190219855 Word Count: 2483
Transport, Infrastructure & Inequality
Gender
(ITF, 2018)
Introduction Transport planning and infrastructure are said to reinforce inequalities across many aspects of life such as disabilities, economic inequality and gender. Gender inequality is heightened through transport planning with concerns raised over accessibility, transport design and safety. Whilst safety concerns impacting women’s use of public transport is present worldwide, it is especially prevalent in developing countries where there are much larger instances of gender inequality. In 2017, the New York Post stated that “Public transportation is a nightmare for women everywhere� (Watson, 2018).
Travel Patterns There are stark differences between men and women’s travel habits. Statistics from the UK in 2005 show that men travel on average 9000 miles per year, whilst women travel 6000. 49% of men’s journeys were in a private car, compared with 35% of women’s journeys, meaning women are more likely to use public transport. Additionally, 81% of men hold a full driving licence whilst 61% of women do. Finally, the purpose behind men’s use of public transport is mainly for commuting, whereas women use the service for domestic tasks (Hamilton, Jenkins, Hodgson, & Turner, 2005). Whilst women are more likely to use public transport than men, transport planning helps to reinforce gender inequality in the UK and abroad.
(Villa & Bates, 2014)
Evidence of Inequality 4
Full Time
Part Time
Student
Not working
Retired
All
3.5 Average Trips Per Day
3
2.5 2
1.5
Figure 1 Average daily trips dependent on employment status (TfL, 2018).
2017/18
2016/17
2015/16
2014/15
2013/14
2012/13
2011/12
2010/11
2009/10
2008/09
2007/08
2006/07
1 2005/06
The UK Women’s Budget Group (WBG) stated in 2018 that subsidising transport routes impacts genders differently. Cuts to subsidies, resulting in complete cuts to services or reduction in frequencies, heavily impacts women as they are more likely to travel by bus than men (Gates, Gogescu, Grollman et al, 2019). Furthermore, women who are in part time work or who make several short journeys do not benefit from subsidised day/ weekly/monthly tickets and this results in them spending more money on transport whilst in lower paid jobs. Transport for London’s (TfL) statistics show that people in full time employment make 2.3 trips per day whilst those in part time work make 2.6 (TfL, 2018). As women are more likely to be employed part-time, they will make a higher number of shorter daily trips than men and not benefit from subsidised passes, reinforcing gender inequality. Figure 1 shows that those in part time employment have continually made more daily journeys since 2005.
Evidence of Inequality The UK WBG also states that the infrastructure of “hub and spoke” transport models, allowing movement in and out of city centres to suburbs, reinforces gender inequality. This is because the model is efficient at transporting people into employment areas in the morning and into suburbs in the evening. The WBG found that women are more likely to be employed part time and partake in domestic tasks and caregiving. Therefore, transport infrastructure which focuses on movements in/out of the city and not between suburbs reinforces gender inequality as “a lack of adequate public transport creates barriers to women accessing employment and educational opportunities, thus hindering their ability to participate in public life” (Gates, Gogescu & Grollman et al, 2019). Furthermore, women who are care givers and work part time are significantly impacted by infrequent services and fare structures in the outer areas of cities, causing them to accept jobs closer to home, limiting their employment opportunities (Gates, Gogescu & Grollman et al, 2019).
Figure 2 Point to point public transport, compared to hub and spoke (Rodrigue, 2020).
Evidence of Inequality Transport for London states that 15% of women experience sexual harassment whilst using public transport, of which 90% of cases go unreported. These cases include groping, touching, staring, body rubbing and sexual comments as well as cases of a more explicit nature. Women fear cases of sexual harassment during o-peak travel when fewer passengers are around to ease safety concerns and therefore this impacts on their travel choices and travel times (Parliament.UK, 2018). This is similar in Mumbai, India, where 54% of people have experienced sexual harassment on public transport, 88% of these cases being women, with 94% of cases unreported and 83% of women not being aware of their rights (D'Silva, 2018). TfL’s research found that women who were sexually harassed during their teenage years were more apprehensive about using public transport during adulthood. Victims are more likely to experience mental health problems, self-esteem issues, anxiety and heightened feelings of vulnerability. Dr Gray from the study stated that because of this, women tend to travel at certain times, do not travel alone, are cautious of
where they sit/stand and try to place physical barriers between themselves and men (Parliament.UK, 2018). Figure 3, overleaf, concludes that women see anti-social behaviour, crime, terrorist attacks and risk of accidents as the biggest barriers to using public transport. Figure 4 shows that women have a reduced sense of safety on all forms of public transport after dark.
% Base
Men
Women
(416)
%
(584)
Men
Women
Bus Base (regular users in the daytime) Feel safe in the daytime
Overcrowded services
59
61
Cost of tickets
42
48
Unreliable services
43
44
Slow journey times
42
43
Base (regular users in the daytime)
Concern about anti-social behaviour
39
42
Feel safe in the daytime
Dirty environment on the bus/train
20
31
Base (regular users after dark)
Concern about knife crime
22
34
Fear of crime on the bus/train
24
33
Fear of crime getting to the the bus/train
24
35
Dirty environment getting to the bus/train
16
21
Base (regular users after dark)
Fear of terrorist attacks
9
16
Feel safe after dark
Lack of info on how to use public transport
11
12
Underground
Rick of accidents
7
11
Base (regular users in the daytime)
GraďŹƒti
7
10
Dont understand how to buy bus tickets
5
5
Base (regular users after dark) Feel safe after dark
(284)
421
95
94
(138)
(174)
79
62
(213)
(270)
98
95
(165)
(213)
96
93
(197)
(235)
98
97
(120)
(116)
86
67
(268)
(325)
98
93
(166)
(177)
88
71
(368)
(504)
97
94
(226)
(222)
73
49
Driving A Car
Feel safe after dark National Rail Base (regular users in the daytime) Feel safe in the daytime
Feel safe in the daytime Base (regular users after dark) Feel safe after dark Walking
None of these
15
Figure 3 Barriers to use of public transport (TfL, 2012).
12
Base (regular users in the daytime) Feel safe in the daytime Base (regular users after dark) Feel safe after dark
Figure 4 Perception of safety before/after dark (TfL, 2012)
Evidence of Inequality TfL states that women are far less likely to use public transport, if it is difficult to do so, whilst using a buggy. This is due to infrastructure design, overcrowding, negative responses from other passengers, difficulty getting on and off transport, and occasionally, the driver refusing access. TfL states that women are extremely unlikely to use the underground if they are with a child in a buggy (TfL, 2012). This emphasises that transport planning and infrastructure reinforces gender inequality as the Women’s Budget Group states that women are more likely to carry out domestic tasks with children, than men (Gates, Gogescu, Grollman, Cooper, & Khamhaita, 2019). The development process is also responsible for reinforcing gender inequalities in transport planning. Many developers see the immobility of women as an irreversible social norm and therefore there is little female involvement in the consultation stage of new developments. Projects which aim to stop the gender inequalities in public transport have been extremely rare and held a “low priority status” (Turner & Grieco, 2006).
The reinforcement of gender inequality by transport planning has become such an important topic of debate that the World Bank’s ‘Sustainable Mobility for All’ initiative has recognised that gender equality is key to the success of the ‘sustainable mobility agenda’ (Alam, 2018).
Existing Policies London Policy
National Planning Policy Framework (NPPF) Mayor of London’s Public Transport Strategy
Policy 102e – “Patterns of movement, streets, parking and other transport considerations are integral to the design of schemes, and contribute to making high quality places” (NPPF, 2019).
The London Plan, March 2016
Policy 6.2b – “Co-ordinate measures to ensure that the transport network, now and in the future, is as safe and secure as reasonably practicable” (LondonAssembly, 2016).
Policy 4 – “Seek to ensure that crime and the fear of crime remain low on London’s streets and transport systems through designing secure environments and by providing dedicated specialist and integrated policing”, including the development of a women’s night service (Mayor of London, 2018). Policy 12 – “The Mayor will ensure public transport fare levels are set to enable access to affordable travel for all Londoners” (Mayor of London, 2018). Proposal 12 – “Prioritise the tackling of ‘high-harm’ crimes, such as sexual offences on London’s streets and public transport systems in order to protect and offer reassurance to those who feel most vulnerable when travelling” (Mayor of London, 2018).
Policy 6.10c – “Identify and implement accessible, safe and convenient direct routes to town centres, transport nodes and other key uses” (LondonAssembly, 2016) City of London Transport Strategy
Proposal 21 – “Work with the City of London Police to reduce crime and fear of crime” (City of London, 2019).
Existing Policy Discussion
The policies listed in figure 5 present many advantages to reducing inequality. Reducing the crime levels on public transport will heighten women’s sense of safety and a women’s night service will provide safe public transport for women at a time when fear of crime is highest. This will help to reduce the number of sexual harassment cases on London’s public transport. Affordable fares will benefit women who work part-time and make more daily journeys than men. Finally, implementing safe routes from town centres to transport connections will encourage women to use public transport due to an overall improvement in personal safety and connectivity. The policies, however, do carry some disadvantages. If policing levels on transport are not sufficient, crime levels will continue as it is hard to design out crime as a sole method. Policing levels also need to be high at night when
fear is highest; 49% of women claim they feel safe walking at night compared to 73% of men (TfL, 2012). This will encourage women to travel during these times. Furthermore, The London Plan does not identify the need to specifically increase safety for women. Therefore, whilst crimes such as vandalism, muggings and violence may decrease, no proposal from The London Plan will exclusively target a reduction in sexual harassment on the city’s public transport. In addition to this, whilst the NPPF does state that street patterns are key to high quality places, it does not explicitly make reference to how transport planning can tackle gender inequalities. However, the policy 102e can be interpreted as suggesting that high quality streets will increase the pedestrian’s sense of safety, thus decreasing gender inequality as women would be more likely to use the area.
(Fairs, 2015)
Policy Proposals The following policy proposals will help to challenge gender inequality in public transport: • Policies specifying that there will be an aim to decrease the number of sexual harassment incidents on London public transport at all times of the day; • A policy in the NPPF outlining the need for public transport to enable access to equal employment and educational opportunities for men and women; • Policies ensuring the accessibility of public transport for women with buggies/children and elderly dependents; • A policy ensuring that the development process of new transport projects sufficiently consults women on their opinions and how the project could minimise gender inequalities on public transport.
Created by Author using (Beno, 2020).
Case Study - London
In London, England, the ‘Report It To Stop It’ campaign was established in 2015 to combat the rise in sexual harassment cases and increase the safety of women using the Underground and buses, after it was found that 90% of cases go unreported (PRWeek, 2017). This campaign introduced a telephone number which women can call or text to report any unwanted sexual advances whilst using Transport for London services. Within the first year of operation, there was a 31% increase in incidents reported (1716 cases) with over 500 arrests (TfL, 2016). This campaign has continued with the backing of the British Transport Police, to increase safety for women on public transport and to reduce gender inequalities. Figure 7 The 'Report It To Stop It' Campaign (PRWeek, 2017)
Case Study - Mexico City In Mexico, ‘Pink Public Transportation’ has been implemented after feminists argued that violence towards women and constraints to their mobility are clear signs of gender inequality. Women only subways, cars, buses and taxies have been introduced since 2008 to increase safety and the mobility of women, with the hope women will have a heightened participation in society. In the first three years of operation, the number of reported cases of sexual abuse on the Mexico subway has decreased from 291 to 197 annually, with a high proportion of these cases resulting in arrest, as seen in figure 6 (Dunckel-Graglia, 2013). 51% of women use the service, with 66% feeling safer on ‘Pink Transport’ compared to 70% who feel unsafe on regular public transport, as it “offers a guaranteed way to travel safely” (Dunckel-Graglia, 2013). However, some women argue that a separate transport system will deepen the gender inequalities in Mexico and that the underlying causes for violence towards women need to be addressed.
All Reports Attended to in Viajemos Seguras Booths
Cases Dealing Specifically with Sexual Abuse
Cases Dealing with Other Crimes
Arrests/ Charges Brought against Offenders
2008
314
291
23
117
2009
311
273
32
124
2010
225
197
23
13**
Note: It should be noted that these statistics were posted in 2010. Therefore, it is likely that pending charges and arrests were not included, which could explain the low figure reporting here.
Figure 6: Crimes on Mexico's subway system, 2008-2010 (DunckelGraglia, 2013)
Spatial Context Approaches
Different approaches are needed to challenge gender equalities through transport planning, dependent on d i ff e r e n t s p a t i a l c o n t e x t s . Fo r e x a m p l e , t h e implementation of policy and infrastructure in London would not have the same impact in Mexico City. The policies and infrastructure implemented should be a reflection on the locations circumstances. In Mexico, the historical view is that women are domesticated and should not have an active role in public life, whilst harassment against women is found to be normal and unchangeable and women should adapt their behaviour to suit this (Dunckel-Graglia, 2013). Because of these cultural norms, women face abuse on public transport much more often than they do in London, meaning the methods applied need to be different. Dissimilarly to Mexico City, women in London, whilst not as widely as men, do use the tube and buses to commute to work. London and Mexico City both have a very similar population size, 9,046,000 and 8,918,653 (not Greater Mexico City) respectively (UnitedNations, 2018),
(WPR, 2020). This means that the overall number of citizens, and the percentage of females, who require safe public transport, will be similar. Furthermore, the issues of sexual harassment and restrictions to women’s mobility are the same in both cities. However, due to underlying cultural norms in Mexico City, it would not be suitable to apply the same methods as London. Therefore, whilst somewhat controversial, a new transport system solely for women was established in Mexico City, whereas changes to the existing system were made in London. This thought process needs to be individually applied to any national/regional/local transport system, which is seeking to challenge gender inequalities through transport planning. Policies and infrastructure design need to be individually implemented to each location dependent on the location, demographic, culture, fears and the needs of the specific female population in that area.
Conclusion & Recommendations Transport planning and infrastructure does reinforce gender inequality through fear of safety, limiting access to employment and ease of use due to infrastructure and women’s domesticated role in society. The evidence above strongly argues that whilst women use public transport more than men, services are not tailored in favour of their needs. However, many do argue that the inequalities are an outcome of the deeper cultural norms within society, heightened through transport planning. By improving public transport for women, improvements will be seen for men. The result would see a service with higher efficiency, higher revenue, better infrastructure and increased levels of safety (Braun & Humanes, 2018).
Based on the research conducted for this paper, the following recommendations have been outlined: • Understand the location’s individual needs, types of crime, accessibility requirements, culture and desired travel patterns; • Tackle the underlying cultural and historical issues of the city; • Implement policies and infrastructure improvements simultaneously to benefit each other; • National transport planning policy and local/mayoral plans should make reference to the requirement for public transport to enable equal opportunities to employment and education; • Aim to increase levels of safety on public transport, particularly after dark; • A strong emphasis must be placed by local authorities on the eradication of sexual harassment on public transport; • Improve safety to the wider surrounding area to increase safety from start to finish of the journey.
References
Alam, M. M. (2018). Women in transport: Safety and personal security. Women's Safety and Security. A Public Transport Priority, 24-25. Beno (2020). Metro Map Creator. [online] Beno. Available at: https://beno.uk/metromapcreator/#. Braun, S. S., & Humanes, P. (2018). A safe city for women and girls is a safe city for everyone. Women's Safety and Security. A Public Transport Priority, 26-27. City of London. (2019, May). City of London Transport Strategy . Retrieved from City of London: https:// www.cityoflondon.gov.uk/services/transport-andstreets/Documents/city-of-london-transportstrategy.pdf D'Silva, E. (2018). Stopping Gender-Based Violence in Transport. Women's Safety and Security. A Public Transort Priority, 14-15. Dunckel-Graglia, A. (2013). Women-Only Transportation: How "Pink" Transportation Changes Public Perception of Women's Mobility. Journal of Public Transportation, 85-105.
Fairs, M. (2015). Heatherwick welcomes new London bus inspired by his design as “back-to-front” compliment. [online] Dezeen. Available at: https://www.dezeen.com/ 2015/10/15/heatherwick-new-routemaster-london-buscopying-enviro400h-alexander-dennis-limited/. Gates, S., Gogescu, F., Grollman, C., Cooper, E., & Khamhaita, P. (2019). Transport and inequality: An evidence review for the Department for Transport. NatCen. Hamilton, K., Jenkins, L., Hodgson, F., & Turner, J. (2005). Promoting gender equality in transport. Equal Opportunities Commission. ITF (2018). Women’s Safety and Security. [online] International Transport Forum. Available at: https:// www.itf-oecd.org/womens-safety-security. LondonAssembly. (2016, March). The Current London Plan. Retrieved from Mayor of London, London Assembly: https://www.london.gov.uk/sites/default/files/ the_london_plan_malp_march_2016_-_chapter_6__londons_transport.pdf
References Mayor of London. (2018, March). Mayor's Transport Strategy. Retrieved from London Councils: https:// www.london.gov.uk/sites/default/files/mayors-transportstrategy-2018.pdf
TfL. (2012). Understanding the travel needs of London's diverse communities. Women. London: Transport for London.
NPPF. (2019). National Planning Policy Framework. London: Ministry of Housing, Communities and Local Government.
encouraging greater reporting of unwanted sexual behaviour. Retrieved from Transport for London: https://tfl.gov.uk/info-for/media/press-releases/2016/ august/-report-it-to-stop-it-campaign-encouraginggreater-reporting-of-unwanted-sexual-behaviour
Parliament.UK. (2018, October 23). Women and girls' safety on public transport. Retrieved from Parliament.UK: https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ cm201719/cmselect/cmwomeq/701/70108.htm PRWeek. (2017, November 22). Case Study: Transport for London sexual harassment campaign leads to 1200 arrests. Retrieved from PRWeek: https:// www.prweek.com/article/1450701/case-study-transportlondon-sexual-harassment-campaign-leads-1200-arrests Rodrigue, J.-P. (2020). Point to point versus hub and spoke networks. Retrieved from Transport Geography: https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=653
TfL. (2016, August 3). 'Report it to stop it' campaign
TfL. (2018). Travel in London. London: Transport for London. Turner, J., & Grieco, M. (2006). Gender and User Group Protocols: The Need for New Transport Planning Practices. Urbanism & Gender, A Necessary Vision For All, 53-63. UnitedNations. (2018). The World's Cities in 2018. United Nations.
References Villa, M. and Bates, L. (2014). The right to feel safe: women should be able to use public transport without fear. [online] NewStatesman. Available at: https:// www.newstatesman.com/politics/2014/10/right-feel-safewomen-should-be-able-use-public-transport-withoutfear. Watson, S. (2018). Ending the harrassment "nightmare". Women's Safety and Security. A Public Transport Priority, 32-33. WPR. (2020). Mexico City Population 2020. Retrieved from World Population Review: https:// worldpopulationreview.com/world-cities/mexico-citypopulation/