料

Section Two: China Nuclear Power Survey Report 第二部分: 中国核电调查报告

Chapter 2: List of Interviewed Experts 第二章: 受访专家资料

ZHANG Huazhu (张华祝) graduated from Tsinghua University in 1968 and currently serves as the president of China Nuclear Energy Association (CNEA). He was once the vice-president of China National Nuclear Corporation (CNNC), vice-director of the Commission of Science, Technology and Industry for National Defense (COSTIND), director of China Atomic Energy Authority (CAEA) and vice-director of nuclear power independent leading group of the State Council. He has been devoted to the development of China’s nuclear power industry for a long time and ever worked in nuclear fuel factories and for nuclear power engineering projects. He has also participated in the compilation of China’s nuclear power and nuclear industrial development plans.

LIU Hua (刘华) obtained his bachelor ’ s degree of Nuclear Radiation Physics from National University of Defense Technology (NUDT) in 1982 and master’s degree of Radiological Protection and Nuclear Safety from China Institute of Atomic Energy (CIAE) in 1987. He has worked successively in the former Ministry of Nuclear Industry, State Bureau of Nuclear Safety, Chinese Embassy in the United States and Nuclear Safety Center of State Science and Technology Commission. He has been the chief engineer of nuclear safety in the Ministry of Environmental Protection (MEP) ever since May 2013.

Section Two: China Nuclear Power Survey Report 第二部分: 中国核电调查报告

Chapter 2: List of Interviewed Experts 第二章: 受访专家资料

YIN Dejian (殷德健) is now head of the General Office of Nuclear Safety Supervision Department of MEP. After getting a master’s degree from Tsinghua University in 2001, he went to work in Nuclear Safety Supervision Department of MEP. He also served as third secretary, second secretary of Science Department of Chinese Embassy in France from 2007 to 2009. After that, he returned to the Ministry of Environmental Protection. Yin has also furthered his study at France ’ s Institute for Radiological Protection and Nuclear Safety (IRSN), and at Duke University, studying public administration and public policy.

ZHENG Mingguang (郑明光) is a senior engineer as well as a doctoral supervisor who got his PhD of Nuclear Energy Science and Engineering from Shanghai Jiaotong University. He is a member of standing advisory group of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and once served as assistant to the director, vicedirector and director of the Shanghai Nuclear Engineering Research & Design Institute (SNERDI), and board member of American Nuclear Society. Since July 2015, he became the vice-general manager of the State Nuclear Power Technology Corporation (SNPTC).

HUANG Xiaoyong (黄晓勇) is the dean of graduate school of Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (CASS) who graduated from World Economy major of Renmin University of China in 1982. He is also vice-chairman of Chinese Association for Japanese Economy Studies, vice-chairman of China Research Society of Urban Development (CRSUD) and director of the International Energy Security Research Center of CCAS. He published several works like “ China ’ s Energy Security ” and “ China ’ s Energy

Chapter 2: List of Interviewed Experts 第二章: 受访专家资料

Section Two: China Nuclear Power Survey Report 第二部分: 中国核电调查报告

Dilemma and Way Out ” , and published numerous articles on newspapers like People’s Daily and People’s Tribune.

ZHANG Luqing (张禄庆) graduated from Physics major of Tsinghua University and got his PhD from Technical University of Munich in 1986. After coming back to China, he served as deputy director of Research Institute of Nuclear Power Operation in Wuhan, first secretary of Chinese Delegation to IEAE, deputy director of Nuclear Power Department of CNNC and so on. He published a good deal of works as well as articles in domestic and international nuclear energy field. He also worked as associate editor of Nuclear Power Volume of China Electric Power Encyclopedia (ver.2 & ver. 3).

FAN Bi (范必) is a guest researcher at China Center for International Economic Exchanges (CCIEE), mainly engaged in research on public policies concerning macroeconomics, energy and environment as well as economic reform. He once worked in the policy research office of National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC). He has more than 20 years of experience in policy research and in recent years published treatise “China’s Energy Policy Research (Chinese & English version)”, “Building Beautiful Home with Ecological Civilization” and co-wrote “New Pattern of World Energy ” , “ Reform of the Supply Front ” and “ Environmental Protection and Social Development” . He also published more than 70 pieces of papers on domestic professional journals and was awarded many prizes from NDRC, NEA and CCIEE.

Section Two: China Nuclear Power Survey Report 第二部分: 中国核电调查报告

Chapter 2: List of Interviewed Experts 第二章: 受访专家资料

ZHANG Jindai (张金带) obtained his bachelor degree of Geochemistry from Zhejiang University in 1982 and ever since worked in Jiangxi Nuclear Geology till 1990, then was transferred to China Nuclear Geology (CNG). He served as chief engineer of CNG since November 2001, and held a concurrent post in CNNC as chief engineer since May 2012. He also served as standing committee member of Council for Science and Technology of CNNC, council member of Chinese Nuclear Society and expert committee member of CNEA and editor in chief of the magazine “Uranium Geology”, etc. He published more than 10 treatises and 20 pieces of papers, and was awarded “Li Siguang Geology Science Awards” in 2007.

ZHENG Yuhui (郑玉辉) is a senior engineer and director of research and development department of CNEA. He has been engaged in the research on development strategy, planning, policy and laws and regulations concerning nuclear energy after graduating from Tsinghua University in 1965. He once served as chief of education department of the former Ministry of Nuclear Industry, director of Economic Research Center for China’s Nuclear Industry and director of Science and Technology Committee of China Institute of Nuclear Information and Economics. He is lately engaged in the research on medium to long-term development planning of China’s nuclear power, major issues upon the development of nuclear fuel and the legislation of Atomic Energy Act, providing strategic support and consultancy for the State Council and nuclear companies.

Chapter 2: List of Interviewed Experts 第二章: 受访专家资料

Section Two: China Nuclear Power Survey Report 第二部分: 中国核电调查报告

LOU Yun (娄云) served as senior manager of China General Nuclear Power Group (CGN). He got his bachelor’s degree of Engineering Mechanics and MPA from Huazhong University of Science and Technology. He has long-time experience of PR, publicity, brand management and public communication in nuclear industry. He’s also a member of working committee of the Eighth Council of Chinese Nuclear Society.

FANG Jinqing (方锦清) has been serving as researcher, Ph.D supervisor and consultant in China Institute of Atomic Energy (CIAE) after graduating from Engineering Physics major of Tsinghua University in 1964. He concentrated his research on heavy nuclides electromagnetic separation, plasma physics and high current ion optics from 1960s to 1980s, and transferred to interdisciplinary sciences like complexity science, nonlinear science, chaos control and synchronization and network science, and their application after 1980s. He is also responsible for projects like key researches supported by Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC), cooperation with International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and researches of overseas students sponsored by Ministry of Personnel. He’s been invited to visit more than 20 renowned universities in America, Australia, Europe and Asia, and also paid visit to the Center for Complex Quantum Systems in University of Texas and the International Solvay Institute in Brussels many times at invitation by the Nobel prize winner Ilya Prigogine. By far, Mr. Fang has published more than ten treatises(translations), and over 300 pieces of papers both at home and abroad.

Section Two: China Nuclear Power Survey Report 第二部分: 中国核电调查报告

Chapter 3: Background 第三章: 背景

According to BP Statistical Review of

of clean energy. However, to meet the goal

World Energy, China’s energy consumption

of increasing the proportion of non-fossil

increased by 2.6% in 2014, marking a record

fuel consumption to 15% in 2020 is pretty

low ever since 1994, but it still set a record

tough for China.

that China saw 14 consecutive years of growth in primary energy consumption. Study

As the reduction of coal consumption

suggests that China’s power consumption

cannot be perfectly substituted by any

would be doubled in the coming 30 years.

single kind of clean energy, it is necessary

Meanwhile, fossil fuel takes up a large

to diversify energy sources. Nuclear power,

proportion in China ’ s energy structure,

as a clean and efficient energy, is crucial to

with coal consumption accounting for 66%,

secure energy supply and optimize energy

which is 35.8 percentage points higher

structure. According to “Medium and Long-

than the world average, whereas non-fossil

term Development Plan for Nuclear Power

fuel accounts for only 11.2%. Of all the

(2011-2020)”, by 2020, the nuclear power

electricity generated, 74.94% came from

installed capacity of Mainland China is

coal-fired power plants. High proportion

expected to reach 58 million KW, installed

of fossil fuel (especially coal) consumption

capacity that is under construction 30 million

causes severe air pollution and poses higher

KW. This means that China will enhance its

pressure of reducing emission of greenhouse

development in nuclear power sector in the

gas. Therefore, to be in accordance with the

coming five years, with five to six nuclear

global requirements to reduce greenhouse

power units starting construction every year.

gas emission and effectively improve air quality, we must increase the consumption

Based on the analysis on China ’ s energy

Section Two: China Nuclear Power Survey Report 第二部分: 中国核电调查报告

Chapter 3: Background 第三章: 背景

demand and energy structure, experts predict

there ’ s large room for China to further

that by 2030, China’s nuclear power installed

develop its nuclear power.

capacity will be over 100 million KW; by 2050, more than 200 million KW.

In order to promote the rapid development of China’s nuclear power sector, the Chinese

Although China ranks the fourth in nuclear

government has mapped out concrete

power installed capacity globally, nuclear

development plan and formulated a series

power only accounted for 3.01% of all

of specific policies and measures, including

the power generated in the country in

offering on-grid priority to nuclear power and

2015, which is a far cry from some other

offering preferential policies upon pricing

countries. For example, France has the

and taxing to nuclear power plants. In the

largest proportion of nuclear power, which

meantime, the country pays high attention to

is 75%. The United States, Russia, Germany

the nuclear safety and sets up independent

and Britain have a proportion of around

and effective security systems so as to ensure

20% reach. That in South Korea, Ukraine,

the safety of nuclear power is always under

Sweden and Belgium surpasses 30%. Thus,

control.

Section Two: China Nuclear Power Survey Report 第二部分: 中国核电调查报告

Chapter 4: Overview and Trend Analysis on China’s Nuclear Power Industry 第四章: 中国核电发展概况及近期趋势分析

Chapter 4: Overview and Trend Analysis on China's Nuclear Power Industry 第四章: 中国核电发展概况及近期趋势分析

According to the data of IAEA-PRIS, by

put into commercial operation with a total

January 5 th, 2016, there are 441 nuclear

installed capacity of 28.31GW (GW), 24

reactors in service and 66 under construction

units with 26.72GW capacity are under

around the globe, among which China has

construction. Among the above installations,

30 nuclear reactors in service (excluding

6 were newly put into commercial use in

Chinese Experimental Fast Reactors), with

2015, including Ling’ao Nuclear Unit No.1,

total installed capacity ranking No.4 in the

Hongyanhe Nuclear Unit No.3, Ningde

world; and 24 under construction, ranking

Unit No.3, Fuqing Unit No.3,Yangjiang

No.1 (The above data does not include that

Unit No.2, Fangjiashan Unit No.2 and

of Taiwan).

Fangchenggang Unit No.1.

4.1 Construction Situation of

And 2 units went into operation in January

Nuclear Power Plants

2016, including Yangjiang Unit No.3 and Fangchenggang Unit No.1 (See Table 1).

4.1.1 Progress of Construction

According to the statistics of China

Six started construction in 2015, including

Nuclear Energy Association (CNEA), in

Hongyanhe Unit No.5 and 6, Fuqing Unit

the mainland China, by the end of January

No.5 and 6, Fangchenggang Unit No.3 and

of 2016, 30 nuclear power units have been

Tianwan Unit No.5 (See Table 2).

Section Two: China Nuclear Power Survey Report 第二部分: 中国核电调查报告

Chapter 4: Overview and Trend Analysis on China’s Nuclear Power Industry 第四章: 中国核电发展概况及近期趋势分析

Table 1 China’s 30 nuclear units under commercial operation Name of nuclear power plant (NPP)

Unit

Qinshan NPP

Technique

Operation time

CNP300

Apr. 1994

Daya Bay NPP

No.1

M310

Feb. 1994

Daya Bay NPP

No.2

M310

May. 1994

Qinshan Phase II NPP

No.1

CNP600

Apr. 2002

Qinshan Phase II NPP

No.2

CNP600

May 2004

Qinshan Phase II NPP

No.3

CNP600

Apr. 2011

Qinshan Phase II NPP

No.4

CNP600

Feb. 2012

Ling’ao NPP

No.1

M310

May 2002

Ling’ao NPP

No.2

M310

Jan. 2003

Ling’ao NPP

No.3

CPR1000

Sept. 2010

Ling’ao NPP

No.4

CPR1000

Aug. 2011

Qinshan Phase III NPP

No.1

CANDU6

Dec. 2002

Qinshan Phase III NPP

No.2

CANDU6

Jul. 2003

Tianwan NPP

No.1

AES-91

May 2007

Tianwan NPP

No.2

AES-91

Aug. 2007

Hongyanhe NPP

No.1

CPR1000

Jun. 2013

Hongyanhe NPP

No.2

CPR1000

May 2014

Hongyanhe NPP

No.3

CPR1000

Aug. 2015

Ningde NPP

No.1

CPR1000

Dec. 2012

Ningde NPP

No.2

CPR1000

Aug. 2013

Ningde NPP

No.3

CPR1000

Jun. 2015

Fuqing NPP

No.1

M310+

Dec. 2013

Fuqing NPP

No.2

M310+

Oct. 2015

Yangjiang NPP

No.1

CPR1000

Mar. 2014

Yangjiang NPP

No.2

CPR1000

Jun. 2015

Yangjiang NPP

No.3

CPR1000

Jan. 2016

Fangjiashan NPP (expansion of Qinshan NPP)

No.1

CNP1000

Dec. 2014

Fangjiashan NPP (expansion of Qinshan NPP)

No.2

CNP1000

Feb. 2015

Changjiang NPP

No.1

CNP600

Dec. 2015

Fangchenggang NPP

No.1

CPR1000

Jan. 2016

Note: Data collected by Jan. 31st, 2016

Section Two: China Nuclear Power Survey Report 第二部分: 中国核电调查报告

Chapter 4: Overview and Trend Analysis on China’s Nuclear Power Industry 第四章: 中国核电发展概况及近期趋势分析

Table 2 China’s 24 nuclear units under construction Capacity

Nuclear power plant (NPP)

Unit

Technique

Tianwan NPP

No.3

AES-91

1.12

Dec. 2012

Tianwan NPP

No.4

AES-91

1.12

Sep. 2013

Tianwan NPP

No.5

M310+

1.18

Dec. 2015

Hongyanhe NPP

No.4

CPR1000

1.08

Aug. 2009

Hongyanhe NPP

No.5

ACPR1000

Mar. 2015

Hongyanhe NPP

No.6

ACPR1000

Jul. 2015

Ningde NPP

No.4

CPR1000

1.08

Sept. 2010

Fuqing NPP

No.3

M310+

1.08

Dec. 2010

Fuqing NPP

No.4

M310+

1.08

Nov. 2012

Fuqing NPP

No.5

Hualong-One

May 2015

Fuqing NPP

No.6

Hualong-One

Dec. 2015

Yangjiang NPP

No.4

CPR1000

1.08

Nov. 2012

Yangjiang NPP

No.5

ACPR1000

1.08

Sept. 2013

Yangjiang NPP

No.6

ACPR1000

1.08

Dec. 2013

Changjiang NPP

No.2

CNP600

0.65

Nov. 2010

Sanmen NPP

No.1

AP1000

1.25

Mar. 2009

Sanmen NPP

No.2

AP1000

1.25

Dec. 2009

Haiyang NPP

No.1

AP1000

1.25

Sept. 2009

Haiyang NPP

No.2

AP1000

1.25

Jun. 2010

Taishan NPP

No.1

EPR

1.75

Nov. 2009

Taishan NPP

No.2

EPR

1.75

Apr. 2010

Fangchenggang NPP

No.2

CPR1000

1.08

Dec. 2010

Fangchenggang NPP

No.3

Hualong-One

1.18

Dec. 2015

Shidao Bay NPP

No.1

HTR-PM

0.21

Dec. 2012

(GW)

Note: Data collected by Jan. 31st, 2016

Construction time

Chapter 4: Overview and Trend Analysis on China’s Nuclear Power Industry 第四章: 中国核电发展概况及近期趋势分析

4.1.2 Options of Reactor Type and

Section Two: China Nuclear Power Survey Report 第二部分: 中国核电调查报告

ACPR1000.

Technology In China, all the nuclear power units, both

Requested by the nuclear safety supervision

under commercial operation and under

departments, newly-built nuclear power

construction, are pressurized water reactors

units will mainly adopt the third-generation

except two heavy water reactors and one

nuclear power technology. Hualong-

high temperature gas cooled reactor. CPR

One, CAP1000 and CAP1400 will be the

1000 series type account for two thirds of

prevailing reactor types in future nuclear

China ’ s nuclear power units. CPR 1000

power plants. Hualong-One is the third-

series is an improved second-generation

generation nuclear reactor type indigenously

nuclear power technology developed by

developed by the Chinese scientists referring

Nuclear Power Institute of China on the

to the advanced international concept

basis of M310 tech of France, including

over the past 30 years of research, design,

M310+, CNP600, CPR1000, CNP1000, and

manufacturing, construction and operation.

Figure 1 Number of China’s nuclear power units under operation and construction of different types

Section Two: China Nuclear Power Survey Report 第二部分: 中国核电调查报告

Chapter 4: Overview and Trend Analysis on China’s Nuclear Power Industry 第四章: 中国核电发展概况及近期趋势分析

4.1.3 Geographical Distribution of

increasing by year. The 28 units which

Nuclear Power Units

were put into commercial operation before

By the end of January 2016, a total of 54

the end of 2015 have the total installed

nuclear power units in mainland China were

capacity of 26.42737GW, which takes

put into operation and under construction

up 1.75% of the country ’ s total power

and they are located in 13 nuclear power

installed capacity. These units generated

bases in eight coastal provinces and region

168.993 billion KWh in 2015, which

(See Figure 2), with a combined installed

was 29.02% higher than that of 2014 and

capacity of 55GW.

accounted for 3.01% of the national total

Figure 2 Location of China’s nuclear power units

4.2

Operation of China’s Nuclear

Power Plants

electricity generation. In 2015, on-grid electricity generated by nuclear power units totaled 158.289 billion KWh and the

4.2.1 Power Generation

average available hours for using power

Since 2009, nuclear power generation

generation was 7279.28 hours with the

capacity and on-grid electricity have been

average utilization reaching 83.30%.

Section Two: China Nuclear Power Survey Report 第二部分: 中国核电调查报告

Chapter 4: Overview and Trend Analysis on China’s Nuclear Power Industry 第四章: 中国核电发展概况及近期趋势分析

Figure 3 China’s nuclear power generation and on-grid electricity in 2009-2015

Source: China Nuclear Energy Association

Table 3 China’s nuclear power generation by quarter in 2013-2015 Year

2013

2014

2015

Quarter

Unit quantity

Accumulative power generation

Ratio of national On-grid total

(TWH)

1.93%

21.520

(TWH) 22.818

25.374

2.03%

23.868

31.866

2.22%

30.152

30.206

2.24%

28.336

26.690

2.10%

25.127

29.386

2.22%

27.600

37.653

2.59%

35.378

36.896

2.66%

34.641

35.069

2.68%

32.850

40.312

2.88%

37.764

48.872

3.30%

45.842

44.064

3.14%

41.833

Source: China Nuclear Energy Association

Section Two: China Nuclear Power Survey Report 第二部分: 中国核电调查报告

Chapter 4: Overview and Trend Analysis on China’s Nuclear Power Industry 第四章: 中国核电发展概况及近期趋势分析

4.2.2 Operation Safety of Nuclear

and the Medium-Long Term Development

Power Industry

Plan of Nuclear Power (2011-2020), and

China has maintained safe operation of

made specific arrangement to carry out

nuclear power units all the time and any

the policy of safe and efficient use of

accident above level 2 of INES did not occur.

nuclear power including steady restart of construction, rational distribution of new

According to the comprehensive ranking of

projects and increase of technological

WANO, the performance indexes of China’s

threshold.

nuclear power units rank high and medium level and some of the units rank advanced

In December 2012, the Chinese government

level of the world.

greenlighted the construction of Tianwan Phase II Project. On March 10, 2015,

The location, design, manufacturing,

permission was granted to the construction

installation and debugging of nuclear power

of No.5 and No.6 units of Hongyanhe Phase

units are all well supervised to ensure the

II Project. This signals the restart of China’s

overall quality is trustworthy.

nuclear power sector has entered into a substantial stage.

Besides, radiation monitoring devices are set up around the power nuclear plants and

According to the Energy Development

through years of monitoring, the radiation

Strategic Action Plan (2014-2020), the total

level around is in the normal range.

installed capacity of nuclear power will reach 58GW and the capacity under construction

4.3 Development Tendency of

will be above 30GW by 2020. It is expected

China’s Nuclear Power Industry

that during 2016-2020 there will be 6-8

In October 2007, the State Council of

nuclear power units newly started each year.

China approved the Medium-Long Term

Development Plan of Nuclear Power

Under the strategy of “One Belt, One Road”

(2005-2020), in which the determination

initiatives, China has reached cooperation

of actively promoting the development

agreement with countries from Europe, South

of nuclear power was made. On October

America, Asia and Africa, which has created

24 th, 2012, the State Council approved the

a sound environment for China ’ s nuclear

Safety Plan of Nuclear Power (2011-2020)

power to “go overseas”.

Chapter 5: Nuclear Power Safety Supervision and Public Acceptance 第五章: 中国核电安全监管和公众接受度

Section Two: China Nuclear Power Survey Report 第二部分: 中国核电调查报告

Chapter 5: Nuclear Power Safety Supervision and Public Acceptance 第五章: 中国核电安全监管和公众接受度

After thirty years of practice, China has

consists of laws, administrative regulations,

formed its own nuclear power policy, namely

departmental rules, guidelines and technical

“to develop nuclear power on the basis of

documents. In May 2010, China’s National

ensuring safety”; and basic principle namely

Nuclear Safety Administration issued “Legal

“to put safety and quality at the first place”. On

System on Nuclear and Radiation Safety

March 25, 2014, China’s president Xi Jinping

(Five-Year Plan)” to guide the revision of laws

pointed out on the Third Nuclear Security

and regulations on nuclear safety. In recent

Summit held in Hague that China would firmly

five years, a total of 16 laws and regulations

strengthen its own ability to keep nuclear

were released, among which there were one

safety, continue to intensify governmental

regulation, two departmental rules and 13

supervision over nuclear safety, enhance the

guidelines.

technological research upon nuclear safety and human resources, and insist on cultivating

China currently has 126 laws and

and developing nuclear culture.

regulations on nuclear and radiation safety in force, among which there is one law,

5.1

Laws and Regulations and

seven administrative regulations, seven

Supervisors upon Nuclear Power Safety

departmental rules and 89 guidelines. As of March 2014, all provinces (except

5.1.1 Introduction of Laws and

for Taiwan), autonomous regions and

Regulations of Nuclear Safety Sector

municipalities had enacted regional formal

China ’ s legal system on nuclear safety

documents on nuclear and radiation safety

Section Two: China Nuclear Power Survey Report 第二部分: 中国核电调查报告

Chapter 5: Nuclear Power Safety Supervision and Public Acceptance 第五章: 中国核电安全监管和公众接受度

of different levels, 166 of which are

which will be China ’ s supreme laws on

currently in effect.

peaceful use of nuclear energy, are now under formulation. The draft of the two

“ The Atomic Energy Act of the People ’ s

laws was delivered to related law-making

Republic of China ” and “ Nuclear Safety

department in 2015 and it is expected to

Law of the People ’ s Republic of China ” ,

be officially published soon.

Table 4 China’s regulations and guidelines published in recent years No.

Name

Type

Regulations on Radiation Waste Safety

Regulation

Dec. 12, 2011

Administrative Measures on Storage and Treatment of Radiation Solid Waste

Departmental rules

Dec. 30, 2013

Administrative Measures on Certificates of Nuclear and Radiation Inspectors

Departmental Rules

Dec. 30, 2013

Emergency Preparations and Responses of Nuclear Power Operators

Guidelines

Aug. 20, 2010

HAD002/01-2010

Emergency Preparations and Reponses of Nuclear Fuel Recycle Facility Operators

Guidelines

Aug. 20, 2010

HAD002/07-2010

Staff Employment, Training and Authorization of Nuclear Power Operators

Guidelines

May 24, 2013

HAD103/05-2013

Measures for Aging Units of Nuclear Power Plants

Guidelines

May 23, 2012

HAD103/12-2012

Measures on Research Reactors

Guidelines

Jun. 23, 2010

HAD202/06-2010

Measures on Maintenance, Regular Experiment and Check-up

Guidelines

Jun. 23, 2010

HAD202/06-2010

Measures on Reactor Core Regulation and Fuel Loading and Unloading

Guidelines

May 23, 2012

HAD202/07-2012

Measures on Location Choice for Treatment Facilities of High Radiation Waste

Guidelines

May 24, 2013

HAD401/06-2013

Measures on Retirement of γIrradiation Facilities

Guidelines

May 24, 2013

HAD401/07-2013

Pilot Measures on the Manufacturing of Simulators of Civil-use Nuclear Safety Equipments

Guidelines

May 24, 2013

HAD601/01-2013

14 over License Application for Installing Civil-use Nuclear Safety Guidelines

May 24, 2013

HAD601/02-2013

May 31, 2010

HAD701/01-2010

Jun. 9, 2014

HAD701/02-2014

Pilot Measures on Technological Requirements on Operators Equipment

Standard Form and Content Required for the Report of

15 Design Safety Appraisal of Container for Radiation Mate- Guidelines rial Transportation

Standard Form and Content Required for the Report of Nuclear and Radiation Safety of Radiation Materials

Guidelines

Publish time Serial number

Source: “Report on Regulations of Nuclear and Radiation Safety” issued by National Nuclear Safety Administration

Chapter 5: Nuclear Power Safety Supervision and Public Acceptance 第五章: 中国核电安全监管和公众接受度

Section Two: China Nuclear Power Survey Report 第二部分: 中国核电调查报告

5.1.2 Overview of Nuclear Safety

safety management of nuclear fuel cycle

Supervision Departments

facilities, nuclear materials transportation, radioactive wastes, radiation source, Uranium

The National Nuclear Safety Administration

mining and metallurgy and electromagnetic

of China (NNSA) was established in 1984,

radiation.

which was entitled to independently supervise the civil-use nuclear facilities. In 1998,

Technical support organizations include

the NNSA was merged into the National

the Nuclear and Radiation Safety Center of

Environmental Protection Administration.

MEP (NRSC), the Radiation Environmental

In 2008, the Ministry of Environmental

Monitoring Technology Center (REMTC),

Protection (MEP) was set up and NNSA

Suzhou Nuclear Safety Center, the Nuclear

was still kept.

Facility Safety and Reliability Center and Beijing Nuclear Safety Reviewing

NNSA is composed of the board authority,

Center. The six local supervision stations

six local supervision stations and technical

refer to the East, South, Southwest, North

support organizations. The board authority

Northeast and Northwest China Radiation

is composed of three operational divisions

Supervision Stations. The MEP has been

and an international cooperation office.

guiding 31 provincial-level environmental

The Nuclear Facility Safety Supervision

departments on supervising and monitoring

Department is in charge of policy making,

radiation safety and set up Nuclear Safety

planning, regulation standards and R&D,

and Environment Committee of Experts as

emergency management and radiation

the decision-making advisory body of NNSA.

monitoring, HR management and nuclear facility safety management. The Nuclear

Nowadays, more than 1000 staffs from

Power Safety Supervision Department is

the central governmental departments and

responsible for the administrative permission

nearly a total of 10,000 staffs nationwide

and supervision of nuclear safety, radiation

have been involved into the nuclear and

safety and radiation environmental protection

radiation supervision (nearly 100 from

of nuclear facilities such as nuclear power

NNSA, 330 from local stations, 600 from

plants, research-oriented reactors and critical

NRSC and 100 from REMTC). The nuclear

assemblies. The Radiation Source Safety

safety reviewing and supervising capability,

Supervision Department is in charge of the

which includes calculation and experimental

Section Two: China Nuclear Power Survey Report 第二部分: 中国核电调查报告

Chapter 5: Nuclear Power Safety Supervision and Public Acceptance 第五章: 中国核电安全监管和公众接受度

validation, site supervision and monitoring,

5.2.3 Superv ision of Nuclear

emergency response capabilities and

Radiation

radiation environmental monitoring, was

The radiation environmental monitoring

fully developed.

system is launched nationwide and some supervision spots are distributed around

5.2 Main Activities of Nuclear

each nuclear power plant, which is also

Power Supervision

equipped with its own monitoring system. Thus, nuclear power plants are put under

5.2.1 Administrative Examination

monitoring for 24 hours a day. The MEP

and Approval

publishes daily radiation environmental

Any nuclear power plants and nuclear safety-

monitoring data at its official website for

related activities should be examined and

people to check out.

approved by the NNSA. NNSA conducts technological examination on nuclear safety

5.2.4 HR Management

for the location, construction, fuel charging,

NNSA carries out registration system

operation and retirement of nuclear power

over nuclear safety engineers by granting

plants. NNSA grants administrative license

certificates to nuclear safety equipment

to nuclear power plants only after they meet

welders and to operators of nuclear power

related regulations and standards.

plants, and implementing nuclear safety engineer examination. NNSA is also in

5.2.2 Supervision and Inspection

charge of granting certificates to inspectors

NNSA is responsible for safety inspection of

of nuclear and radiation safety supervision.

the whole process of the design, construction,

adjusting, operation and retirement of

5.2.5

Emergency

Response,

nuclear power plants. Through daily, routine

Investigation and Treatment

and non-routine, and specific checks, all

The NNSA is in charge of appraisal of

nuclear-related activities are ensured to be

emergency response plans and inspection of

covered under national supervision. Besides,

daily emergency response preparations. The

NNSA also carries out in-base supervision

team building of nuclear emergency response of

over nuclear facilities produced by home

nuclear power plants is also under the guidance

manufacturers and also conducts safety

of NNSA, thus to ensure the effective operation

inspection of imported facilities.

of emergency response system.

Chapter 5: Nuclear Power Safety Supervision and Public Acceptance 第五章: 中国核电安全监管和公众接受度

Section Two: China Nuclear Power Survey Report 第二部分: 中国核电调查报告

China has built eight technical centers for

international one. Construction quality is

nuclear emergency response and related

fully under control. And the national nuclear

training system. A rescue team of nuclear

safety regulations and standards and the

emergencies composed of 320 staff is being

internationally prevailing regulations as well

formed to deal with serious nuclear accidents

are referred to when there are new projects

and take part in international nuclear rescue.

applied.

5.3 Safety Situation of Nuclear

As the safety level increases, challenges

Power Plants of China

follow. The various reactor types, techniques

China has kept a sound safety performance

and the coexistence of standards bring

of nuclear power units all the time and no

difficulties for management. The capability of

accidents above the level 2 of INES ever

risk mitigation when operating the facilities

occurred. And the supervision results show

is yet to be improved.

that the radiation level around nuclear power stations is in the normal range. According

5.4 Public Acceptance Analysis

to the comprehensive ranking of WANO, the performance indexes of China’s nuclear

5.4.1 Situation of Public Acceptance

power plants rank at high and medium level

The biggest barrier for the development of

and some units rank at advanced level of

nuclear power, as the techniques improve

the world.

and safety is maintained, is transferring from safety to public acceptance, which greatly

For example, 75 out of the 99 indexes of

influences the strategic making of the country

the 11 commercial nuclear power units of

and enterprises. And nuclear power projects

China General Nuclear Power Corporation

and enterprise are facing greater pressure

(CGN) ranked high and medium level, and

from media and the public. The Chinese

62 reached the world’s advanced level.

government also puts public opinions on nuclear-related projects into a higher level

The amount of nuclear power units under

in decision making.

construction in China accounts for one third of the global total. The quality control system

The Fukushima Nuclear Accident profoundly

is effectively operating and the construction

impacted the nuclear power industry of China.

technology is kept as the same level as the

Reports of media, which ceaselessly exposed

Section Two: China Nuclear Power Survey Report 第二部分: 中国核电调查报告

Chapter 5: Nuclear Power Safety Supervision and Public Acceptance 第五章: 中国核电安全监管和公众接受度

even the tiniest details of the accident, have

experts and public in the acknowledgment of

caused panic among the public so enormous

risks. Experts assess risks through academic

that in some Chinese cities people would

quantification while the public judge by the

rush to purchase salt. Four days after the

social and psychological factors. Besides,

accident, the Chinese government announced

the lack of popularization of nuclear also

the “Four Acts” to adjust the nuclear power

leads to the public’s worries.

development plan, saying that nuclear power stations, whether in operation or under

For a long time, the nuclear power has

construction, must be fully inspected, and

impressed people so mysteriously that few

new projects are stopped being approved.

know much about it. Although only three

And new projects are banned for construction

major accidents occurred in the world, they

during the 12 Five-Year Plan (2011-2015)

are far enough for people to fear.

in the inland of China. Therefore, it is vital for China to improve

5.4.2 Factors Influencing Public

the public acceptance for the development

Acceptance

of nuclear power. Chinese nuclear power

The factors influencing public acceptance

enterprises have been looking for effective

are quite implicated and often vary. The

way to communicate with the public and build

essential concern comes from people ’ s

up transparent communication mechanism

uncertainty of nuclear power safety and

to advocate reasonable attitude towards

waste treatment. However, investigation

nuclear power. After years’ experiences, a

shows that the improvement of nuclear

set of strategies has been formed in China,

techniques does not reduce their worries

including identifying the key interest

and is not enough to change their attitude.

parties, taking initiative actions, ensuring

The reason is there is a gap between the

transparency and making assessment.

Section Two: China Nuclear Power Survey Report 第二部分: 中国核电调查报告

Chapter 6: Nuclear Fuel Supply and Recycle in China 第六章: 中国核燃料供应及循环利用

6.1 Demand Analysis on Nuclear

and also arouses domestic and international

Fuel Industry

concerns.

Nuclear fuel used by pressurized water reactor nuclear power plants is offered by

The natural uranium consumed by pressurized

specific nuclear fuel manufacturers and the

water reactor (PWR) nuclear plant consists

main raw material for nuclear fuel is natural

of two parts: First loading of a newly-built

uranium.

unit and reloading of an operational unit. A gigawatt-class unit requires 400 tons

China ’ s nuclear power industry has seen

of natural uranium for the first loading

large-scale development. The natural

and 175 tons for reloading each year. For

uranium consumption reaches about

example, in 2015, the installed capacity of

10,000 tons for a gigawatt-class nuclear

operational units totaled 19GW, and newly-

unit throughout its life cycle of 60 years

built units capacity 7GW, which means the

or above and about 20,000 tons of uranium

uranium demand for reloading is 3325 tons

resources are needed for this.

(19.00 × 175) and that for first loading is 2800 tons (7.00×400), making the overall

Thus, the large scale development of nuclear

demand 6,125 tons. It always takes two to

power industry requires a good deal of

three years to make natural uranium into fuel,

natural uranium. However, whether China

so this means the demand in 2015 needs to

could ensure the long-term supply of natural

be fulfilled in 2012. According to this, China

uranium is a major issue encountering the

will need 14,000 tons of natural uranium

development of nuclear power industry,

in 2020.

Section Two: China Nuclear Power Survey Report 第二部分: 中国核电调查报告

Chapter 6: Nuclear Fuel Supply and Recycle in China 第六章: 中国核燃料供应及循环利用

6.2 Natural Uranium Supply and

not been changed obviously. So in order

Oversea Uranium Exploitation

to meet China’s natural uranium need, the

China is one of the countries in the world

government should make good use of both

that are rich in uranium resources, with

domestic and international markets.

350 uranium ore deposits proven and 320 predicting areas, which has a total of about

From the beginning of 21st century, Chinese

2.1 million tons of uranium resources. Thus,

enterprises have imported a certain number

the uranium reserves of China can meet the

of natural uranium and low enriched

requirements of about 100GW nuclear units.

uranium from overseas through contracts and agreements. From 2009 to 2013, China

From reserves to natural uranium, there is a

imported 70,000 tons of natural uranium,

series of procedures. According to the data

accounting for about 25% of global

from World Nuclear Association (WNA),

production. The imported natural uranium

the output of natural uranium in 2014 was

is used not only for nuclear units, but also

1500 tons in China, ranking ninth globally.

for strategic reserves. In line with current

In the coming several years, China’s natural

agreements, China will import around 10,000

uranium output will continue to grow, which

tons of natural uranium each year by 2020.

is expected to reach 5000 tons per year. However, compared to China’s huge uranium

In recent years, some Chinese nuclear power

demand, domestic natural uranium capacity

enterprises such as CNNC actively expanded

still cannot meet the development need of

oversea market of uranium resources, and

the nuclear power industry.

cooperated with Niger, Namibia, Australia, Kazakhstan, Mongolia and Zimbabwe to

Looking at some countries (eg. the U.S.,

exploit uranium by means of share right

France, Japan and South Korea) that are

transfer, merger and so on. After 2020, China

experienced in nuclear power, the natural

will get more than 7000 tons of share uranium

uranium supply for nuclear units comes

output from overseas every year.

not from the domestic market, but the

international markets. The basic pattern that

China is enforcing “ The Three Great

“nuclear power producing countries do not

Strategies ” in the sector of natural

produce uranium while uranium producing

uranium supply. First is innovation-

ones do not produce nuclear power ” has

driven development, that is, to further

Section Two: China Nuclear Power Survey Report 第二部分: 中国核电调查报告

Chapter 6: Nuclear Fuel Supply and Recycle in China 第六章: 中国核燃料供应及循环利用

expand the investment in technology, to

the development of more advanced

complete the technical support system,

technologies such as fast reactors.

to cultivate high-level creative talents and to improve the ability of efficient

6.3 Overview of Nuclear Fuel

exploitation and indigenous innovation.

Processing Industry

Second is construction of large bases for

The fuel to be “ignited” in nuclear reactor

natural uranium, namely, to build several

is low-enriched uranium fuel assembly.

environment-friendly uranium mines that

Natural uranium needs to undergo uranium

are of thousand-ton capacity to secure

conversion, enrichment and manufacturing

domestic supply. Third, further strategic

process to finally become fuel assembly.

cooperation with foreign countries, especially “One Belt, One Road” countries:

China ’ s nuclear fuel processing industry

to cooperate with Kazakhstan, Russia,

started in 1960s, which mainly served the

Ukraine, Uzbekistan, Czech, Mongolia

national defense. Since 1980s, this industry

and African countries in many ways,

witnessed great progress both in technology

expanding cooperation in nuclear energy

and scale with the development of nuclear

and nuclear fuel supply to promote common

power industry. Up to the end of 2015, the

development.

production capacity of uranium conversion and enrichment was three times higher than

On the whole, before 2000, China’s uranium

that of 2010, and the production capacity of

supply exceeded demand, the spare capacity

fuel assembly was four times higher than

and imported uranium needed to be reserved.

that of 2010, which satisfied the needs of

From 2020 to 2030, though China’s nuclear

the development of China’s nuclear power

power generation is expected to exceed

industry.

100GWh, the demand of natural uranium can still be guaranteed by domestic production,

Meanwhile, the processing technology has

international trade, overseas exploitation and

also seen significant progress. The first

strategic reserves. After 2030, China will

AP1000 assembly line for nuclear fuel was

make an overall consideration according to

established. A great breakthrough has been

the development scale, technical route and

made in the research and industrialization of

domestic and international environment.

CF fuel assembly which China has indigenous

There are primary solutions so far, including

intellectual property right. Mastering the

Section Two: China Nuclear Power Survey Report 第二部分: 中国核电调查报告

technology of China Experimental Fast

Chapter 6: Nuclear Fuel Supply and Recycle in China 第六章: 中国核燃料供应及循环利用

90Sr, 137Cs and 99Tc.

Reactor, China has established a nuclear fuel production line of high temperature

The after-treatment of spent fuel is to separate

gas cooled reactor, which is the first one of

uranium, plutonium and fission products by

industrial scale in the world. The capacity is

means of chemical process. The recycled

enough to meet the fuel demand of domestic

uranium and plutonium can be used again

nuclear power plants and reactors.

and again in the reactor to generate much more power. The full use of uranium also

By far, the processing enterprises are almost

helps the treatment of the wastes.

subordinated to CNNC and mainly located in central and west China. While further

There are two cycle approaches for the

enhancing and optimizing the capacity

treatment of spent fuel. One is “ open

to realize industrial transformation and

cycle ” which is to send the spent fuel to

upgrading, CNNC is also planning to adjust

the underground to be treated. The other is

the ability structure and to build intensive

“ closed cycle ” which is to conduct after-

nuclear fuel industrial park alongside

treatment for spent fuel, separating uranium,

southeast coastal areas near to nuclear

plutonium and fission products. China

power plants. “One Plan and Step-by-step

decided to adopt “closed cycle” approach

Implementation ” policy will be adopted

and planned to establish after-treatment

by the park to focus on the construction

plants and matched MOX fuel manufacturers

of processing facilities, fulfilling one-stop

around 2030 to create conditions for the

service for the processing of nuclear fuels

recycle of spent fuel.

to improve the industry ’ s international competitiveness.

It is estimated that by 2030, the cumulative spent fuel production of China’s PWR will

6.4 Treatment and After-treatment

reach 23,500 tons. Due to the limited pools

for Spent Fuel

of after-treatment plants, the spent fuel needs

The fuel unloaded after the reaction in

to be processed little by little, thus a large

the reactor is called spent fuel, which still

number of them have to be stored away from

contains unspent 235U, newly formed 239Pu,

reactor first and be processed later.

transuranic like neptunium, americium and curium, as well as radioactive elements like

Away-from-reactor (AFR) fuel storage

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Chapter 6: Nuclear Fuel Supply and Recycle in China 第六章: 中国核燃料供应及循环利用

includes two types: wet storage and dry

6.5 Disposal of Radioactive Waste

storage. Wet storage is to store and cool

Deep disposal is to build a cavern in deep

down the spent fuel in the pool. Dry storage

geological bodies to separate the radioactive

is to store the spent fuel in special facilities

waste, which is considered the most feasible

and cool down it by ventilation. Currently

way to dispose the waste. Caverns are always

the adoption ratio of the two approaches

built either deep under the ground or deep

is half and half in the world, but more and

under mines. The former is always as deep

more nuclear plants are inclined to adopt

as several thousands of meters while the

dry storage.

latter 300-1500 meters.

To date, the spent fuel of China’s PWR is all

In 2003, China enacted “ Radioactive

stored in pools. Some plants have extra pools

Pollution Control Act ” to regulate the

established around them to serve as storage

management upon radioactive waste. In

pools besides reactor pools. Because of the

November 2011, the State Council executive

limited pool capacity, China is also studying

meeting passed “ Safety Management

dry storage and relevant facilities recently to

Regulations on Radioactive Waste” to further

meet the storage needs. The government has

complete disposal procedures and strengthen

already approved the proposal of building

the safety supervision upon waste disposal

AFR dry fuel storage and facilities in Daya

and unlawful act. The government plans

Bay nuclear power plant and Tianwan nuclear

to finish the establishment of underground

power plant, and will openly call for bids in

radioactive waste disposal cavern and put

the first half year of 2016.

it into operation around 2025.

Section Two: China Nuclear Power Survey Report 第二部分: 中国核电调查报告

Chapter 7: Research Situation of China’s Nuclear Reactor and Technical Route of Nuclear Power 第七章: 中国核反应堆科研现状以及核电技术路线

Chapter 7: Latest Developments on China's Nuclear Reactors and Technical Routes for Nuclear Power Generation 第七章: 中国核反应堆科研现状以及核电技术路线

7.1 Current Situation of HTGR Research,

in National Medium and Long-Term Plan

Demonstration Projects and Follow-up

for Science and Technology Development

Projects

(2006-2020) as key national projects.

The High Temperature Gas-cooled Reactor (HTGR) stands out because of its high thermal

Shidao Bay HTGR Plant, co-invested by

efficiency, high burnup and high conversion

Huaneng Group, Tsinghua University and

ratio. Helium is a safe gas because its eminent

China Nuclear E & C Group, is the first

stability and heat transfer performance and

modularized HTGR nuclear power plant

its less induced radio activity enables it to

in the world that is equipped with the

safely bring out the excess heat after shut-

generation-four nuclear power safety system.

down. China’s research on HTGR started

A 200-megawatt unit is in planning. The

in mid-1980s. In December of 2000, the

construction of the pilot project of Shidao

10MW HTGR reached critical condition

Bay nuclear power plant started at the end

and in January 2003 reached its full power

of 2012 and will be put into operation in

and started grid generation. This meant that

late 2017.

China had mastered the core technologies of

designing and running HTGR and reached the

In May 2015, the feasibility report of the

advanced level. In January 2006, the State

Ruijin Project in Jiangxi province submitted

Council listed the “Large-scale Advanced

by China Nuclear E & C Group, which is

PWR and HTGR Demonstration Project ”

to be constructed into a commercial HTGR

Chapter 7: Research Situation of China’s Nuclear Reactor and Technical Route of Nuclear Power 第七章: 中国核反应堆科研现状以及核电技术路线

Section Two: China Nuclear Power Survey Report 第二部分: 中国核电调查报告

plant with 600-megawatt capacity, was

7.3 R&D Situation of Compact

approved by the expert committee. The

Reactor

first-stage project with two 2 units will start

Compact nuclear power unit is the one that

construction in 2017.

generates at the power of less than 300MW. It can be categorized, by technical routine,

7.2 Progress and Follow-up Project

into Light Water Reactor (LWR), High

of China’s Experimental Fast

Temperature Gas-cooled Reactor (HTGR),

Reactor

Liquid Metal Cooled Fast Reactor (LMCFR)

Fast reactor can improve the utilization

and Molten Salt Reactor (MSR). LWR is the

rate of uranium to 60-70%, compared

main representative.

to the 1% of pressurized water reactor (PWR). This is of great significance for

Recently, the compact nuclear power

the stable development of nuclear power.

unit attracted most countries, especially

It can also transmutate the enduring wastes

developing countries due to its limited

generated by PWR, making nuclear power

initial investment, short construction cycle

more environment-friendly.

and efficiency in electricity transmission. In the first years of 21st century, the IAEA

China ’ s experimental fast reactor started

declared its support toward the compact

construction in May 2000, and reached

nuclear power unit just because of being safe,

critical condition for the first time on July

reliable, economical and non-proliferating.

21 st, 2010, making China the 8 th country with fast reactor technology. On July 21 st,

Nowadays, the CNNC and CGNPG are

2011, it successfully joined the national

both carrying out R&D of compact unit. It

power grid. This project was implemented

is forecast that the pilot project will start

by China Institute of Atomic Energy.

construction in 2017 and be completed around 2020. The compact unit can offer

The thermal power of this reactor is 65MW

reliable and stable power for offshore oil-

and the experimental power is 20MW. Its

gas field and island development.

parameters and systematic settings are close to commercial fast reactor, which

7.4 R&D on Other Advanced

is appropriate to be developed into

Reactors

commercial use.

The generation four nuclear power system is

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Chapter 7: Research Situation of China’s Nuclear Reactor and Technical Route of Nuclear Power 第七章: 中国核反应堆科研现状以及核电技术路线

advanced in its safety, economical efficiency

first generation technology included the plant

and environment-friendship. It generates

of graphitite boiling water reactor of 5MW

few wastes and stops nuclear diffusion.

built up by the former Soviet Union in 1954,

The whole world is keen on its research and

the natural uranium graphite reactor plant of

development of this system.

45MW by Britain in 1956 and the prototype PWR plant of 60MW by U.S. in 1956.

China has completed the first-stage research of super-critical water-cooled reactor

Second-generation technology was developed

(SCWR) technology which is crucial for

on the basis of the first generation and it

the following design and experiment. The

greatly promoted the commercialization and

technological routine has been proposed

standardization of nuclear power industry.

along with the design and material selection

PWR, BWR and PHWR are all invented

scheme of CSR 1000, a SCWR of gigawatt

by the help of the second-generation

capacity. China has also completed the basic

technology. The power level was also

research of key technologies and initially

drastically improved. The accident of Three

built a platform of design and experimental

Mile Island and Chernobyl catalyzed the

research.

turnout of improved second-generation nuclear power plants, whose main features

Besides, the Thorium Molten Salt Reactor

were the addition of hydrogen control system

Nuclear Energy System (TMSR) is under

and containment pressure relief devices that

R&D in Shanghai Institute of Applied

improved the safety performance. Most of

Physics and it’s striving for the buildup of

the nuclear power plants in the world under

the world’s first solid fuel TMSR of 10MW

opration belong to the second generation.

and a liquid fuel TMSR of 2MW before 2020. The third-generation plant, equipped with

7.5 Situation and Prospect of China’s

PWRs and meeting the standards of URD

Nuclear Power Technological

and EUR, is much safer and more power

Routine

efficient. The technologies adopted by the

The first-generation nuclear power

third-generation advanced PWR plant are

technology (early prototype reactor) is

mainly ABWR and System80+, AP600,

developed to test the feasibility of nuclear

AP1000, EPR, ACR. AP1000 of US and

power construction. Examples adopting the

EPR of France are the examples.

Chapter 7: Research Situation of China’s Nuclear Reactor and Technical Route of Nuclear Power 第七章: 中国核反应堆科研现状以及核电技术路线

Section Two: China Nuclear Power Survey Report 第二部分: 中国核电调查报告

Like other countries in the world, most of

mature plant design method was adopted

the nuclear plants in China under operation

in designing reactor coolant system and

belong to the second generation. In April

facilities; non-dynamic design is simplified

2015, the State Council put forward the

to raise safety and economy standards;

plan of developing the third generation in

modularized technologies are applied in

the future. In 2015, the Hualong-One pilot

emergency prevention system and control

projects of No.5 and 6 units of Fuqing

system designs.

Nuclear Power Plant and No.3 and 4 units of Fangchenggang Nuclear plant power were

7.5.2 Hualong-One

started, symbolizing that the third generation

CGNPC and CNNC initiated ACPR 1000+

was replacing the second.

and ACP1000 respectively, and they codeveloped “Hualong-One” technology, the

By far, the third generation plants under

self-developed third generation nuclear

construction in China are AP1000, Hualong-

power technology. On August 22nd, 2014,

One, CAP1400, EPR and VVER.

the technical scheme of the “Hualong-One” technology was approved by the expert

7.5.1 AP1000

panel organized by NEA and NNSA. In

AP1000 is developed by Westinghouse as a

2015, construction of pilot projects with

“Non-Dynamic Type of PWR Technology”

“Hualong-One” technology in No.5 and 6

and is a leading technology in the world.

units of Fuqing Nucler Power Plant and No.3

China will import the AP1000 in 2017 and

and 4 units of Fangchenggang Nuclear Power

build up two AP1000 units separately in

Plant were started.

Sanmen of Zheijiang province and Haiyang of Shandong province as the support projects

The maturity, safety and economical efficiency

of the Chinese third-generation technology

of “ Hualong-One ” technology reaches

and the State Nuclear Power Technology

the technical requirements of the third-

Corporation (SNPTC) will adopt the

generation and China possesses proprietary

advanced technology. The two projects are

intellectual property in key technologies

postponed today but are predicted to be

in design, equipment manufacturing and

connected to the national grid in 2017.

operation maintenance. The “ HualongOne” technology proposes the safety design

The design features of AP1000 include: the

notion of “combining the dynamic and non-

Section Two: China Nuclear Power Survey Report 第二部分: 中国核电调查报告

Chapter 7: Research Situation of China’s Nuclear Reactor and Technical Route of Nuclear Power 第七章: 中国核反应堆科研现状以及核电技术路线

dynamic” and fully implements the principle

innovated by the State Nuclear Power

of defense in depth by adopting reactor core

Technology Corporation through adopting

with 177 fuel assemblies, multiple safety

and upgrading the non-dynamic technology

system, single core attribution and double

of AP1000. It has been listed among the

barrier containment.

major projects of nuclear power development of China. The No.1 and 2 units of Shidao Bay

7.5.3 CAP1400

pilot project with CAP 1400 in Rongcheng,

CAP1400 is a non-dynamic PWR unit

Shandong province, is to be approved

with greater power that was indigenously

recently.

Chapter 8: “Going Overseas” Status of China’s Nuclear Power 第八章: 中国核电“走出去”状况

Section Two: China Nuclear Power Survey Report 第二部分: 中国核电调查报告

Chapter 8: “Going Out” Status of China's Nuclear Power 第八章: 中国核电“走出去”状况

8.1 Analysis of Global Nuclear

develop economy and improve people ’ s

Power Market

living standards. Therefore, nuclear power

After the Fukushima accident, the global

has become a crucial supplement for energy

nuclear power industry gradually went

pinch in these countries.

through the bad times. Apart from China, America, Britain, Russia, India and South

However, with the recovery of global nuclear

Korea, building nuclear power plants has

power industry, intense international market

been put on agenda for countries like Belarus,

competition is coming. Both experienced

UAE, Egypt, Bangladesh, Jordan, Lithuania,

countries like Japan and Russia and late-

Poland, Saudi Arabia and Vietnam, some

comers like China and South Korea are all

of which have already started to build their

expanding international market. China is

first nuclear power plant.

also actively taking “Going Out” strategy and has signed cooperation contracts with

In the meantime, the structure of the global

Pakistan, Britain, France, Romania, South

nuclear power market has been changed,

Africa, Argentina, Turkey, Egypt, Kenya,

with its focus transferring from developed

Jordan, Saudi Arabia and Armenia. Some of

countries to emerging market. Developed

the projects have already been carried out.

countries almost have no room to increase energy demand with developed economy

8.2 Favorable Situation and

while emerging countries have a strong

Challenges for “Going Out” Strategy

energy demand because they need to

China has thirty years of experience in

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Chapter 8: “Going Overseas” Status of China’s Nuclear Power 第八章: 中国核电“走出去”状况

constructing and managing nuclear power

5 million jobs and production value of 3

plants, but has just started the “Going Out”

trillion yuan. Thus, the “One Belt, One Road”

strategy, thus in the face of complicated

initiatives have become the drive for China’s

international situation and strong competitors,

nuclear power industry to “go overseas”.

China will meet lots of challenges as well as opportunities.

Thirdly, the safety of China’s self-developed technology is at the same level as the

8.2.1 Favorable Situation

international standard, but more economical,

Firstly, the “Going Out” strategy has become

which is its core advantage. For example,

a national strategy. It is also an important

“Hualong-One” reactor increased its core

topic in the bilateral political and economic

number from 157 to 177, improving the

interactions between China and its potential

generated power by 5-10%. Being more

nuclear power importers. State leaders even

economical, it reduced the power density

recommend China’s nuclear power brands

and melt probability of the cores, and also

personally during state visits, seeking for

the probability of releasing radioactive

international cooperation.

substances. Study shows that nuclear power units that possess safety and economical

Secondly, the “One Belt, One Road” initiatives

efficiency have more huge business

also bring great commercial opportunities

opportunities.

for China’s nuclear power to “Going Out”.

There are more than 60 countries alongside

Last but not least, the innovative technology

the “One Belt, One Road”, most of which are

provides powerful support to the “ Going

underdeveloped countries. These countries

Out ” of China ’ s nuclear power. For

are laggard in infrastructure and need to

example, “Hualong-One” has already been

develop their economies, which have strong

used in Fuqing Nuclear Power Plant and

demand for power investment. So some of

Fangchenggang Nuclear Power Plant already

these countries are making or have already

under construction. Advanced pressurized

made development plans for nuclear power

water reactor CAP1400 has passed state

industry. Statistics show that the “One Belt,

appraisal and is ready for construction.

One Road” countries will establish more than

China’s high temperature gas cooled 600MW

200 new nuclear power units till 2030 and

pilot reactor now under construction has

even 20% of the market share could create

got attention from emerging nuclear power

Chapter 8: “Going Overseas” Status of China’s Nuclear Power 第八章: 中国核电“走出去”状况

Section Two: China Nuclear Power Survey Report 第二部分: 中国核电调查报告

countries. These are all proof that China’s

8.3 Prospect Analysis on “Going

nuclear power technology is becoming more

Out” Strategy

and more developed, which will uphold the

The “Going Out” strategy for China’s nuclear

“Going Out” strategy.

power is quite promising. In the coming ten years, foreign countries will construct 60 to

8.2.2 Challenges

70 new nuclear power units, with 30 to 40

China also faces enormous challenges

units decommissioning and 20 to 30 units

for its nuclear power to “ Going Out ” .

prolonging their operation life. Newly-built units in “ One Belt, One Road ” or along

Firstly, China sees intense competition

countries will take up 80% of that of the

from international nuclear power market,

world, which provides broad development

because Russia, America, France, Japan

space for the “Going Out” of China’s nuclear

and South Korea are also recommending

power.

their technologies to nuclear power importing countries.

By far, progress is witnessed in the China ’s cooperation with Pakistan, Britain, Argentina,

S e c o n d l y, i t f a c e s c h a l l e n g e s f r o m

Egypt and South Africa. Cooperation with

technical aspect. Developed countries

Saudi Arabia, Malaysia, Sudan, Jordan and

like Britain are very demanding for

Romania is in planning. And Thailand,

technology, entering British market

Indonesia, Kenya and Kazakhstan are all

requires passing GDA which not only

interested in “Hualong-One”.

costs a lot of material and financial resources, but also takes at least five

The “Going Out” of China’s nuclear power is

years to do technical preparations.

a long-term strategy as well as a progressive development. The third generation of China’s

Thirdly, China needs to further improve

self-developed unit is still at beginning

the internationa l rec ognition o f i t s

stage, so currently China needs some time

nuclear power standards. Overseas

to accumulate experience and continually

investment risk and financing cost are

improve the capability of indigenous

also the factors for China to take into

innovation, laying a solid foundation for

consideration.

the “Going Out” of China’s nuclear power.

Section Two: China Nuclear Power Survey Report 第二部分: 中国核电调查报告

Chapter 9: Economic Analysis on China’s Nuclear Power 第九章: 中国核电经济性分析

Chapter 9: Economic Analysis on China's Nuclear Power 第九章: 中国核电经济性分析

9.1 Investment Situation of China’s

overseas. The localization rate of equipment

Nuclear Power Plants

in nuclear island and conventional island

9.1.1 Situation Before 2010

were respectively 10% and 15%, and the

Before 2010, 10 nuclear power plants were

cost was lowered to 1,762 US dollars per

put into operation in China, with the cost

kilowatt.

of 1,386 to 2,068 US dollars per kilowatt. As for Tianwan Nuclear Power Plant, Russia

Of all the 10 plants, Daya Bay Nuclear Power

took all the technical responsibility as well as

Plant was China’s first commercial one that

the design of conventional island, the supply

is of gigawatt capacity, whose equipment

of equipment and the preoperational test

was imported from France and Britain. Due

of the plant. China was responsible for the

to the shortage of constructing experience,

management of its construction, construction,

most of the plants were constructed by

procurement of some of the equipment, part

foreign companies. So the cost was pretty

of the design and the installation of most

high, which was about 2,068 US dollars per

part of the plant. The cost at that time was

kilowatt.

1,510 US dollars per kilowatt.

The situation for Ling ’ ao Nuclear Power

The phase II of Qinshan Nuclear Power Plant

Plant was better. The plant was constructed

was indigenously designed and constructed

and partly designed by China itself

by China itself. The localization of the

(with consultations provided by foreign

equipment used was up to 55% and the cost

companies), with equipment imported from

was 1,386 US dollars per kilowatt, which is

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Chapter 9: Economic Analysis on China’s Nuclear Power 第九章: 中国核电经济性分析

the lowest in investment for nuclear power

13,000 yuan per kilowatt.

projects.

9.1.3 Investment of China’s The phase III of Qinshan Nuclear Power

Generation Three Nuclear Power

Plant used heavy water reactors which was

Technology

undertook by Atomic Energy of Canada.

There are nine units under construction that

The cost was 1,923 US dollars per kilowatt.

adopt the third generation nuclear power technology, which are Sanmen Nuclear

To conclude, before 2010, China’s nuclear

Power Plant (2×1.25GW, adopting American

power plants were small-scale, diversified

AP1000), Haiyang Nuclear Power Plant

in unit types, and had low proportion of

(2×1.25GW), Taishan Nuclear Power Plant

indigenous technology and equipment. But

(2×1.75GW, adopting French EPR), No.5 and

localization can reduce the cost, which was

No.6 nuclear units of Fuqing Nuclear Power

shown in Qinshan phase II project.

Plant (adopting Chinese Hualong-One) and No.3 nuclear unit of Fangchenggang Nuclear

9.1.2 Situation after 2010

Power Plant. Besides, there are also units

The investment cost for nuclear power plants

that meet the basic standards of the third

which were put into operation after 2010

generation technology, like No.5 and No.6

was calculated with Chinese RMB of yuan.

nuclear units of Yangjiang Nuclear Power Plant and No.5 and No.6 nuclear units of

In September 2010, unit No.1 of the phase

Hongyanhe Nuclear Power Plant.

II of Ling’ao Nuclear Power Plant was put into operation. The phase II which adopted

The average cost of Sanmen Nuclear Power

CGNPC’s self-developed brand CPR1000

Plant and Haiyang Nuclear Power Plant is

was designed, manufactured, constructed

over 20,000 yuan per kilowatt. AP1000 was

and operated all by China itself. After that,

adopted for the first time in the world, so

from 2012 to 2015, nine CPR1000 units in

foreign technology and project delay are the

nuclear plants of Ningde, Hongyanhe and

main reason of the high cost.

Yangjiang were put into operation. Besides, four M310-modified units and three CNP600

9.1.4 Cost Comparison with Other

units were also put into operation. The

Countries

average investment of these units was around

The cost of investment increased after China

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Chapter 9: Economic Analysis on China’s Nuclear Power 第九章: 中国核电经济性分析

adopted the third generation technology in

of current policies, the price of electricity

the construction of nuclear power plants.

generated by nuclear power plants that

However, compared to the plants in other

were put into operation before 2013 is set

countries, the cost in China is still the lowest.

according to its investment and expecting

According to the newly released “Nuclear

profit, which means each plant has the right

Technology Roadmap 2015” by IEA-NEA,

to set electricity price of its own. While for

the average overnight cost of China’s nuclear

those plants put into operation after January

power plants is about 3,500 US dollars per

1, 2013, the on-grid electricity price was

kilowatt, that of Europe 5,500 US dollars

fixed at 0.43 yuan per kilowatt as benchmark

per kilowatt. That in the United States is

on-grid price. The government will adjust

10% lower than that in Europe, while at least

the benchmark price in terms of variation

30% higher than that in China, 25% higher

of technology, cost and market supply and

than South Korea.

demand.

9.2 Economic Analysis on China’s

In accordance with related state policy,

Nuclear Power

nuclear power is prior to coal power when it

The characteristics of nuclear power are:

comes to set on grid. For years, the generation

fixed cost is high while variable cost is low.

load remains at a high level of over 85%,

Fuel cost takes up 17% of the total cost,

which is the main reason that nuclear power

plus the processing cost of spent fuel (0.026

is profitable.

yuan/kw), it accounts for 25% of total cost. In 2015, China’s power consumption stepped

Factors affecting the economical efficiency

into a new phase, with generation load of

of nuclear power are: electricity sale price,

all kinds seeing reduction. In the meantime,

utilization hours, construction cost, interest

China released new power reform policy to

rate, exchange rate, nuclear fuel cost, labor

open appropriately the side of electricity

cost and processing cost of spent fuel, etc.

sales, which would bring some uncertainties

The main affecting factors are electricity sale

to the generation load and electricity price

price, construction cost and generation load.

of nuclear power plants.

The on-grid price of nuclear power is

At present, China has two nuclear power unit

supervised by the government. In terms

operators: China Guangdong Nuclear Power

Section Two: China Nuclear Power Survey Report 第二部分: 中国核电调查报告

Chapter 9: Economic Analysis on China’s Nuclear Power 第九章: 中国核电经济性分析

Co., Ltd. (CGNPC) and China National

plus technology which were put into

Nuclear Power Co., Ltd. (CNNCC). CGNPC

operation after 2013 is 0.43 yuan/kwh

has 16 nuclear units in operation, with a total

(tax included), which is lower than local

installed capacity of 16.92GW. CNNCC has

benchmark electricity price and shows the

14 units in operation with a total installed

competitiveness of nuclear power.

capacity of 11.60GW. Statistics show that the net profit rate of CGNPC averaged to

9.3.2 Nuclear Power, Wind Power

30% during 2011 to 2014, returns on assets

& Photovoltaic Power

averaged to more than 4%, which indicates

The specific investment of wind power and

a favorable economic efficiency.

photovoltaic power is pretty the same as that of nuclear power, but they are hugely

9.3 Economic Efficiency Comparison

affected by natural conditions and have

of Different Power Technologies

yearly effective on-grid hours of 1,500 to 2,000 hours. Nuclear power is more stable

9.3.1 Nuclear Power & Coal Power

which has yearly on-grid hours of over 7,000.

Nuclear power industry has tiny influence

The intermittent supply of wind power and

on the environment, because nuclear power

photovoltaic power needs to be adjusted

plants do not emit air pollutants like SO 2

by coal power and pneumoelectric, etc,

and PM. A gigawatt-level nuclear power

which increases the cost of grid operation.

plant would help to reduce the emission 6

What’s more, China’s wind power and solar

million tons of CO2 compared with a coal-

power resources are concentrated in the west

fired power plant of the same level. The cost

and northeast part of China, so the power

of coal-fired power consists of processing

generated needs to be transmitted by long-

fees of desulphuration, denitration and

distance grid. But currently, China does not

dedusting, but does not consist of the cost of

have enough long-distance grids, which

collection and disposal of CO2, while the cost

makes wind power and photovoltaic power

of nuclear power includes the treatment cost

enterprises face the problem that more and

of decommissioned units and after-treatment

more power produced by them is abandoned.

cost of spent fuel. At present, the cost of wind power and On-grid price of electricity generated by

photovoltaic power is higher than that of

nuclear power plants with second generation

nuclear power. According to OECD’s study

Section Two: China Nuclear Power Survey Report 第二部分: 中国核电调查报告

Chapter 9: Economic Analysis on China’s Nuclear Power 第九章: 中国核电经济性分析

in 2010, the cost of nuclear power in Europe

rate of key equipment. Practice indicates that

was 1/5.3 of that of photovoltaic power, 1/1.8

localization rate is the key influencing factor

of that of wind power and 1/1.2 of that of

in nuclear power investment. The first batch

coal power. As for China, the cost of nuclear

of third generation nuclear power plants with

power is 1/4.7 of that of photovoltaic power

a relatively high investment can increase their

and 1/2.1 of that of wind power. Although

generation by improving load and prolonging

the cost of photovoltaic power was largely

operating life so as to guarantee the profit,

reduced during the past five years due to

while the follow-up third generation ones can

technology improvement, it is still higher

maintain their economic efficiency through

than nuclear power. So photovoltaic power

increasing the localization rate of design and

and wind power need fiscal subsidies to

equipment, management capability and the

help them to make profits and their on-

number of units.

grid electricity price is higher than that of nuclear power. Though now nuclear power

In the long run, coal-fired power will

does not have fiscal subsidy and undertakes

gradually be restricted. And wind power and

benchmark price, nuclear power has a long-

solar power cannot take the responsibility

term profitability.

of on-grid load in the short term. Due to the competitive strength of nuclear power

After twenty years of development, China’s

in terms of both cost-effectiveness and

nuclear power industry has developed its

flexibility to grid, economic efficiency of

own technology of design and construction

nuclear power is expected to further increase

and also seen an increase in the localization

if being constructed on a large scale.

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

Section Three:

Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分：

中国专家观点

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

Chapter 1: China’s Nuclear Competitive Edge and Going Global Strategy 第一章: 中国核电优势及“走出去”战略

Chapter 1: China's Nuclear Competitive Edge and Going Out Strategy 第一章: 中国核电优势及“走出去”战略 ZHANG Huazhu Chairman of China Nuclear Energy Association

张华祝中国核能行业协会理事长

Thirty years into the development of nuclear

Four projects were launched between 1996

power since its initiation in 1985, China has

and 2000 with a total of eight nuclear power

forged ahead with both indigenous R&D and

units, including two 650,000KW nuclear

introduction of foreign technologies.

power units designed and constructed indigenously for Phase Two of Qinshan

In 1985, China began indigenous design and

Nuclear Power Plant; Ling’ao Nuclear Power

construction of Qinshan Nuclear Power Plant

Plant built with French technologies; heavy

-- a 300MW pressurized water reactor (PWR)

water reactor (HWR) nuclear power plant

nuclear power unit; in 1987, construction

built with Canadian technologies for Qinshan

began for Daya Bay Nuclear Power Plant

Phase Three; and Tianwan Nuclear Power

which adopted the French technologies and

Plant built with Russian technologies. These

equipment -- two 900MW PWR nuclear

projects were brought to fruition between

power units. The three units were completed

2002 and 2007.

and commissioned successively between 1991 and 1994.

Since the beginning of the second Five-Year

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

Chapter 1: China’s Nuclear Competitive Edge and Going Global Strategy 第一章: 中国核电优势及“走出去”战略

Plan period in the 21st century, China’s nuclear

Since connection to the grid of Qinshan

power development has been scaled up both

Nuclear Power Plant, the first of its kind

in terms of quality and quantity. Due to the

indigenously designed and constructed by

ripple effects of Japan’s Fukushima Nuclear

China, China has registered a cumulative 177

Incident, China had slowed its pace in the

reactor-years (a year of a reactor’s operation

past four years, but we are now restoring the

is referred to as a reactor-year) of operation

previous growth momentum. In the span of

with a good safety record.

a decade since December 2005, altogether 45 new nuclear power units were approved

To sum up, all together there are 56 nuclear

for construction by the Chinese government,

power units in operation, under construction

including 32 upgraded Generation-two units

or approved for construction, which are

(28 million KW units and four 650,000KW

located at 13 plant sites in eight provinces

units), one high temperature gas cooled

including Liaoning in the north and Hainan

reactor (HTGR) demonstration project

in the south and play a significant role in

unit, four AP1000 units, two EPR units,

economic, social as well as green and low-

two VVER units and four Hualong-One

carbon development in coastal areas of east

units). Following a decade’s development,

China.

China has ranked itself among major nuclear power countries and most active developers

In line with goal of 58 million KW materialized

of nuclear energy in the world.

and 30million KW under construction by 2020 outlined in the Energy Development

At present, there are 30 nuclear power units

Strategy Action Plan 2014-2020 published

in commercial commissioning on mainland

in 2014 and in compliance with the highest

China, with a total installed capacity of nearly

international safety standards, new nuclear

30GW. Cumulative electricity generated

power projects will be kept on an appropriate

by nuclear power in 2014 stood at 130.58

scale during the 13th Five-Year Plan period.

billion KWh, accounting for 2.39% of the

It is estimated that China will maintain a

country’s total electricity generation and up

continuing and smooth growth momentum

18.89% year on year. There are 24 units under

for its nuclear power after 2020.

construction, ranking first in the world and well-managed in terms of project quality,

Liu Baohua, Chief of Nuclear Power

progress and investment.

Department

National

Energy

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

Chapter 1: China’s Nuclear Competitive Edge and Going Global Strategy 第一章: 中国核电优势及“走出去”战略

Administration (NEA), once summarized

driven development.

where China stands into four transitions that might characterize its development of

Research institutes affiliated to China

nuclear power in the next several years to

National Nuclear Corporation (CNNC),

come: First, from second to third generation

China General Nuclear Power Corporation

technologies; Second, from introduction and

(CGN), State Nuclear Power Technology

digestion of advanced foreign technologies

Corporation (SNPTC), including Nuclear

to indigenous innovation; Third, from focus

Power Institute of China (NPIC), China

on domestic construction to coordination of

Nuclear Power Engineering Co., Ltd., CGN

domestic and foreign markets; Fourth, from

Engineering Co., Ltd., China Nuclear Power

one of the major nuclear-powered countries

Technology Research Institute (CNPRI) and

to one of the nuclear powerhouses.

Shanghai Nuclear Engineering Research and Design Institute (SNERDI), and

1.Several Major Competitive Edges

Tsinghua University Institute of Nuclear

of China’s Nuclear Power

and New Energy Technology (INET), are

After 30 years of development and in

fully equipped for nuclear power R&D

particular nearly a decade of scaled-up

and properly staffed by researchers both

development, China has acquired its own

old and young, able to conduct all kinds

identities in the development of nuclear

of technology researches and experiment

power, thus well-positioned to take part in

verifications concerning NPP system and

international competition.

equipment as well as develop new types of reactors.

2.Growing

and

Increasingly

Stronger Nuclear Power R&D System

Jointly funded by the government and the

Underpins the Innovation-driven

enterprises themselves, new innovation

Development of China’s Nuclear

achievements have been made in nuclear

Power.

power R&D in the past decade. Under the

After several decades of development with

strong support of a key national S&T special

both indigenous R&D and adoption of

project named the Large-Scale Advanced

foreign technologies, China has shaped a

PWR and HTGR NPP Demonstration Project,

full-fledged R&D system for nuclear power,

preliminary design for CAP1400 has been

which effectively underpins its innovation-

ready for construction following national

Chapter 1: China’s Nuclear Competitive Edge and Going Global Strategy 第一章: 中国核电优势及“走出去”战略

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

review and HTGR NPP demonstration

management and specialized operation. Based

project (Shandong Shidaowan Nuclear Power

on design, the specialized operation model

Plant) is well under way as planned. Based

for nuclear power project EPC (Engineering

on more than 20 years’ mature experience

Procurement Construction) integrating

concerning nuclear power construction and

equipment procurement, construction and

operation and drawing on the advanced

debugging management has been adopted.

international design philosophy, Hualong-

To meet the needs of multiple project and

One represents the crystallization of

site construction, large project management

respective self-financing and joint R&D of

and team organization mode are put in place

CNNC and CGN and fruition of indigenous

to further utilize the advantages of intensive

innovation with Generation Three nuclear

and scaled-up development, so as to ensure

power technologies.

effective control over quality, progress and investment of ongoing nuclear power

Strong market demand prospect is driving

projects. In the past decade, China Nuclear

non-stop China’s nuclear power technology

Power Engineering Co., Ltd. affiliated to

R&D, and technology innovation underpins

CGN and China Nuclear Power Engineering

the sustainable development and “going out”

Co., Ltd. affiliated to CNNC undertook the

of China ’ s nuclear power. China enjoys

EPC contracts that involves nearly 30 nuclear

tremendous late-mover advantage.

power units, among which 12 have already been up and running, bearing testament to

3.Excellent EPC and Nuclear

their EPC capacity and establishing a good

Po w e r

market reputation.

Project

Construction

Capacity Makes a Reality Scaledup Development of China’s Nuclear

In terms of nuclear power plant construction,

Power.

the civil engineering and installation company

With faster nuclear power development,

affiliated to CNNC have been undertaking

China continues to enhance its indigenous

construction of all nuclear islands and part

design, construction and management of

of conventional islands in China for the past

nuclear power projects. Companies like

30 years. After many years’ experience in

CNNC and CGN are constantly pressing

nuclear power project construction and

ahead with new management models in line

nurturing of professionals, the company

with the philosophy of corporation-oriented

has mastered construction technologies

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

Chapter 1: China’s Nuclear Competitive Edge and Going Global Strategy 第一章: 中国核电优势及“走出去”战略

for multiple reactor types with different

technologies, indigenous innovation and

capacity and has as many as 30 nuclear

large-scale technological transformation,

island engineering units under construction

nuclear power equipment manufacturers

simultaneously. By constantly improving

led by Shanghai Electric, Dongfang

intensive, standardized, specialized and

Electric Corporation, Harbin Power

IT-based management and operation, the

Plant Equipment Corporation and China

company has shaped a management mode

First Heavy Industries have established

compatible with construction of multiple

world-leading manufacturing bases for

reactors and management of multiple projects,

nuclear power equipment, mastered key

and forged an experienced and tough team

nuclear island and conventional island

that is world-leading both in management

equipment design and core manufacturing

and technology. With capabilities acquired

technologies, and nurtured nuclear safety

through construction of conventional islands

culture and quality guarantee system that

for nuclear power plants, companies such as

are gradually enhancing the consistency

Zhejiang Thermal Power Company (ZTPC),

of product quality, thus ensuring to a

Guangdong Thermal Power Company

large extent the scaled-up development

(GTPC), Jiangsu Electric Power Construction

of China ’ s nuclear power. We are capable

Company and Shandong Electric Power

of manufacturing over 80% of Generation

Construction Company (SEPCO) have

Two APWRs at home and have long

played an important role in nuclear project

been capable of producing 10-12 sets

construction.

of key nuclear power equipment per year. Through introduction and digestion of key

4.Growing

Nuclear

Po w e r

equipment manufacturing technologies

Equipment Manufacturing and

for Generation Three AP1000 and EPR,

Supply Capacity Meets the Need for

joint production and science & technology

Scaled-up Development of Nuclear

solutions, we have made significant

Power.

progress in domestic manufacturing

Manufacturing capacity for nuclear

of Generation Three nuclear power

power equipment grows side by side

equipment and indigenous R&D of HTGR

with the development of nuclear power

equipment, with equipment R&D for

in China. In the recent decade, through

Hualong-One and CAP1400 already in

introduction and digestion of foreign

full swing.

Chapter 1: China’s Nuclear Competitive Edge and Going Global Strategy 第一章: 中国核电优势及“走出去”战略

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

5.A Sound Education and Training

the talent pool needed for the industry ’ s

System for Nuclear Professionals

long-term development and going global

Is Channeling New Blood to the

endeavors.

Nuclear Energy Industry. In order to accommodate latest developments

6.“Going Out” Strategy for Nuclear

of nuclear power, we have further strengthened

Power Technologies and Equipment

and promoted education and training of

Promoted personally by state leaders

nuclear professionals in the past decade

in recent years, we have made some

or so. At present, 44 institutions of higher

progress with nuclear power “ going out ” .

learning including Tsinghua University,

On January 15 th , 2015 when we were

Peking University, University of Science

celebrating the 60 th anniversary for the

and Technology of China, Shanghai Jiaotong

establishment of the nuclear industry,

University and Xi’an Jiaotong University

Premier Li Keqiang pointed out again in

have nuclear majors, with teaching being

his written instructions that the nuclear

constantly beefed up and 10,000 on-campus

industry should comprehensively enhance

students constituting a dynamic source of

its competitive advantages and move ahead

new blood for the nuclear energy industry.

with the “ going out ” of equipment.

Since corporate education and training have been prioritized and thus enhanced, on-the-

In November 2013, the National

job training has been further standardized and

Energy Administration published the

administered on a regular basis. Corporate

Implementation Plan for the Coordination

and university cooperation as well industry,

Mechanism Serving the Scientific

academic and research integration have much

Development of Nuclear Power Enterprises,

to offer when it comes to the nurturing of

where it first mentioned nuclear power

professionals.

“ Going Out ” strategy, which is to charter the course for nuclear power enterprises

University education and corporate training

in their going international endeavors

of nuclear professionals have not only

and list nuclear power “ going out ” as an

alleviated the hunger for professionals

important item on the agenda for bilateral

resulted from fast development of nuclear

political and economic exchanges between

power previously plagued by insufficient

China and potential recipient countries of

supply of human resources but also provided

our nuclear power-related technologies.

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

Chapter 1: China’s Nuclear Competitive Edge and Going Global Strategy 第一章: 中国核电优势及“走出去”战略

The Plan outlined that we should enhance

Following several years of efforts,

the core competitiveness of the nuclear

substantive progress was made in the

industry, strengthen organization and

“Going Out” strategy: CNNC signed with

guidance of nuclear power export, and

Nucleoelectrica Argentina a commercial

support the corporate sector’s participation

contract concerning HWR nuclear power

in international competition for projects

plant and a framework contract concerning

by diverse means, such as project

PWR nuclear power plant. CGN signed with

construction, equipment manufacturing,

Romania ’ s state-owned Nuclearelectrica

technology support and state bank loans,

a MOU on Development, Construction,

so as to enhance the overall strength

Commissioning and Decommissioning of

and international competitiveness of our

Cernavoda NPP Units 3 and 4; CGN signed

country ’ s nuclear power.

an investment agreement with Electricite de France (EDF) for UK’s new nuclear projects

On January 15 th , 2014, jointly initiated

and move ahead with Hinkley Point and

by CNNC, SNPTC and CGN and joined

follow-up nuclear power project (Bradwell);

by 14 companies concerning nuclear

nuclear power cooperation is moving forward

power technology development, project

with countries such as South Africa, Turkey,

construction, operation and management,

Czech, Egypt and Saudi Arabia.

equipment manufacturing, engineering

consultation and relevant financial

Nuclear power technology innovation

institutions, China ’ s Nuclear Power

achievements have provided strong

Technology and Equipment Industry

support for the nuclear power “ going out ” .

Association for “Going Out ” was founded.

First, construction has already began for

In line with the principle of thinking as one,

Hualong-One in Fuqing of Fujian and

seizing market trends, sharing resources and

Port of Fangcheng of Guangxi; Second,

win-win reciprocity, and via an effective

CAP1400, a large-scale APWR, has been

alliance mechanism, the alliance is tasked

preliminarily reviewed by the government,

with communication and coordination for

thus ready for construction upon approval;

overseas projects, and enhancing feedback

Third, the 600,000KW modular HTGR

of day-to-day experience and information

developed by the HTGR nuclear power

sharing, in order to jointly promote the

plant demonstration project has caught the

success of the “ Going Out ” strategy.

attention of some countries embarking on

Chapter 1: China’s Nuclear Competitive Edge and Going Global Strategy 第一章: 中国核电优势及“走出去”战略

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

nuclear power. The application of these

more and more on proprietary technologies

innovation fruits in domestic projects

rather than on foreign technologies and a

symbolizes the maturing of our nuclear

combination of both domestic and foreign

technologies fueled by indigenous

technologies as we did in the past, which

innovation, thus underpinning the nuclear

will promote the presence and expansion

power “ going out ” efforts. When “ going

of China ’ s nuclear power technologies,

out” with its nuclear power, China will rely

equipment and services overseas.

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

Chapter 2: Nuclear Power Safety Oversight in China 第二章: 中国核电的安全监管

Chapter 2: Nuclear Power Safety Oversight in China 第二章: 中国核电的安全监管 LIU Hua Chief Engineer on Nuclear Safety, Ministry of Environmental Protection

刘华环境保护部核安全总工程师

YIN Dejian Division Director, Department of Nuclear Safety Management, Ministry of Environmental Protection

殷德健环保部核电安全监管司处长

At the fifth plenary session of the 18th CPC

safety and efficiency in the development of

Central Committee, the concept of the

nuclear power. It is thus highly relevant as

concept of “innovative, coordinated, green,

to how to make nuclear safety oversight and

open and shared development” was proposed,

management more effective.

which is of great significance in guiding the development of nuclear power during

1. Safety Overview

the 13 Five-Year Plan period. During the

With over 30 years of uninterrupted

new period, our nuclear community needs

development, we have scored eye-catching

to keep enhancing technology competence,

achievements in our nuclear industry as well

boosting independence and promoting safety

as nuclear safety oversight and management.

culture, so as to go global, build amicable and enabling neighborhood relations, and deliver

By January, 2016, China has 30 nuclear

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

Chapter 2: Nuclear Power Safety Oversight in China 第二章: 中国核电的安全监管

power units in operation, with a total installed

2. Regulatory Activities

capacity of 27658MW, and 26 units under

In 1984 when in the early days for the

construction, with a total installed capacity

development of nuclear power, China

of 26925MW; and another 18 units have

established the National Nuclear Safety

been through or undergoing safety review

Administration (NNSA) for independent and

for site selection. China ranks third in the

unified safety oversight of nuclear facilities

world in terms of installed nuclear capacity,

nationwide. After more than 30 years of

following the U.S. and France.

exploration and practice, China has put in place a legal framework for nuclear safety

We have maintained a good safety

that is in line with international standards and

record concerning nuclear power units

an organizational framework for oversight

in operation and never had any operation

with relatively complete functions, ensuring

events that scored level II or above on the

safe and sound development of nuclear

International Nuclear Event Scale (INES).

energy and utilities.

According to WANO performance indicators (WANO-PI), our nuclear power plants are

Over the past 30 years, China has moved

generally above global median in terms

from the beginning stage to improvement

of performance indicators, half of which

through consolidation and then rapid

are among the best in the world. We have

development in its nuclear safety oversight,

exercised effective safety management on

with a firm grip on basic traits and laws

every step of the way for nuclear units

of nuclear safety oversight throughout all

under construction, including site-selection,

three stages and dedication to the idea of

design, manufacturing, installation, and

independent, open, law-based, rational

debugging and maintained good quality in

and efficient oversight, advocating a

general. We have put in place reasonably

work ethic that is prudent and detail-

sound environmental radiation monitoring

oriented. Our track record of oversight

network nationwide and monitoring

and safety performance in the past 30 years

networks around nuclear power plants.

bore testament to the efficacy of safety

Many years of monitoring have shown that

oversight, where there is much experience

radiation levels around nuclear power plants

to be taken stock of and carried forward,

in China fluctuate within the normal range

which are prominently characterized by

of natural background radiation.

the following aspects:

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

Chapter 2: Nuclear Power Safety Oversight in China 第二章: 中国核电的安全监管

2.1 Insisting on Independent

Nuclear safety oversight works on

Oversight

two dimensions. 1) Substantive safety.

Nuclear safety oversight independent from

Regulatory bodies must prompt effectively

the development of nuclear energy is a

more attention to nuclear safety management

fundamental principle and is found between

among nuclear power operators through

the lines of international instruments like

pragmatic and effective regulatory actions,

Convention on Nuclear Safety and country-

so that they operate in accordance with

specific laws and regulations concerning

safety requirements established in nuclear

nuclear safety. Since the day it was founded

safety authorizations and keep on boosting

until now, China ’s NNSA has maintained

nuclear safety. 2) Procedural safety. Laws

its independence in exercising oversight

and regulations on nuclear safety, technical

and administration away from departments

requirements, nd regulatory procedures must

responsible for the development nuclear

be accessible to the public and subject to

energy, which is very rare even worldwide.

public oversight. Regulatory activities

Nuclear power giants like the U.S., France

must be recognized by the public both in

and Japan enhanced regulatory independence

terms of format and efficacy. To enable

during the development of nuclear power.

proper performance on the two dimensions mentioned above, independent oversight is

The principle of independence is of critical

indispensable and must be sustained and

importance to ensure nuclear safety. There

improved on a constant basis.

are many dimensions to this principle, among which independent decision-making

2.2 Insisting on Adoption of Global

is central. That is to say, decisions concerning

Standards

oversight made on nuclear safety issues shall

The requirements and practice of nuclear

be free from any interference exerted by

safety is internationally applicable. Nuclear

entities developing or promoting nuclear

safety oversight that is in tune with

energy. Independent regulatory judgements

international standards is not only intrinsic

and decisions take precedence over all other

to safe and sound development of nuclear

interests when major risks are identified

power in China but is also what is expected of

regarding nuclear safety (46).

us in honoring our international obligations

IAEA Handbook on Nuclear Law, P9

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

Chapter 2: Nuclear Power Safety Oversight in China 第二章: 中国核电的安全监管

and projecting our international image.

disclosure.

First, we have adopted in full International

Third, we invited on our own initiative

Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) nuclear

IAEA Integrated Regulatory Review Service

safety standards and established a relatively

(IRRS) and follow-up missions in 2000, 2004

comprehensive legal framework on nuclear

and 2010 respectively, and another follow-

safety. When it comes to technical review and

up mission is due in June 2016. Through

field supervision, the NNSA has also drawn

IRRS, our nuclear safety regulatory system

on the U.S. Standard Review Plan (SRP)

and practices have been recognized by

and its supervision and inspection programs

international experts while their constructive

as well as best practices of other countries.

opinions and suggestions have served

With respect to specific nuclear power

to boost our regulatory competence on a

programs, we also take into account technical

constant basis.

regulations and regulatory conclusions of technology recipient countries when making

2.3 Insisting on Being Tune with

nuclear safety-related decisions.

National Realities Compared with other nuclear giants, we are

Second, with adequate reference to good

faced with some unique national realities

practices observed in nuclear powerhouses

and objective problems, such as inadequate

such as the U.S. and France, we have

indigenous R&D capacity, relatively weak

established an institutional framework that

industrial foundation, inconsistent equipment

combines administrative approval, field

quality, immature social organizations, and

supervision and technical review, outlining

insufficient public trust in nuclear enterprises.

the oversight philosophy that is proactive,

To make up for the deficiencies, we need to

clear and unequivocal as well as detailed

put in place management mechanisms or

and comprehensive administrative rules

steps in line with our national realities. For

and procedures. Dedicating in particular to

instance, we have established a qualification

good practices in international nuclear safety

licensing system for entities engaged in

oversight, we have sent field supervisors to

design, manufacturing, installation, and

nuclear power plants for round-the-clock

non-destructive testing of critical nuclear

supervision. We also attach great importance

safety equipment and a registration system

to public participation and information

for foreign entities engaged in nuclear

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

Chapter 2: Nuclear Power Safety Oversight in China 第二章: 中国核电的安全监管

equipment-related activities; we have set

3. Tasks and Challenges

up an environmental radiation supervisory

Though much progress has already been

monitoring system around nuclear power

made in the development of nuclear power,

plants and release monitoring data on a regular

our nuclear power generation accounts

basis; we have put in place a registration

for less than 3% in the country ’ s power

system for nuclear safety engineers tasked

generation, which is almost the lowest among

with major responsibilities.

all nuclear-powered countries and far lower than global average. In order to accelerate

It is worth mentioning that the NNSA has

the development of green and low-carbon

prioritized the development of nuclear safety

energy and improve the energy mix in an

culture in recent years by issuing together

effort to grow the economy and protect

with the National Energy Administration

the environment, nuclear power will play

and the State Administration of Science,

a bigger role in China’s power generation.

Technology and Industry for National

Besides, China’s nuclear power is also tasked

Defense a Nuclear Safety Culture Policy

with the important mission of going out.

Statement and launching campaigns against

falsification and irregularities to implement

In order to accommodate the development

and promote nuclear safety culture, so as

of nuclear power, we have the primary task

to strengthen the awareness of the nuclear

of pushing forward modernization in nuclear

industry, improve related mechanisms, and

safety regulatory systems and capacity during

promote nuclear safety culture. The NNSA

the 13th Five-Year Plan period. To be specific,

also continues its efforts to establish and

we need to consolidate the four cornerstones

ensure effective running of a feedback

including legal framework, institutional

system for best practices. With such an IT-

and team building, technical competence,

based platform, the NNSA gathers, sorts

and cultural progress, and strengthen eight

out and analyzes representative safety

pillars, including review and approval,

incidents and best practices both from home

supervision and law enforcement, radiation

and abroad before giving feedbacks, and

monitoring, emergency preparedness,

enable exchanges and sharing of experience

experience feedback, technology R&D,

among entities involved in the nuclear power

public communication, and international

industry in a common effort to enhance safety

cooperation, so as to make supervision

management of nuclear power plants.

systematic, informed, law-based, IT-enabled

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

Chapter 2: Nuclear Power Safety Oversight in China 第二章: 中国核电的安全监管

and detail-oriented.

and learn from good international practices, exchange with certain countries (export

From a macro perspective, as we scale

destination countries or technology partners,

up the development of nuclear power and

for example) on specific reactor types, and

implement the strategy of “ Going Out ” ,

harmonize stances to make supervision

we find it necessary to provide a more

more coordinated. Fifth, we must keep on

adequate institutional guarantee and more

advancing nuclear safety culture, improve the

solid technical foundation for safe and sound

system for ensuring nuclear safety, explore

development of nuclear power. First, we

scientific evaluation methods, and eradicate

must continue to advance the legislation of

falsification and irregularities, so as to ensure

Law on Nuclear Safety, so as to establish in

quality and safety. Sixth, we must attach

the form of legal framework ground rules,

greater importance to public participation

principles and methods for nuclear safety

and information disclosure. With disclosure

oversight as early as possible, improve the

and transparency, we can subject ourselves

system for nuclear safety management, and

to public oversight and turn related pressure

lay a statutory foundation for safe and sound

into motivation, with an aim to boost our

development of nuclear power. Second, in

nuclear safety oversight capacity.

light of latest international developments concerning nuclear safety standards and

From a micro perspective, it is estimated

existing legal framework on nuclear

that nuclear power will play an increasingly

safety, we must further improve our legal

bigger role in the country’s power supply in

framework. We need to study further safety

the period to come, with a clearer technology

requirements on new nuclear power plants

roadmap, more stable development and

in a bid to make nuclear power plant design

operating reactors constantly on the rise. The

safer. Third, we need to beef up technology

NNSA must keep on strengthening nuclear

R&D for supervision and boost technical

safety supervision to ensure international

capacity, in particular, independent safety

safety standards for our nuclear power plants.

analysis and verification for new designs

First, for new nuclear power plants in the

and new technologies as well as supervision

13th Five-Year Plan period, new requirements

of software development and application.

concerning de facto elimination of large-

Fourth, we must conduct international

scale radiation releases to the environment

cooperation on nuclear safety, understand

must be implemented in design, and

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

Chapter 2: Nuclear Power Safety Oversight in China 第二章: 中国核电的安全监管

standardized construction must be pushed

reactors and floating reactors in view of

forward. Regulatory activities must be more

nuclear power developments. Sixth, we

detailed and targeted. Technical review must

need to make regulation more efficient by

prioritize differences. Safety oversight must

straightening out and optimizing regulatory

be more feedback-oriented. Second, we

procedures.

should make it a top priority to strengthen

nuclear power plant safety supervision,

The NNSA must fulfill its regulatory

and the whole industry must also pay more

obligations by creating an independent,

attention to actual risks related to nuclear

rational, and effective supervision

power plant operations by enhancing quality

environment via clear procedures,

guarantee and safety management so as

unequivocal requirements, and informed

to enhance preparedness for all kinds of

decision-making. It should also win

eventualities. Third, we need to diversify

public trust through public participation

approaches to field supervision and make it

and information disclosure in an effort to

more coordinated and normative, in order to

shape an enabling social environment. Since

be better at identifying problems on our own

nuclear operators are first in line to shoulder

initiative and making informed judgment.

safety responsibilities, only when the whole

Fourth, we should promote the application

industry upholds safety and quality as the

of risk management in safety supervision so

highest priority, advocate and practice nuclear

that we can determine the importance of and

safety culture, and improve safety through

how to deal with safety-related problems.

technology and management measures, will

Fifth, we should conduct policy studies on

there be truly safe and sound development

regulation of inland nuclear power, compact

of nuclear power in China.

Chapter 3: Development of Passive PWR Series as National Science & Technology Major Project (NSTMP) 第三章: 国家科技重大项目非能动压水堆系列的进展

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

Chapter 3:Development of Passive PWR Series as National Science & Technology Major Project (NSTMP) 第三章: 国家科技重大项目非能动压水堆系列的进展 ZHENG Mingguang Chief Designer, President of SNERDI, Vice President of SNPTC

郑明光国家核电技术公司副总经理

1. Introduction of the Passive PWR

in 2008, the State Council approved Large

as NSTMP

Advanced Pressurized Water Reactor and

To ensure energy safety and structure balance,

High Temperature Gas-Cooled Reactor as

alleviate environmental pressure, upgrade

NSTMP, formulated the large pressurized

the industry quality and fuel the economic

water reactor (PWR) R&D national roadmap.

growth, it is indispensable to develop nuclear

It focuses on research and development

energy on a large scale by deploying advanced

of the large passive nuclear power plant

nuclear power plants with higher safety

(NPP) CAP1400 model and constructing

features and economic competitiveness,

the first project of CAP1400 on basis of

less negative impacts on social security,

introduction, digestion and assimilation of

environment and people’s living. Therefore,

AP1000 technology from Westinghouse.

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

Chapter 3: Development of Passive PWR Series as National Science & Technology Major Project (NSTMP) 第三章: 国家科技重大项目非能动压水堆系列的进展

National Energy Administration (NEA)

2. Objectives of the PWR

is responsible for implementation and

A series of top objectives have been set for

organizing, State Nuclear Power Technology

the large passive PWR project.

Corporation (SNPTC) is the execution entity and Shanghai Nuclear Engineering Research

1)Objectives of digestion and absorption:

and Design Institute (SNERDI) is the R&D

To master world advanced passive

entity. The passive PWR project is divided

technology and AP1000 design

into four sub-projects, which are:

technology, and to develop CAP1000 based on AP1000;

 Assimilation and absorption of AP1000 technology and CAP1000 development;

2)Objectives of R&D: To develop the key

 CAP1400 R&D and construction of first

design technology for nuclear power, the

CAP1400 in the world (R&D);

major test validation technology, key



R&D of generic technology and core

equipment and material; 

Preliminary R&D of CAP1700

equipment design and manufacturing technology, and to complete the R&D of advanced nuclear power plant CAP1400/1700;

The introduction, digestion and assimilation of AP1000 technology is realized through the

3)Objectives of demonstration project: To

technology transfer and the first construction

complete the construction of the first

of four AP1000 units in Sanmen of Zhejiang

CAP1400, promote the fleet construction

province and Haiyang of Shandong province

of CAP1400, and accelerate the

in the world, which is an important step to

internationalization of CAP 1400;

verify the AP1000 technology. Up to now,

with over 20,000 R&D staffs involved in,

4)Objectives of nuclear power innovative

the implementation of passive PWR project

system: To form the mechanism of

has comprehensively uplifted the capability

sustainable development of nuclear power.

of domestic technology, testing, equipment

To facilitate the talents, R&D, testing

manufacturing and also laid a solid foundation

and validation, analysis software, codes

for the sustainable development of China’s

standards and intellectual property rights

nuclear power industry.

and so on.

Chapter 3: Development of Passive PWR Series as National Science & Technology Major Project (NSTMP) 第三章: 国家科技重大项目非能动压水堆系列的进展

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

3.Digestion and Absorption of

Through the construction of the first four

AP1000

AP1000 units and technology transfer, China’s

The first AP1000 unit in Sanmen will perform

domestic nuclear community mastered the

the systematic commissioning after RCP

design techniques of AP1000 and obtained

installation. Civil engineering has been

the capability to indigenously design and

completed. Major equipment, including

continuously develop the serial passive

reactor pressure vessel, steam generator,

nuclear power plants. A comprehensive,

squib valve and etc., are in place. The

advanced and supporting nuclear island

new fuels are on site. The tests are nearly

design and analysis software system and

completed for control and protection system.

platform have been built. The equipment

It is expected to get connected to grid at the

localization has been moving forward

beginning of 2017.

continuously and a thorough Generation Three nuclear power plant equipment manufacturing capability has been formed

Figure 4 Status of the first four

based on the existing domestic Generation

AP1000 units

Two plus nuclear power plant equipment manufacturing facility and capability.

4.Standardized Design of CAP1000 CAP1000 is indigenously designed by SNERDI/SNPTC on the basis of AP1000 by complying with domestic codes & standards, (A) Sanmen site

adopting local equipment and materials, fully absorbing the experience and feedback from the AP1000 construction, and learning lessons from Fukushima nuclear accident. Compared to the nuclear power plant using active engineering safety features, AP/ CAP1000 adopts the passive concept, which is more reliable than that of the active nuclear power plant under external extreme events and needs very little supporting facilities

(B) Haiyang site

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

Chapter 3: Development of Passive PWR Series as National Science & Technology Major Project (NSTMP) 第三章: 国家科技重大项目非能动压水堆系列的进展

to cope with design basis accidents and

experience and technology of safe operation;

severe accidents. AP/CAP1000 innovatively

based upon the passive safety concept from

employs steel containment which effectively

Westinghouse and the engineering experience

removes heat from the internal of steel

and feedback from AP1000 construction;

containment to the ultimate heat sink.

based upon the NSTMP requirement of

Moreover, for accident conditions, such as

massive design and research, experiment

Loss of Coolant Accident (LOCA), closed

investigation and safety review and the

steam-water cycle will be formed within

generic technical requirements on Fukushima

the containment and all the possible coolant

nuclear accident from National Nuclear

inventory within containment including

Safety Administration (NNSA). The large-

the primary system, core makeup tank,

advanced passive nuclear power plant with

accumulator and Internal Refueling Water

indigenous intellectual property rights is

Storage Tank (IRWST) will be circulated by

an integrated innovation and re-innovation

passive features to remove the decay heat

driven by whole-nation coordination and

from reactor core to environment without

support system.

injection of coolant from external sources of containment, which will effectively

To obtain intellectual property rights, the

control and reduce the amount of waste

technical proposal of CAP1400 has made

water production under beyond design bases

continuous breakthrough in design and

accident (BDBA) to eliminate possibility of

manufacturing capability. The R&D process

the occurrence of radioactive liquid leak like

is depicted in Figure 5. Taking the design

that of Fukushima accident.

and manufacturing capability in 2007 and 2008 into account, for Proposal 1 and 2, the

5.CAP1400

R&D

and

Main

gross power output is beyond 1350MWe

Performances

which is realized by redesigning a new

The R&D of CAP1400 is based upon the 60

reactor with the number of fuel assembly

years’ experience of China nuclear industry

increasing from 157 to 193 and appropriately

and the equipment manufacture capability

increasing the mass flow rate, expanding

of China power industry; based upon the

the temperature difference between reactor

40 years ’ experience in PWR technology

core inlet and outlet, increasing containment

research, core fuel design, engineering

volume and core cooling capability. While

design, construction and more than 20 years’

the containment diameter, reactor coolant

Chapter 3: Development of Passive PWR Series as National Science & Technology Major Project (NSTMP) 第三章: 国家科技重大项目非能动压水堆系列的进展

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

pump and steam generator basically remain

output of CAP1400 is over 1350MWe with

unchanged.

the indigenous intellectual property rights realized.

The challenges of IP issues forced us to unceasingly optimize the experiment

The overall design of CAP1400 conforms

research and engineering development

to the latest advanced regulation and laws,

especially in the generic technology and

codes & standards, including IAEA safety

Figure 5 CAP1400 R&D process

Source: China Nuclear Energy Association

research capability. The third proposal was

requirement and guideline, domestic laws,

put forward in 2010 by the development

national standard and industrial standard,

of new reactor coolant pump and steam

NRC, ASME, IEEE, IEC, URD, and etc.

generator with increase of 17% flow rate

Meanwhile, the economic competitiveness

and 27% of heat transfer area, etc. The

of CAP1400 has been enhanced under the

proposal 4 is the final one whose net power

prerequisite of the ensured safety.

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

Chapter 3: Development of Passive PWR Series as National Science & Technology Major Project (NSTMP) 第三章: 国家科技重大项目非能动压水堆系列的进展

Table 5 General parameters of CAP1400 Parameter

Unit

Value

Rated core output

MWt

4040

Electric power output

MWe

~1500

Overall efficiency

~37% RFA modified or selfdeveloped fuel 193

Fuel type No. of fuel assemblies Average linear power density

W/cm

181.0

Coolant average temperature

℃

304.0

System operation pressure

MPa(a)

15.5

Steam pressure at SG exit

MPa(a)

6.01

Steam flow per SG

kg/s

1123.4 Domestic manufactured Canned motor pump or wet winding motor pump

Reactor coolant pump(RCP) RCP flow rate

m3/h

21642

RCP head

m H2O

111

Steal containment height

73.6

Steal containment diameter

Steal containment design internal pressure

MPa

0.443 (10% margin)

Concerning the floor area for unit capacity,

approved by NEA in Dec 2010. The basic

CAP1400 has a compact and reasonable

design of CAP1400 has been approved by

general layout with an area of only 0.164

NEA in Jan 2014 after 14-months national

m2/kW which is less than that of traditional

review. The preliminary safety analysis

Generation Two plus and AP1000.

Figure 6 General layout of CAP1400

report (PSAR) review

The general layout

CAP1400

has

of CAP1400 is

come to an end by

shown in Figure 6.

August 2014.The review ’ s scope

The conceptual

and depth are

design

unprecedented,

was

Chapter 3: Development of Passive PWR Series as National Science & Technology Major Project (NSTMP) 第三章: 国家科技重大项目非能动压水堆系列的进展

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

including PSAR and 5 additional special

Over 90% of the detailed design has been

areas review. The review requirements are

finished by Jan 2016. The first CAP1400

reflected in the detailed design. After the

project site preparation is ready for FCD,

review, the NNSA believed the CAP1400

as shown in Figure 7. The construction

could meet the latest Chinese and IAEA

permission was expected to be issued in

nuclear safety standards. In order to validate

March 2016.

Figure 7 Status of the first CAP1400 project site

and verify the design, 12 test rigs were

6. Major technology innovations

newly built and 10 rigs were reconstructed.

of CAP1400

887 operational conditions have been carried out, and all 357 key conditions for

6.1 Advancement in Safety

first concrete date (FCD) were completed

The design of CAP1400 fully implements the

before Oct 2014. Test analysis reports were

concept of defense in depth, adopts the passive

witnessed by NNSA. Procurement contracts

safety concept and simplification, and provides

for the 27 of 29 long period equipments

systematic severe accidents prevention and

which need to be purchased before the

mitigation measures. Meanwhile, innovations

construction of nuclear power plant have

and improvements were realized in promoting

been signed and come into force, totaling

the CAP1400’s safety margin and its response

more than 10 billion yuan.

capacity for BDBA.

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

Chapter 3: Development of Passive PWR Series as National Science & Technology Major Project (NSTMP) 第三章: 国家科技重大项目非能动压水堆系列的进展

Innovations to enhance its safety margin

the process of long-term operation, thus

include:

enhances the operation safety.

1)RFA modified fuel or better performed

4)The containment vessel was designed

self-developed fuel would be used and

with larger capacity to better meet the

the average linear power density was

requirements of confining the mass

moderately reduced, ensuring the core

released. By optimizing the containment

thermal margin and peak linear power

wall thickness, the pressure bearing

density margin >15% and the operation

capacity was strengthened and safety

margin was also expanded.

margin was improved to be over 10%.

2)The configuration of engineered safety

5)The neutron shielding pad was eliminated,

systems was further improved and

which reduces the risk of loosen parts

optimized to enhance the safety design

occurrence; and in the lower plenum, a

margin. The robustness of the passive

dismountable even-flow distributor was

systems was taken into account to avoid

placed instead of conventional flow skirt,

“ cliff-edge ” effects. Meanwhile, 21

which optimizes the flow distribution into

tests were conducted, which included

the core. Besides, the reactor internal mass

advanced core cooling mechanism

were additionally increased to facilitate

experiment (ACME) and containment

the implementation of in-vessel retention

safety verification via integral test (CERT)

and to enhance the ability of internals to

to validate the design reasonability

resist flow induced vibration.

and correctness. Furthermore, passive phenomena such as reflux condensation,

In terms of strengthening its response

circulation stratification, and fragment

capability to BDBA, the following design

effect were studied based on the test results.

improvements are conducted for first CAP1400:

3)The primary pipes and the main steam pipes

were optimized to reduce the flow velocity

1)Enhance the seismic capability: The nuclear

with the performance requirements met as a

safety shutdown earthquake (SSE) is 0.3g,

prerequisite. This design further alleviates

and a seismic automatic trip system of

the flow accelerated corrosion (FAC) in

seismic category I was installed to enhance

Chapter 3: Development of Passive PWR Series as National Science & Technology Major Project (NSTMP) 第三章: 国家科技重大项目非能动压水堆系列的进展

the plant seismic response capability.

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

inside the containment and the power supply window for hydrogen igniter

2)Ensure the plant to be water-proof: The

was prolonged; meanwhile, the seismic

“dry” site design was adopted; movable

resistance capability of hydrogen

flashboard was installed between the

monitoring instruments and hydrogen

auxiliary building and the 1E class battery

igniters were strengthened, ensuring the

compartment to protect the plant from

availability when earthquake happens.

external flooding. 6)Strengthen the normal decay heat removal 3)Resist large airplane crash: advanced steel-

cooling chain: The seismic resistance

plate concrete structure was adopted for

capability of normal decay heat removal

the shield building, which improves the

facilities (as called cooling-chain, non-

resistance to larger commercial airplane

safety class) were strengthened from the

crash.

perspective of seismic capability.

4)Strengthen the emergency water supply and

The probabilistic safety analysis (PSA)

power supply: In order to further ensure

shows that the probability of accident

the decay heat removal path for the core

consequences that lead to high radiation dose

and the spent fuel pool after 72 hours of

or high radioactive release is very low with

accident initiation, seismic-resistant water

high confidence, and the probability of large

source interfaces and portable diesel pumps

radioactive release is less than 5.0×10-8/ry

were installed for the Passive Containment

which is much lower than that of regulatory

Cooling Auxiliary Water Storage Tank

requirements.

(PCCAWST), and the emergency water source and power source were strengthened

6.2

Advancement

cost-

in design. For example, the emergency

effectiveness

power source was stored in a specified

The cost-effectiveness of CAP1400 was

building.

improved generally through the large power output, improvement of the plant efficiency,

5)Strengthen the hydrogen control capability

simplification of the system configuration,

in severe accidents: Another 6 passive

modularization in construction, localization

hydrogen re-combiners were installed

of equipment and material, optimization of

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

Chapter 3: Development of Passive PWR Series as National Science & Technology Major Project (NSTMP) 第三章: 国家科技重大项目非能动压水堆系列的进展

project management, and etc. It is estimated

of system configuration also reduces the

that the domestic construction cost is around

plant construction cost, shortens the

0.4 yuan/KWh.

construction duration, and reduces the long-term operation and maintenance cost.

1)Large plant power output: As the largest passive PWR, the core nuclear power of

4)Modularity on design and construction:

CAP1400 is 4040MWt, and the electrical

CAP1400 adopts modular design and

power reaches above 1500MWe, which

construction, which reduces the workload

reduces the investment per KW and

of site construction assembly and facilities

generation cost by taking advantage of

production, transportation, and installation,

the scale effect.

leading to shorter construction duration and reduced total cost.

2)Improvement of the plant efficiency: Selfdeveloped high efficient dryer was installed

5)Localization of equipment and material:

in the steam generator to improve the steam

Through the research and manufacture

quality; self-developed long blade (the last

of key equipment and bulk material as

grade blade is as long as 1.828m) with

well as orderly market competition, the

larger exhaust area was installed in the

equipment and materials were basically

turbine to improve the turbine-generator

domestically supplied (localization rate

efficiency; the cold end optimization of

above 85%), which greatly reduces the

the T-G was adopted to further optimize

plant construction cost. The localization of

the plant heat efficiency.

key equipment also lays a solid foundation for the construction of CAP1400 and

3)Simplification of system configuration:

reduces the project schedule risk.

The system configuration of CAP1400

was simplified, the safety class supporting

6)Optimization of project management:

systems were reduced, safety class

Through the implementation of standard

equipment and seismic buildings were

design, solidification of project

reduced, 1E class emergency diesel engine

management pattern, and optimization of

systems and lots of other active equipment

construction process, the economics of the

were eliminated, and bulk material demand

plant was further improved, especially for

was apparently reduced. The simplification

succeeding units.

Chapter 3: Development of Passive PWR Series as National Science & Technology Major Project (NSTMP) 第三章: 国家科技重大项目非能动压水堆系列的进展

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

6.3 Other Advancements

based on experiences and interpretations.

Aside from upgraded safety features and

The reliability design and PSA results

design refinement, the CAP1400 reactor

further helped to balance the plant design

core, reactor pressure vessel, reactor vessel

and guide the plant optimization.

internal, main steam pipe, steam generator, waste processing technology, I&C, Water-

2)Integral I&C systems was adopted and

proof and flooding avoided arrangement and

human factor engineering (HFE) was fully

shield building are indigenously developed

considered in designing the main control

and designed, which further enhanced the

room. Moreover, the availability of the

performance in safety, economics and

main control room was enhanced and the

technology through various technology

human-machine interface was improved.

innovation and improvement. 3)Advanced fuel management strategy was In addition to safety and economy

applied such as taking the low neutron

performance, other advanced features of

leakage fuel load from the first cycle

CAP1400 include:

which improved the neutron economy. The load-following mechanism was

1)According to the latest PSA criteria,

strengthened by using mechanical shim

comprehensive PSA innovations on human

core control, which equips the plant

reliability analysis, data analysis, and

with stronger operation flexibility and

common cause analysis were conducted

reduces the boron water discharge during

Figure 8 Core loading pattern of the first cycle and control rod assembly arrangement

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

Chapter 3: Development of Passive PWR Series as National Science & Technology Major Project (NSTMP) 第三章: 国家科技重大项目非能动压水堆系列的进展

operation. Figure 8 gives the core loading

6)Equipment and components were optimized

pattern and control rods arrangement.

in design to improve the performance

The outmost assemblies use fuels with

and reliability. The forging capability of

enrichment of 0.74 w/o and 2.86 w/o,

equipment manufacturing was enhanced

representing the low leakage loading

and welding seams on the primary system

pattern. Control rod assemblies consist

were significantly reduced to ensure the

of 41 regulation bundles (of rods) and

integrity of the primary system and to

48 shutdown bundles, and among the

simplify the in-service inspection. The

regulation ones MA~MD are gray rods

main coolant pipes and the upper head of

(less poisonous), M1/M2/AO are black

RPV were forged integrally.

rods, combination of gray and black rods realize the mechanical shim control.

7)The layout and the space of buildings were optimized based on feedbacks from

4)The domestically-manufactured 50Hz

AP1000 projects to accommodate bigger

canned motor pumps (wet winding motor

components and to improve accessibility

pump as backup) were applied, avoiding

for operation and maintenance. Meanwhile

the long time running of the frequency

the modular design of CAP1400 was

converter, so as to improve the primary

optimized.

pump reliability and reduce energy consumption.

8)The plant is designed to control the production of liquid radwaste from the

5)New steam generator model was developed

source of material and operation mode,

and equipped in CAP1400 with heat

and also advanced radwaste treatment

transfer area increasing by 27% (compared

technologies were applied, such as

with that of AP1000), which reduces

the Liquid Radwaste System (WLS)

primary loop resistance, and improves

equipped with ion exchange sequence

secondary side performance. Meanwhile

and chemical coagulation process, to

test-validated steam separators, consisting

lower the concentration of discharged

of 146 primary separators and 8 group

radioactive liquid waste under 1000Bq/L

dryers (double hook plate), were installed

for coast site and 100Bq/L for inland

in the steam generator, which contribute

site. Besides, the ventilation system was

to higher steam quality.

equipped with iodine filter. All efforts

Chapter 3: Development of Passive PWR Series as National Science & Technology Major Project (NSTMP) 第三章: 国家科技重大项目非能动压水堆系列的进展

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

were made to minimize the total amount

on the self-independent capability and

of waste gas, waste liquid, and waste solid.

technology introduced were built. The

And interfaces were provided for stricter

international advanced CAP1400 with

environment protection requirements in

independent proprietary intellectual property

the future.

rights was successfully developed, and at the same time, the serially developed passive

9)The reliability allocation and reliability

nuclear power plant helps the whole industry

design are to be further conducted, and

transform to Generation Three and boosts the

the plant’s online safety and performance

continuous innovation in the nuclear industry.

monitoring systems are under development, which will improve the safety of plant in operation.

2)International advanced experimental validation platform A number of experimental facilities were

7. Strategic Value of NSTMP

newly built and renovated which reinforces

Led by the State Council, National

the representativeness of the experimental

Development and Reform Commission,

results by using techniques including

Administration of Energy, Ministry of Science

PIRT analysis and proportional analysis.

and Technology and Ministry of Finance, the

Also, the usability evaluation methods and

passive PWR project takes the advantage of

procedures for experiment rig have been

power throughout the nation and more than

established which drives improvement of

20,000 technical professionals from over

experimental technology in China’s nuclear

100 entities and organizations are involved

power industry. More importantly, the quality

in the research and development which

assurance program for experiment rigs has

leads to the final success. In the meantime,

been established as required by regulators.

it innovatively promotes China’s R&D mode and improves the state’s industrial capability systematically.

3)Nuclear power codes & standards system Through four years ’ hard work by 34

1)International advanced design system

domestic corporations and organizations, the NSTMP of research on Chinese

An advanced design system and a

Advanced Nuclear Power Standard

comprehensive software platform based

System has realized the objectives of

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

Chapter 3: Development of Passive PWR Series as National Science & Technology Major Project (NSTMP) 第三章: 国家科技重大项目非能动压水堆系列的进展

the first stage. It timely consolidated the major project experience in R&D, design,

6)Nuclear power safety rev iew capability

manufacture, construction of AP1000,

The regulator NNSA implemented an

CAP1000 and CAP1400. And over 100

unprecedented review on PSAR of CAP1400

research outcomes have been approved

from the perspective of depth and width.

as industrial standards, which can support

During a period of 18 months, over 260

the healthy and sustainable development

staffs from NNSA got involved in dialogue

of China ’ s nuclear power industry.

and over 5000 questions were answered by SNERDI which enhanced the nuclear power

4)Leap-forward development of

safety capability in China.

equipment manufacturing A globally-shared supply chain system for

8. Conclusion

CAP1000/1400 has been built, through which

For the past eight years, the Large Advanced

China ’ s top manufacturing capability has

Pressurized Water Reactor is moving forward

been greatly enhanced, including nuclear

by overcoming massive challenges and

class welding material, plate, heavy forgings,

obstacles. The first AP1000 project has

and 690 heat transfer tube for steam generator,

come to the operation stage; the detailed

which China had depended on imports for

design of CAP1000 has been finished and

quite a long time.

gone through the acceptance check of NEA. Especially, the advanced CAP1400

5)Advanced design and analysis software system

is ready for construction. Furthermore, the massive projects have driven the domestic

Advanced design software gives support

nuclear power industry to transform from

to improve nuclear power technology.

Generation Two to Generation Three, which

CAP1400 has two sets of design software

will also enhance the competitiveness of

and platform systems. The self-developed

high value added manufacturing. The

nuclear power software COSINE has realized

systematic capability established through

its engineering verification version which

national projects will guarantee a healthy

meets the needs of nuclear safety analysis,

and sustainable development of the nuclear

design development and promotion of “going

power industry at both domestic and overseas

out” of China’s nuclear power.

markets.

Chapter 4: Development Review of China Nuclear Industry in 2011-2015 第四章 :“十二五”我国核能行业发展回顾

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

Chapter 4: Development Review of China Nuclear Industry in 2011-2015 第四章: “十二五”我国核能行业发展回顾 HUANG Xiaoyong President of the Graduate School of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences

黄晓勇中国社会科学院研究生院院长

As an efficient, clean and economic source

but not yet started was delayed. The growth

of energy, nuclear power is important for

of China’s nuclear power construction had

global electric power supply. In March

been in decline since then.

2011, just at the start of China’s 12th FiveYear Plan period (2011-2015), the world

Since 2014, Chinese senior officials have

nuclear power construction suffered an ebb

asserted on several occasions that China

impacted by Japan ’ s Fukushima nuclear

should initiate building of new nuclear power

accident. Nations like Germany, Italy, and

projects in east China ’ s coastal areas, on

Switzerland declared to shut down all of

the premise that the highest international

their nuclear power plants gradually. China

safety standards are adopted and the safety

also announced to carry out an overall safety

is ensured. In February 2015, construction

inspection on nuclear power facilities, and

of No.5 and No.6 Reactors of Hongyanhe

suspended all the approvals of new nuclear

Nuclear Power Plant in Liaoning province

power plants. In addition, the construction

was approved to begin. It has been more

of some plants which had been approved

than two years since the start of the last

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

Chapter 4: Development Review of China Nuclear Industry in 2011-2015 第四章 :“十二五”我国核能行业发展回顾

project—the second stage project of Tianwan

capacity under construction up to 18 million

Nuclear Power Plant. After that, the pilot

KW by 2015. The statistics released by the

projects of Generation-III Hualong-One

National Energy Administration show that

(Hualongyihao) Technology on which China

the installed capacity of nuclear power

has proprietary intellectual property rights—

reactors being operated has increased to

No.5 and No.6 reactors of Fuqing Nuclear

25.5 million KW by the end of 2015, and

Power Plant in Fujian province got approval

in the meantime the capacity of nuclear

of construction. In December 2015, The State

power reactors under construction and

Council approved construction of No.3 and

approval has reached 32.03 million KW.

No.4 reactors of the second stage project

China boasts its largest capacity of nuclear

of Fangchenggang Nuclear Power Plant as

power reactors under construction in the

well as No.5 and No.6 of Tianwan Nuclear

world. However, the goal for nuclear power

Power Plant. With building of a series of

construction in the 12th Five-Year Plan was

reactors nodded to kick off, the construction

not achieved.

of nuclear power in China has returned to a period of peak growth.

In the present context that the world slows down on nuclear power construction, China

The 12th Five-Year Plan concludes in the year

has re-gained its momentum of the nuclear

of 2015 in which the building of at least six

power building. This growth is mainly due

reactors was begun. Meanwhile, six reactors

to three needs — to increase the supply of

went into service. It is the year with the

power, to adjust the structure of energy and to

most nuclear power reactors being brought

promote the export of China’s nuclear power

into operation and the crucial year for the

facilities. The nuclear power facilities and

re-start of nuclear power plant construction.

technologies, in company with high-speed

According to the 12th Five-Year Plan for the

railway, are seen as the most competitive

development of China ’ s energy industry

Chinese products. As for the absolute quantity

publicized in 2013, the installed capacity

of installed capacity of nuclear power, China

of China’s nuclear power had reached 10.83

still lags behind the United States and France,

million KW, and during the 12 th Five-Year

while in terms of the relative quantity, the

Plan period, the installed capacity would

nuclear power supply accounts for only 2%

grow by 29.9% annually and finally run up

of China electricity supply, much lower than

to 40 million KW with the nuclear power

the world average of about 16%.

Chapter 4: Development Review of China Nuclear Industry in 2011-2015 第四章 :“十二五”我国核能行业发展回顾

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

During the 12th Five-Year Plan period, the

Power Plant, No.3 and No.4 reactors of

innovation capacity with China ’ s nuclear

Fangchenggang Nuclear Power Plant, as

power technology had been greatly improved.

well as the first overseas pilot project which

After the introduction and absorption of

was launched in Karachi, Pakistan were all

technology, China has successfully developed

underway and progress well currently. In

the third generation nuclear technology with

October 2015, China Guangdong Nuclear

proprietary intellectual property rights –

Power Company (CGN) signed an agreement

Hualong-One and CAP1400, as well as

with the EDF of France on the investment of

the technology for high temperature gas-

British nuclear power projects. In November

cooled reactor of the fourth generation

2015, China National Nuclear Corporation

safety standards. From the perspective of

(CNNC) signed a business contract with

international technological development

the nuclear power company of Argentina

trend, the third generation technology, which

on building a heavy-water reactor and a

has greatly improved the safety standards

framework contract on a pressurized water

on the basis of the second generation, has

reactor. The contracts of these projects

become the mainstream. The probability

symbolize that the Hualong-One Technology

of reactor melting is reduced from one in

has made great breakthroughs in exploiting

one hundred thousand yearly to one in ten

the overseas market.

million; and that of large scale emission of radioactive substance is reduced from

In November 2015, the founder of Microsoft

one in one million yearly to one in one

Corporation, Bill Gates visited China as

hundred million. In comparison with the

the president of Terra Power Corporation.

second generation technology, the third

During his visit, Gates disclosed that Terra

generation technology has automatic repair

Power was cooperating with China National

functions. The nuclear power reactors can be

Nuclear Corporation in developing a new

cooled down automatically without human

nuclear power technology--traveling wave

intervention within 72 hours in the case of

reactor, which uses depleted uranium instead

natural disasters such as an earthquake, a

of enriched uranium. Actually, the depleted

tsunami and etc.

uranium is a by-product of enriched uranium refining. Once the traveling wave reactor

In 2015, the pilot project of Hualong-One-

technology comes into commercial use,

-No.5 and No.6 reactors of Fuqing Nuclear

the efficiency of uranium resources can be

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

Chapter 4: Development Review of China Nuclear Industry in 2011-2015 第四章 :“十二五”我国核能行业发展回顾

improved considerably.

and China Power Investment Corporation in 2015, China rooms three giant companies in

As for the nuclear power policy, whether

nuclear industry-- China National Nuclear

or not to build inland nuclear power plants

Corporation, China Guangdong Nuclear

is still debated, and no breakthrough has

Power Company and National Power

been achieved at present. The 12 th Five-

Investment Corporation. China has stated

Year Plan for Energy Industry states that

that the private sectors will have access to

only a few nuclear power project sites

the nuclear power construction gradually as

in coastal areas which have undergone

long as they can meet the safety standards.

sufficient demonstration can be approved, and the inland projects are not allowed to

As for the rate for power incorporating into

set out. Several inland sites such as the one

the power network, China has adopted a new

in Pengzehu, Jiangxi province for which the

policy since 2013, which rules that for the

preparation work has been completed have

plants put into operation after January 1,

not been approved to start construction until

2013, the rate for power incorporating into

now. As the economic growth slows down

the power network is approved to be 0.43

in coastal areas, there are increasingly fewer

yuan per kilowatt hour based on the average

suitable sites. Therefore, it is a trend that

costs, and supply and demand of market. The

more nuclear power plants shall be built

rate will be assessed and adjusted according

inland. Actually, the nuclear power plants are

to technological progresses, cost changes, and

not differentiated between the coastal ones

conditions of electricity market. This reform

and the landlocked worldwide. The standards

has changed the individualized rating policy

of construction and safety supervision for

from each plant, ie, the plants which cost

both are identical. Moreover, more than half

more for construction could enjoy a higher

of the plants worldwide are built inland.

rate for power incorporating into the power network. The new rating policy helps to guide

During the 12th Five-Year Plan period, China

the nuclear power investment, stimulate the

initiated the merger and acquisition among

companies to improve technology, lower

nuclear companies, and the restriction to

the costs, and promote the development of

enter nuclear power industry was loosened

nuclear industry.

to some extent. With the merger of State Nuclear Power Technology Corporation Ltd.

100

In general, during 12th Five-Year Plan period,

Chapter 4: Development Review of China Nuclear Industry in 2011-2015 第四章 :“十二五”我国核能行业发展回顾

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

China did not achieve its goal for nuclear

plants on their agenda. The world nuclear

power construction because of the shock of

power industry is recovering. According

Fukushima Nuclear Disaster. Nevertheless,

to China’s relevant plan, China’s installed

China started the construction of new plants

capacity of nuclear power plant will reach 58

at the end of the 12th Five-Year Plan period.

million KW by 2020, and the nuclear power

Meanwhile, China has developed the third

capacity under construction up to 30 million

generation technology with proprietary

KW. China’s current installed capacity is still

intellectual property rights. With the pilot

far below the target. In the light of world

projects under construction, China’s third

nuclear power recovery and China’s plans

generation technology will be increasingly

and policies, the nuclear power construction

mature. Moreover, some reforms have been

in China and the export of Chinese nuclear

carried out in the nuclear power industry in

technologies are expected to speed up in

the past five years.

the 13th Five-Year Plan period (2016-2020).

With the improvement of safety and economy

(Huang Xiaoyong, the president of the

of nuclear power, in recent years some

Graduate School of the Chinese Academy

nations have begun to strengthen support

of Social Sciences, and the director of the

to nuclear power industry. Japan and South

International Energy Security Research

Korea have put the re-start of nuclear power

Center )

101

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

Chapter 5: The Role of Nuclear Power in Building a Sustainable Energy System 第五章: 以核电为支柱建立可持续能源体系

Chapter 5: The Role of Nuclear Power in Building a Sustainable Energy System 第五章: 以核电为支柱建立可持续能源体系 ZHANG Luqing nuclear power expert, former member of the Science and Technology Standing Committee of China National Nuclear Corporation

张禄庆中国核工业集团公司原科技委常委、核电专家

102

At present, China’s annual coal consumption

mind ” according to Prime Minister Li

has reached 50% of the world ’ s annual

Keqiang. China and the United States are

coal output. China ’ s CO 2 emissions have

countries with relatively more greenhouse

exceeded those of the United States and

gas emissions. During the APEC meeting

the European Union combined, making

in Beijing, President Obama promised to

it the country that emits the most carbon

raise the US ’ s emission reduction target,

dioxide. Recurrent and widespread fog and

17% by 2025, to 26%-28%. President Xi

haze caused by environmental pollution have

Jinping reiterated that China’s CO2 emissions

become a big problem, or “the disaster in

would peak around 2030, and that the

people’s livelihoods, the pain on people’s

proportion of non-fossil fuels in primary

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

Chapter 5: The Role of Nuclear Power in Building a Sustainable Energy System 第五章: 以核电为支柱建立可持续能源体系

energy consumption would be increased to

Xinxiong listed the compilation of the 2030

around 15% by 2020.

Mid-and Long-Term Energy Development Plan as the first task of 2015. No doubt, the

In the 2015 National Energy Working

only way to honor China’s commitment is

Conference, Wu Xinxiong, then Director of

to maximize the role of renewable energy

the National Energy Administration, stressed

sources such as nuclear power, hydropower,

that the international commitment made by

wind power, solar power, and biomass

President Xi Jinping was a hard target, a

energy; greatly reduce the share of coal in

hard requirement, and a hard task; balancing

primary energy; and gradually accomplish

measurement and task decomposition must

the transition from the traditional energy

be carried out immediately to scientifically

system dominated by fossil fuels to a new

determine the objectives of total energy

one dominated by renewable energy sources.

Table 6 Key data of 2014 national electricity production Item

Sum

Installed capacity (10MW)

Thermal Hydro-

Nuclear

Wind

Solar

Others

power

136019

91569

30183

1988

9581

2652

Proportion

100.00%

67.32%

22.19%

1.46%

7.04%

1.95%

0.03%

Electricity generated (100 GWh)

55459

41731

10661

1262

1563

231

Proportion

100.00%

75.25%

19.22%

2.28%

2.82%

0.42%

0.02%

Average utilization hours

4286

4706

3653

7489

1905

Note: 1. The data cover a full year’s data of 2014; 2. Hydropower includes pumped storage of 21.83 million KW; 3. Thermal power includes coal power of 825.24 million KW and gas power of 55.67 million KW)

consumption control in 2030, development

1.Interpretations of 2014 National

goals of all energy varieties, objectives of

Electricity Production Data

energy structure optimization, as well as

Regarding data in the Table 6 above, the

strategic tasks and policy measures. Wu

author has the following interpretations:

103

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

Chapter 5: The Role of Nuclear Power in Building a Sustainable Energy System 第五章: 以核电为支柱建立可持续能源体系

First, on-grid wind power has ranked the

Second, under the support of government

third in total installed power capacity.

policies, China’s wind and solar power have

Although in 2014, there were five new

been developing rapidly. China’s installed

nuclear power units combined to the grid,

capacities of hydropower and wind power

the share of nuclear power in China ’ s

have ranked first in the world. But in recent

installed electricity capacity was only

years, more and more electricity generated

1.46% which was one fifth of the share

by wind power, solar power and hydropower

of on-grid wind power and ranked far

was abandoned, raising wide concern. At

behind on-grid photovoltaic power. It is

current stage, the main reason behind the

quite possible that the title “ fifth nuclear ”

phenomenon is the lack of understanding of

will be hard to get rid of. However, the

how important and necessary using renewable

average utilization hours of nuclear power

energy is, as well as the drive of some

units were the most (about 4 times those of

enterprises ’ own interests. The problems

the on-grid wind power units) and the gross

can be expected to ease up to a certain extent

electricity generated by nuclear power was

with the deepening of electricity system and

126.2 billion KW, similar to that of on-grid

mechanism reform as well as the promotion

wind power and 100 billion KW more than

of smart grid which will greatly enhance the

that of on-grid photovoltaic power. This

adjustment function and level of the grid.

means that the characteristics of nuclear

104

power as a safe, stable, and clean base-

However, intermittency and randomness of

load energy did not change with increased

renewable energy power generation pose

installed capacity of renewable energy,

non-negligible challenges to the adjustment

and in the low-carbon energy system of

function and even the security of the grid.

the future, the mainstay role of nuclear

Such challenges will grow bigger and bigger

power will not change either. China

with increased proportion of renewable

should continue to develop nuclear power

energy. Therefore, transformation must be

on the premise of ensured security and

made to the existing power grid system, which

continue to improve its technological level

will increase the construction costs of the

and economic competitiveness, making

power system that are accumulated from the

greater contributions to energy structure

power plants, grid operators, to consumers.

optimization, pollution reduction, and the

Higher investment costs, balancing costs,

development of national economy.

standby costs, and extra spending on power

Chapter 5: The Role of Nuclear Power in Building a Sustainable Energy System 第五章: 以核电为支柱建立可持续能源体系

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

transmission and distribution are required,

cost will rise more or less (vary from country

driving up the power supply costs. Research

to country), from 5% to 50%; if renewable

in this area has begun early in some foreign

energy accounts for more than 30%, the cost

countries.

may increase by 16%-180%. This issue has been brought to EU’s attention and measures

At the end of 2012, on the European Nuclear

have been taken. World-nuclear-news.org

Conference (ENC 2012) held in Manchester,

released an article on April 15, 2014 that

United Kingdom, Ron Cameron from OECD/

says according to Guidelines on State Aid for

NEA made a report named The System Costs

Environmental Protection and Energy 2014-

of Different Power Generation Technologies:

2020, nuclear fuel processing enterprises

A New Look at the Competitiveness of

in EU countries will be eligible for state

Nuclear Power. Some European countries

subsidies to deal with rising production costs

has for a long time maintained guaranteed

(due to the implementation of renewable

electricity price to stimulate the growth

energy financing plans) and the said subsidies

of renewable energy while often ignoring

will reach 85% of the cost increased.

the costs of the entire power system that renewable energy power generation requires,

Since China ’ s installed capacity of wind

thus affecting the competitiveness of nuclear

and solar power has reached nearly 9% of

power. Ron Cameron pointed out that the

the total figure, the author recommends

power grid cost of schedulable energy

that relevant government departments and

technologies (nuclear power, coal power,

research units take preventive measures,

etc.) is one magnitude less than that of

consider China’s national conditions, speed

renewable energy (wind power, solar power,

up follow-up studies, and develop appropriate

etc.); with the influx of renewable energy,

countermeasures in a timely manner in order

electricity production structure will change

to facilitate the safe and stable operation of

largely which was specifically referred to as

a new multi-energy system.

“deoptimization”. It will make power grid costs increase disproportionately which

2.Major Natural Factors Restricting

can severely compromise the security

Scale of Nuclear Power Development

of electricity supply. In his view, if the

in China

intermittent renewable energy occupies 10%

With the mass production of the 3rd generation

of the total energy supply, the per megawatt

of indigenous nuclear power units in China,

105

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

Chapter 5: The Role of Nuclear Power in Building a Sustainable Energy System 第五章: 以核电为支柱建立可持续能源体系

installed nuclear power capacity of the

of up to 70 million KW will be put into

country will witness considerable growth

operation by 2020, 200 million KW by 2030,

by 2030. The 3rd generation of indigenous

and 400-500 million KW by 2050. Consider,

nuclear power technology will go abroad.

in 30 countries or regions around the world,

China National Nuclear Corporation has

there are nearly 440 units that have been put

started research and development of a safer,

into operation with a total installed capacity

more economically competitive model called

of less than 380 million KW. The said vision

Hualong-Two, which will also enter the stage

is therefore stunning by comparison, but

of verification and demonstration running

visions of this kind swept the world and a

by 2030. Around 2030, China will become

calculation that worldwide installed nuclear

a country with the largest installed nuclear

power capacity will reach 900-100 million

power capacity and strong nuclear power

KW by 2050 also appeared.

technology in the world. Now, I ’ d like to reasonably analyze the Recently, I often think about one question:

feasibility of China ’ s nuclear power

what are the decisive factors that restrict the

development.

scale of China’s sustainable development of nuclear power? The factors can be roughly

It is not hard to work out that a thermal reactor

divided into two categories: 1) Human

nuclear power plant with the capacity of one

factors such as government policies on

gigawatt consumes about 10,000 tonnes of

nuclear power development, localization

natural uranium in its design life of 60 years.

ability of equipment manufacture, nuclear

That with the capacity of 500GW consumes

safety education, public acceptance of

about 5 million tonnes of natural uranium in

nuclear power, etc. 2) Natural factors that

the same period. In a red paper on uranium

are independent of people’s will. Due to word

resource published by the International

limitations, only the latter will be discussed

Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), it is pointed

below.

out: as of January 1, 2013, 5.903 million tonnes of conventional uranium resources

106

Before the Fukushima nuclear accident,

that cost less than 130$/kg have been proven.

an organization in China ever proposed a

The yield would be merely 7.635 million

mid-and long-term vision of nuclear power

tonnes if the cost doubles (≤260$/kg). From

development in China: installed capacity

the information on domestic uranium reserves

Chapter 5: The Role of Nuclear Power in Building a Sustainable Energy System 第五章: 以核电为支柱建立可持续能源体系

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

currently available, it can be seen that to

operation are located in 13 high-quality

develop nuclear power of more than 100GW,

sites in 8 coastal provinces (autonomous

China would definitely resort to overseas

regions) with gross installed capacity of

uranium mining and bulk purchase from

about 48 million KW. According to my rough

the international uranium futures market.

estimation, all the units under construction

Considering the security of uranium supply,

and the units planned for construction can

it is not realistic for China to develop 400-

provide capacity of around 100 million

500 million KW of nuclear power.

KW in total. In my opinion, in the future it is unimaginable or impossible to build

Some argue that uranium resources may

nuclear power units with a total capacity

also be acquired by increased uranium mine

of 400 million KW in the remaining areas

exploration and fast reactor multiplication

of the 20 provinces, municipalities, and

technologies. Regardless of the effects of

autonomous regions.

these on the economic competitiveness of nuclear power (which is as important as

A survey published two years ago by China

nuclear safety), frankly speaking, the author

Nuclear Energy Association revealed that, in

does not expect much about the success of

the first decade of this century, when nuclear

R&D on fast reactor for business purposes and

power is in heated discussion, provinces

advanced spent fuel reprocessing technology.

and cities in Mainland China submitted

Recently, the Four Generation International

26 feasibility reports on candidate sites of

Forum (GIF) decided to postpone its ten-year

nuclear power plants, among which many

research plan (due to expire in 2015) for

feature undesirable geological, climatic,

10 years, which is a testament to my view.

or hydrological conditions. Even if these

Whether enough affordable sites that meet

undesirable candidate sites are included, the

nuclear safety requirements can be found

installed capacity in total can be expected

will be another intractable problem.

to be only 100 million KW or so.

In Mainland China, there are about 20

Therefore, according to the official

provinces, municipalities and autonomous

information currently available, the author

regions that may construct nuclear power

believes that, in order to maintain national

plants. The 48 nuclear power units that are

security, promote national economic

being constructed or have been put into

development, and protect environment,

107

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

Chapter 5: The Role of Nuclear Power in Building a Sustainable Energy System 第五章: 以核电为支柱建立可持续能源体系

China must maintain a substantial amount of

kw, 2.6 billion kw and 3.4 billion kw, and

nuclear power and a strong nuclear industry

the technical exploitation amount of wind

system. However, it is recommended that

energy resources at the height of 70 m over

the total installed capacity of nuclear power

the offshore waters at the depth of 5~50 m is

be controlled at about 150 million KW and

about 512 million kw. In 2014, the national

no more than 200 million KW. This will set

wind power installed capacity was 95.81

the record of the highest amount of installed

million kw, only accounting for a small part

nuclear power capacity in one country, far

of the total wind resources, which meant that

exceeding the United States. Moreover, it is

wind power should be further developed.

recommended that the pace of construction be handled stably, not necessarily achieving

According to the total annual amount of

the goal of total nuclear power capacity by

radiation and irradiance and the annual

2030. On this basis, after taking into account

average irradiance, China ’ s solar energy

the contribution of hydropower development,

resources can be distributed into four regions,

the lacking proportion of non-fossil fuels

among which the southeastern edge of

in primary energy needs other renewable

Xinjiang, the main area of Tibet, midwest

energy, especially wind and solar power,

Qinghai, western Hexi Corridor in Gansu,

to supplement.

Lashan Plateau in Inner Mongolia and the west part of the plateau constitute “the richest

3. Build Safe, Stable, Diversified

solar energy resources belt” in China with a

and Clean Energy System

total area of 22.8% of the national territory,

Wind power is one of the most promising

also called the first class area. It can be seen

renewable energy technologies. China is a

that there are rich resources for solar energy

country with a vast territory, long coastline

generation which will be an important pillar

and abundant wind energy resources. The

of our low-carbon green energy system.

Detailed National Wind Energy Resources

108

Survey initiated in 2007 and its evaluation

According to the report of China Energy News

results show that the technical exploitation

on December 22, 2014, the research project,

amount of wind energy resources with

China Renewable Energy Development

an average annual wind power density of

Roadmap 2050, carried out by the Chinese

over 300W/m 2 at the height of 50 m, 70

and Danish experts, has been completed after

m and 100 m off the ground is 2 billion

several years ’ joint efforts. The research

Chapter 5: The Role of Nuclear Power in Building a Sustainable Energy System 第五章: 以核电为支柱建立可持续能源体系

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

report of this project describes the trends

final primary energy consumption. As for

of wind power and solar power technology

electricity supply, non-fossil energy will

and equipment manufacture in our country

account for 91%, renewable energy for

with details, as well as the specific timing

86%, that is to say, nuclear power for about

and the prospect of deployment. There

5%. The author completely agrees with this

are two possible development scenarios

proportion of nuclear power. After achieving

in the design of the roadmap, a basic one

the objectives, the emission of CO2, NOX

and an active one. In the basic scenario,

and various pollutants of heavy metals in

by 2020, 2030 or 2050, China’s total wind

China will be lower than the emission of

power installed capacity will respectively

1980. This is the most optimistic vision of

reach 200 million kw, 400 million kw and

China’s new energy system that the author

1 billion kw; wind power generating capacity

has ever seen. However, even in Denmark

0.4 trillion KWh, 0.8 trillion KWh and 2

and Germany where there is the world’s most

trillion KWh; solar energy will replace

advanced renewable energy technology had

fossil energy resources, respectively over

not yet achieved this.

150 million tonnes, 310 million tonnes and 860 million tonnes of standard coal,

In the previous discussion, it is said that

which respectively provides electricity of

there is a great deal of renewable energy

150 billion KWh, 510 billion KWh and 21

coming onto the grid, the intermittency

trillion KWh. The total utilization of biomass

and randomness of which will bring a great

energy will respectively reach 110 million

influence on the performance of peak shaving

tonnes, 240 million tonnes and 340 million

and frequency modulation and the safety of

tonnes of standard coal.

grid. Especially for the super large grid of China, the largest developing country, the

According to the conclusion of the report

technological complexity and difficulty and

conducted by Wang Zhongying (王仲

its impact on the pricing of electricity is far

颖), the deputy chief of NDRC Energy

beyond that of the small or medium-sized

Research Institute and executive director

grids or that of the grids in the developed

of the joint research projects, by 2050, the

countries. How much capacity of base-

final energy consumption of China will be

load supply and reserve capacity of peak

32 million tonnes of coal and the use of

shaving and frequency modulation should

electricity will account for over 60% of the

be maintained is a very important problem,

109

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

Chapter 5: The Role of Nuclear Power in Building a Sustainable Energy System 第五章: 以核电为支柱建立可持续能源体系

and it is also difficult to be resolved. Many

climate change, but also guarantee the

experts also doubt the proportion of the fossil

security of the power system and achieve a

energy in the research report. All of these

better pricing of the electricity in the whole

problems need to be considered carefully.

society. At the appointed time, with the continuous development and innovation of

110

The author thinks when making the mid-

energy technology and unremitting efforts

and long-term energy development plan of

for decades, a safe, stable, diversified and

2030, experts in various fields of energy

clean low-carbon green energy system

system should be invited to brainstorm and

with wind energy and solar energy as the

express their views, in order to optimize the

main part, thermal power, hydropower and

allocation of different types of energy and

nuclear power as the complement, will play

finally determine a reasonable proportion of

a significant role in the great rejuvenation

the non-fossil energy in the power generation

of the Chinese nation and realizing the

structure. It should not only ensure to honor

second century blueprint of the Chinese

the international commitments to address

Dream.

Chapter 6: Suggestions on “Going Overseas” Strategy of China’s Nuclear Power 第六章: 对我国核电“走出去”的几点建议

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

Chapter 6: Suggestions on “Going Out” Strategy of China's Nuclear Power 第六章: 对我国核电“走出去”的几点建议 FAN Bi Inspector of State Council Research Office

范必国务院研究室巡视员

China is one of the few countries with a

companies in China are quite high. Currently,

complete nuclear industrial system in the

the United States, Japan, Korea and other

world. In the recent years, the country ’ s

nuclear power countries set the USD interest

nuclear power installed capacity and the

rate of the 15-year long-term export credit

capacity under construction has been

for the nuclear power projects at 3.18%.

rapidly expanded, and the “ going out ” of

However, the USD interest rate of the

nuclear power has achieved initial results.

long-term export credit for the nuclear

However, China is a new comer in the nuclear

power projects has not been clearly defined

power industry. Whether we can win in the

in China. Generally speaking, the USD

international competition, it depends on our

interest rate of the long-term export credit

“strength”. Currently, we should focus on

that companies can get is 5-6%, which is

resolving the following severe problems.

a great disadvantage when compared with international counterparts.

1. Reduce Financing Costs of Nuclear Power’s “Going Out”

There is a single source to get the loan.

The financing costs of nuclear power

Nuclear power companies when “ going

111

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

Chapter 6: Suggestions on “Going Overseas” Strategy of China’s Nuclear Power 第六章: 对我国核电“走出去”的几点建议

out ” mainly rely on “ two preferential

Make use of the overseas loan under domestic

facilities”

government

guarantee. That is, when overseas subsidiaries

concessional loan and preferential export

are in need of funds for production or

buyers ’ credit) offered by the Export-

operation, the domestic parent company can

Import Bank of China and commercial

apply for standby L/C or financing guarantee

loans. The government ’ s preferential loan

issued by a domestic bank, enabling the

commitment is relatively low, while the

overseas subsidiaries to apply for loans from

nuclear power projects require a huge

the overseas branch of the bank.

(namely

investment, which means that the loan amount cannot meet the demand of

Currently, the State Administration of

nuclear power companies ’ “ going out ” .

Foreign Exchange has regulated certain

In addition, it is difficult for some target

credit lines of the overseas loans under

countries, not within the loan directory of

domestic guarantee for all the commercial

the “ two preferential facilities ” , to apply

banks. It is recommended that on the premise

to use the “ two preferential facilities ” .

of strengthening risk prevention, State

The export credit insurance rate is so high

Administration of Foreign Exchange should

that it further improves the overall cost

make flexible use of the foreign exchange

of financing nuclear power projects.

reserves and increase the credit line by a certain amount to support the nuclear power

Equity financing is more difficult. A single

projects to “go overseas”. At the same time,

project of the equity investment institutions

the government should enhance its financial

established by the government has limited

support by providing special state financial

investment and high requirements for short-

subsidies for nuclear power’s “going out”; it

term returns, while the nuclear power projects

should enhance its support for export credit,

with a long construction period and no return

offer tax benefits and allow nuclear power

in the previous stage, is difficult to meet the

companies to publicly issue bonds offshore.

revenue requirement of equity investment

112

institutions. To meet the large, long-term,

2. Strengthen Nuclear Safety

low-interest financing needs of nuclear

Superv ision Cooperation and

power’s “going out”, we need to make efforts

Supervision Capacity Building

to solve the financing difficulties and the

China has a legal system for nuclear safety

problem of the high cost of financing.

supervision and a supervision mode in line

Chapter 6: Suggestions on “Going Overseas” Strategy of China’s Nuclear Power 第六章: 对我国核电“走出去”的几点建议

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

with international conventions. As for the

Nuclear Safety Administration is not an

aspects of regulation of nuclear equipment,

entity, which will affect the independence

on-site supervision and radiation environment

and credibility of China ’ s nuclear safety

monitoring, etc., China has been close to

supervision.

those countries which are developed in the nuclear power area. Through supervision

The supervision capacity building should

cooperation, we can help the target countries

keep up with the pace of the domestic

to improve their nuclear safety supervision

development of nuclear power and meet the

capacity and establish a nuclear security

requirements of the “Going Out” strategy.

system, which is very significant for getting

It is proposed to speed up the legislative

projects in these countries and exporting

process of Nuclear Safety Law. Investment

nuclear power technologies in the future.

in building the nuclear safety supervision

It is suggested that the nuclear safety

capacity should be increased. An independent

supervision authorities should coordinate

supervision authority should be reestablished.

with the competent authorities of nuclear

The compensation of the personnel in

power authorities and diplomatic authorities,

the nuclear safety supervision authority

identify a number of key partner countries

should be improved. The development of

and take the nuclear supervision cooperation

the nuclear safety research platform should

as one of the bilateral diplomatic issues.

be established, a nuclear safety equipment inspection system established and improved,

We must be aware of the shortcomings of

and the supervision of a total life cycle of

China ’ s nuclear safety supervision. The

the key nuclear facilities improved.

growth of nuclear power installed capacity is relatively rapid, while legislation on

Improve

International

supervision is relatively lagged behind,

Recognition of Nuclear Power

institution not independent enough,

Standards

lacking of human resources and financial

Since nuclear technology is sensitive,

resources, limited in the capacity of nuclear

different countries have different nuclear

safety research, short in the nuclear safety

power development policies and the

international exchanges and international

supervision and certification systems are

cooperation funding. These issues are also

not the same, which leads to a poor mutual

very prominent. Especially, the National

recognition of different standards. After the

113

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Chapter 6: Suggestions on “Going Overseas” Strategy of China’s Nuclear Power 第六章: 对我国核电“走出去”的几点建议

Fukushima nuclear accident, the international

United States and France, when the nuclear

community proposed higher requirements on

power goes overseas.

the nuclear safety and stricter requirements on the prevention of subsequent accidents

The standardization of nuclear reactor types

and severe accidents and the mitigation

design should also be put on the agenda. It

measures than ever before. The existing

is recommended that the competent nuclear

international regulations, standards and

power authorities manage to standardize

norms on nuclear safety have been constantly

the reactor design, construction design,

revised and improved.

equipment manufacture of “ HualongOne ” as soon as possible, to prevent a

The Chinese standards for nuclear power

conflict of two “ longs (dragons) ” made

are coordinated with the development of

by two companies. Secondly, based on the

the nuclear power technology, national

experience in building projects, the AP1000

supervision, the domestic equipment

design should be gradually standardized. A

manufacturing and the management of project

standardized design should be formed and

construction, which has not yet formed a

shared among the relevant nuclear power

complete system. China ’ s nuclear power

companies for the future mass production,

standards are not highly recognized in the

to prevent the emergence of a third AP1000

international community, which are unable

design of another companies.

to meet the demand of the “ Going Out ”

114

strategy. It is suggested that the National

4. Promote Steady Development of

Energy Administration, the National Nuclear

Nuclear Power Plant Construction

Safety Administration, Standardization

If China wants to have a share in the

Administration of PRC and other relevant

international nuclear market, it has to

authorities should strengthen coordination

have the advanced technology on nuclear

with the nuclear power enterprises on

application and development and conduct

making the nuclear power standards. The

the plant construction in a relatively stable

nuclear industry standards in China should

way. First, promote the construction of the

be compared with that in the United States

approved projects with “ Hualong-One ”

and France, in order to use China’s nuclear

technology, and lay a solid foundation by

industry standards and refer to authoritative

improving their own technology, to make

standards of the third country, namely, the

the “Going Out” strategy possible. Second,

Chapter 6: Suggestions on “Going Overseas” Strategy of China’s Nuclear Power 第六章: 对我国核电“走出去”的几点建议

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

insist the AP1000 technology roadmap, to

clarify the base-load status of the nuclear

accelerate the approval of the follow-up

power with grid enterprises acquiring all of

projects.

the electricity generated by nuclear power and feeding it into the grid according to the

According to preliminary statistics, during

dispatching principle of energy saving and

the 13 th Five-Year Plan period, there are

power generation adjustment.

10 AP1000 nuclear power plants with 32 units able to start operation, a total installed

5. Establish Centralized and

capacity of which can reach 40 million kw.

Efficient Decision-making System

Every year about 5-8 units can be put into

of Nuclear Power

operation. During the 13 th Five-Year Plan

All the achievements made in nuclear

period, a list of projects with AP1000 can be

power construction we have ever made are

approved to get ready for the 14 th Five-Year

closely related to the centralized and unified

Plan period. Third, try to get the approval

leadership of the CPC Central Committee

of CAP1400 demonstration projects with

and the State Council which have paid lots

independent intellectual property rights

of attention to the development of nuclear

as soon as possible, to conduct a mass

power. Since 2011 when the Fukushima

construction during the 13th Five-Year Plan

nuclear accident happened, China has learned

period and to make it one of the principal

a lesson from that. In the past two years, the

models for the “Going Out” strategy. Fourth,

construction of some nuclear power projects

promote the inland nuclear power projects

has been restarted, but the number of new

in Xianning of Hubei province, Taohuajiang

nuclear power projects approved to start

of Hunan province and Pengze of Jiangxi

is still very few. It is related to the public

province step by step, which will be a

response and the disputes on the technology

breakthrough for the inland nuclear power

roadmap and the location of the plant, etc.,

projects during the 13th Five-Year Plan period.

but the lack of a centralized and efficient

To guarantee the nuclear power security,

decision-making system of nuclear industry

the third generation of AP1000 or CAP1400

may also be an important reason.

should be applied in the new inland nuclear power projects. Fifth, to make nuclear power

It is suggested that we should further

economical and enhance the support for low-

improve the coordination in the work of

carbon green energy, it is proposed to further

nuclear power industry by establishing

115

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

116

Chapter 6: Suggestions on “Going Overseas” Strategy of China’s Nuclear Power 第六章: 对我国核电“走出去”的几点建议

a leading group for the nuclear power

companies and other related enterprises, as

construction and the implement of the

well as the major issues including project

“ Going Out ” strategy in the State Council,

financing, fuel, project construction,

to coordinate the authorities on energy,

equipment manufacturing and project

nuclear power supervision, national

operation. Thus, a better result will be

defense, the three big nuclear power

achieved by the joint efforts.

Chapter 7:Three Strategies for Uranium Resource and Nuclear Energy Development 第七章: 助推核能发展实施铀资源三大战略

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

Chapter 7:Three Strategies for Uranium Resource and Nuclear Energy Development 第七章: 助推核能发展实施铀资源三大战略 ZHANG Jindai Chief Engineer of the Geology and Mining Department of China National Nuclear Corporation

张金带中国核工业集团公司地矿事业部总工程师

The uranium resource is the material basis

energy, by implementing the three strategies

for the development of the nuclear industry.

of “ development driven by innovation ” ,

In the past 60 years, China has established a

“construction of large-scale uranium bases”

complete system and an industrial pattern of

and ‘ going global ’ to conduct mutually

uranium exploration and mining technologies,

beneficial and win-win cooperation”.

which has ensured the supply of uranium resources for the development of the nuclear

1.Latest Major Progress and

industry and nuclear military industry. China

Breakthroughs in Uranium E&D in

National Nuclear Corporation (CNNC) has

China

made great progress in the exploration and

Since the year of 2000, CNNC has ascertained

development of uranium resources since we

a batch of large and super large sized

entered the new century, and will continue

uranium deposits, innovated and improved

to promote the development of nuclear

the geological theories and exploration

117

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

Chapter 7:Three Strategies for Uranium Resource and Nuclear Energy Development 第七章: 助推核能发展实施铀资源三大战略

technologies of sandstone-type uranium

international advanced level. The technology

mine, so that the exploration of uranium

has been applied in the industry in a large

has reached the “ second mineralization

scale, contributing to the breakthroughs in

location ” , deep into 500 to 1500 meters.

the exploration of sandstone-type uranium

Major breakthroughs have also been made in

deposit in north China. The first green

prospecting uranium mine in the mesozoic-

uranium mine of thousand-tonne capacity

cenozoic sedimentary basin in the north.

in China is being constructed in the Xinjiang

Six large sized uranium bases have been

base. As for the Inner Mongolia base, major

established in Ili, Tuha, Ordos, Erenhot,

construction of some projects has been

Songliao, and Bayingebi basins. The north

accomplished, and the on-site expanding test

part of the Ordos basin has become the first

of some projects has already been completed.

100-million-tonne uranium base in China.

The production ratio of uranium extraction

Technologies of exploring deep uranium

by in-situ leaching has been increased from

deposits in the south have been significantly

27% during the 11th Five-Year Plan period to

improved. Remarkable achievements have

62% now. In south China, we optimized the

been made in exploring mines deep into

proportion of stock and production mainly in

and around the old uranium mines such as

Jiangxi and Guangdong uranium bases, and

Xiangshan of Jiangxi, southern Zhuguang

at the same time we are promoting projects

and Xiazhuang of northern Guangdong, and

around the mines.

Miaoershan in northern Guangxi. Besides, a batch of uranium mines has been newly

2.Opportunities and Challenges

found in Xinjiang, Inner Mongolia and other

Rapid development of nuclear energy has

areas. South China is no longer the only focus

increased the demand for natural uranium.

for the exploration of uranium resources.

To develop nuclear power is an important

Uranium exploration is carried out both in

way to ensure energy security, optimize

south and north China.

energy structure, and improve ecological environment, as well as a significant method

118

The production of natural uranium has

to promote national economy and local

also been greatly increased. CNNC has

economy. China is now constructing the

indigenousl developed the third-generation

largest-scale nuclear power stations in the

uranium mining technology featuring CO2+O2

world. According to the national Mid-and

in-situ leaching, which has reached the

Long-Term Plan for Nuclear Power, by 2020,

Chapter 7:Three Strategies for Uranium Resource and Nuclear Energy Development 第七章: 助推核能发展实施铀资源三大战略

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

the total installed nuclear power capacity in

uranium deposit has also been proven in

operation of China will reach 58 million kw,

south China, which shows that we have met

and the capacity in construction will reach

the requirements to construct large sized

30 million kw. In 2020, the natural uranium

uranium resource exploration bases. As the

needed for nuclear power generation will

period for ascertaining uranium deposit is

be 11,500 tonnes, and the consumption of

very long, for example, it takes 10 to 15

uranium resources will be 16,400 tonnes.

years to ascertain a deposit of above medium

From 2015 to 2020, the accumulated

size, we should enhance the geological

consumption of uranium resources will be

activities and the exploration of uranium

76,000 tonnes. By 2030, the demand for

deposits in China from now on, accelerate

uranium resources will be further increased

the deployment of process test in the early

with the expanding scale of nuclear power

stage of uranium deposit development, and

station construction. By then, the industry

utilize tech-economic appraisal.

of natural uranium will be faced with new opportunities and challenges.

Characteristics of Chinese uranium resources have brought new challenges

The uranium resources in China are “ensured

for uranium exploration and development.

in the short term, supported in the medium

Determined by its geological structure,

term, and potential in the long term ” . As

China ’ s uranium resources are featured

uranium is the strategic resource for both

by small-scale deposit, low ore grade,

military and civil use, we must make full use

complex ore types, rich paragenetic and

the resources in the international market and

associated compositions, and difficulties

at the same time focus on domestic resources.

in comprehensive recovery. We are faced

For domestic resources, the top priority is

with challenges in geological theories and

to construct several thousand-tonne uranium

exploration and development technologies.

resource exploration bases to increase the

For example, the Nuheting uranium deposit

production of natural uranium, so that the

which was the first super large-sized uranium

production pattern of natural uranium in

deposit proven in 2010 brought great

China can be fundamentally changed. Over

challenges such as soft roof, soft seam,

ten super large sized uranium deposits of

soft floor, and complex structure of ore

10,000-tonne capacity have been ascertained

components, though with large reserves and

in north China, and one 30,000-tonne

shallow buried bed. Therefore, it is difficult

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Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

Chapter 7:Three Strategies for Uranium Resource and Nuclear Energy Development 第七章: 助推核能发展实施铀资源三大战略

for exploitation and hydro-metallurgy

stable increase of investment in scientific

extraction. We must make full use of our

and technological innovation, and ensure

advantages in integration and systems to

capital supply and implementation of

make breakthroughs in both geological

major science and technology projects.

theories and exploration and development

Secondly, we should improve technology

technologies, so that the huge potential

support system and the ability of

of uranium resources can be utilized and

indigenous innovation. A sound technology

developed.

support system should be established based on industry development and

The grade of proven uranium mines and the

market demand. And we should create

scale of single uranium deposit in China

a technological innovative platform

cannot catch up with uranium powers, such as

for effective uranium exploration and

Australia, Canada and Kazakhstan. However,

development, which should be exploration

our uranium deposit is large in number,

and production integrated, large-scaled,

rich in type, widely distributed, and great

intensified, informationized, and

in potential production. It is estimated that

intelligent. We should make full use of

the potential reserves of uranium resources

technologies as support, and promote

in mainland China is over two million

the application and transformation of

tonnes. As many areas have not yet been

technological achievements. Third, push

explored, the reserves of uranium resources

forward innovations in mechanism and

to be proven may surpass that of the above

systems, and increase the efficiency of

countries.

technological innovations. Establish achievement transformation mechanism

120

3.Implementing Three Strategies

and multiple rewarding systems to

for Uranium Resources

facilitate the combination of scientific and

We should stick to the strategy of

technological achievements with markets,

development driven by innovation.

capital, and industry. Cultivate chief

Firstly, we should increase investment

engineers through “ talents with projects ”

in science and technology. We should

and cultivate chief experts. Cultivate high-

establish a long-term mechanism of

level creative talents through all types of

science and technology investment in a

research and development platforms and

multi-channel and diversified way, keep

through major scientific projects.

Chapter 7:Three Strategies for Uranium Resource and Nuclear Energy Development 第七章: 助推核能发展实施铀资源三大战略

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

We should stick to the strategy of

countries on the basis of complementary

constructing large-scale uranium bases.

advantages. The proven reserves of uranium

Based on the demand for national medium

resource of “One Belt, One Road” countries

and long-term nuclear industry construction,

occupies one third of the total amount proven

CNNC endeavors to ensure safe, reliable,

in the globe. They are also rich in potential

long-term and stable supply of natural

resources and play important role in uranium

uranium, making the natural uranium industry

resources in the world. Kazakhstan, Russia,

the basis for the national nuclear industry and

Ukraine, Uzbekistan, Czech Republic, and

the support for overseas resource exploration

Mongolia are significant countries for

and international trade. In constructing

uranium production, with which we have

large-scale uranium bases, we should stick

long-term scientific exchanges and multiple

to the protective development strategies and

cooperation. At the growing stage of Chinese

optimize the top-level design of capacity

nuclear energy development, we see great

distribution, to push forward breakthroughs

potential for international cooperation in

in exploring uranium resources and high

uranium exploration and development.

efficiency of resource development and utilization. Focusing on the base construction

CNNC will take advantage of its strength

in Xinjiang, Inner Mongolia, Jiangxi, and

of systems, technologies and talents in

Guangdong, together with other areas and

geological exploration, mining, processing,

provinces, four green and environmentally-

scientific development, project design,

friendly uranium mines of thousand-tonne

construction, operation and management

capacity will be primarily built in Ili, Ordos,

to promote regional uranium resources

Tongliao and Xiangshan by 2020. The

E&D together with “One Belt, One Road”

production capacity of natural uranium of

countries. Firstly, CNNC should enhance

the large bases will make up more than 90%

the cooperation achievements, and further

of national total production.

strengthen cooperation and exchanges with uranium-rich countries. Second, CNNC will

We should stick to the strategy of “going

cooperate with other large-scale enterprises

out”. We should implement the cooperative

at home, to establish the fund for overseas

strategy of “ One Belt, One Road ” and

uranium resources E&D, expand the

promote mutually beneficial and win-win

cooperative regions for uranium resources

cooperation with “ One Belt, One Road ”

E&D, and help each other to conduct risk

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Chapter 7:Three Strategies for Uranium Resource and Nuclear Energy Development 第七章: 助推核能发展实施铀资源三大战略

exploration of uranium resources in CNNC

stick to the principle of “multiple investment

countries. Third, CNNC will enhance

and professional E&D ” so as to attract

cooperation with overseas enterprises in

strategic partners at home and abroad. We

multiple ways and modes to accelerate the

will facilitate the development of the strategic

construction of interconnections and uranium

cooperation platform, multiple investment

cooperation platforms.

platforms, and benefit linkage platform for the development of natural uranium. And

122

The rapid development of nuclear energy

with the help of scientific innovation, CNNC

has brought new opportunities as well as

will accelerate the construction of scaled,

challenges for China ’ s natural uranium

intensified, and informationized green

industry. CNNC will hold the “ open,

uranium mines, making new contributions

inclusive, cooperative, and win-win” basis,

to the national nuclear energy development.

Chapter 8:The Cost-Effectiveness of Chinese Nuclear Power 第八章: 中国核电的经济性

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

Chapter 8:The CostEffectiveness of Chinese Nuclear Power 第八章: 中国核电的经济性 ZHENG Yuhui Former Director of Technology Commission of China Institute of Nuclear Information and Economics

郑玉辉中国核科技信息与经济研究院原科技委主任

CHEN Rong Deputy Director of Research and Development Department of China Nuclear Energy Association

陈荣中国核能行业协会研究开发部副主任 “Develop nuclear power with high efficiency

economical. However, with the adjustment of

on the basis of ensuring safety” has been the

industrial structure and the advancement of

fundamental guideline for China’s nuclear

reform in the field of power system in China,

power development. Favorable economic

the economic competitiveness of nuclear

results are the inexorable requirement of the

power is facing challenges.

efficient development of nuclear power, and the necessary condition for nuclear power’s

1. Economic Evaluation of Nuclear

survival in the power market as well. Over the

power

past 30 years, it has been proved by China’s

Generally speaking, the cost-effectiveness

development and practice that nuclear power

of nuclear power can be evaluated at two

is not only a safe and clean energy, but also

levels: macro-and microscopic level.

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Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

Chapter 8:The Cost-Effectiveness of Chinese Nuclear Power 第八章: 中国核电的经济性

At the macroscopic level, the cost-

in the future, along with renewable energy and

effectiveness of nuclear power is mainly

carbon capture and storage technology (CCS).

demonstrated as its impacts on social and economic development on one hand, and

Electricity generation by nuclear power

its impacts on environment on the other.

will not emit any carbon dioxide directly,

Compared with coal and other forms of

but will release emissions indirectly during

electricity generation, nuclear power is

the process of nuclear fuel cycling. Indirect

clean and pollution-free, thus bringing

emissions depend on various links and the

great environmental benefits, manifesting its

technology employed. Study show that even

economy from the macroscopic perspective.

if calculated by its highest level of emissions, the indirect emissions of nuclear power

Nuclear power is currently the largest low-

are still lower than the direct emissions of

carbon power source in OECD member

fossil fuel power generation by an order of

countries, accounting for more than 21% of

magnitude. Even compared with the overall

power market share. Even after the Fukushinia

emissions of wind power and hydro power

nuclear disaster, many governments still

generation of the same capacity, nuclear

believe that nuclear power will continue to

power can still be regarded as a real low-

play an important role in low-carbon energy

carbon technology. (See Table 7)

Table 7 Comparison of emissions with different power generation technologies (Unit:t equivalent CO2 /GWh) Power generation technology

Average

Low

Peak

Lignite

1054

790

1 372

Coal

888

756

1 310

Oil

733

547

935

Gas

499

362

891

Photovoltaics

731

Biomass energy

101

Nuclear power

130

Hydro power

237

Wind power

124

Source:WNA,2011

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Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

Chapter 8:The Cost-Effectiveness of Chinese Nuclear Power 第八章: 中国核电的经济性

The Chinese government has proposed that by

and 1990s, including Daya Bay (2×984MW),

2030, emissions of carbon dioxide reach the

Ling ’ ao phase one (2 × 990MW), Qinshan

peak and non-fossil energy accounts for more

phase three (2 × 700MW), and Tianwan

than 20% in primary energy consumption.

(2 × 1060MW). The unit construction cost

Nuclear power will play an important and

was 1658-2077 US dollars/kW,equivalent

irreplaceable role. From the macroscopic

to 13,760-17,173 yuan/kW.

perspective, the cost-effectiveness of nuclear power is beyond any doubt.

However, the construction cost for Qinshan nuclear power plant phase one, the first

At the microscopic level, the economy

nuclear power plant indigenously designed

of nuclear power is reflected in its

and developed by China, was only 5664 yuan/

competitiveness indicators, such as

kW. Later on, the costs for Qinshan phase

project costs, generation costs and on-grid

two, designed and constructed by China on

electricity price. Focusing on the microscopic

the basis of importing and absorbing M310

perspective, this article will make a brief

technology from France, Qinshan phase two

analysis of the economy of nuclear units both

expansion project and Aoling phase two were

in operation and under construction in China

10,986-13,426 yuan/kW.

and the factors that affect their economy. Since 2005, China ’ s nuclear power

2. Comparisons of Economy of

development entered into the stage of scale

Nuclear Units under Operation in

construction. Thanks to the achievements

China

in indigenous design, construction and

As of January 2016, there are 30 nuclear

operation of Generation Two improved

units in operation in China, all of which are

nuclear units, the localization rate of nuclear

Generation Two improved units, with a total

power equipment exceeded 80%, and the

installed capacity of 28.46GW.

cost budget was 12,300-13,400 yuan/kW, lowest among similar nuclear units around

1)Construction costs of the nuclear

the world.

units under operation Among the nuclear units currently under operation in China, eight of them are based upon technologies imported during the 1980s

2)On-grid power tariff of nuclear units in operation The on-grid electricity price for nuclear

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Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

Chapter 8:The Cost-Effectiveness of Chinese Nuclear Power 第八章: 中国核电的经济性

power was calculated according to its

will be applied when the newly constructed

costs and profits before January 1, 2013,

nuclear units go into operation. In areas where

and needed to be approved by the pricing

the benchmark on-grid price for nuclear units

authorities. The policy implemented then was

is lower than that for coal-fired generating

one price for one power plant. On June 15,

units, for the first nuclear unit/units or pilot

2013, the National Development and Reform

project/projects which assume the task of

Committee released the Notice on Improving

introducing nuclear power technology, self-

the Pricing System of Nuclear Power On-

dependent innovation and localizing major

grid Electricity Price, implementing standard

and special equipment, the on-grid price can

electricity price policy for new nuclear units.

be moderately raised on the basis of national

Considering the average social costs and

benchmark nuclear on-grid price.

the supply and demand of the electricity market, the benchmark nuclear power on-

At present, the on-grid electricity price for

grid price was set at 0.43 yuan/KWh. In

nuclear power plants under operation in

areas where the benchmark on-grid price for

China are shown in Table 8.

nuclear units is higher than that for coal-fired generating units (including desulfurization

China’s nuclear power plants under operation

and denitration cost), the local benchmark

are scattered along the economically-

on-grid price for coal-fired generating units

developed coastal area of east China. In

Table 8 On-grid electricity price for nuclear power plants under operation in China

126

Nuclear power plant

Capacity(MW)

On-grid price (yuan/KWh)

Zhejiang Qinshan Phase Two

310×1

0.410

Guangdong Daya Bay

984×2

0.420

Guangdong Ling’ao

990×2

0.429

Zhejiang Qinshan Phase Two

650×2

0.393

Zhejiang Qinshan Phase Three

700×2

0.464

Jiangsu Tianwan

1060×2

0.455

Guangdong Ling’ao Phase Two

1080×2

0.429

Zhejiang Qinshan Phase Two Expansion

650×2

0.393

Liaoning Hongyanhe Phase One

1080×3

0.422

Fujian Ningde Phase One

1080×3

0.430

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

Chapter 8:The Cost-Effectiveness of Chinese Nuclear Power 第八章: 中国核电的经济性

2014, the on-grid electricity price for nuclear

3. Forecast of cost-effectiveness for

power units was lower than the benchmark

Nuclear Units under Construction

on-grid electricity price for desulfurized and

in China

denitrated coal-fired generating units in all

After the Fukushinia nuclear disaster, the

areas except Hongyanhe nuclear power unit

Chinese government explicitly regulated that

in Liaoning province. Compared with coal

newly-constructed nuclear power units must

power, nuclear power has exhibited fairly

meet Generation Three safety standards. At

high levels of competitiveness in coastal

present, there are 24 nuclear power units

area of east China (and part of central China

under construction in China, among which

also included).

nine are Generation Three units, including two in Sanmen Phase One in Zhejiang

With the adjustment of industrial structure

province (AP1000), two in Haiyang Phase

in China, the price for coal-generated

One in Shandong (AP1000), two in Taishan

electricity has been running low since

of Guangdong (EPR), two in Fuqing of Fujian

2015. The average on-grid electricity price

(Hualong-One), and one in Fangchenggang

for coal-fired generating units nationwide

of Guangxi (Hualong-One).

was lowered by about 0.02 yuan/KWh in 2015, and was cut by 0.03 yuan/KWh

1) The estimated project cost and

further in 2016. Take four provinces of

forecast for the on-grid electricity

Guangdong, Zhejiang, Fujian and Jiangsu

price of the first AP1000 Generation

as an example. Except Guangdong where

Three nuclear power units under

the benchmark on-grid electricity price for

construction

coal-fired units is 0.4505 yuan/KWh, higher

Sanmen Phase One and Haiyang Phase One,

than the benchmark on-grid electricity price

the self-reliant AP1000 supporting projects,

from nuclear power of 0.43 yuan/KWh, the

are among the first AP1000 nuclear power

benchmark on-grid price for coal power is

units in the world. The project budget estimate

lower than that for nuclear power in all

for the two units in Sanmen Phase One was

other provinces (0.4153, 0.3737 and 0.3780

34.57 billion yuan (fixed investment), with

yuan/KWh, respectively). Nuclear power’s

a total investment of 40.1 billion yuan and

economic competitive advantage over coal

equal to 16,040 yuan/kW. The project budget

power is waning.

estimate for the two units in Haiyang Phase

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Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

Chapter 8:The Cost-Effectiveness of Chinese Nuclear Power 第八章: 中国核电的经济性

One was 34.4 billion yuan, with a total

delivery delay, and no precedent to go by

investment of 40 billion yuan and equal to

resulted in prolonged construction period

16,000 yuan/kW.

and it was estimated that project cost would increase by over 20%, and thus an increase

Taking 30 years as the economic evaluation

of on-grid electricity price accordingly.

period, and based upon the project budget

Predictably, with the advancement in scale

estimate, experts from the State Nuclear

and standardized construction of AP1000

Power Technology Corporation forecasted

units, and with the rise of localization rate,

in 2013 that the average on-grid electricity

the cost-effectiveness of AP1000 units

price for Sanmen Phase One nuclear power

will be improved. However, its economic

plant would be 0.452 yuan/KWh, lower than

competitiveness with coal power will face

the then benchmark price for desulfurized

severe challenges.

and denitrated coal-fired generating units in Zhejiang province which stood at 0.490

2) Forecast for cost-effectiveness of

yuan/KWh; the average on-grid price for

Hualong-One nuclear units under

Haiyang Phase One nuclear power plant was

construction

forecasted at 0.451 yuan/KWh, lower than the

Based upon China ’ s more than 30 years

then benchmark desulfurized and denitrated

experience in the construction and operation

coal power price in Shandong province,

of nuclear power plants, and having

which was 0.4549 yuan/KWh. In 2016, the

absorbed the advanced design concepts

benchmark on-grid price for coal power was

around the world, Hualong-One is the fruit

lowered to 0.4153 and 0.3729 yuan/KWh in

of self-dependent innovation in the field of

Zhejiang and Shandong respectively, thus

Generation Three nuclear units. With the

eliminating the cast advantage of nuclear

full backing of the already mature nuclear

power over coal power.

power equipment manufacturing system and capacity, and with the employment of

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Launched in 2009, the first unit in Sanmen

mature technology that has been tested, the

Nuclear Power Plant was originally planned to

localization rate for the first Hualong-One

be completed and put into operation in 2013,

units is expected to reach 85%, and the

but for now the actual construction schedule

project cost per kW is expected to be 20%

is about 36 months behind the contract

higher than that of Generation Two improved

period. Frequent change of design, equipment

nuclear units. It was demonstrated by the

Chapter 8:The Cost-Effectiveness of Chinese Nuclear Power 第八章: 中国核电的经济性

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

construction of AP1000 units that the main

As of the end of 2015, there are 64 nuclear

cruxes of the first nuclear project with a

power units under construction in the

new type of nuclear unit lie in the changes

world, among which none of Generation

of system layout and construction blueprint

Three pressurized water reactors have

resulted from the change of design concept,

been put into operation. Large investment

and also in the successful development of

and delay in construction schedule are the

the key new equipment. Not like AP1000

two challenges which Generation Three

which adopts the revolutionary, completely

nuclear power plants are currently facing.

passive safety concept, Hualong-One is

For example, adopting EPR technology, the

incrementally improved Generation Three

No.3 unit in Olkiluoto nuclear power plant

nuclear unit, employing technology that has

in Finland started construction in 2005,

already been tested. The technology used by

and is expected to be put into operation in

its key equipment is based and improved upon

2018; built in France, the Flamanville unit

the technology for nuclear power equipment

was launched in 2007, and is expected to

already produced in large number in China,

operate in 2017. The first group of four

hence no manufacturing barriers exist, thus

AP1000 units in the United States which

creating favorable conditions for breaking

started construction in recent 30 years is also

away from the phenomenon of “first reactor

expected to have 18 months behind schedule.

is bound to experience delay” prevalent in

The up to US$6,000-7,000/kW unit cost for

the construction of Generation Three nuclear

AP1000 and EPR, and the unsatisfactory

power plants worldwide. Hualong-One is not

progress of the first reactors (projects), led

only oriented toward the domestic market,

to the repeated success of Russia in the

but also the main type of reactor for the

competition of the international nuclear

“ Going Out ” strategy of China ’ s nuclear

power market. Rosatom State Atomic

power. Thanks to the low investment cost

Energy Corporation currently has possessed

compared with other Generation Three units

orders from 12 countries around the world

around the world, it is fairly competitive in

for a total of 36 nuclear power units, in a

the international market.

large part due to its low unit cost around US$3,000-4,000/kW. Therefore, how to

4. Analysis of the Factors Affecting

improve the cost-effectiveness of nuclear

the cost-effectiveness of Nuclear

power on the premise of ensuring safety

Power Plants

is the challenge China has to face in the

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Chapter 8:The Cost-Effectiveness of Chinese Nuclear Power 第八章: 中国核电的经济性

nuclear power market competition at home

the purchase price could be gained.

and abroad. 2) Prudent selection and rational 1) Enhancing the self-dependent

utilization for plant location

design, construction and operation

Conditions for nuclear power plants are a

ability of nuclear power plants.

scarce resource. Apart from meeting the

With the realization of indigenous design,

requirement of safe operation, the location

China is not only able to fully utilize its

has to take into consideration its impact

cost advantage in domestic human resources,

on the economy of nuclear power plants.

thus reducing design and technology services

Site conditions, including seismic geology,

fees by a large margin, more importantly,

engineering geology, the adjacency of source

it can also obtain key equipment design,

of water, the sufficiency of water resources,

system design and project design technology

heady-duty transportation and atmospheric

through enhancing its localization ability,

diffusion conditions, will have a bearing

thereby gaining the initiative of purchasing,

on project costs. In the process of design

and improving its ability to manage changes

and construction of nuclear power plants,

and problems on its own in the process

necessary steps must be taken to address

of equipment manufacturing and project

these factors properly.

construction, and effectively reduce project cost.

If site conditions allowed, and after taking into consideration of the power grid layout,

Investment for equipment manufacturing

predevelopment costs and costs for public

accounts for about 50% of the total

facilities, test, project management and

investment for nuclear power projects.

construction can be saved by continuously

Equipment localization has a more direct

building multiple units of the same type on

impact on reducing project costs. Especially

the same site in one design. The cost for per

for those monopolistic equipment that are

kW of constructing two gigawatt units on

only manufactured by one particular company

the same site is around 15% lower than that

of one particular country, more efforts

of constructing only one unit.

should be made on self-reliant research and

130

development, so that the monopoly can be

3) Choosing mature nuclear power unit

broken up as early as possible and a say in

The more mature the nuclear power unit

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

Chapter 8:The Cost-Effectiveness of Chinese Nuclear Power 第八章: 中国核电的经济性

is, the less expense would be required for

impact on project cost.

research testing, the fewer problems that have not been found and met with before

Strengthening quality, schedule and

will occur, and the few errors, incidents

investment controls and rigorous contract

and changes will likely happen, therefore

management are important measures to

the less the unpredictable costs would be,

minimize and avoid errors and delays in

consequently resulting in cost saving. At the

construction. Construction should follow a

same time, generally speaking, mature units

rational schedule. Do not relax control and

are more reliable when put into operation,

put off deadlines, nor speed up schedule

and more able to operate in a continuous

and rush towards deadlines for the sake of

and stable pattern, thus ensuring the cost-

upholding favorable images, since this will

effectiveness of units after being put into

bring potential quality and safety hazards and

operation.

cause even greater economic losses.

By standardizing and serializing design

5) Improving operation management

and equipment, research and development

of nuclear power plants

expenses could be reduced. It will also

The amount of on-grid electricity bears the

make it easier for manufacturers to

most significant influence on electricity

optimize processing flow, reduce equipment

generation cost. Therefore, increasing load

manufacturing cost, streamline safety

factor is the most effective approach to

approval procedures, be beneficial to

reduce generation cost and on-grid price.

accumulate experiences and popularize the

When load factor is raised from 75% to 90%,

utilization, and thus shorten construction

the on-grid price can be reduced by around

period and reduce construction costs.

10%.

4) Managing nuclear power projects

To improve nuclear fuel management by

more scientifically and rationally

extending refueling cycle and shortening

Project management with respect to nuclear

reload time; to enhance equipment condition

power plant construction includes quality

diagnosis, extend overhaul cycle and shorten

control, schedule control, investment control

overhaul time limit; to extend the operating

and contract management etc. Scientific and

life of nuclear power plants from 40 years to

rational project management has a significant

60 years…all these measures can effectively

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Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

Chapter 8:The Cost-Effectiveness of Chinese Nuclear Power 第八章: 中国核电的经济性

reduce production cost and enhance economic

uranium reserve system at enterprise and

returns.

national level.

In grid dispatching, power generation cost

For other forms of power generation,

can be significantly reduced by employing

expenses for spent fuel reprocessing and

peak load regulation methods such as

waste final disposal are external cost; while

pumped-storage to allow nuclear power

for nuclear power, they belong to internal

plants to operate under base load to the best

cost. According to the general international

extent possible.

practice, China has set up nuclear spent fuel reprocessing and disposal funds to deal

6) Improving ability to support nuclear fuel cycle

with the expenses needed for spent fuel reprocessing and disposal.

The expenses for nuclear fuel cycle in general account for 20%-30% of the total cost of nuclear power, while the fuel expenses of

7) Pushing forward carbon emissions trading

coal and gas-fired power generation make up

According to the algorithm of traditional

for 40%-60% and 70-80% of the total cost

economics, the power generation cost of all

respectively. By comparison, the proportion

kinds of energy includes only internal cost,

of nuclear fuel cycle expenses in the overall

excluding the external cost caused by the

generation cost is relatively low, which

damage done on environment and ecology

means the volatility of nuclear fuel cycle

during the process of energy production

expenses has comparatively less effect on

and utilization. However, for the nuclear

the total cost of nuclear power.

power industrial chain, the external cost has become internalized. In order to

132

In all the links of nuclear fuel chain, the

evaluate the cost-effectiveness of different

price of natural uranium bears the most

kinds of energy sources in a scientific

significant impact on nuclear power cost.

and fair way, substantial reform should

In order to avoid such influence on the cost-

be done on the energy pricing mechanism

effectiveness of nuclear power, more efforts

to internalize external cost, which will

should be made to explore and develop

help release the inherent advantage of

overseas uranium resources, strengthen the

clean energy such as nuclear power in the

supply capacity, and improve the natural

competition of economy. By far, China

Chapter 8:The Cost-Effectiveness of Chinese Nuclear Power 第八章: 中国核电的经济性

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

has carried out pilot programs of carbon

national carbon trading market will be

emissions trading in seven provinces and

launched in 2017. With the national carbon

municipalities, all of which have realized

emissions trading market taking form, the

online trading, and the carbon prices have

economic competitiveness of nuclear power

been relatively stable. As planned, the

will certainly be strengthened.

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Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

Chapter 9: Enhancing Open and Transparent Communication on Safety Issues 第九章: 开放透明，架起核电与公众的畅通桥梁

Chapter 9: Enhancing Open and Transparent Communication on Safety Issues —— Discussion and Practice on Public Communication in Nuclear Power in 2015

第九章: 开放透明，架起核电与公众的畅通桥梁 ——2015年中国核电行业的公众沟通实践及其经验刍议

LOU Yun Senior Manager of Social Responsibility Department of China General Nuclear Power Group

娄云中国广核集团公司社会责任高级经理

1. Background

industry. Instead, it has become a key

As a significant achievement during the

question that deserves high attention and

progress of human science and technology,

planning.

nuclear power has provided us with clean

134

and efficient new energy. However, the

Fukushima Nuclear Disaster has exerted a

sustainable development of nuclear power

far-reaching influence on the whole nuclear

depends on not only the advancement

power industry in China. As the media ’ s

of technology, but also the public ’ s

repeatedly reporting this accident, especially

acceptance of nuclear energy. Up to now,

the TV live broadcast over the whole process,

communication with the public is no longer

details of this accident has been revealed and

a dispensable choice to the nuclear power

exposed to the whole world. As a result, a

Chapter 9: Enhancing Open and Transparent Communication on Safety Issues 第九章: 开放透明，架起核电与公众的畅通桥梁

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

great psychological impact has been brought

restarted one after another on the condition

to the public, and fear and doubt of the

that they had been through strict safety

Chinese public to nuclear power are also

review and assessment. However, despite

constantly intensified. In fear of the possible

of the stress coming from the greenhouse

danger caused by the Fukushima accident,

gas reduction, the nuclear power projects

a number of citizens from many cities in

will still be driven and examined with more

China even went on a salt-buying spree. Four

caution and rigor. It is a long progress to

days after that accident, Chinese government

expand the development scale of China’ s

released “ four principles ” to regulate the

nuclear power and to improve the proportion

development of nuclear power, demanding

of nuclear power in the energy structure.

safety inspection should be conducted in

Therefore, nuclear power enterprises in our

all nuclear power plants both in operation

country are now trying to build up a closer

and under construction, and suspending the

relationship with all sectors of society in

approval of new nuclear power projects.

regard of communication and interaction in

Especially, inland projects were not allowed

order to drive the nuclear power projects on

during the 12th Five-Year Plan period (2011-

the basis of the public’s acceptance and trust.

2015).

Our nuclear power enterprises have long been exploring an effective way of communication

Under this circumstance, the government

with the public and devoted to establishing an

when making decisions concerning nuclear

open and transparent public communication

power projects is gradually paying much

system to achieve a reasonable and fair

more attention to the public’s attitude and

understanding of nuclear power on the part

their acceptance of nuclear power. The

of the public. During this process, the key is

public’ s attitude toward nuclear power is

to deliver objective, accurate, reasonable and

becoming an important factor which can

scientific messages to the public, especially

affect the decision-making of both our

to those organizations and people who hold

country and enterprises. The nuclear power

negative and biased views toward nuclear

projects and enterprises related to nuclear

power, try to remove panic and mistrust and

power are now confronted with increasing

win the support of the public and the society.

stress from the public.

By doing that, nuclear power will be not only the force driving the development of

In 2015, the planned nuclear power projects

national strategy, economy and society, but

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Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

Chapter 9: Enhancing Open and Transparent Communication on Safety Issues 第九章: 开放透明，架起核电与公众的畅通桥梁

also regarded as an indispensable part in the

is another category, namely the “ insider ”

overall development of the country.

group (staffs, cooperative partners and contractors).

2. Strategies 1) Recognizing the key interested party (communication object)

136

The core interests and appeals of the above groups are different, but their common point

The International Atomic Energy Agency

is that they can probably gain economic

defines interested party as follows: the

benefits from the development of nuclear

interested party refers to a group of people

power, yet they also have to take possible

who have a specific interest relation with

risks brought by it. The typical NIMBY

the given question or decision, including

events in recent years show that to have a

the internal interested party and the external

good communication with the critical groups

interested party. According to the operational

has been a priority in public communication.

experiences of our nuclear power projects,

Therefore, as for those different groups, we

the typical interested parties of the nuclear

classify them before recognition, study them

power projects can be mainly divided into

before judgment, and then apply a variety

four categories: the government, the adjacent

of communicative means and channels to

community, teenagers, the third party opinion

deliver messages accurately and respond

leader and social organizations. In fact, there

adequately to audiences’ appeals and social

Chapter 9: Enhancing Open and Transparent Communication on Safety Issues 第九章: 开放透明，架起核电与公众的畅通桥梁

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

concerns in order to guide public sentiment

to make detailed solutions: analyze their

and lead public opinion.

appeals, preferences and inclinations, try to understand how their opponent stand is

2) Taking active actions

formed and the means to shift it, take the

Facing with the crucial interested parties

people and groups whose benefits could

and diverse views even those opposed

be directly influenced especially by the

ones toward nuclear power, nuclear power

economy and the environment into serious

enterprises should take an a modest, open

consideration and persuade and guide them

and transparent attitude, conduct active

with accurate and convincing evidence and

communicative and promotional activities,

measures. In regard of the extreme wording

consolidate supporting groups, win over

and discussion frequently used by the anti-

the neutral groups and try to persuade the

nuclear people, the communicative personnel

opposed ones.

must specifically provide them with accurate information and try to prove that kind of

In the communication with the supporting

discussion is untrue and improve the public’s

and neutral groups, we on the one hand

consciousness. Besides, we must get fully

request them to actively cooperate with our

prepared for the emergencies and make

national policies and development strategies

detailed solutions.

concerning nuclear power, enhance constantly their understanding of the nuclear power and

3) Ensuring adequate transparency

boost their positive attitude and confidence

Nuclear safety is the paramount responsibility

in the development of the nuclear power; on

that all the nuclear power enterprises should

the other hand, we should guarantee that the

shoulder. The nuclear energy impresses

communication channels will be continuous

people with its mystery and closure, making

and smooth, launch various communication

it difficult to prove to the outside that it’s

activities and reflect exactly their advice

safe. One of the primary issues related to

and suggestions in the concrete promotion

public communication is to ensure adequate

of the projects to stimulate their enthusiasm

transparency and make the fact that nuclear

and participation.

energy is safe be understood and accepted by the society.

For those groups who hold opponent attitude toward nuclear power, we need

As for the nuclear power industry,

137

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

Chapter 9: Enhancing Open and Transparent Communication on Safety Issues 第九章: 开放透明，架起核电与公众的畅通桥梁

“transparency” is mainly reflected in two

professional, nuclear power enterprises

aspects: one is to make the operation

adopt evaluation means to track work

of nuclear power enterprises open and

and formulate improvement measures

emphasize the release and disclosure of

in respects of planning, execution and

safety information. By doing that, the society

resources, and thus to ensure the whole

will gain a deeper understanding of safety

communication activity remains upgraded

conditions of enterprises and the broader

and improved. That will also contribute to the

external supervision could be done, thus

popularization of the nuclear safety culture.

promoting nuclear safety to be operated in

In the meanwhile, we will conduct a deep

transparent environment. The other is the

analysis of the unsuccessful and ineffective

popularization of the general knowledge

communication activities (cancellation of the

of nuclear power. We should emphasize

nuclear fuel project in Jiangmen, domestic

that nuclear safety in nature is not just a

PX petrochemical project and so on) to avoid

problem regarding safety and technology,

the occurrence of similar problems. The

and that it ’ s also a social psychological

evaluation means with the help of interview,

experience. The public’s fear toward nuclear

telephone, questionnaire survey and so on

energy as well as their incomprehension and

are mainly applied in the key groups. In-

rejection of it all resulted from the reality

depth interviews or small-scale interviews

that they rarely have the chance to contact

are conducted among opinion leaders and

with nuclear safety in their daily experience.

experts. As for the media, test is done mainly

Therefore, it’s really crucial to remove the

about the exposure degree of information, the

public’s misunderstandings with reason and

accuracy when delivering the information,

general knowledge and to overcome the

the coverage of the information, etc. and

“environmental anxiety” occurring during the

subsequently on the basis of qualitative

period of social transition. The nuclear power

analysis we will collect and analyze data

industry in China should ensure adequate

to finally carry out quantitative evaluation.

transparency in both aspects mentioned above.

3. Cases and Practices 1) Information disclosure

138

4) Evaluating and improving effects

We believe that the safe operation and

In order to make sure the public

supervision of nuclear power must be open

communication is systematic, efficient and

and transparent and that all the information

Chapter 9: Enhancing Open and Transparent Communication on Safety Issues 第九章: 开放透明，架起核电与公众的畅通桥梁

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

regarding nuclear safety should not be

of press spokesman. They take an active part

concealed. Nuclear power enterprises

in spreading information of nuclear power

adopt ways such as disclosing information

in various ways, including press conference

at websites, holding press conferences and

and technology promotion conference.

issuing social responsibility reports to actively

Taking CGNPC as an example, it held six

reveal nuclear and radiation information to the

press conferences in 2013 and over 20 press

public, remove their doubts in time and build

conferences in total during 2014 and 2015.

the foundation of mutual-trust and interactive

Besides the previous safety production

communication. In 2011, the first “Nuclear

situation of nuclear power, strategic plan,

Safety Information Disclosure Platform” in

technology research and development, and

Chinese mainland was launched in Daya

social responsibility are also revealed at

Bay Nuclear Power Base. This platform

press conference. This enables the media

under the leading international standards

and the public to learn about nuclear power

discloses information in time to protect the

enterprises from various aspects.

public’s right to know. Currently, nuclear power enterprises represented by CGNPC

2) Media cooperation

even disclose the zero level operation events

Chinese nuclear power industry takes an

of all the units in operation, and meanwhile

active part in communicating with the

they require that the open platforms of the

media, with focus on the classification

new units should synchronize with their

and the effectiveness of communication.

putting into commercial operation for the

It will provide different service according

sake of facilitating the public to search

to different media, so as to ensure that the

relevant information online at any time. In

media could broadcast the nuclear power

2015, 8 zero level nuclear events happened

information effectively. In 2015, nuclear

among 14 operational nuclear power units

power enterprises, such as CNNC and

of CGNPC, all of which were disclosed and

CGNPC, cooperated extensively with

announced to the public within 48 hours.

China Central Television in broadcasting

It is higher than the working standard of

the following events: the commencement of

similar units in the world. In the aspect of

the construction of No.5 unit of Hongyanhe

news release, each nuclear power enterprise

Nuclear Power Plant, the commencement

in China has established normalized

of the construction of Hualong-One

information release mechanism and teams

demonstration unit, 87 Open Day for

139

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

Chapter 9: Enhancing Open and Transparent Communication on Safety Issues 第九章: 开放透明，架起核电与公众的畅通桥梁

Experience, the progress of China-UK

through the Internet. They have established

nuclear energy cooperation, and Offshore

over 100 platforms for social-media, with

Small Nuclear Reactor Project. These large-

tens of millions of pageviews each year.

scale broadcasting has fully introduced the

In 2015, CGNPC WeChat official account

development of Chinese nuclear power

obtained over 14.4 million pageviews, and

industry and especially highlighted the

CNNC WeChat official account got over

importance of nuclear power towards

13.1 million pageviews. By taking advantage

Chinese future development strategy, our

of social media platforms, nuclear power

international competence, the security and

enterprises have organized several activities,

the general knowledge of nuclear power.

such as “micro-interviews” on the subject

They also raised public ’ s attention and

of nuclear power; and “ micro-tourings ” ,

awareness of nuclear power. CGNPC also

organizing netizens to visit nuclear power

worked with “ The News of Truth ” , a TV

bases. They also paid attention to learn

program on Hunan Satellite Television, to

about the popular internet elements and the

produce a feature program on nuclear power

latest reading habits and language styles of

that integrated nuclear power knowledge

readers, and launched a series of art works

with entertainment activities. During the

including videos, animations and songs with

30-minute program, Li Rui, famous host of

the theme of nuclear power. A Little Apple,

a national popular reality show “Where are

a video produced by CNNC, won Excellent

we going Dad”, led the TV crew to reveal

Advertisement and Micro Film Award at the

to the public the mysterious nuclear power.

2nd Asia Micro Films Art Festival. “Micro-

The program has caused wide concern, with

touring”, made by CGNPC, was selected as

the ratings ranking first in Hunan Satellite

one of the top 10 micro-blog operation cases

Television and second in the whole nation

of Chinese enterprises. The social media of

among all TV programs in the same time slot.

both CNNC and CGNPC have become one of the most influential new media of Chinese

140

3) Internet platform

state-owned enterprises. CGNPC worked

All nuclear power enterprises in China have

together with Guokr, a famous science

opened official micro-blog and WeChat or

popularization website in China, to open

other social media accounts. They encourage

an online zone for science popularization,

the affiliated companies, staffs and experts

and 60,000 people participated in its quiz

to communicate proactively with the public

activity and about 1 million people viewed

Chapter 9: Enhancing Open and Transparent Communication on Safety Issues 第九章: 开放透明，架起核电与公众的畅通桥梁

the web page.

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

National Energy Administration, and State Administration of Science,Technology and

4) Public participation and dialogue

Industry for National Defense. During this

To promote public participation in nuclear

period, over 3000 representatives from state

power projects through face-to-face

ministries, local governments, enterprises

communication is one of the prerequisites

of nuclear power industry chain, media,

to gain public comprehension and trust.

industry associations, and NGOs came to

All nuclear power enterprises in China

16 nuclear power bases that are affiliated to

have established normalized public

CNNC, CGNPC, SNPTC and HNP, and their

dialogue mechanism. They have held a

neighboring communities. They participated

series of activities including opinion polls,

in activities and had conversations with

symposiums, conversations, and telephone

nuclear power enterprises, which were

and internet consultations for new nuclear

also broadcast live on the website. The 3N

plant projects. They lay emphasis on the

(Safe Neighbor, Friendly Neighbor, Warm

communication with all walks of life, as

Neighbor) Harmonious Community Concept

well as the feedbacks. They expect to accept

proposed by CGNPC was highly praised by

the supervision initiatively from the society

many participants.

through open dialogue. In 2014 and 2015, all standing committees of people’s congress

5) School education

in the city where CNNC ’ s and CGNPC’ s

Nuclear power enterprises also popularize

new nuclear plants are located have

nuclear power knowledge in school campus

deliberated the proposals of local nuclear

and establish distinctive brand of nuclear

plant construction, and provided advice. All

power knowledge popularization. CGNPC

of these have laid public opinion foundation

combined nuclear power knowledge

for the promotion of nuclear power projects.

popularization with school education by

In order to widen and deepen public

working together with local governments

participation and dialogue, CGNPC’s “Open

to compile textbooks on nuclear power

Day ” was elevated as a common activity

knowledge popularization. The contents

held in all national nuclear power plants

of these textbooks are both scientific and

and the whole nuclear industry from July

interesting. In some places where nuclear

to August of 2015, under the organization

power plants are located, nuclear power

of National Nuclear Safety Administration,

education has been included in the courses

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Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

Chapter 9: Enhancing Open and Transparent Communication on Safety Issues 第九章: 开放透明，架起核电与公众的畅通桥梁

of Junior One, lasting for one semester. This education project was initiated in Hongyanhe

142

6) Communication network and expert resources

Nuclear Power Base in Liaoning province,

In order to expand the influence of nuclear

and has been promoted to 100 schools in

power promotion, Chinese nuclear power

nine provinces. Over 15,000 students have

industry has established communication and

accepted this education. The first nuclear

cooperation with governments at all levels,

power knowledge popularization course

industry associations, research institutions,

for college students in China was set up in

universities, opinion leaders and celebrities.

Dalian University of Technology. CNNC

It also starts to look for spokesmen of clean

trained teachers to popularize nuclear

energy resources and build support teams.

power knowledge and held a nuclear power

China Nuclear Energy Association conducted

knowledge contest, with over 200,000

the first peer review of public communication

participants and 20 million pageviews in total.

work in Chinese nuclear power industry.

These education activities helped students

It completed detailed assessment reports

establish right concept on energy resource

and provided suggestions for three nuclear

and nuclear power during the process of

power projects, CNNC Qinshan Nuclear

study and interaction. It will encourage

Power Base, CGNPC Ningde Nuclear Power

more groups to learn about and understand

Base, and Hunan Taohuajiang Nuclear Power

nuclear power industry comprehensively and

Plant(Inland). The peer review promoted

objectively, and consolidate the social basis

the level of public communication in the

of nuclear power development in the future.

whole industry. Nuclear power enterprises

Chapter 9: Enhancing Open and Transparent Communication on Safety Issues 第九章: 开放透明，架起核电与公众的畅通桥梁

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

also worked together with experts to carry out

exhibition halls all over the country. Its

activities including subject researches, media

“ Industrial Tourism ” project has been

broadcasting, interviews, conservations and

operated for over ten years, receiving over

internet communication. During 2014 and

250,000 visitors in 2015. CNNC plans to

2015, CGNPC cooperated with Southern

construct a nuclear power service center

Metropolis Daily and Sun Yat-sen University

in Haiyan, Zhejiang province, integrating

to conduct a large-scale public survey on the

technological design, training and tourism.

acceptability of nuclear power, collecting

It aims to form a distinctive tourist route

over 20000 network samples and 1200 field

consisting of both nuclear power culture and

samples. Daya Bay Nuclear Power Base,

local traditional culture, so as to promote the

affiliated to CGNPC, set up Nuclear Safety

participation and mechanism construction of

Advisory Committee, which has operated

nuclear power tourism. Besides, CNNC also

for over 27 years, to serve the region of

used caravans to popularize nuclear power

Hong Kong. This committee assembles a

knowledge; CGNPC organized a clean energy

lot of celebrities and experts, reflects key

themed exhibition tour, spreading ideas such

issues that the public are concerned about

as “utilize atomic energy peacefully” and

and puts forward policy suggestions to

“make good use of natural power”. Nuclear

governments and nuclear power enterprises

power enterprises take an active part in all

through regular meetings, discussions and

kinds of exhibitions, including overseas

information sharing. It also clarifies and

exhibitions, China Hi-tech Exhibition

feeds back information to Hong Kong media

and International Nuclear Power Industry

regularly, so as to ensure that citizens in

Exhibition. They make full use of these

Hong Kong are able to obtain accurate and

opportunities to advertise themselves and

objective nuclear power information.

communicate with peers, professional groups and technology enthusiasts. In the exhibition

7) Tourism and exhibition

scene, there are experts and staffs answering

All Chinese nuclear power enterprises have

questions at any time. All of these help to

built exhibition halls of nuclear power or

raise popularity and reputation of nuclear

auxiliary facilities. CGNPC has built 10

power industry.

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Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

Chapter 10:The Future of Green Nuclear Energy: Thorium-based Molten Salt Reactors (TMSR) 第十章: 未来绿色核能发展道路之一：钍基熔盐堆核能系统

Chapter 10:The Future of Green Nuclear Energy: Thorium-based Molten Salt Reactors (TMSR) 第十章: 未来绿色核能发展道路之一：钍基熔盐堆核能系统 FANG Jinqing Researcher, Ph.D Supervisor and Consultant in China Institute of Atomic Energy (CIAE)

方锦清中国原子能科学研究院研究员、博士生导师

Nowadays, the issue of energy is one of the

of China ’ s nuclear energy.

most significant worldly challenges, for it has far-reaching influence on the economic

Introduction

sustainable development for all countries

At present, there are two major drawbacks in

in the world. And the most important issue

conventional nuclear power. One is that the

for each country ’ s strategic decision is to

uranium-235, as fuel of the thermal neutron

solve the problem of energy in the future.

reactor, only accounts for 0.7% in natural

This paper briefly introduces the Thorium-

uranium and has low utilization rate; the

based molten salt reactor nuclear system

other is the radioactive leakage and difficult

(TMSR) as one of the future development

disposal of nuclear waste caused by possible

means of green nuclear energy, and makes

super-critical accident.

a review of the development strategy, research situation and primary development

144

The current system of nuclear power

Chapter 10:The Future of Green Nuclear Energy: Thorium-based Molten Salt Reactors (TMSR) 第十章: 未来绿色核能发展道路之一：钍基熔盐堆核能系统

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

estimated by the current fission nuclear

transformable nuclear fuel melt into high-

energy development is that earth reserves

temperature fluoride; and with fluoride as

of land-based uranium-235 and fossil energy

the coolant at the same time, it circulates

will be almost simultaneously depleted and

in the reactor both internally and externally

mankind will face a crisis of Uranium-235.

by carrying the nuclear fuel. The principle

How to cope with this unprecedented

block diagram is shown in Figure 9.

challenge?

Figure 9. Schematic diagram of the principle and structure of thorium-based molten salt reactor (TMSR)

Both thorium and uranium are nuclear fuel,

Thorium resources in the earth are 3 to 4

but thorium cannot be used directly unless

times as many as uranium resources. In

it is converted into uranium-233 by nuclear

nature, uranium-235 is the only natural

reaction, which is therefore called thorium-

nuclear fuel, the content of which is less

uranium fuel cycle. Molten salt reactor

than 1%. Thorium is usually in the presence

(MSR), as the only liquid fuel reactor, can

of isotope thorium-232. After neutron

be used in thorium-based molten salt reactor

bombardment, thorium-232 can be converted

(TMSR) to make natural nuclear fuel and

into nuclear fuel Uranium-233 which is

145

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

Chapter 10:The Future of Green Nuclear Energy: Thorium-based Molten Salt Reactors (TMSR) 第十章: 未来绿色核能发展道路之一：钍基熔盐堆核能系统

prone to experience fission reaction. Like

with the current mainstream nuclear power

the Uranium-238, thorium-232 is also a

technology (the third generation reactor),

kind of multiplication material. However,

the fourth generation of reactor includes

compared with the plutonium-239 and

nuclear fuel processing technology, reactor

Uranium-235, which are artificially

technology and nuclear waste processing

converted by uranium-238, the neutron yield

technology, so it is called nuclear power

of Uranium-233 is higher. As a result, a more

system. The goal of the fourth generation of

efficient proliferation cycle could be built

nuclear energy system is to have high index

on this basis, and the high toxic radioactive

requirements, including the long-term and

isotope produced by thorium uranium fuel

stable supply of nuclear fuel, nuclear waste

cycle is less than that produced by uranium

minimization, the intrinsic safety, physical

plutonium fuel cycle.

anti-nuclear proliferation and economical efficiency.

With its natural advantages as nuclear fuel, thorium is regarded as one of the key means

The basic qualities of the molten salt reactor

for the sustainable development of the

(MSR) enable MSR suitable for thorium

nuclear energy in the future. Development

uranium nuclear fuel cycle. Since the molten

of the green and new nuclear energy system

salt reactor (MSR) applies the thorium

enables it to have a better nuclear reactor and

uranium fuel cycle, it is called thorium-based

play a dual role: it can not only burn more

molten salt reactor (TMSR). TMSR has five

nuclear fuel, but also reuse the nuclear waste

prominent advantages.

so as to realize the peaceful application of a new generation of green nuclear energy.

(1) Guarantee of the intrinsic safety. When the molten salt temperature of the molten

146

Prominent Advantages of Thorium-

salt reactor (MSR) exceeds a predetermined

based Molten Salt Reactor (TMSR)

value, the freezing plug installed at the

As one of the six candidate reactors of the

bottom will automatically melt and then the

fourth generation of reactor nuclear energy

molten salt carrying nuclear fuel will flow

system, thorium-based molten salt reactor

into the emergency storage tank immediately;

(TMSR) aims to meet the needs of the

at the same time, the nuclear reaction will

development of nuclear energy industry

be terminated instantly. In addition, Molten

in the coming 20 to 30 years. Compared

salt reactor (MSR) not only can work

Chapter 10:The Future of Green Nuclear Energy: Thorium-based Molten Salt Reactors (TMSR) 第十章: 未来绿色核能发展道路之一：钍基熔盐堆核能系统

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

under normal pressure with a simple and

uranium-233. This makes the international

safe operation, but also can be built in the

science community recognize that thorium

depths of the ground, which is helpful for

uranium nuclear fuel cycle is not suitable for

anti-terrorism and anti-sudden war.

the development of nuclear fuel for nuclear weapons, but only for producing nuclear

(2) Long-term stable supply of nuclear fuel.

energy, hence there is no worry at all. People

The land reserves of thorium are 3 to 4 times

are no longer fearful of the nuclear, but look

as many as those of uranium resources under

forward to the new era of green peaceful

conservative estimation, and 5 to 8 times

nuclear energy.

under optimistic estimation. Since China is rich with thorium resources, there is no worry

(5) Multiple purposes and flexibility. Small

for China’s energy supply in China’s future

modular reactors and mixed energy are the

once thorium is applied into the production

orientation for the development of nuclear

of nuclear power.

power in the future. The molten salt reactor (MSR) is not only an ideal reactor as small

(3) Reduction of the nuclear waste to the

modular reactor, but also a high-temperature

minimum. Molten salt reactor (MSR) can add

reactor, which is suitable for the application

nuclear fuel and reaction products online,

of producing hybrid energy such as hydrogen.

and can separate as well as process them

Therefore, miniaturization will make it

online (or offline) so that nuclear fuel fully

possible for the community to use green

burns and the final nuclear waste is only

nuclear energy system in the future.

about 1/1000 of the current amount.

Development Tendency of TMSR (4) Physical anti-nuclear proliferation.

Nuclear System

Because nuclear waste produced by

There is a huge amount of thorium over the

conventional reactors has a large amount

world, which can be converted to nuclear

of plutonium-239 which is easy to produce

energy in a variety of ways. China is rich

nuclear weapons, the peaceful application

with thorium resources, so it has a long-term

of nuclear energy faces the risk of nuclear

strategic significance to use thorium-232

weapons proliferation. The new reactor

to create new nuclear energy system. It is

burning thorium-232 produces nuclear fuel

also one of the major reasons for China to

uranium-232 along with the production of

choose molten salt reactor (MSR) as the aim

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Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

Chapter 10:The Future of Green Nuclear Energy: Thorium-based Molten Salt Reactors (TMSR) 第十章: 未来绿色核能发展道路之一：钍基熔盐堆核能系统

of making a breakthrough. Meanwhile, the

still under development. China plans to spend

molten salt reactor (MSR), as one of sixth

20 years in developing a new generation of

reactor styles, meets the fourth generation

thorium-based molten salt reactor nuclear

of nuclear power technology recommended

system (TMSR) with all the technologies

by international institutions; The molten

reaching the test standard and obtaining all

salt reactor (MSR), as the only liquid fuel

the intellectual property rights. As Chinese

reactor, using thorium uranium as nuclear

people ’ s major strategic decision, the

fuel recycling and fluoride salt as the coolant,

development of green energy will have a

makes natural nuclear fuel and transformable

huge impact in China’s future.

nuclear fuel melt into high temperature fluoride and circulates in both internal and

It is reported that, in 2005, China ’ s GDP

external reactor by carrying the nuclear fuel.

is the sum of 18.23 trillion yuan, with a total energy consumption of 2.23 billion

Great powers in the world loose no

tons of standard coal. Now, China has

opportunity in this endeavor. France, a

become the major country in terms of

member of GIF and the EU are engaged in

greenhouse gas emissions. In next 30 to 40

conceptual design of the molten salt reactor

years, China’s GDP may reach 117 trillion

(MSFR). Russia is doing the studies on molten

yuan, so how much energy will be needed

salt actinide elements of re-circulation and

correspondingly? In order to maintain the

transmutation reactor (MOSART) system,

sustainable development, China needs more

which use different components of plutonium

energy but less greenhouse gas emissions at

and minor actinides three fluoride as fuel

the same time. In terms of extant nuclear

with or without thorium. America, with

power technology, the heat released from

the support of the conceptual program of

1kg of uranium is 196 million kilocalories,

advanced reactor, focuses on development

while 1kg of standard coal can only release

of the fluoride salt cooled high-temperature

7000 kilocalories.

reactor with low cost and complete passive safety, and is designing a comprehensive

Therefore, at this critical moment of global

energy device of thorium-based molten salt

climate change, energy saving and low

reaction for Jamaica and Haiti.

carbon economy urges the revival of nuclear energy all over the world. According to the

The new generation of nuclear reactors is

148

International Energy Agency (IEA) forecast,

Chapter 10:The Future of Green Nuclear Energy: Thorium-based Molten Salt Reactors (TMSR) 第十章: 未来绿色核能发展道路之一：钍基熔盐堆核能系统

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

to 2050, the total capacity of global nuclear

the reaction with groundwater. At the same

power will reach 1200-1700GWe. At present,

time, the site selection of a new generation

China ’ s nuclear power only accounts for

of reactors will become more free: it can be

less than 2% of total energy consumption.

built in the inland without having to be close

According to the long-term nuclear power

to the ocean; it can be built underground with

development plan issued by the National

tens of meters deep, not only completely

Development and Reform Commission,

isolating the ray, but also preventing the

China operation of nuclear power installed

enemy from launching a sudden attack; it can

capacity will reach 40GWe in China by 2020

be built in big cities as well as in the wilds,

and may be increased to more than 260GWe

transporting permanent electrical power to

by 2050, which suggests that the application

remote mountain villages.

of nuclear energy will be over 20 times in China in next 40 years!

Obviously, TMSR nuclear system is much more likely to change the energy landscape

Development

S t ra t e g y

and

of the whole world, which marks that the

Prospects of China’s Nuclear Power

world energy strategic leadership is turning

System

from stereotypical Western countries to the

Rather than the conventional reactor operated

rising technological innovation powers. What

under high pressure, the new reactor with

a promising prospect!

thorium as nuclear fuel is operated under normal pressure, thus enjoying a simple and

Going back to the history, it has taken nearly

safe operation. When the temperature of the

twenty years to complete the commercial

nuclear furnace exceeds a predetermined

promotion of nuclear power plants from

value, the frozen plug located at the

the success of the world’s first reactor test.

bottom will automatically melt, the fused

Then, after another more than twenty years of

salt carrying nuclear fuel will all flow into

development, the mainstream nuclear power

emergency storage tanks and the nuclear

plant technology has matured in current

reaction will stop working. Because the

stage. In order to realize the promotion

coolant is a fluoride salt (while carrying the

and application of TMSR, it is inevitable

fuel), it will become solid salt after cooling,

to experience a long-term struggle and

which makes the nuclear fuel not easy to

overcome multiple scientific and technical

leak and avoids ecological disasters due to

obstacles. China plans to spend 20 to 30

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Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

Chapter 10:The Future of Green Nuclear Energy: Thorium-based Molten Salt Reactors (TMSR) 第十章: 未来绿色核能发展道路之一：钍基熔盐堆核能系统

years making it possible to have all the

II The developing stage from 2016 to 2025:

technologies reach the pilot-scale experiment

to build TMSR pilot-scale experiment system;

level, possess all the intellectual property

to comprehensively solve the technological

rights and ultimately realize industrialization.

problems; to reach the international leading

Chinese Academy of Sciences has made a

level in the field. The goal of the project is

three-step development planning for 20

to build 100MW thorium-based molten salt

years, please refer to Figure 10.

demonstration reactor and 10MW liquid fuel thorium-based molten salt experiment reactor

I The initial stage from 2010 to 2015: to

by 2025, first achieving the application of solid

establish perfect research platform system;

fuel molten salt reactor (MSR) in the world.

to learn and master the existing technology; to carry out the research on the key scientific

III The breakthrough stage from 2020 to

and technological issues. The goal of the

2030: to build 100MW liquid fuel thorium-

project is to build 2MW thorium-based

based molten salt demonstration reactor by

molten salt experiment reactor and make it

2030 and first achieve the cyclic utilization

reach the critical point at zero power level.

of thorium uranium fuel in the world; to

Figure 10 Three-step road map of TMSR nuclear system

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Chapter 10:The Future of Green Nuclear Energy: Thorium-based Molten Salt Reactors (TMSR) 第十章: 未来绿色核能发展道路之一：钍基熔盐堆核能系统

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

build industrially exemplary TMSR system,

must meet the requirements for the

solve related scientific problems, develop

development of the fourth generation of

and master all relevant core technologies as

advanced nuclear energy system. China ’s

well as realize the industrialization of small

fourth generation of nuclear energy system

modular molten salt reactor. The goal of the

with fast reactor as the core device can

project is to build exemplary 100MW TMSR

fully comply with the requirements of the

nuclear system and reach the critical point.

above and has three major characteristics: (1) Combined with the advanced fuel cycle

The fourth generation of advanced nuclear

system, the fast reactor can greatly improve

power system was first proposed by the

the utilization of uranium resources (such as

United States in 2000, and then the USA

reaching 60-70%), which makes the nuclear

established the “ The Fourth Generation of

power experience large-scale sustainable

International Nuclear Power Forum ” (GIF)

development as the main energy. (2) It can

with the developed countries to carry out

transmute the long-lived radioactive waste in

research and development on the fourth

the spent fuel and realize the minimization

generation of nuclear power system.

of nuclear waste, so that the nuclear energy

GIF puts forward four requirements: (1)

can be peacefully used, and its development

Sustainability: It requires to greatly improve

can coexist with the environment friendly

the utilization of resources and reduce

and harmoniously. (3) It has high inherent

radioactive waste to a minimum; (2) Safety

safety; it can completely derive the passive

and reliability: It requires very low core

residual heat and guarantee the multi-channel

melting probability and need no external

mutual independent containment barriers.

emergency preparations; (3) Economical

Even in the case of serious core meltdown,

efficiency and nuclear non-proliferation:

the radioactive substance can be contained

It can be comparable against other types

within the factory.

of energy during the working life and can avoid financial risks and be controllable; (4)

The general strategy put forward by China

Nuclear non-proliferation: it requires that

for the development of green nuclear energy

the system should have anti-proliferation

in the future is: pressurized water reactor

and anti-terrorism capabilities.

(PWR) - fast reactor - fusion reactor, form a closed cycle system of nuclear fuel, make

The future development of nuclear energy

full use of uranium resources and realize

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Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

Chapter 10:The Future of Green Nuclear Energy: Thorium-based Molten Salt Reactors (TMSR) 第十章: 未来绿色核能发展道路之一：钍基熔盐堆核能系统

the minimization of nuclear waste, so as

China’s Progress and Challenges

to ensure the sustainable development of

According to the academic annual conference

nuclear fission energy. The development

of the Chinese Nuclear Society in 2015, the

of fast reactor and fuel cycle system is of

research of TMSR by China based on the

great significance to the clean and efficient

thorium resource has already begun to take

utilization of nuclear resources in China, to

its shape. Up to now, China has mastered the

the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions

key technology of the experimental reactor

as well as the China ’ s national economic

and has made significant progress in the

construction. Mastering the fast reactor

development of four prototype systems. By

engineering technology is the key link

2020, China will build the first 10MW solid

for China to the acquisition of the fourth

fuel thorium based molten salt experiment

generation of nuclear power technology.

reactor and a 2MW liquid fuel thorium based

China’s first fast reactor, a key project in

molten salt experiment reactor in the world.

“ 863 Program ” (the National High-tech Research and Development Program)

China’s future research on TMSR nuclear

-- China ’ s Experimental Fast Reactor

system has extended to four major research

(CEFR) has been critical for the first time

fields: thorium-based nuclear power,

in July 2010 and has succeeded in grid-

molten salt reactor (MSR), comprehensive

connected generation for the first time in

utilization of nuclear energy and advanced

July 2011, which marks that China has made

basic scientific research on nuclear energy;

a major breakthrough in the research and

and these have been developed on seven

development on the fourth generation of

orientations: the safety of molten salt

nuclear power system. In accordance with the

reactor (MSR), thorium and uranium

three-step strategy of “experimental reactor,

radiochemistry, materials of molten salt

demonstration reactor, and commercial

reactor (MSR), reactor core physics and

reactor ” , the next step will focus on

technology, molten salt chemistry and circuit

carrying out the research and construction

technology, hydrogen and carbon chemical

on demonstration fast reactor in 10 years

and engineering, synchrotron radiation and

and laying the foundation for building the

super computing. Up to now, these researches

fast reactor nuclear energy system that fully

have been carried on smoothly.

complies with the requirements of the fourth generation nuclear energy system.

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With natural advantages as the nuclear

Chapter 10:The Future of Green Nuclear Energy: Thorium-based Molten Salt Reactors (TMSR) 第十章: 未来绿色核能发展道路之一：钍基熔盐堆核能系统

Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

fuel, thorium is regarded as one of the key

nuclear fuel which then are melted in the

means for the sustainable development of

high-temperature fluoride salt. And at last,

nuclear energy in the future. It is reported

by carrying the nuclear fuel, it circulates

that since the launch of the pilot project

inside and outside the reactor.

“Advanced Nuclear Fission Energy in the Future -- TMSR Nuclear System”, Chinese

China’s TMSR prototype system advances

Academy of Sciences has made significant

smoothly. The design of the thorium uranium

progress in the conceptual design of molten

cycle and heap ontology engineering has

salt reactor(MSR), in the building of the

reached the international advanced level; the

verification test bench as well as in the

molten salt loop and a security permission

research of theoretical method. They have

are at the international forefront and the

also achieved international leading positions

thorium uranium cycle prototype system

in the research of molten salt materials.

will effectively improve the economical

The breakthrough in their research on

efficiency of molten salt reactor (MSR)

the structural materials has had decisive

nuclear energy. At the same time, the key

influence in the world.

technologies of the experimental reactor that China has basically mastered or surmounted

The task of China’s pilot project for TMSR

include: extraction and separation, high-

nuclear energy is to develop the solid

end molten salt, nickel base alloy, nuclear

TMSR and liquid TMSR. Though the two

graphite, corrosion control, dry separation

kinds of molten salt reactors (MSR) need

and tritium control.

same technical basis, they have different applications. The former has higher

In short, it is a long-term plan and a sincere

technology maturity and can work as the

hope for China and even all mankind to

pre study for the latter. Therefore, TMSR

carry on the peaceful development of green

pilot project carries out the researches

nuclear energy with a firm resolution. In

simultaneously on the two kinds of heap

order to achieve China dream, Along with

types and develops them successively. And

the development of fast reactor, China

with thorium and uranium as nuclear fuel for

implements two kinds of advanced nuclear

recycling as well as fluoride salt as coolant,

fission energy: thorium based molten

the final liquid fuel reactor transforms the

salt reactor (TMSR) nuclear system and

natural nuclear fuel and the convertible

accelerator driven clean nuclear system

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Section Three: Perspectives from Chinese Experts 第三部分: 中国专家观点

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Chapter 10:The Future of Green Nuclear Energy: Thorium-based Molten Salt Reactors (TMSR) 第十章: 未来绿色核能发展道路之一：钍基熔盐堆核能系统

(ADS). There are lots of challenges to meet in

international cooperation and conquer all

order to make the green new nuclear energy

obstacles with wisdom and diligence to gain

go from laboratory to industrial applications

victory! China will make its due contribution

and ultimately become national energy. China

to solving the energy problems for the whole

will vigorously develops both domestic and

mankind.