Table of Contents
What You Will See Editorial................................................................................................... 2 Masthead ................................................................................................ 3 Story Arcs: From 1째 to Popular ................................................................ 4 Pretend 1째 Paper ..................................................................................... 8 Reviews ................................................................................................. 12 Grants ................................................................................................... 27 Scientific Posters ................................................................................... 47
Complete B[rown] S[cience] The Pretend Journal of SciComm
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Editorial
Continuing a Legacy of Communication Niamh Micklewhite Over the course of the past two weeks, much has been accomplished. These accomplishments go far beyond just the completion of SciComm, a class that mixes liberal arts education with effective communication of science. This is the first release of Complete Brown Science, a journal that demonstrates the ability to combine two necessary fundamentals of scientific journal writing: teamwork and research.
as much of Complete B.S. as the writers, editors, and creators did. Learning is not a oneway street: to learn one must teach and to teach one must learn. The writers, editors and creators would like to thank Dr. Chris Ciarleglio for his constant support and supervision, the Summer@Brown program, and the other researchers who made Complete Brown Science possible.
This journal exhibits story arcs, reviews, golden threads, grants, and poster presentations. Much more needs to be accounted for besides the written work, as debates, PowerPoint presentations, and discussions—just to name a few—were part of everyday class time. Much of the content shows the progression of the contributors as writers, presenters, and thinkers because SciComm asked a lot of people, but proved to be worth it and beneficial to all. Contributors to Complete B.S. chose their topics because they were passionate about the subject matter, not because they were told to research it. This gives Complete B.S. a huge distinction against other journals because instead of researching to research, contributors researched to discover and explain. Covered topics in Complete B.S. vary immensely because interests spanned a large field: nanobots to prenatal stress to epigenetics to Autism and Asperger to Biofouling. As the writers, editors, and creators of Complete B.S., we hope that the journal continues to embody the emergence of teamwork and research. We hope that the next volume of Complete B.S. will vary in topics as much as this first volume has. Ultimately, we hope that the reader will take as much and give
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Complete B[rown] S[cience] The Pretend Journal of SciComm
Masthead CEEL 0980: Communicating Science (SciComm) Writing, Editing, Reviewing, and Presenting the Language of Science
Summer@Brown Brown University 200 Dyer Street Box T Providence, Rhode Island 02912 United States of America Complete B[rown] S[cience] is an open-access journal. Complete B. S. is the pretend journal of “Scientific Communication: Writing, Editing, Reviewing, and Presenting the Language of Science,” a course in the Summer@Brown Program at Brown University. Complete B. S. is a collection of works submitted by students whilst attending the course. The predecessor of Complete B. S. (called BASIS) was founded in July 2013 in an effort to consolidate and recognize the hard work done by each class of students. The journal (whatever the name is that year) is published as needed by KumK Publishers, LLC.
Review Process All works submitted for publication must be approved by the SciComm Instructor. All approved works are accepted by Complete B. S. Reprints of individual articles are available from the authors or on the website (under construction). No copyright infringement or plagiarism intended. The journal is simply English language and scientific communication practice. Requests for permission to reprint material published in Complete B. S. should be made in writing and addressed to the attention of Journal Permissions, Complete B. S., via email: c.ciarlegio@brown.edu. The request must include a citation of the exact material that will be reprinted and specific information about where it will be used. One must receive express written permission from the authors whose work will be reused. Original artwork can only be obtained from the authors. All copyrights © are held by the Authors. 2014 Editorial Board Teacher-in-Chief Christopher M. Ciarleglio, Ph.D. Indispensable Assistant to the Teacher-in-Chief Angelia Wang, `16 SciComm Logo Designer Naz Sakarya, RISD `15 Section Editors (Students) Niamh Micklewhite – Editorial Jia Jia Zhang – Cover and 1° Manuscript Arielle Van den Ende Kendal Hall Shivali Akxay Patel Harrison Tandy
Summer@Brown • School of Professional Studies http://www.brown.edu/ce/pre-college
James Chansky Director, Summer Session and Pre-College Programs Esther Zirbel Associate Director, Pre-College Programs
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Story Arcs: From 1° to Pop
Blood Rice? Harrison Tandy I have read about something interesting coming out of china in the field of biology. No I am not talking about panda dogs nor am I talking about artificially synthesized panda stomach acid. I am talking about one of Chinas other major commodities. Rice being genetically modified to produce a human blood protein called Human serum albumin (HSA). This could help with I am not entirely sure by what process the HSA is removed but if it is by squeezing and then distilling then I hope we can all agree that slightly drier rice is worth being able to more efficiently treat serious burn injuries, hemorrhagic shock, hypoproteinemia, fetal erythroblastosis, and ascites caused by cirrhosis of the liver also HSA is used as an excipient in vaccines or therapeutic protein drugs. I think it makes sense to do this and o try and find other plants which could produce other helpful proteins. I am not the only one covering this and someone who has aptly named themselves the GM Free Scotland blogger believes with no evidence whatsoever that all gmo cause
let’s see his list here chronic disease, cancer and foetal damage is inescapable if we allow transgenic HAS. In Popular science they talk in layman’s terms about how this could help so long as we monitor the environmental impacts that actually growing crops has and since HSA requires large doses this would help to meet the demand for HSA. In Nature News they say it will help make it more affordable and safer than how we are currently doing it with human plasma. 1. 2.
3. 4.
http://www.pnas.org/content/108/47/19078.f ull http://www.popsci.com/science/article/201111/genetically-modified-rice-yields-efficientquantities-human-blood-protein http://www.nature.com/news/2011/111031/f ull/news.2011.621.html http://gmfreescotland.blogspot.com/2011/12/ risks-of-pharm-rice.html
Bionic Pancreas for Diabetes Shivali Akxay Patel I found an interesting article about a "Bionic Pancreas" for Type 1 Diabetes. It is an app on the iPhone that can help manage diabetes better and more accurately. The device makes quick and correct decisions reevaluating every 5 minutes. When I looked at the primary and secondary articles they were both accurate and about how this discovery will help people with health. As I went to the third and fourth articles I saw that the titles weren't wrong, but they displayed a very different idea than reality and not the main point. The news one said something about a dad discovering this to help is diabetic son. They were using emotion to get more readers. The blogs title was very off and it said "life without insulin shots" as if the whole point was to be
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happy that no more shots are involved and nothing about the health effects and advance. 1. 2.
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http://www.artificialpancreas.org http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observati ons/2014/06/16/bionic-pancreas-managesblood-sugar-levels-in-type-1-diabetics/ http://abcnews.go.com/blogs/health/2014/06 /16/dad-develops-bionic-pancreas-to-helpdiabetic-son/ http://nypost.com/2014/06/16/bionicpancreas-promises-diabetics-life-withoutinsulin-shots/
Complete B[rown] S[cience] The Pretend Journal of SciComm
Story Arcs: From 1° to Pop
Killing Cancer from the inside Arielle Van den Ende In order to form long term memory the brain must form connections in the synapse. This was believed for a long time until an MIT scientist Miller challenged the idea. He believed the formation and deterioration of the connection was too much of a time consuming process, and the human mind is too flexible for it to occur. Miller believes our minds construct circuits that follow our thought pattern, and every time you change your mind these circuits break. The circuits are created by brain waves ( a series of neurons humming together to process new information). These brain waves come from the striatum ( processes simple things) and the prefrontal cortex. Miller conducted his experiment using monkeys. He gave the monkeys some dots and had them categorize the dots. At first, the monkeys were
memorizing which dot went where, but as soon as researchers increased the number of dots the monkeys could no longer categorize them by memorization. The monkeys were forced to categorize them based on generalized qualities, causing brain waves from the striatum and the prefrontal cortex to synchronize. 1. 2. 3. 4.
www.cell.com/neurons/abstract/S08966273(14)00391-2 www.sciencedaily.com/releases12014106/140 612121354.htm newsoffice.mit.edu/2014/synchronized-brainwaves-enable-rapid-learning www.iflscience.com/brain/brainwavessynchronize-faster-learning
Fish Oil Causes Prostate Cancer Niamh Micklewhite “Plasma Phospholipid Fatty Acids and Prostate Cancer Risk in the SELECT Trial” written by Brasky and colleagues at Ohio State University, and published in 2013, stated that supplementary fatty acids in the form of fish oil may cause a higher risk of high and low grade prostate cancer. Time magazine summarized the article, giving some statistics and quoting Brasky. The Time article tries to give off the opinion that a nutrient can have good and bad qualities to it. A lot of the secondary websites that I found showed both sides of the argument towards whether or not fatty acids cause prostate cancer, which I think is a good thing because it’s trying to communicate to the public that most nutrients have positive and negative effects. However, as the story continues to NBC, fatty acids not only become bad, but also a waste of money. The story then hits “Dr. Weil’s” question and answer sites.
media distorting Brasky’s paper. I think that before the publication of the article, people were just taking supplements to get extra nutrients, which in their mind is only healthy. But the way the media presented the knowledge of the article showed people the negative side effects of daily supplement use. 1. 2.
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http://jnci.oxfordjournals.org/content/105/15/ 1132.full.pdf+html http://healthland.time.com/2013/07/11/holdthe-salmon-omega-3-fatty-acids-linked-tohigher-risk-of-cancer/ http://www.nbcnews.com/health/menshealth/fish-oils-may-raise-prostate-cancerrisks-study-confirms-f6C10597283 http://www.drweil.com/drw/u/QAA401331/D oes-Fish-Oil-Cause-Prostate-Cancer.html
In general, I think this article changed the way a lot of people saw daily supplements, with or without the
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Story Arcs: From 1° to Pop
Cultured Burger Kendal Hall I read about the idea of cultured meat where instead of slaughtering cows and pigs they take animal cells and culture them. All the sources I found mostly had the same information except the amount of evidence they had for each statement. The primary source talked about the advantages and the disadvantages of cultured using scientific data, like how it would be good for the environment but it may expensive and the public might not accept it. The secondary sources wrote about the same things just with less evidence. Then the news and the blogs were mostly opinions about how cultured
meat is nasty and will not be accepted socially because it is unnatural. 1. http://www.cell.com/trends/biotechnology/ab stract/S0167-7799(14)00086-9 2. http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/crux/2012 /04/24/steak-of-the-art-the-fatal-flaws-of-invitro-meat.U6FFkn3LfMI 3. http://www.cnn.com/2014/04/30/tech/innova tion/cultured-meat/ 4. http://www.laweekly.com/squidink/2014/01/2 2/a-future-of-cultured-meat
Mathematical Killers Jia Jia Zhang Did you know that serial killers may kill according to a mathematical formula? Apparently they do, based on the results of two UCLA researchers, M.V. Simkin and V.P. Roychowdhur. In their experiment, they analyzed the time pattern of the activity of Andrei Chikatilo, a serial killer who murdered 53 people in the span of 12 years. The odd thing about his timing was that sometimes he would go without killing for 3 years and at other times it was just 3 days. The scientists hypothesized that similar to the cause of epileptic seizures, a serial killer murders people due to the “simultaneous firing of large numbers of neurons”(pdf). Once a neuron is triggered, it causes other neurons to fire, and as a result, cascades throughout the body, but usually it is small, quick and dies down. However, in serial killers, the firing crosses a certain threshold, and creates an urge for them to commit murders. Once a neuron fires, it needs to recharge, so it goes into a refractory period; Simkin and Roychowdhur also assume that murdering has a calming effect and causes “excited neurons to fall to the threshold”(pdf).
like a set of steps on a staircase. The spikes and flat lines both follow the power law, a type of mathematical distribution used to predict earthquakes, stock market crashes, Macy’s one day sales, and maybe even zombie apocalypses, basically sporadic events. They found that the probability of a new murder can be approximated through the random walk theory and the n number of days that have passed since the last murder, generating the formula: (in attached file). Using this formula, they found that the probability of a serial killer murdering a person was much higher right after the deed was done, and much lower when there was a long dormant period. However a problem with the model was that it predicted there would be a dozen intermurder periods of one day, while Chikatilo’s shortest span between murders was 3 days. So something the scientists had to reconsider was the success rate of the murders. If something did not go as planned, well the serial killer would have to try and try again. And another thing they had to take into consideration was the time serial killers need to do their evil plotting.
The researchers then plotted Chikatilo’s murder and found that it followed a mathematical curve called the devil’s staircase, how fitting. The curve illustrates spikes followed by flat lines of no activity, and ultimately it looks
The primary literature of the two UCLA researchers revealed a complex array of vocabulary which I had to search up and take a couple of hours to figure out. But it also offered much more information and in depth
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Complete B[rown] S[cience] The Pretend Journal of SciComm
Story Arcs: From 1° to Pop analysis in comparison to the secondary, tertiary, and quaternary literature. Something that was different throughout each one was the number of murders the “Butcher of Rostov” committed. Some articles said he killed 52 people, another 54 and 56, but the primary literature states he murders 53 people. It seems as the articles become more and more further from their source the number of murders Chikatilo commits rises, maybe he’s still alive and killing. The secondary literature present graphs from the research along with detailed explanations of concepts, but not much implications. Then in tertiary literature, news websites start bringing in real life implications such as using the mathematical formula to predict when serial killers will strike next. It is not a crazy suggestion from the research information, but a sub bullet point states that “neuronal urges are driven by [a] mathematical pattern”(dailymail). It seems to me that it should be the other way around, rather the mathematical pattern simply fits to the neuronal firings. We made math, math does not make us. The quaternary literature is much shorter and is more of like a fun fact. None of the things started are false, it is just that a good
portion of the scientific research was cut out. Overall the coverage was appropriate. 1. 2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
http://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1201/1201.2 458.pdf http://www.forbes.com/sites/alexknapp/2012 /01/16/scientists-uncover-the-mathematicsof-serial-killers/ http://www.technologyreview.com/view/4266 15/mathematicians-reveal-serial-killerspattern-of-murder/ http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/articl e-2088331/How-devils-staircase-mathsformula-predict-serial-killers-strike-next.html http://www.nbcnews.com/id/46045497/ns/te chnology_and_science-science/t/mathformula-may-explain-why-serial-killerskill/#.U59pwvldWlc http://science.howstuffworks.com/innovation/ science-questions/10-2012discoveries.htm#page=10
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Pretend 1° Paper
The Effects of Alcoholic Beverages on Gynecomastia in Men Kendal Hall1, Niamh Micklewhite1, Shivali Patel1, Harrison Tandy1, Arielle Van Ende1, Jia Jia Zhang1, and Christopher M. Ciarleglio1,2 1
Summer@Brown, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA; 2 Department of Neuroscience, Brown University, Providence, RI
Estrogen is a hormone that regulates bodily processes and development. Healthy males contain a small amount of estrogen and mostly testosterone (another hormone that serves to regulate body processes and development). Human bodies are not the only organisms that produce estrogen. Hops, a plant used in beer produces phytoestrogen, a form of estrogen that mimics the human steroid. However, it is unknown whether or not drinking can lead to a condition called gynecomastia, where male breast tissue enlarges due to above average estrogen levels. Here we show that as the intake level of alcohol increases the intensity of the gynecomastia. Estrogens are a steroid compound that are essential to the development and function of multiple organisms1. Although present in men, estrogen is most commonly found in women, and helps with numerous types of bodily regulations and developments including: function development of secondary sexual characteristics, regulation of secretion for ovulation, preparation of tissues for progesterone response, maintenance of bone mass, regulation of lipoprotein synthesis, prevention of urogenital atrophy, regulation of insulin responsiveness, and maintenance of cognitive function2. Similarly, estrogen plays a role in male bodies (such as bone lengthening, decreasing pimples, and the developing of secondary sex characteristics); however, male estrogen levels are significantly lower in comparison to estrogen levels in women. All men have more testosterone in their bodies than estrogen, but as men age, their levels of estrogen naturally increases. If more than the correct amount of estrogen is introduced into the male body system, men tend to develop feminine 8
characteristics, such as breasts, and the process is referred to as gynecomastia. Gynecomastia is the enlargement of male breast glandular tissue and affects 30 percent of males at some point in their lifetime3. Gynecomastia is due to an increase of estrogens; estrogens quicken the growth and formation of lactiferous ducts in the center of breast4. Gynecomastia is most common at three stages of a male’s life because of the increase in estrogen: infancy, puberty, and between the ages of 50 and 803. Given the information found in the previously mentioned studies, we hypothesize that excessive consumption of alcoholic beverages significantly increases gynecomastia in men ages 21 to 26. Hops, the plant found in beer, contains a significant amount of phytoestrogen, which mimics estrogen. Therefore, if the excessivedrinking of alcohol introduces more estrogen into the males system, then a more than sufficient amount of estrogen would be present in the males body, causing the growth or breast
Complete B[rown] S[cience] The Pretend Journal of SciComm
Pretend 1° Paper glandular tissue and the formation of gynecomastia. Men usually carry their weight in their gut, so if the waist size of the subjects stays the same, while BMI increases, then we know that the extra BMI weight is going to the chests of the men.
A
MATERIALS AND METHODS The study was conducted with a total of one hundred and twenty five male individuals ranging from ages twenty-one to twenty-six. Lasting six months, with periodic checkups every two weeks, the study required participants to have a twenty five hundred calorie intake every 24 hours. The men were all naive drinkers and had a BMI of no less than eighteen and no more than twenty six. The total amount of males was divided into five groups of twenty-five, each male’s weight, bra fitting, and waist size was recorded. Each group received various amounts of alcohol. The first group of males was used as a control group and received no alcohol and 2,500 calories of food (daily) within the six months the study was conducted. The second group received one Budweiser and 2355 calories of food during a 24 hour period. The third group received three Budweisers and 2065 calories of food during a twenty-four hour period. The fourth received five Budweisers and 1775 calories of food under the same conditions. Followed by the fifth and final group which received seven Budweisers and 1485 calories of food during the allotted time period. Change in the male’s “breast size,” weight, and waist size was recorded throughout the study.
B
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RESULTS Figure 1 | Significant effects of excessive alcohol consumption in gynecomastia. A | The percent change from the initial body mass index (BMI) of the each test group is displayed as men in each group are given different amounts of drinks per day throughout the span of 24 weeks. The results indicate an overall increase in all BMIs of each test group, however, the men receiving 7 drinks per day (violet colored diamond plot line) have the greatest percent change in BMI. B | The significant increase in BMIs do not seem to be having an effect on the waist sizes of the male subjects as little to no percent change is reported. C | By contrast, a significantly large percentage change is shown in chest measurements, with the greatest percentage change in the test group which received 7 drinks per day (violet colored diamond plot line). This draws a strong correlation between excessive alcohol consumption leading to a significant increase in gynecomastia in men.
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Pretend 1° Paper The experiments revealed that men who drank 7 drinks per day had the greatest percentage change in body mass index (BMI) (Figure 1A). However, the weight gained had little to no effect on waist measurements. Instead, chest measurements displayed a significant percentage change, with the greatest change in men who drank 7 drinks per day (Figure 1B). Parallel to our hypothesis, excessive alcohol consumption seems to be strongly correlated with gynecomastia in men. As more alcohol is consumed, more phytoestrogen is taken into the body as well, consequently causing men to develop more feminine characteristics—one of them being the accumulation of fat in breast tissue. The low percentage change in waist sizes despite alcohol consumption suggests that rather than storing fat in the waist as men are accustomed to, the weight gained would become stored in the chest as women are more prone to; the graph in Figure 1C further justified the prediction. In order to accurately test for whether excessive alcohol consumption could be a cause of gynecomastia in men, naive drinkers were used in the study to limit any bodily differences due to prior alcohol consumption. Moreover, males included in the experiments were required to be within the 18 to 26 BMI range. A calorie limit on food and beers was imposed for the purpose of eliminating excessive calorie consumption being a factor in weight gain, and to also focus on the contents of alcoholic beverages being the primary factor in the distribution of fat to the breast rather than the waist in men. DISCUSSION/CONCLUSION The study shows that men who are exposed to the phytoestrogen in Budweiser develop more feminine characteristics. Storing excess fat in their breasts, instead of in their waist as men usually do, is an example of that. We do not know for a fact that all of the fat is going there. However, what we do know is that quite a lot of it is going into the breasts. Our study has shown that age does not have a significant effect on breast size, but it does have a significant effect on BMI and waist size at the start of the study, mainly because older men 10
seem to be more likely to be wide and close to overweight. The study has also shown that if you drink alcohol products with high levels of phytoestrogen you will not get the infamous beer belly instead you will get moobs or man boobs because the phytoestrogen will cause you to store your fat in your breast area instead of in your waist as most men do. The alcohol increase did have a significant effect on bust size. Specifically the higher levels of alcoholism produced the higher BMI increase and bust size increase. If we were to continue this study we would take the amount of phytoestrogen in each of the beer amounts that we used and retest on new people to see if it was the phytoestrogen and not something else in the beer. Other things we could have done better is measuring out the calorie intake we feel we did the best we could on that but there might be future ways to improve that part of our study. The health benefits of this knowledge are if you are a woman who has low estrogen and doesn't want to take shots or pills to raise your hormone level you could just drink beer (don’t actually the pills and shots are better). The other health benefits is that this will help show why people shouldn't drink too much alcohol because no matter where the fat goes it is still fat that can cause health defects that you don’t want and since it is stored in the breasts it gives you an increased chance of heart attacks beyond what a normally fat man would have. REFERENCES 1) Mandel, Ananya. "Estrogen - What Is Estrogen?" Http://www.news-medical.net/. N.p., 28 Nov. 2012. Web. 24 June 2014 2) Nelson, L. R., & Bulun, S. E. (2001). Estrogen production and action. J AM ACAD DERMATOL, 45(3): 116124. Retrieved June 18, 2014. 3) Cuhaci, Neslihan, Sefika Burcak Polat, Berna Evranos, Reyhan Ersoy, and Bekir Cakir. "Abstract." National Center for Biotechnology Information. U.S. National Library of Medicine, 02 Sept. 0005. Web. 24 June 2014. 4). Morito, SEIICHIRO, and MASATOSHI Ishibashi. "Increased Gallium-67 Citrate Uptake in the Breast of a Patient with Gynecomastia."Https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp. Department of Radiology, 22 Dec. 1989. Web. 24 June 2014 5). A, Abaci, and Buyukgebiz A. "Result Filters." National Center for Biotechnology Information. U.S. National Library of Medicine, 5 Sept. 2007. Web. 24 June 2014
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Pretend 1째 Paper press.endocrine.org/doi/abs//10.1210.jcem-35--6-836 6) Gavaler, Judith S., Ph.D. "Alcoholic Beverages as a Source of Estrogens."Alcoholic Beverages as a Source of Estrogens (n.d.): n. pag.Http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/. Alcohol Health & Research World. Web. 7) Ray. "Beer Is Making You A Girly Man - RPM FITNESS." RPM FITNESS. N.p., n.d. Web. 24 June 2014.
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Reviews
The Developments in Research toward Discovering the Causes and Cures of Retrograde Amnesia Retrograde amnesia is often associated with Alzheimer’s disease, and has become popularized due to social media. However the age-old memory disorder continues to plague the science community as a cure has still yet to be identified. This review will go over the developments in locating the central region of the brain which causes retrograde amnesia, its role in memory consolidation, and lastly memory reactivation and its implications.
Jia Jia Zhang Retrograde amnesia, Hippocampus, Medial temporal lobe, Semantic memory, Episodic memory, Autobiographical memory
Introduction Retrograde amnesia is characterized as amnesia in which the lack of memory relates to events that occurred before a traumatic experience1. Oftentimes the affected persons experience semantic and episodic impairment. The former causes people to have a deficiency in factual knowledge of the world or of themselves, while the latter is more resistant to recovery and impedes people from recollecting episodes prior to the injury2. Semantic impairment improves with continual exposure to past information, but people who suffer episodic impairment are unable to “reexperience” it in a subjective perspective despite being retold past events2. Although amnesia has been researched and scrutinized for over 200 years beginning with the French psychologist, TheoduleArmand Ribot, the cause and cure for still remains elusive. This review will go over evidence indicating the region of the brain responsible for retrograde amnesia and delve into recent advancements in finding the cause and cure for retrograde amnesia. Locating the Region of the Brain In order to find a cure, we must first find where retrograde amnesia is caused. Regardless of improvements in neuro-technology and imaging machines, numerous past experiments and tests have shown that the limbic system is critical in encoding autobiographical memories3. In one
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significant case, a man, Henry Molaison (“HM”), had severe epilepsy and as a result could not be treated with pharmacological methods. The doctors resorted to brain surgery and removed his temporal lobe bilaterally4. Although Henry’s epilepsy was slightly subdued, he developed severe anterograde amnesia along with slight retrograde amnesia4. From H.M.’s case, many scientists came to conclude that the region within the temporal lobes was responsible for his amnesic condition, specifically the hippocampal formation5,6. In another case, three patients were observed over a period of time, and in spite of bilateral hippocampal pathology and pronounced amnesia for episodes of everyday life in all three, they managed to maintain average cognitive abilities. This revealed that episodic and semantic memory are partly dissociable, with the episodic component being fully dependent on the hippocampus5,6. The researchers thus proposed that the “basic sensory memory functions of the perirhinal and entorhinal cortices may be sufficient enough to support the formation of context-free semantic memories but not of context-rich episodic memories, which would require the additional processing provided by the hippocampal circuit”5. Effects of Damage to the Hippocampus
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Reviews Now what happens if damage were to occur to the hippocampus? According to Ribot’s law, retrograde amnesia has a time gradient, which states that
experience is initially encoded in parallel in hippocampal and cortical networks6. Then subsequent reactivation of the hippocampal network reinstates activity in different cortical networks5. This coordinated replay across hippocampal–cortical networks leads to gradual strengthening of cortico-cortical connections, which eventually allows new memories to become independent of the hippocampus and to be gradually integrated with pre-existing cortical memories6. This memory networking is known as the multiple trace theory (Fig. 1).
Figure 1 | Standard consolidation model6.
recent memories are more likely to be lost in comparison to more remote memories. Correspondingly, behavioral models including contextual fear conditioning and socially-acquired food preference (a form of non-spatial learning) tested on mice demonstrated that disrupting hippocampal function preferentially affects recent rather than remote memories6. Recent studies have also found that the length of the time gradient also seems to correlate to the extent of medial temporal lobe damage; the more extensive the damage, the more memory is lost. For example, in patients where damage was limited to the CA1 region of the hippocampus, retrograde amnesia only extended back 1–2 years6. By contrast, patients with more extensive medial temporal damage (including the entire hippocampus and parts of the entorhinal cortex) retrograde amnesia covered at least 15 years6. The Hippocampus and Memory Consolidation As mentioned earlier in the review, H.M., aside from severe anterograde amnesia, also suffered from incomplete retrograde amnesia, which suggests that memories might be permanently stored elsewhere besides the hippocampus6. Research has suggested that the hippocampus has a time-limited role in the storage and retrieval of memory, with permanent storage depending on a broadly distributed cortical network6. Marr created the first model that accounted for system consolidation and according to his model,
Figure 2 | Time-dependent reorganization of brain circuitry that underlies spatial discrimination memories
Memory Reactivation Once ascertaining the role of the hippocampus in retrograde amnesia and memory consolidation, ways in which memory can be reactivated start to surface. Reactivation of the hippocampal memory trace is thought to lead to the reinstatement of
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Reviews experience-dependent patterns of neural activity in the cortex, and have revealed that coordinated replay does in fact occur in the hippocampus and between the hippocampal-cortical and corticalcortical networks6,9,10. Moreover, on a test done on mice, the results showed that increasing the retention interval resulted in decreased metabolic activity in the dorsal hippocampus and increased activity in several cortical areas including the frontal and anterior cingulate cortices (Fig. 2)6. These data further validate Marr’s model in that the hippocampus has a transient role in memory storage, and that, over time, distributed cortical areas become capable of mediating recall of remote memories independently6. However, testing mice in the different context at the remote time-point re-engages the hippocampus, indicating that this brain region is required to encode new information6. In identifying the process of stabilizing memory, scientists can work from there in discovering a method to strengthen the bond between the hippocampal-cortical and cortical-cortical network. Controversies Although numerous studies have pointed to the hippocampus as being crucial to retrograde amnesia, some experiments have suggested otherwise. Kopelman and his colleagues found, using planimetric methods, a significant difference between retrograde memory scores and medial temporal volumes in 40 patients; however, it is a weak correlation in comparison to the frontal volumes and autobiographical episode scores in frontal and diencephalic patients7,8. Despite these findings, scientists must still take into account the
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variability in results due to the subjectivity of memory tests and the difficulty in quantifying data. References 1. MedicineNet. "Retrograde Amnesia." Medterms. MedicineNet, 14 June 2012. Web. 20 June 2014. <http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey =11959>. 2. Levine, B., Black, S. E., Cabeza, R., Sinden, M. & McIntosh…, A. R. Episodic memory and the self in a case of isolated retrograde amnesia. (1998). at <http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/content/121/10/1951.short > 3. Staniloiu, A., Markowitsch, H. J. & Brand, M. Psychogenic amnesia--a malady of the constricted self. Consciousness and cognition 19, 778–801 (2010). 4. Squire, L. R. The legacy of patient HM for neuroscience. (2009). at <http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S089662 7308010957> 5. Vargha-Khadem, F., Gadian, D. G. & Watkins…, K. E. Differential effects of early hippocampal pathology on episodic and semantic memory. (1997). doi:10.1126/science.277.5324.376 6. Frankland, P. W. & Bontempi, B. The organization of recent and remote memories. (2005). at <http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/v6/n2/abs/nrn1607.ht ml> 7. Kopelman, M. D., Lasserson, D. & Kingsley…, D. R. Retrograde amnesia and the volume of critical brain structures. (2003). doi:10.1002/hipo.10140 8. Kopelman, M. D. & Bright, P. On remembering and forgetting our autobiographical pasts: retrograde amnesia and Andrew Mayes’s contribution to neuropsychological method. (2012). at <http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S002839 3212003168> 9. Wilson, M. A. Hippocampal memory formation, plasticity, and the role of sleep. (2002). at <http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S107474 2702940980> 10. Squire, L. R. & Alvarez, P. Retrograde amnesia and memory consolidation: a neurobiological perspective. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 5, 169–177 (1995).
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Reviews
The many shades of Asperger’s Syndrome Asperger Syndrome is a neurodevelopmental disorder that occurs in both children and adults. It is categorized by social impairment, difficulties with communication, and repetitive behaviors. Asperger is similar to autism but is different in levels of severity of social deficiencies. Kids with autism will shy away from conversation while kids with Asperger’s love to talk to other people. This review will serve to describe Asperger and its many psychological and physical effects on the people diagnosed with it.
Kendal Hall Kids and adults with Asperger’s have distinct social behaviors that are very awkward and most often leave them isolated. These actions include very formal speech, lack of eye contact, and very one sided conversations 1,2 . They may have unusual rhythm, rate, and volume when they speak. They may also speak very robotically and repeat the same things over again. Nonverbal communication, such as facial expressions and gestures are very hard for them to understand. They are also unable to comprehend humor and social and emotional issues. Another characteristic of Asperger’s is delayed motor skills, this may cause them to have very awkward movements and mannerisms. Other kids may be able to play in the park and do very simple tasks that kids with AS cannot do because of this delay. These kids also display repetitive behaviors such as saying and doing the same things, sticking to the same routine, and focusing on one interest. Persons with AS most often dislike change and will stick to a daily schedule. Closing a car door, clapping and nonstop talking about a topic repeatedly are some of the repetitive behaviors that are displayed. These behaviors are not specific only to AS but are one of the hallmark symptoms of it. One major interest is usually chosen and takes over that individual’s interest. This subject may be typical for the person’s age or very unusual. Being absorbed in such circumscribed interest usually means that they are uninvolved in other things like school, home life, or a social life. Also this interest dominates any conversation that they have. They will talk about this one topic even if the other doesn’t like or is getting bored of it. This makes it
very difficult for families at times and adds to the isolation already caused by odd speech.
Figure 1 | How a lack of sense of self can lead to hoarding. Permission granted to use this image by Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy.
There have been studies on the idea that kids with Asperger’s have trouble with their sense of self. Perner (2008) stated that a person’s autobiographical memory depends on their ability to know themselves and the theory of mind. This would mean that someone with AS failure of autobiographical memory and theory of mind is due to lack of autonoetic consciousness. This is the idea of knowing one’s beliefs, intents and desires are their own and different from someone else’s. In order to remember an event, the individual must have the ability to place themselves back in to that time and relive that moment. Not having a sense of self would not allow one to do so. Multiple
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Reviews studies have stated that children start to develop this sense of self around the age of four and that kids with Asperger’s never develop this autonoetic consciousness. 3 In order to deal with this lack of sense of self some hypothesize that hoarding helps people with AS get their autobiographical memory back. These things that are hoarded represent an important part of themselves; it serves as a link to all that they have done beforehand. This hypothesis derived from a study that was conducted with three people diagnosed with AS. The first person, AB, describes her collection of things as a way to hold on to who she is. Every piece was a piece of who she was. She could not choose what items were more important because they are a part of her. The next person was, BC, who held on to pictures of buildings that were demolished. He said that they were part of his childhood and important to him. Seeing the spots were the buildings used to be causes him great distress and prevents him from going near the part of town where they used to be. The last participant was CD. He keeps music very close to him because it helps him explain his life. He has been through very rough times but doesn’t really remember them, he only talks about and relives his musical endeavors. These three people stories support the idea of hoarding helping with the void of autonoetical consciousness. There is way more information about Asperger’s than is in this review. Asperger is an expansive topic that has many unanswered questions. It is slowly being investigated and researched and being brought to the light. Many kids are now being diagnosed with this disorder and getting help that they weren’t getting before. In the future, the goal is to learn
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about the cause and maybe the treatment or cure for Asperger’s. Also to look into what exactly causes kids with Asperger’s to lack a sense of self. References 1. Woodbury-Smith, M. R. & Volkmar, F. R. Asperger syndrome. European child & adolescent psychiatry 18, 2–11 (2009). 2. Gillberg, I. C. & Gillberg, C. Asperger syndrome— some epidemiological considerations: a research note. (1989). doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1989.tb00275.x 3. Tanweer, T., Rathbone, C. J. & Souchay, C. Autobiographical memory, autonoetic consciousness, and identity in Asperger syndrome. Neuropsychologia 48, 900–908 (2010). 4. Skirrow, P., Jackson, P., Perry, E. & Hare, D. J. I Collect Therefore I am-Autonoetic Consciousness and Hoarding in Asperger Syndrome. Clinical psychology & psychotherapy (2014). doi:10.1002/cpp.1889 5. South, M., Ozonoff, S. & McMahon, W. M. Repetitive behavior profiles in Asperger syndrome and highfunctioning autism. Journal of autism and developmental disorders 35, 145–58 (2005). 6. Frith, U. Autism and Asperger syndrome. (1991). at <http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=HoRX8s8V8 WYC&oi=fnd&pg=PR9&ots=tmYIUTwB_t&sig=nrRkEDLYU6CC 11Y2H6r0NwDX_Ic> 7. Asperger, H. & Frith, U. ‘Autistic psychopathy’in childhood. (1991). at <http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/199297284-002> 8. Wilson, C. E. et al. The Neuropsychology of Male Adults With High-Functioning Autism or Asperger Syndrome. Autism research : official journal of the International Society for Autism Research (2014). doi:10.1002/aur.1394 9. Steeb, H. et al. Serum proteomic analysis identifies sex-specific differences in lipid metabolism and inflammation profiles in adults diagnosed with Asperger syndrome. Molecular autism 5, 4 (2014). 10. Lehnhardt, F.-G. G. et al. The investigation and differential diagnosis of Asperger syndrome in adults. Deutsches Ärzteblatt international 110, 755–63 (2013).
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Reviews
A review of marine biofouling for the purpose of finding an antifouling solution Every year the Navy spends $1 billion on biofoul removal1. Biofouling is a major problem where the growth of unwanted organisms, on unwanted places, causes reduced efficiency, contamination, and failure of certain equipment2. Biofouling is usually found on the base of a boat or in other water submerged structures3. Biofoul removal is expensive, toxic, and the removal methods can decrease the efficiency and performance of the surface/machinery. If a safe, non-toxic, environmentally friendly antifouling coating or surface is found, harmful biocides and chemicals would not be used as frequently and perhaps diminish the drag and fuel cost of a ship/boat. The most effective antifouling device would consider both the physical and chemical composition of the surface1.
Niamh Micklewhite Biofouling, Antifouling, Biocide, Super-Hydrophobicity, Biofilm, Biofouling Organisms, TBT
Introduction Biofouling is a major problem in the boating and fishing industries. Biofouling is the attachment of biofilms or biofouling organisms, such as algae, hydroids, tubeworms, bivalve molluscs, bryozoans and tunicates5 on unwanted places. In some cases, biofouling can also refer to bacterial attachment to a medical device, such as a urinary catheter, or on other biomedical devices1. Biofouling is usually found on the base of a boat or in other water submerged structures like a fishing net or pipe3. When a surface or structure becomes biofouled, the structure gets heavier and can cause the structure to corrode or malfunction. A surface that is submerged in the sea will eventually be covered in some sort of organic material if left untouched6. Once the structure has already been biofouled, the removal of the organisms is expensive, and usually the removal methods are toxic to the surrounding water life and can cause decrease in efficiency and performance of the structure the surface belongs. Therefore, it is better to prevent biofouling than removing it. The removal, reduction, delay, or prevention of biofouling is known as antifouling coatings or an antifouling strategy. The most commonly used antifouler is a biocide or metal
compound5 and many can be harmful to the surrounding ecosystem7. The Problem with Antifouling Strategies and Toxic Antifouling Solutions: The goal of research for scientists concerned with biofouling is to find an antifouling solution that will not be harmful to the environment. The removal process of biofouling organisms can be done mechanically (scrapers, brushes), chemically (acid), or with the use of a biocide, which, in this case, is a combination of chemicals that can kill certain marine organisms (algae, molluscs, barnacles, etc.)5. Sometimes, all three methods of removal need to be used because the hull or structure is biofouled so heavily. After the biocide has killed all the biofouling organisms, the dead biofilms and biofouling organisms need to be removed because otherwise they will serve as the nutrients for the next generation of biofoulers to grow8. The biocide is not efficient enough to prevent any further attachment and so the cycle begins again. The dead organisms need to be removed and then an antifouling coating needs to be placed onto the newly cleaned surface8. The most commonly used antifouler is TBT, which is short for tributyltin4. TBT
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Reviews usually comes in the form of paint and is applied before the exposure to seawater, as it is used for the prevention of biofouling. However, international regulations and rules against the use of TBT have lessened the use of it, but instead has made the use of copper more common5. Non-toxic Antifouling Solutions So far, there are limited eco friendly antifouling solutions. Instead of using a type of eco-friendly, non-toxic chemical or cleaning product, scientists are trying to change the composition and surface structure of the hull of the boat5. Scientists are looking at the natural biofouling mechanisms of sharks, mussels, seaweed and crabs because each have their own way of preventing organism attachment1. Scientists have also tried placing another surface on top of the hull, such as one that is super-hydrophobic9. Scientists believe that if the hull does not come in contact with the water, then the biofouling organisms will not have contact with the hull and therefore not be able to attach2. Many of the new antifouling strategies are structures where the surfaces are mimicked from a surface that is naturally occurring in nature. Effects of Biofouling in the World: Every year, the navy spends over 600 million dollars on fueling their ships and submarines; however, to actually remove and prevent biofouling, the Navy spends almost one billion dollars each year 7,10,11. Biofouling organisms can add up to 15 percent drag on a military ship/boat and cost the military up to 30 percent more money in fuel7. The excess in fuel cost caused by the biofouling organisms could not only be prevented with an efficient antifouling device, but also increase the speed at which the ships and submarines move at10,11. The Navy, like many other international travel boats, also needs to think wisely about the toxins that they use for biofouling removal and prevention because of the range of waters that they travel in. The toxins in biocides have been present in waters all around the world, stretching from Japan, United States, Singapore, Australia and Bermuda4. In New Zealand, scientists claim that biofouling from foreign waters has introduced other marine 18
species into its waters, causing it to affect the native marine life12. In the fishing industry, biofouling organisms cover the fishing nets used to capture fish or other marine life. If the net is left with the biofouling organisms, the net will not be able to supply oxygen to the contents inside the net6. The sea urchin has also been shown to be affected by antifouling coatings13. In a study conducted by Kobayashi et al, sea urchin eggs and embryos were shown to be affected differently by eight different biocides, one of which being TBT13. The study concluded that depending on the biocide and concentration of the biocide in the water, the development rate of the eggs/embryos would change dramatically13. Closing Remarks: If an extremely effective and efficient antifouling method is found, drag delay, extra fuel cost and biocide toxins affecting marine life would be a past issue. Diminishment of marine organisms should not be a consequence of boat cleaning toxins. Its important for scientists to continue to study and research biofouling so that the best and safest antifouling solution can be found. References 1. Magin, C. M., Cooper, S. P. and Brennan, A. B. (2010). Non-toxic antifouling strategies. Materials Today, 13(4): 36-44. Retrieved June 18, 2014. 2. Callow, M. E. and Callow, J. A. (2002). Marine biofouling: A sticky problem. Biologist, 49: 1-5. Retrieved June 18, 2014. 3. Dobretsov, S., Dahms, H. and Qian, P. (2006). Inhibition of biofouling by marine microorganisms and their metabolites. Biofouling, 22: 43-54. Retrieved June 18, 2014. 4. Konstantinou, I. and Albanis, T. (2004). Worldwide occurrence and effects of antifouling paint booster biocides in the aquatic environment: A review. Environment International, 30: 235-248. Retrieved June 18, 2014. 5. Videla, H. A. (2002). Prevention and control of biocorrosion. International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation, 49: 259-270. Retrieved June 18, 2014. 6. Armstrong, E., Boyd, K. G. and Burgess, J. G. (2000). Prevention of marine biofouling using natural compounds from marine organisms.Biotechnology Annual Review, 6: 221241. Retrieved June 20, 2014.
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Reviews 7. Youngblood, J. P. (2003). Coatings based on sidechain ether-linked poly(ethylene glycol) and fluorocarbon polymers for the control of marine biofouling. Biofouling, 19: 91-98. Retrieved June 18, 2014. 8. Flemming, H., Griebe, T. and Schaule, G. (1996). Antifouling strategies in technical systems: A short review. Pergamon, 34(5): 517-524. Retrieved June 18, 2014. 9. Marmur, A. (2006). Super-hydrophobicity fundamentals: Implications to biofouling prevention. Biofouling: The Journal of Bioadhesion and Biofilm Research, 22: 107-115. Retrieved June 18, 2014.
10. Schultz, M. P. (2007). Effects of coating roughness and biofouling on ship resistance and powering. Biofouling, 23(5): 331-341. Retrieved June 18, 2014. 11. Schultz, M. P. (2011). Economic impact of biofouling on a naval surface ship. Biofouling, 27(1): 87-98. Retrieved June 18, 2014. 12. Brine, O., Hunt, L. and Costello, M. (2013). Marine biofouling on recreational boats on swing moorings and berths. Management of Biological Invasions, 4(4): 327-341. Retrieved June 20, 2014. 13. Kobayashi, N. and Okamura, H. (2002). Effects of new antifouling compounds on the development of sea urchin. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 44: 748-751. Retrieved June 18, 2014.
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Reviews
Epigenetic Programming of Animal Stress Responses to Maternal Care The experiences animals face early in life affect their mental health permanently1. These experiences change their genetic properties causing the way that they react to stress to change. A study done in rats showed that the glucocorticoid receptor expression changes due to maternal care2. If a rat is given good care after birth, its glucocorticoid receptor will be upregulated, resulting in better reactions to stress later in life. In humans, bad experiences, like child abuse, cause a change in gene expression to increase the chances of suicide2. Maternal care in any form affects the baby in positive and negative ways. Here we show that early life experiences causes a change in the glucocorticoid receptor which effects the way animals react to stress.
Shivali Patel Child abuse, stress, maternal care, glucocorticoid receptor, suicide, genes
Childhood abuse (mental and physical) leads to higher chances of suicide and other related stress issues by altering the hypothalamic-pituitaryadrenal (HPA) axis3 leading to suicide and other problems. There is a pattern that takes place. A mother who is depressed and stressed will most likely not be very positive towards her baby, which causes depression and stress in the baby as well1, which in turn causes very serious problems in the baby. An experiment on rats illustrated this effect further. Two groups of mother rats her pups were tested. One group had a mother who maltreated the pups, and the other had a mother who had nurturing maternal care4. The abused pups had more favorable gene environments than the pups with positive maternal care before the experiment occurred4. The data were recorded 30 minutes daily for the first week after birth. The results show that the pups that were treated positively had a change in gene expression. The genes had such an increase in glucocorticoid receptor levels that they were much higher then the pups that were maltreated (originally had higher levels of glucocorticoid receptor) 4. This information provides support to the hypothesis that maternal
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care affects the rest of the animalâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s life and changes its genes. The glucocorticoid receptor, hypothalamicpituitary-adrenal axis, and stress are all related5. Good and relaxed maternal care results in an increase of levels of the glucocorticoid receptor, but maltreatment results in a decrease of levels of the glucocorticoid receptor1-5. When a person has severe depression, it means that the levels of the glucocorticoid receptor are very low5. Many people have wondered why humans respond differently to stress. They say that someone with a bad life is more likely to become a criminal. The experiments discussed could help support this idea. The reason that people who had a bad life are more likely to do the wrong thing is that their early life experiences may have caused their cells to have lower levels of the glucocorticoid receptor5-6. This caused them to not be able to handle stress, as they got older, making them do the wrong things and make bad choices6. Taken together these data suggest that maternal care does alter the gene expression of the babies. Maltreatment and other negative maternal care decrease the levels of the glucocorticoid receptor causing a bad react to stress for the baby. Good maternal care increases
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Reviews the glucocorticoid receptor giving the baby a good reaction to stress for the rest of its life. This information shows that it is important to give good maternal care to your baby since it will affect the baby lifelong. References 1. Fish, Eric W et al. “Epigenetic programming of stress responses through variations in maternal care.” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences1036.1 (2004): 167–180. 2. McGowan, P O et al. “Epigenetic regulation of the glucocorticoid receptor in human brain associates with childhood abuse” (2009).
3. Labonte, B et al. “Differential Glucocorticoid Receptor Exon 1< sub> B</sub>, 1< sub> C</sub>, and 1< sub> H</sub> Expression and Methylation in Suicide Completers with a …” (2012). 4. Roth, T L et al. “Lasting Epigenetic Influence of EarlyLife Adversity on the< i> BDNF</i> Gene” (2009). 5. Meaney, M J, M Szyf, and J R Seckl. “Epigenetic mechanisms of perinatal programming of hypothalamicpituitary-adrenal function and health” (2007). 6. Meaney, M J, and M Szyf. “Environmental programming of stress responses through DNA methylation: life at the interface between a dynamic environment and a fixed genome” (2005).
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Reviews
A Brief Overview of Nano-bots Nano machine research is crucial to the prolonged survival of the human race. Nano machines would be impossible to see with the naked eye and would be no more than a couple nanometers in length. Nano machines can affect materials at the atomic level and cells at cellular level. Nano-machines are entirely capable of becoming great boons to many forms of industry, but the current problems with nano-machines are in designing them and powering them to do their jobs properly.
Harrison Tandy Nano-bots, Nano, Bionics, Robots, Medical Nano-bots
Introduction In medicine nano-bots have the capability to greatly increase life expectancy and lower invasiveness in surgery. The nano-bots we are currently developing could easily act as a camera and take images to make sure a person is healthy, check-up on a tumor or make sure something is healing in the right way. These are the mundane uses we are capable of now, but the problem becomes how to power them: we could either use a piezoelectric motor powered by the heartâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s pumping or we use bacteria to push the nano-bot along its path. In the future we could attach miniature lasers to nano-bots to destroy cancer cells and to attack viruses that the human body has difficulty in removing like HIV. They will also be able to thoroughly clean our teeth and prevent any residue from remaining. Two things that must occur to allow medicinal nano-bots are advances in chemistry to allow for more sophisticated materials, and a more advanced understanding of the human body to allow us to perform better surgery and mapping of the human brain and other systems.1 If we move from health to home; we see buildings that can stand strong against the forces of nature and can repair themselves when they break. We could put a layer on the side of buildings; tiny sensors that sense a break and then dispatch tiny robots to seal the cracks with fast drying materialsâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;be it concrete, steel, or wood. They could even help by allowing us to but up support in a much stronger way by embedding it 22
with robotic precision into the ground and walls. Not only that, but they can make sure that busted power wires do not stay broken for long. They will also be able to clean out our pipes so we donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t have to do it ourselves or smell the home cooked casserole we made yesterday or toilet clogs. We could utilize nano-bots capability to build computer chips to help make smart buildings, power lines, and houses. The sheer building aspects are impressive but if we move on to production of materials we get into 3D printing using nano-bots to build the machines from the inside-out. There are two ways to assemble molecular parts: self-assembly and positional assembly.2 The self-assembly is a possibility but is a lot more difficult because of the need to find ways of making the materials assemble themselves which is really difficult. Not only that but we could design better materials by playing with the atomic structure of the different materials. We could also make parts from the bottom up rather than cutting the part out of a sheet or block of metal or plastic. If we move from building to energy we see a more efficient world where we can design superconductors for wiring in houses and electronics. Solar, hydrogen, and new generation batteries and super capacitors are described as the most significant examples of the contributions of nanotechnology in the energy sector.3 The superconductors developed could allow us to build hovering cars by putting metal rails in a kind of monorail style for the cars with superconductors in
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Reviews them to ride on and float above the ground to prevent most friction from slowing the car down. If we go away from the energy we use to power our homes we can enter the field of energy we use for destruction: robotic weapons. Medical nano-bots could also enter the warzone by helping to stitch up wounded soldiers and make sure they can survive a few bullets in areas that aren’t required for living for a few hours. They could also wear armor that was made by nano-bots to help protect them from most bullet shots, which could also help the police when faced with rogue gunmen, or it might help any law enforcement branch that has the possibility of getting shot. Then we have what soldiers have aptly named Little Frisbee of Death; which is a small robot that can be controlled like a helicopter but looks like a Frisbee and packs an explosion meant to destroy armored vehicles like tanks. There are also tests to use little robots in finding mines so that we don’t accidentally blow up dogs. The pace and extent of research has not been fully anticipated by international legal regulation.4 These weapons are some of the most deadly in any arsenal and we regulate chemical and nuclear weapons better than them which means policy needs to catch up with the times. We say a fond farewell to weapons and defenses in war (hopefully soon as a species) and move on to the stuff you thought was fun when you were a kid and had recently watched a James Bond movie; espionage. Currently, our spying arsenal of tiny robots consists of a hummingbird bot that looks like and acts like a real hummingbird yet has a secret camera with which it watches everything. We have the ability to turn normal bugs into mind-controlled little cyborg spies. Currently we are only doing this with roaches and butterflies. Then there is the flesh free version that is a full robot made of plastic and metal instead of flesh and metal. The mind control one if it trickles down to the civilian market could result in some very nice weddings or some hilarious pranks. The weddings by having butterflies fly around the bride and pranks by having roaches and spiders crawl onto people’s faces. In the future of at the outside 49 years we will have soldiers equipped with
“flying mini-robots and micro-sensor nets as scouts and sentries.”5 As we grow older and give up the spy games we enter a period of building with little blocks called Legos (at least I did). Well now imagine a robot that could do the whole mix and match with Legos while appearing to be made out of Legos. The ultimate adaptoid (adaptable android) robot. This robot could exist within the near future. A prototype version already exists except the prototype is made of much bigger cubes. Sure this robot can’t go to war or get people out of burning buildings but it can look really cool. Yet the robot functions like swarm intelligence and could be made to copy the cubes it has and build a new one to grow when it needs to. Swarms consist of many simple entities that have local interactions including with the environment and each other.6 As we move from blocks to space there is a definite possibility of using tiny robots to explore other planets. If we decide to colonize the nanobots can start production of a base and begin the terraforming project to allow long term human habitation and ability to go outside without a specialized suit. The program for sending these robots would be to shoot a rocket into space and then to send capsules out into the galaxy. These capsules upon reaching a destination would function as satellites to relay information to us and act as mission control for the robots it will send to the planet. Then it will send down a few hundred nano-bots to take geographical images, soil composition, atmospheric composition, species (if there are any), and mineral composition. To quote Neil deGrasse Tyson “If I don my pure-scientist hat, I would say just send robots; I'll stay down here and get the data.” Scientists have developed a new class of missions based on the efficiency and cooperative nature of a hive culture. The missions, aptly dubbed nano-swarm is a little more than mechanized colonies cooperating in their exploration of the solar system.7 As we exit the vastness of space and head really deep inwards we can look at a possibility that does enter the medical field but has more to do with enhancements rather than health. These enhancements could be inorganic in nature or organic. The nano-bot could go into the brain and
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Reviews fix some neural connections to help prevent some disorders. We could have it go around the body and enhance different parts of your body by releasing chemicals extra cells or in the brain creating new neural connections using nano-fiber. These nano-fiber connections could allow everyone to become a genuine genius. It would also allow us to create contact lenses that function as really cool Google glasses. We could also amplify our hearing and reflexes by doing what mosquitoes do and bypassing the brain when the body senses danger. In mosquitoes it just sends a message straight to the wings and then it dodges now if we could do that fist fights and boxing would be either incredibly entertaining or no one would ever score a hit ever. Then there is the possibility of remaking one’s body by adding artificial upgrades. Today represents the early stages of what has been called the “bionic convergence”: the convergence of the biologic revolution with the information revolution, the joining of biology with electronics.8 There are other aspects of nanotechnology that could exist in the future. Yet so far these are the ones that seem most likely to enter the realm of the real within the next fifty to sixty years. I hope you have learned something about nanotechnology while you were reading this review of current and possible future nanotechnology. Until the day comes when I can buy a roach that I can control like a robot at the convenience store I say good bye and may the future be soon.
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A nanobot created at Carnegie Mellon University and demonstrated to be functional in real-world experiments. The flagella motion of the bacteria’s cells propel the nano-bot, which is controlled by the application of environmental stimuli.9 References 1.
Saini and Saini 2010 Nanotechnology and surgical neurology Surg Neurol 1: 57 2. Merkle 2000 Molecular building blocks and development strategies for molecular nanotechnology Nanotechnology 11 2 :89 3. Serano, Rus and Garcia-Martinez 2009 Nanotechnology for Sustainable Energy Science Direct 13 9 2373–2384 4. Hitoshi and Faunce 2009-2010 Nanotechnology and the International Law of Weaponry: Towards International Regulation of Nano-Weapons Journal of Law, Information and Science 20 21 5. Altmann and Gubrud 2004 Anicipating Millitary Nanotechnology Technology and Society magazine 23 4 33-40 6. Rouff, Hinchey and Sterritt 2007 Swarms and Swarm intelligence Software Technologies 40 4 111-113 7. Truzkowski, Hinchey, Rash and Rouff 2004 NASA's swarm missions: the challenge of building autonomous software IT Profesional 6 5 47-52 8. Zajtchuk 1999 New technologies in medicine: biotechnology and nanotechnology Disease-a-Month 45 11 453-495 9. Kroeker 2009 Medical Nanobots CACAM 52 9 18-19 10. Wang, Wallace, Moulton and Higgins 20012 Nanobionics: the impact of nanotechnology on implantable medical devices Nanoscale 4 4327-4347
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The Effects of Prenatal Stress In January 1998, one hundred millimeters of freezing rain fell upon the city of Quebec, Canada. The natural disaster affected everyone across all backgrounds and ethnicities, allowing something novel to be accomplished: because the natural disaster randomized subjective and objective hardship, scientists were able to find mothers who were in different stages of pregnancy during the storm and from diverse backgrounds in an effort to test the effects of stress on their offspring. They discovered that not only is prenatal stress unhealthy, it can lead to cognitive and physiological problems in the offspring of the mother.
Arielle Van den Ende Prenatal stress may correlate with autism in the offspring. Deborah J. Walder conducted an experiment in which she located 89 women who were pregnant at different stages during the 1998 Quebec ice storm. Once their offspring reached six years of age, she had them fill out an Autism Spectrum Screening Questionnaire (ASSQ). The ASSQ is a 27 question checklist for autistic traits. The mothers were asked to determine the type of stress they experienced, categorizing it as either subjective or objective stress. Objective stress is defined in the study as loss of a home or temporary power outage, and is scaled from zero to eight by a test called The Storm32 which was specifically designed to ask questions about the 1998 Ice Storm's effect. Subjective stress was measured by a test called the Impact of Events Scale, it measured cognitive repercussions of the storm by measuring participants on three separate scales: one asked about intrusive thoughts, the second asked about hyperarousal, and the last asked about avoidance. Patterns were recognized in the data, leading to the conclusion that higher stress levels led to more autistic traits in their children. Researchers believe that prenatal stress influences the development of the child through the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. Other studies have suggested that HPA axis perturbation can cause cognitive disorders. Researchers also believe that the autistic trait can be a result of epigenetics. The mothers may develop a gene expression alteration or imprinting due to extreme amounts of stress that is then passed to their
offspring, and thus increasing the risk of cognitive issues. Prenatal stress may also be linked to asthma in females. Despite the fact that there is no known cause for asthma, scientists suspect that it may be linked to an event in utero. It is also recognized that sex is linked with lung development. Anne Marie Turcotte-Trembley conducted phone interviews using 68 moms whose offspring were six months of age and/or eleven and a half years of age. The questionnaire completed over the phone was based on the International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood. The objective and subjective hardship of the mothers was recorded and scaled by the Storm32 test and the Impact of Events Scales (Revised edition). The Storm32 test scales on four separate scales: one based on the threat level, one based on the amount of loss, another based on scope, and the final one based on amount of change. The Impact of Events and Scales screened for posttraumatic stress disorder on a scale of zero to twenty two (twenty two being posttraumatic stress disorder). The mothers scored an average of 11.9. Regression models were conducted to measure children's lifetime occurrence of wheezing, doctor diagnosed asthma and children's lifetime use of corticosteroid utilization. All of the models resulted in a significant correlation between prenatal maternal stress and wheezing, asthma, and cortico utilization, and female offspring. Researchers suspect that the gender difference is caused by sex differences in genes related to immune pathways and placenta response to glucocorticoids.
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Reviews Furthermore, it is suspected that maternal distress can create a vulnerability during the fetal programming period where a stressful life event affects the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis , which, in turn, triggers secretion of glucocorticoids that may react with the fetus through the transplacental passage and therefore alter their HPA axis and immune function. Prenatal stress affects motor function in five and a half year olds. Xiujing Cal studied eighty nine five and a half year olds (forty two boys and forty two girls), and used thirty five mothers that were in their first trimester of pregnancy when the storm hit and twenty seven mothers in their second and third trimester. The children were assessed on their bilateral coordination and balance, and their visual-motor integration. The study of bilateral coordination and balance was scaled by the Bruininks- Oseretsk Test of motor proficiency, which measures precise coordination of both sides of the body. Visual Motor Index was measured by the Beery-Buktenica Development test, where participants were required to draw geometric shapes to determine their level of fine motor skills. There was a correlation between stress and the scores on the two tests. Researchers believe that this is because cortisone levels increase in late
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pregnancy during the formation of the cerebellum. Stress causes addition cortisone which may affect the underlying structures involved in bilateral coordination and visual motor index. Excess cortisone may increase the fetus's exposure to testosterone which may lead to asymmetry of the corpus callosum resulting in mental defect.
References 1. Walder, J.D., Laplante, D.P., Sousa-Pires, A., Veru, F., Brunet, A., & King, S. (In press). Prenatal maternal stress predicts autism traits in 6 1/2 year-old children: Project Ice Storm. Psychiatry Research. 2. Turcotte-Tremblay, A.M., Lim, R., Laplante, D.P., Kobzik, L., Brunet, A., & King, S. (2014). Prenatal maternal stress predicts childhood asthma in girls: project ice storm. BioMed Research International, 2014, 1-10. 3. Cao, X., Laplante, D.P., Brunet, A., Ciampi, A., & King, S. (2014). Prenatal maternal stress affects motor function in 5 1/2-year-old children: project ice storm. Developmental Psychobiology, 56, 117-125. 4. Veru, F., Laplante, D.P., Luheshi, G., & King, S. (2014). Prenatal maternal stress exposure and immune function in the offspring. Stress, 17(2), 133-148 5. Dancause, KN, Veru, F, Andersen, RE, Laplante, DP, & King, S (2013). Prenatal stress due to a natural disaster predicts insulin secretion in adolescence. Early Human Development, 89, 773-7
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Unethical Retrograde Amnesia Jia Jia Zhang
A. Specific Aims What if all of a sudden you got into a car crash while you were texting and singing horribly off pitch, which is completely illegal I might add, and woke up to a surgeon’s table and found that you could not remember who you were or even how you ended up there? The memories of your wife, kids, and office life all gone due to a traumatic event. There are so many heartbreaking dramas based on retrograde amnesia, but not all people who have the condition get a happy ending and a Hollywood ‘aha’ moment. Is there any way to recover all those precious moments and embarrassing stories in reality? Retrograde amnesia is characterized as amnesia in which the lack of memory relates to events that occurred before a traumatic experience1. Oftentimes the affected persons experience little to no semantic impairment and more severe episodic impairment. The former causes people to have a deficiency in factual knowledge of the world or of themselves, while the latter is more resistant to recovery and impedes people from recollecting episodes prior to the injury. Semantic impairment improves with continual exposure to past information, but people who suffer episodic impairment are unable to “re-experience” it in a subjective perspective despite being retold past events1. Despite extensive research, pinpointing the specific region of the brain which causes retrograde amnesia still remains controversial. Although numerous studies have indicated the hippocampus as being crucial to retrograde amnesia, some experiments have suggested otherwise. In order to settle the dispute, I will base my experiments off of human trials and utilize magnetoencephalography along with a voltage sensitive probe to monitor neurological processes. Tests would then be conducted on people with sections of their brains removed depending on what the initial experiment indicates as being vital to retrograde amnesia. Ultimately, the goal of the project is to locate the portion of the brain accountable for retrograde amnesia through finding which areas are triggered when short term memories are being formed, and long term memories are being consolidated. Once the source of retrograde amnesia is identified, scientists can then move on to focusing and curing the memory disorder through possibly replacing the damaged region or strengthening networks. The implications of the study can aid in curing various types of dementia as mentioned above, including Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, and Huntington’s disease. Aim 1. Memory Consolidation: Where in the brain is long term and short term memory consolidated and stored? Using human subjects, I will stalk them throughout a month of their lifetime as they experience events and monitor their cranial activity through voltage sensitive probes and magnetoencephalography to answer the following questions: Where in the brain is activity most prevalent when first experiencing an event in terms of short term memory? How is the memory consolidated and where in the brain is memory retrieved when subjects are asked to recall memories? How and where is long term memory formed and stored? Where are episodic and semantic memory stored and are they dissociable? Why do I have so many questions? Aim II
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Grants Does the removal of the region of the brain indicated from Aim I or after an induced traumatic event result in symptoms similar to retrograde amnesia? According to the results of Aim I, I will remove the portion of the brain in control of retrograde amnesia, and subsequently run episodic and semantic memory tests once confirming the subjects are cognitively functional and can still think. Another approach is inducing a traumatic event on the subjects by throwing a bookcase on their heads. Following that, I will repeat the same process using voltage sensitive probes and magnetoencephalography to answer the following questions: Is retrograde amnesia attributed to only one specific structure or portion of the brain? Can short term and new memories continue to be formed? Are the trauma induced subjects able to still retain pre-trauma memories? B. Background and Significance Having retrograde amnesia inhibits much of life’s wonders and enjoyments. People who cope with the disorder must deal with not having a subjective view of events that had happened to them, and in the case of losing autobiographical memory, they can lose not only their identity but their family and friends. So far there have not been any surgical methods or pharmacological methods developed which can treat retrograde amnesia, so people who suffer from the disorder can only attempt to “jog” their memories from others telling them of past events. In the experiment, an assortment of machines and methods are utilized to monitor brain activity. The magnetoencephalography serves to show timing and spatial information of the brain activity, and the probe allows for real-time monitoring of neuron firing through a fluorescent element in the middle of a voltage-sensing protein. During the action potential of a neuron, the neural membrane opens to allow positively charged ions inside the cell and negatively charged ions out. This process causes a rapid increase in the positive charge of the nerve fiber2. And when the charge reaches +40 mv, the impulse is propagated down the nerve fiber2. The probe then picks up on the increased voltage and causes the fluorescent element to glow. Neuron firing immediately indicates where short term memories are being formed while subjects are recalling what they ate that day. Retrograde amnesia is usually associated with loss of long term memory and episodic memory before a traumatic event, so localizing where short term memory is and separating it from where long term memory is stored is crucial. Preliminary Data Recount of events from subject with portions of brain removed Dear Diary, Today I went to a suspicious room where there were knives and a suspicious looking surgeon person. After that I had a little headache and then went home and fell asleep. I think I am having a midlife crisis because I don’t remember anything but I still have yet to figure out how old I am and why I have a stranger’s license in a wallet that has been in my pocket. Notes from stalking The 50 year old subject signed up for the scientific experiment and then ate eggs, toast, rice, and an ample amount of Twizzlers for breakfast. After eating, he proceeded to his office, and dazed off into space for a while. From there, a sac was placed on his head and he was escorted to the surgeon’s office in order to have the portion responsible for retrograde amnesia removed. The subject seemed a little disoriented after the procedure, but proved to be cognitively functioning so we set him free. Thereafter he went home and slept. As a side note, his wallet and ID were in his pocket. Figure 1 | Sample of subject who had portions of brain removed. The subject’s journal revealed symptoms of retrograde amnesia as the man retells the day’s events. The diary indicates that he has no recollection of the trauma (surgery) and any events closely associated with it. It also demonstrates a loss of autobiographical memory along with average cognitive abilities.
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parietal lobe
temporal lobe
occipital lobe
frontal lobe
Figure 2 | Activity levels in the brain when subjects are administered episodic memory test. The graph displays higher brain activity levels in the temporal lobe in comparison to the parietal, occipital, and frontal lobe. Subjects from this data were required to recount the day’s events and from the results this suggests that the temporal lobe is responsible for memory consolidation and storage. The activity levels of the brain were scaled from 0-5, with 5 being the highest brain activity levels and 0 signifying no activity at all. High activity levels from the temporal lobe also suggest that there could be a structure within, possibly the hippocampus, which is firing a great amount of neurons.
C. Research Design Specific Aim I | Memory Consolidation: Where in the brain is long term and short term memory consolidated and stored? Rationale: The ultimate goal of this aim is to identify the portions of the brain which retain memory and if it were hypothetically damaged would cause retrograde amnesia. The data collected will help show a correlation between a region of the brain and long term memory, and also indicate where semantic and episodic memory is stored. From the completion of the aim, more follow-up studies can be conducted to find cures and reconnect or repair brain damage. Experiment 1: Human subjects will be stalked for a span of a month, with constant monitoring of their daily activities and experiences. At approximately 12:12 a.m. Arielle time, a recount of the day’s events including breakups and will be recorded and compared to notes taken down from the stalking. Voltage sensitive probes along with magnetoencephalography will record the cranial activity as the people report what they had done the whole day. This should indicate where episodic memory is located within the brain and should display the hippocampal-cortical networks, and after continual repetition of reciting what had happened on one particular day, less activity should be present in the hippocampus according to the multiple trace theory. The voltage sensitive probes should reveal high brain activity initially in the hippocampus, as research has shown for the hippocampus to have a time-limited role in the storage and retrieval of memory. Semantic memory tests will also be conducted to verify that episodic and semantic memory are found in separate areas of the brain, as patients who acquire retrograde amnesia often have unimpaired semantic memory while losing some or most episodic memories. Test subjects will be required to memorize a series of calculus formulas and useless words, and while they are committing the information to memory, voltage sensitive probes and a magnetoencephalography will be used to examine which regions of the brain are activated; this would indicate the location of semantic memory storage. A comparison would then be drawn between brain activity when subjects recounted the day’s events and brain activity when subjects recounted a past day’s events; this would determine where long term and short term memory is consolidated. Complete B[rown] S[cience] The Journal of SciComm
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Grants Potential Problems and Interpretations: The experiment may lead to execution, court trials, excommunication, Ciar fired and put in jail, and multiple ethical concerns. However, a few losses can lead to greater gains. Besides ethical and court issues, the memory tests are subjective and may lead to varying results and consequently cause some errors. Based on previous studies conducted on retrograde amnesia, the hippocampus should exhibit the most activity through the probes when subjects are asked to retell the dayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s events, as it has been shown to play a transient role in memory storage and retrieval; this would also indicate the location of short term memory storage. But as subjects are constantly asked to retell that specific dayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s events, the memory should become more independent from the hippocampus as coordinated replay strengthens cortico-cortical networks. When asking a test subject to recount a past event without being constantly reminded, the magnetoencephalography and probe results should display activity in a region where long term memory is stored. And finally, after comparing data between semantic and episodic memory tests, different regions of the brain should show activity. Successful completion of aim I can provide numerous implications in finding ways to reinforce memory and pinpointing locations of short term memory, long term memory, episodic memory, and semantic memory can prove to be useful in treatments to target specific memory disorders and diseases. Specific Aim II | Does the removal of the region of the brain indicated from aim I or after an induced traumatic event result in symptoms similar to retrograde amnesia? Rationale: The ultimate goal of this aim is to reaffirm that the regions of the brain identified as being responsible for retrograde amnesia have been correctly located. Through the removal of the region of the brain indicated from aim I, the direct effects on the subject should display symptoms of retrograde amnesia. The experiment should reveal whether retrograde amnesia is attributed to one structure or a region, and whether traumatized subjects react similarly to those who had portions of their brains removed. Experiment 2: In this experiment the same machinery and techniques will be employed to monitor the brain activity of the human subjects. However, the conditions differ in that all the subjects have been altered cranially, whether by a bookcase or through removal of a structure in the brain. First subjects will undergo surgery to have the region where retrograde amnesia impacts removed. Following that, partially brainless subjects will be given episodic and autobiographical memory tests, asking them who they are and what they have done that day. Semantic tests will then be administered to check if semantic memory and episodic memory are dissociable. While the subject is given episodic and semantic tests, voltage sensitive probes and magnetoencephalography will track brain activity and observe which regions of the brain are activated despite the absence of a portion in control of episodic memory and long term memory consolidation. Similarly, the same tests and monitoring will be administered but to subjects who had been traumatized from a bookcase to the head, specifically causing damage to the medial temporal lobe region. A comparison would then be drawn between the data of the two conditions and if both display similar symptoms, then bingo, we have recreated retrograde amnesia and found part of the cause. Potential Problems and Interpretations: Once again, many ethical questions come up in terms of inducing traumas and removing sections of brains, but it should be noted that those who participated have signed a waiver. Other potential problems could include loss of cognitive, speech, or memory abilities if the portion of the brain removed has other functions. The way in which the book case hits a subjectâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s head could also cause different responses, but the experiment is set so that only the medial temporal lobe is damaged, which has been shown in previous studies to cause retrograde amnesia and damage to it also designates the severity of the retrograde amnesia. In the experiment, after the portion of the brain has been removed, subjects should be capable of acquiring semantic memories and forming new memories. Consequently, when episodic and semantic tests are administered, the voltage sensitive probes and magnetoencephalography should exhibit more
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Grants activity when semantic tests are administered than when episodic memories are administered. Subjects should also be unable to recall any memories close to the surgery or bookcase trauma. Acknowledgements The subjects who donated their lives will forever be remember and loved. I would like to acknowledge Dr. Christopher Ciarleglio for allowing me to use his lab and bookcases, and also Kendal for contributing to what might be potential problems with the experiment. References: 1. 2.
MedicineNet. "Retrograde Amnesia." Medterms. MedicineNet, 14 June 2012. Web. 20 June 2014. <http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=11959>. Adams, Amy. "Stanford Scientists Observe Brain Activity in Real Time." Stanford University. Stanford University, 22 Apr. 2014. Web. 25 June 2014. <http://news.stanford.edu/news/2014/april/voltage-brain-activity-042214.html>.
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Redefining Asperger’s Syndrome Kendal Hall A. Specific Aims Have you ever tried to speak to someone but they ignored you or thought you were weird? That is the feeling that someone with Asperger’s experiences sometimes on a daily basis. Asperger’s syndrome, (AS) is neurodevelopmental disorder that is part of the Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD). This disorder is categorized by symptoms such as difficulty with social cues and social situations, repetitive behaviors, and usually high focus on one topic. This is a disorder that is now receiving new light and is now being diagnosed more often. But there is still a lot to find out about this condition. In pursuit of greater understanding, many people have grouped Asperger’s with autism on the Autistic Disorder spectrum. This experiment will serve to make the distinction between the two and help figuring out how to diagnose it more efficiently. Also many children with Asperger’s are very good with math so this will also see if that is marker for the condition that can be used as a way to diagnose Asperger’s. This impacts human health because many people have Asperger’s and have not been diagnosed or have been grouped with autism and are inappropriately treated. Learning the difference would allow doctors and scientists to give the appropriate care and advice. Also learning about the distinction will make diagnostics more efficient and effective. This could be done by finding something like an effect or an occurrence in the human body that is unique only to the Asperger’s syndrome. That property may be strong connectivity to the intraparietal sulcus. Right now Asperger’s is seen as a milder form of autism and has no significant differences from this condition. While it does share many characteristics with autism, there are differences. Another key issue is that many adults are now being diagnosed with Asperger’s that have had it since they were children. This experiment would help remedy both these issues that plague people every day. By using an electroencephalogram test, this experiment will find differences between the two conditions. It will also help with the diagnoses process. Aim 1: To find a significant difference between autism and Asperger’s. This will be done by using an electroencephalogram test that will measure brain connectivity to display neurophysiological differences between Asperger’s syndrome and Autism spectrum disorder. Aim 2: To find if strong connectivity in the brain for the intraparietal sulcus (IPS) is common among all children with Asperger’s. Various children with Asperger’s will all take a math test while having their brains scanned to see if there is strong activity in that area of the brain. Completing this project will help society and me in many ways. First off, it will help the many children who have Asperger’s and may have been diagnosed erroneously or not at all. Second, it would give doctors and scientists a new efficient way to diagnose Asperger’s, completely separate from autism. Thirdly, it will advance me as a scientist and give me the ability to receive a grade in my science communications class that is above a failing grade.
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Grants B. Background and Significance Despite its differences Asperger’s has been labeled as an ASD and lost its identity as a specific disorder. Many people are angered by this decision and argue that it is oversimplifying the condition. If this experiment can show a significant difference between the two, then it can help reverse this decision, which would bring joy to many people. Also it may get more people interested in what Asperger’s syndrome is in comparison to autism. Then if the intraparietal sulcus has a strong connectivity then maybe it can be used to diagnose the disorder efficiently. This would help so many children who have not been diagnosed before and suffer from symptoms with no treatment. Preliminary Data We ran a small version of this experiment a few months ago. We used only 400 children with ASD and 26 children with AS. We also had 500 controls. In this test the results were that the brain connections were similar but had a distinct difference. Autism and Asperger’s both shared weak brain connections in language and other areas. Unlike the other two groups, the children with Asperger’s syndrome had very strong brain connectivity in certain areas. C. Research Design Specific Aim 1 Experiment: In our first experiment we will take children diagnosed with a condition on the Autism disorder spectrum and give them an electroencephalogram test that uses electrodes to detect electrical activity in the brain. Within the group that has ASD there will be children with Asperger’s. We will be also be using controls of typically developed children and give them the same test. Afterwards, we will compare the test results of the three groups. Rationale: We decided to do this because this would give a distinct difference between Asperger’s and Autism if proven to be correct. If there are signs of strong connectivity in a specific area of the brain only in the Asperger’s group then that would be our distinction. Procedure: We will be taking 4,000 children that are diagnosed with Autism spectrum disorder or reaffirmed in the past month. In this group will be 1,500 children with Asperger’s. These children will be between the ages of 2-12. Then we will have 4,500 controls that are healthy and also between the ages of 2-12. Then we will test them on the electroencephalogram and check their results. This test will measure their brain connectivity to check for any neurophysiological differences between the groups. Potential problems: Due to the study having small children there may be a problem with the test. Small children tend to move around a lot which can mess up the results. Constant eye and muscle movement are typical reasons for faulty results. Also because there are some many variables in this case there is a high percent of chance. Specific Aim 2 Experiment: In our second experiment we will be taking children with Asperger’s and healthy children without Asperger’s to take a math test. During this test we will scan their brains for what part of the brain they are using. Then we will see how strong the brain connectivity is with that part of the brain. Then we will compare the results of the test and see what the majority is. Rationale: We decided to do this because many people have stated that children with Asperger’s are very good with math. We wanted to see of that was true for all children with Asperger’s. Then through that we thought that if it was a unique characteristic only with Asperger’s then that would make it a way to diagnose a child, to see if the child fits the Asperger’s profile by testing his brain in where he uses math. Procedure: We will be taking 400 children with Asperger’s syndrome between the ages of 10-15. We will also be taking 400 children that do not have Asperger’s between the same ages. Then we will proceed to give them all an algebra test for an hour and a half. During the test we will be scanning what Complete B[rown] S[cience] The Journal of SciComm
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Grants part of the brain is processing the numerical equations during the test. We will then compare the strength of the connectivity in the intraparietal sulcus in the groups and between the two groups. Potential Problems: Kids may slack off test because of boredom or insufficient knowledge.
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Finding an Effective Antifouler Niamh Micklewhite A. Specific Aims Every year the Navy spends one billion dollars on biofoul removal1. Biofouling is a major problem where the growth of unwanted organisms, on unwanted places, causes reduced efficiency, contamination, and failure of certain equipment2. Biofouling is usually found on the base of a boat or in other water submerged structures3. Biofoul removal is expensive, toxic, and the removal methods can decrease the efficiency and performance of the surface/machinery. If a safe, non-toxic, environmentally friendly antifouling coating or surface is found, harmful biocides and chemicals would not be used as frequently and would perhaps diminish the drag and fuel cost of a ship/boat. The most effective antifouling device would consider both the physical and chemical composition of the surface1. Diminishment of marine organisms should not be a consequence of boat cleaning toxins. It is important for scientists to continue to study and research biofouling so that the best and safest antifouling solution can be found. Researching a non-toxic antifouler is important to humans in multiple ways. Toxins from removal and prevention biocides are causing developmental problems in sea urchins and other marine life13. This problem could cause abnormal changes in the seafood that humans eat, with the effects to humans unknown. Also, any change in marine life will change the marine ecosystem. Humans would not need to spend as much time or money on the removal and prevention of biofouling organisms. Advances in the biofouling boating/fishing industries could also lead to new advances in the biomedical industry. Biofilm attachment on medical devices is a problem, like biofouling, that also needs to be addressed. The purpose of this study is to test a removable antifouling skin, and if shown to be affective, another removable skin that is also super-hydrophobic. The purpose of a removable super-hydrophobic skin is to prevent biofouling but to also remove the biofouling organisms easily if the prevention mechanism fails. Aim 1: The first test for the removal of biofouling organisms is a peal-off skin. I will address this by taking 50 newly built, small boats (25ft) and spraying a silicon skin onto the hull of the boat. This skin can be removed by pealing it off. Therefore, once the hull has been biofouled, the skin can be removed easily and the hull of the ship would have not undergone any corrosion. Cost of the skin will be measured over a period of one year. Aim 2: The second test for removal of biofouling organisms is a removable skin. I will address this by taking 50 newly built, small boats (25ft) and spraying a silicon, super-hydrophobic skin onto the hull of the boat. This skin can be removed by pealing it off. Therefore, once the hull has been biofouled, the skin can be removed easily and the hull of the ship has not undergone any corrosion. The super-hydrophobicity of the skin acts as a biofouling prevention mechanism, but if the prevention does not work, then the skin can be easily pealed-off. Cost will also be measured in this experiment over a period of one year. Completion of this project may increase the interest of the US Navy and help to ensure the American people that their military runs as cost effectively and efficiently as possible. If the antifouling methods show to be a success, the Navyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s boats will also move faster and be less impactful to the environment.
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Grants B. Background and Significance An Overview of Biofouling: Biofouling is a major problem in the boating and fishing industries. Biofouling is the attachment of biofilms or biofouling organisms, such as algae, hydroids, tubeworms, bivalve molluscs, bryozoans and tunicates 5 on unwanted places. In some cases, biofouling can also refer to bacterial attachment to a medical device, such as a urinary catheter, or on other biomedical devices1. Biofouling is usually found on the base of a boat or in other water submerged structures like a fishing net or pipe3. When a surface or structure becomes biofouled, the structure gets heavier and can cause the structure to corrode or malfunction. A surface that is submerged in the sea will eventually be covered in some sort of organic material if left untouched6. Once the structure has already been biofouled, the removal of the organisms is expensive, and usually the removal methods are toxic to the surrounding water life and can cause decrease in efficiency and performance of the structure the surface belongs. Therefore, it is better to prevent biofouling than to need to remove it. The removal, reduction, delay, or prevention of biofouling is known as antifouling coatings or an antifouling strategy. The most commonly used antifouler is a biocide or metal compound5 and many can be harmful to the surrounding ecosystem7. Importance of Finding an Antifouling Solution: Every year, the navy spends over 600 million dollars on fueling their ships and submarines; however, to actually remove and prevent biofouling, the Navy spends almost one billion dollars each year 7,10,11. Biofouling organisms can add up to 15 percent drag on a military ship/boat and cost the military up to 30 percent more money in fuel7. The excess in fuel cost caused by the biofouling organisms could not only be prevented with an efficient antifouling device, but also increase the speed at which the ships and submarines move10,11. The Navy, like many other international travel boats, also needs to think wisely about the toxins that they use for biofouling removal and prevention because of the range of waters that they travel in. The toxins in biocides have been present in waters all around the world, stretching from Japan, United States, Singapore, Australia and Bermuda4. In New Zealand, scientists claim that biofouling from foreign waters has introduced other marine species into its waters, causing it to affect the native marine life12. In the fishing industry, biofouling organisms cover the fishing nets used to capture fish or other marine life. If the net is left with the biofouling organisms, the net will not be able to supply oxygen to the contents inside the net6. The sea urchin has also been shown to be affected by antifouling coatings13. In a study conducted by Kobayashi et al, sea urchin eggs and embryos were shown to be affected by eight different biocides, one of which being TBT13. The study concluded that depending on the biocide and concentration of the biocide in the water, the development rate of the eggs/embryos would change dramatically13. The Problem with Antifouling Strategies and Toxic Antifouling Solutions: The goal of research for scientists concerned with biofouling is to find an antifouling solution that will not be harmful to the environment. The removal process of biofouling organisms can be done mechanically (scrapers, brushes), chemically (acid), or with the use of a biocide, which, in this case, is a combination of chemicals that can kill certain marine organisms (algae, molluscs, barnacles, etc.)5. Sometimes, all three methods of removal need to be used because the hull or structure is biofouled so heavily. After the biocide has killed all the biofouling organisms, the dead biofilms and biofouling organisms need to be removed because otherwise they will serve as the nutrients for the next generation of biofoulers to grow8. The biocide is not efficient enough to prevent any further attachment and so the cycle begins again. The dead organisms need to be removed and then an antifouling coating needs to be placed onto the newly cleaned surface8. The most commonly used antifouler is TBT, which is short for tributyltin4. TBT usually comes in the form of paint and is applied before the exposure to seawater, as it is used for the prevention of biofouling. However, international regulations and rules against the use of TBT have lessened the use of it, but instead has made the use of copper more common5.
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Grants Non-toxic Antifouling Solutions: So far, there are only a limited number of eco-friendly antifouling solutions. Instead of using a type of ecofriendly, non-toxic chemical or cleaning product, scientists are trying to change the composition and surface structure of the hull of the boat5. Scientists are looking at the natural biofouling mechanisms of sharks, mussels, seaweed and crabs because each have their own way of preventing organism attachment1. Scientists have also tried placing another surface on top of the hull, such as one that is superhydrophobic9. Scientists believe that if the hull does not come in contact with the water, then the biofouling organisms will not have contact with the hull and therefore not be able to attach2. Many of the new antifouling strategies are structures where the surfaces are mimicked from a surface that is naturally occurring. Preliminary Data Preliminary data shows that the super-hydrophobic skin spray is more cost effective than any other antifouling solution. Data shows that the average number of times a hull is cleaned is six per year (every two months) (n=10), but with the super-hydrophobic skin, the hull only needed to be cleaned two times a year (n=10). The peal-off non-super-hydrophobic skin showed to be an effecting non-toxic removal antifouler but still needed an average removal rate per year as other antifouling solutions (six times per year)(n=10). Therefore, this shows that the cost of using the super-hydrophobic skin is sufficiently less than using a normal, toxic, antifouler. C. Research Design Aim 1 Expanded: The first test for the removal of biofouling organisms is a peal-off skin. I will address this by taking 50 newly built, small boats (25ft) and disinfecting the hull. I will then spray a silicon skin onto the hull of the boat. This skin can be removed by pealing it off. Therefore, once the hull has been biofouled, the skin can be removed easily and the hull of the ship would have not undergone any corrosion. Cost will also be measured over a period of one year. Cost includes, the removal of the skin (personnel and tools required) and the application of the new spray coating. Once the skin has reached heavy biofouling (attachment of mollusks), then the skin must be removed and a new coat applied. Potential problems with this experiment include the silicon skin not pealing-off correctly. If this occurs, then the skin will need to be reevaluated. This spray on skin could be a huge advancement for the boating industry specifically because it can serve as a basis for other scientists to advance upon and continue on. For example, the experiment below calls for a super-hydrophobic peal-off skin. Aim 2 Expanded: The second test for removal of biofouling organisms is a removable super- hydrophobic skin. I will address this by taking 50 newly built, small boats (25ft) and spraying a silicon, superhydrophobic skin onto the hull of the boat. This skin can be removed by pealing it off. Therefore, once the hull has been biofouled, the skin can be removal easily and the hull of the ship has not undergone any corrosion. The super-hydrophobicity of the skin acts as a biofouling prevention mechanism, but if the prevention does not work, then the skin can be easily -ff. Cost will also be measured over a period of one year. Cost includes, the removal of the skin (personnel and tools required) and the application of the new spray coating. Once the skin has reached heavy biofouling (attachment of mollusks), then the skin must be removed and a new coat applied. Potential problems with this experiment include the super-hydrophobic silicon skin not pealing off correctly, as is a problem with the first experiment. If this occurs, then the silicon skin will need to be reevaluated. This super-hydrophobic skin could be an advancement in finding an effective antifouling solution because it incorporates surface design, productivity, and effectiveness without being harmful to marine life.
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Grants Closing Remarks: This study could change the way the boating industry works and functions. If the removable superhydrophobic skin shows to be affective with a larger amount of boats, the US Navy could be interested in the coating and a lot of money could be made. References 1. Magin, C. M., Cooper, S. P. and Brennan, A. B. (2010). Non-toxic antifouling strategies. Materials Today, 13(4): 36-44. Retrieved June 18, 2014. 2. Callow, M. E. and Callow, J. A. (2002). Marine biofouling: A sticky problem. Biologist, 49: 1-5. Retrieved June 18, 2014. 3. Dobretsov, S., Dahms, H. and Qian, P. (2006). Inhibition of biofouling by marine microorganisms and their metabolites. Biofouling, 22: 43-54. Retrieved June 18, 2014. 4. Konstantinou, I. and Albanis, T. (2004). Worldwide occurrence and effects of antifouling paint booster biocides in the aquatic environment: A review. Environment International, 30: 235-248. Retrieved June 18, 2014. 5. Videla, H. A. (2002). Prevention and control of biocorrosion. International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation, 49: 259270. Retrieved June 18, 2014. 6. Armstrong, E., Boyd, K. G. and Burgess, J. G. (2000). Prevention of marine biofouling using natural compounds from marine organisms.Biotechnology Annual Review, 6: 221-241. Retrieved June 20, 2014. 7. Youngblood, J. P. (2003). Coatings based on side-chain ether-linked poly(ethylene glycol) and fluorocarbon polymers for the control of marine biofouling. Biofouling, 19: 91-98. Retrieved June 18, 2014. 8. Flemming, H., Griebe, T. and Schaule, G. (1996). Antifouling strategies in technical systems: A short review. Pergamon, 34(5): 517-524. Retrieved June 18, 2014. 9. Marmur, A. (2006). Super-hydrophobicity fundamentals: Implications to biofouling prevention. Biofouling: The Journal of Bioadhesion and Biofilm Research, 22: 107-115. Retrieved June 18, 2014. 10. Schultz, M. P. (2007). Effects of coating roughness and biofouling on ship resistance and powering. Biofouling, 23(5): 331-341. Retrieved June 18, 2014. 11. Schultz, M. P. (2011). Economic impact of biofouling on a naval surface ship. Biofouling, 27(1): 87-98. Retrieved June 18, 2014. 12. Brine, O., Hunt, L. and Costello, M. (2013). Marine biofouling on recreational boats on swing moorings and berths. Management of Biological Invasions, 4(4): 327-341. Retrieved June 20, 2014. 13. Kobayashi, N. and Okamura, H. (2002). Effects of new antifouling compounds on the development of sea urchin. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 44: 748-751. Retrieved June 18, 2014.
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Maternal Stress Revisited Shivali Patel A. Specific Aims For a long time people have wondered if maternal care affects the baby permanently and if it makes a permanent impact on the child. In society as one we have come to the conclusion that it does, but we don’t have any proof or reason. Scientists have been doing research experiments on this matter for years. The glucocorticoid receptor is in almost every cell of the body and controls the immune response, development, and metabolic rate. Research has found that this gene’s expression changes in the first couple weeks after birth due to maternal care, both positive and negative1-3. We want to know if this change in stress response affects other aspects of life such as decision-making and personality. We aim to discover if the maternal care affects not only stress-related problems but other characteristics as well. An understanding of this process could profoundly affect human health. It would get new mothers to realize how important it is to take care of newborns and to realize the risks if they show any negativity to their babies. It would give us more reasons to tell the public to listen and also give more reason and logic for them to agree. Taken together the main goal of the research experiments is to find more characteristics affected by the stress response changes other then depression and stress. AIM 1: Does maternal care affect decision-making and self-esteem? I will… Make two groups of 10 people and record data questions to compare. AIM 2: Does maternal care affect chances of becoming a criminal? I will… Make two groups of people and research medical reasons for criminal activity and then ask the people information to record and compare. This research idea gives a cutting edge idea and excitement to society. The idea that we can change our own gene expression is amazing and unbelievable. These research experiments will help me familiarize myself with new techniques and make me a stronger and more experienced undergraduate researcher. People will be able to open their eyes and realize the mistakes they could make by not having good maternal care. B. Background and Significance Research has been done to see that stress response genes change due to maternal care, but we still do not know what else these changes can do and involve. The glucocorticoid receptor levels are what have been found to change. If maternal care is negative (physical and mental abuse) then the levels are low and the baby’s response to stress for the rest of its life will be bad and it will have higher chances of depression and suicide5. We still do not know if this change in levels could involve other problems or situations. We only have one side of something that could be much bigger. It could also change the decision-making choices the baby will make and if it will make wrong choices depending on the situation. Many times people associate timid and shy people with low selfesteem and this make sense. If a person had a bad childhood and negative maternal care then it could be
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Grants shy and not confident. This could be one of the reasons many of the drug dealers and murderers in the world have had bad childhoods. This is why the Aim 1 and 2 experiments will be done. When completed, this research project will have a significant impact in the medical field. We will know that maternal care is effective and makes big changes that will affect the rest of a baby’s life. Doctors already try to explain to patients that they need to be patient and not yell, but this will help make it easier to get through to people. Clinics and hospitals will have more ways to increase awareness and use posters and more. It will change our future generations in a positive way and make them smarter. We could even suggest that it will decrease the amount of criminal activity in the future if successful. The research can add a new level of understanding to medicine. Preliminary Data Some previous data recorded involves rats and maltreatment. It has two groups each having a mother rat and its babies. Group A has maternal maltreatment and group B has maternal care4. The results show that even if at first a baby has low levels of the Glucocorticoid receptor after good maternal care the levels can be brought up very high for the rest of its life. Another data collection shows how many people use good maternal care on their children and babies. It is a poll out of 100 people. 70 out of 100 people used positive maternal care on their babies. More questions were asked. One very important one was “Do you spend at least 8 hours with your baby?” The answer was no from more then 40% of the people. This means that there are too many babies out there who are not receiving enough or even any care.
Figure 1 | Shows the two groups of mothers and their babies4.
C. Research Design SPECIFIC AIM 1: Does maternal care affect decision-making and self-esteem? The experiment will have two groups of 10 people around the ages of 20-25. Group A will have people who have made bad choices and/or have low self-esteems. They will be timid and not outgoing. Group B will have high self-esteem and successful people. They will all be asked the questions, “Were you ever abused mentally or physically as a child?” and “Did your mother spend time with you as a child?” These results will be compared. This is important because we already know that negative maternal care makes low levels of the glucocorticoid receptor, but we want to find out if this also effects the way the baby will handle itself as an adult and if this will affect its personality. It can help us see more deeply than one side of the situation and open even more sides up. A potential problem could be that the people questioned in the experiment might not realize that their childhoods were bad or might not want to admit it. Also there is the fact that 10 people in each group
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Grants is not enough to represent the population so I would need to increase the amount to maybe 100 or 200 in each group. SPECIFIC AIM 2: Does maternal care affect chances of becoming a criminal? This experiment will have two groups of people. Each one will have 30 people in it who range from ages of 20-30. Group A will be all criminals who are currently in jail. Group B will have people who made good choices with their lives and do not have any criminal records at all. These people will be questioned all the same things like, “Did you have negative experiences as a kid?” and “Were your parents supportive of your decisions?” The data will be recorded and compared. It is necessary that this be done because it can show that when the stress response genes are changed due to maternal care it also causes a huge personality difference. It is often talked about how people assume that criminals come from a bad background. This could be the reason why. Again a potential problem could be that everyone has different definitions of what a supportive parent is and what it means to have negative situations. References 1.
2. 3.
4. 5.
6.
Fish, Eric W et al. “Epigenetic programming of stress responses through variations in maternal care.” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences1036.1 (2004): 167–180. Available: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1196/annals.1330.011/full. McGowan, P O et al. “Epigenetic regulation of the glucocorticoid receptor in human brain associates with childhood abuse” (2009). Available: http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v12/n3/abs/nn.2270.html. Labonte, B et al. “Differential Glucocorticoid Receptor Exon 1< sub> B</sub>, 1< sub> C</sub>, and 1< sub> H</sub> Expression and Methylation in Suicide Completers with a …” (2012). Available: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006322312001321. Roth, T L et al. “Lasting Epigenetic Influence of Early-Life Adversity on the< i> BDNF</i> Gene” (2009). Available: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006322308015308. Meaney, M J, M Szyf, and J R Seckl. “Epigenetic mechanisms of perinatal programming of hypothalamic-pituitaryadrenal function and health” (2007). Available: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1471491407000871. Meaney, M J, and M Szyf. “Environmental programming of stress responses through DNA methylation: life at the interface between a dynamic environment and a fixed genome” (2005). Available: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3181727/.
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Nanobots are the Future Harrison Tandy The future has legions of nano-bots working inside the human body to keep it safe from pathogens, cancer and any invading parasite humanity could come up against. The problem is that a battery is inefficient and needs refueling and that all other forms of energy production would require a type of fuel and most of our modern fuels create too much waste to be allowed inside the human body and will still need refueling. Currently we are working on two main fixes for the energy problem. One is a piezoelectric motor that uses the heartâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s pumping to keep it going the other is simply using bacteria to swim in the direction you want this one would require occasionally stealing sugar from the host body. The impact on human health is that with these robots we could have machines that go around and take images inside the body for very in-depth images. These robots could also kill cancer cells by poking holes in their cell membrane or by pumping them full of toxins. They could also help our immune system by secreting drugs in specific places or by killing HIV infected cells. If we blunted the front of them the nano-bots could easily go around the bloodstream without hurting any of the blood cells. We would probably start by giving a few cloned mice cancer and having the robots programmed to target the specific cancer cells that are deemed dangerous. We would have six of the little machinations using the piezoelectric motor and the other six using the bacteria motor. Each will have three that rupture the cell membrane and the other three would pump toxins into the cancerous cell to kill it off. Then we would wait and see which of the machines finished killing off all of the cancer cells first. This would need permission from quite a few organizations to attempt because we would be giving the mice cancer and subjecting them to a robot going around inside them that is mostly controlled except at night when it gets to control itself under strict parameters so as to minimize the possibility of it attacking healthy cells. We would also have a few separate mice that we will be giving camera nano-bots to. The camera nano-bots would just send us high quality images of the mouseâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s innards. Ultimately the goal of this project is to find out which type of motor works best inside of an organism and which cancer killing option is the most efficient. We would be trying to do this with the minimal amount of excessive cell killing. It would also allow us to more efficiently take images of the insides of an organism. These would be great boons to the people who have cancer and to people in the medical profession because they would be able to see the insides of a person easier. The first aim is to test which type of motor and cancer killing agent works best inside an actual body. Since it is far too risky to test on humans as of yet we plan to test them instead on the lab mouse. I hope that the mice can be quickly cured of cancer. The initial tests of whether the nano-bots function has been a success and both of the weapons have succeeded so far. Yet I have only been releasing a few cancer cells into the nano-bots petri dishes. I still have a high amount of evidence that suggests that the mice will be easily cured judging by how fast the nano-bots recognize cancer cells even without human control. The second aim is to allow for better images of insides. It can be used to gather better images of animal insides. As well as human insides if we decide that it is at a sufficiently low risk. Yet I fear we may be testing on lab animals for at least a few more years just to make sure that there are no adverse side effects to short or long term nano-bot presence.
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Grants Completion of this project will result in the dawn of a new age of cleanliness and imaging of the internal body. The project will also help me in training to both design better and more efficient machines, give better pictures of the body to young people to engage them in science and to play driving video games better. As far back as humans have been inventing tools we have always had two main enemies. Inefficiency and thanks to the agricultural revolution and the development of cities quicker spreading diseases. Since everything start out as inefficient who is to say that these nano-bots are the most efficient they can be there are probably a couple hundred ways to improve upon my design for them. The significance of this development in the eternal war against disease is that we would gain an advantage over most diseases as we see them now. The world’s people need ways to further prevent diseases what with superbugs becoming more and more possible. We have always been a species of toolmakers and this is one tool that would be nearly indispensable in the war against diseases. We would also gain a better capability to look through a body and notice and tumors or diseases quite a bit earlier than we can now by having camera bots that test for certain chemicals released by pathogens and cancer. So far the preliminary data is showing that not only can the nano-bots move quickly in petri dishes they can kill of cancer cells quickly as well. The problem is how are they going to fair inside a more thoroughly enclosed environment. So far both of the engines and killing methods are working on the single cell setup I have. The camera drones have so far taken very nice images of a small piece of taut muscle sinew. They have also found chemicals most of the time when I put them in a slight amount of the chemical. So far my research is going quite well in regards to the functionality of the nano-bots. The experiment for testing which of the engines is more efficient and quicker will be taking place inside a cloned mouse’s body. The two machinations will be on the hunt for cancer cells. Each will be equipped with a weapon that will kill cancer cells. So far in all of the preliminary test the robots have performed simple maneuvering and killing of cancer cells admirably. When piloted by a human the robots have still performed well if not better in some test. The human drivers mainly help in maneuvering tests. I still have only been releasing small amounts of cancer cells into the petri dishes in the preliminary tests so I don’t know exactly how well they will fair in the actual mouse. My rationale is that the piezoelectric engine is faster but that the bacteria engine is more maneuverable. I am basing this rationale on what has so far been seen in the preliminary tests. The two cancer weapons which I have nicknamed the prod and the poison have so far worked equally well. My worry with the poison is that it might spread to other cells on accident. The procedure will be injecting the mice with cancer of the lung and then injecting them with the nano-bot variants to see which type can get rid of the cancer cells first. Potential problems could arise in the robot bouncing around and bumping cells this way and that way and it could arise with the poison killing cells that they weren’t supposed to kill. The testing to see which gives better images ultrasound or camera nano-bots will hopefully either make x ray machines less common or still common but allow camera nano-bots to go around inside the organism we decide to observe to give good images of everything that is not bone structure in an unobtrusive manner. The preliminary tests of the camera nano-bots has resulted in some very nice images of a taut muscle cell. I find the images sort of creepy because it is just one cell really up close in a swirling amount of emptiness. The procedure will be to inject some pregnant mice with the camera bots and using ultrasound on other mice. I will check which gives a better image of the fetus that is developing. I think that the camera bots image would be slightly better and if there are any birth defects it could pick them out earlier than an ultrasound could. Problems could arise if the camera bots bump into the fetus and harm it which could cause birth defects in the mouse.
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The Impact of Prenatal Stress on the Prospective Offspring Arielle Van den Ende A. Specific Aims In society today many stressors manifest themselves in our daily lives. We are confronted with problems and conundrums that our ancestors were never required to face. In general excess stress is not healthy on humans, but it poses an even greater risk for pregnant mothers. A mother is not only caring for herself but also an offspring too. It is suspected that external events that affect the mother will also affect the offspring. In previous studies it has been shown that stress can affect body processes, hormone levels, gene expression, and the human body as a whole. However it has not been tested whether or not this can also affect a fetus. The goal of this project is to uncover the unknown effects of prenatal maternal stress on the offspring. Aim I: To determine the effects of prenatal maternal stress on motor function and the susceptibility of autism in the prospective offspring. Specifically I will: Test the effects of objective and subjective stress, in all three trimesters of pregnancy, on the fetus's cerebral cortex and then test the fetus at a later stage in life to determine its level of fine motor skills. Test the effects of epigenetics and hormonal levels while monitoring the effect of the stressors on the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis and recording the amount of glucocorticoids in the placenta to determine whether or not the time period or the type of stressor can increase the probability that the offspring will develop autism. Aim II: To determine the effects of prenatal maternal stress on the immune system. Specifically I will: Monitor doctor diagnosed asthma, lifetime wheezing, and inhalation of prescribed corticoids to assess the effect of various stressors on the immune system of the offspring. Please Note: There is no known cause for asthma, but it is recognized that it is a result of a prenatal event, which scientist have yet to discover. B. Research Design All experiments will be conducted on mice, given that they have similar bodily structure to a human and mimic a human pregnancy almost exactly. Mice have a similar brain structure to humans containing the same amount of neural networks. Furthermore mice are considered animals of high cognitive ability. They are sexual creatures, just like humans, and require a mouse of the opposite gender to produce an offspring. Similarly to humans they carry their offspring for nine months and development within the womb is almost identically, despite different windows of vulnerability for fetal programming. Because their brain structure and comprehension level is most similar to that of a human they will be able to process and react to the various objective and subjective stressors. B.1 | Approach, Research design, and Methods Ninety pregnant lab raised mice will be used in this experiment, thirty of which will be used in the control group. Ten of the control group mice will be in the first trimester of pregnancy, ten will be in the second, and ten will be in the third. They will receive neither the objective nor the subjective stressor. Thirty of the mice will be used explore the effects of prenatal stress on motor functions and autism, fifteen will be
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Grants subjected to objective stress and the remaining fifteen will receive the subjective stressor. The remaining thirty mice will be divided into groups of two. Similar to previous assignment ten in the first group will be subjected to the objective stressor, ten in the second group will be subjected to the subjective stressor. However in the experiment two, ten of the thirty mice will serve as an additional control, they will be pregnant mice with asthma to serve as a second comparison. Methods: Objective and Subjective Stressors Objective stress is stress caused by an object. We will use a test called the 45DOWMP to measure the effects of the objective stressor. The 45DOWMP measures the level of corticoid in the blood before the participant receives the objective stressor, and then it takes a second measurement immediately after the objective stressor and calculates the rise in corticoid level and scales it on a scale of zero to eight (eight being the highest level of stress). Subjective stress is stress that is unrelated to an object. This will be measured by the Impact of Events Test. We will look for abnormal activity and corticoid levels in the brain. B.2 | Experiment 1: Motor Function and Autism B.2 a: Procedure: objective mice Fifteen mice from the experimental group will have their blood drawn and recorded by the 45DOWMP. The mice will be placed in individual boxes with a piece of cheese in front of them. The cheese will be wrapped in electrically charged wire. Thus every time the mouse goes to get the cheese 32 volts of shock will be administered creating stress. After 60 seconds and at least one attempt to get the cheese the mouse will be removed from the box and its blood would be draw. Stress level would be scaled by the 45DOWMP. The experiment will be repeated with volts ranging from 32 to 64. Expected Results: We expect that the mice will have increased corticoid levels, and the stress will increase as the voltage does. We predict that the higher the level of shock the higher the impact on the offspring. B.2 b: Procedure: Subjective mice Fifteen mice will be taken from the experimental group. Their brains will be scanned and recorded by the Impact of Events Test. We will place the mice in the middle of a pool on a pedestal with water surrounding them from all sides. We will slowly raise the water level in increments of 5 ml until there is barely enough room for the mouse to breath. We will then remove them and scan their brain assessing stress level on the Impact of Events test. Expected results: We expect that the mice will have increased abnormal brain activity due to the stress. Continuation: After these test are administered they will be kept on file until the mother gives birth. Once they give birth, the offspring with be assessed by the Bilateral Coordination test to assess his or her fine motor skills. The offspring will also be assessed by the Autism Spectrum test. Results will be compared to level of stress in the mother and a conclusion will be drawn. B.3 | Experiment: Asthma B.3 a: Procedure: objective Fifteen mice will be taken from the experimental group. They will be placed in the same box with cheese that is wrapped in electrical cord. The mice will be tested using the 45DOWMP once the mice go for the cheese they will be shocked Expected results: The higher the level of shock the more stressed the mice will be Complete B[rown] S[cience] The Journal of SciComm
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Grants B.3 b: Procedure: subjective Fifteen mice will be taken from the experimental group. They will be placed in the middle of a pool on a pedestal and the water level will be increased by 5 ml until they can barely breathe. Expected result: The higher the level of the water, the greater the level of stress. Continuation: After the mothers have given birth the babies will be tested by the Allergy and Asthma test for signs of wheezing and asthma. The newfound result will be compared to the data collected in the study before and conclusion will be drawn.
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A REVIEW OF BIOFOULING FOR THE PURPOSE OF FINDING AN ANTIFOULING SOLUTION 1
Niamh Micklewhite1 and Christopher M. Ciarleglio1,2 Summer@Brown, 2 Department of Neuroscience, Brown University, Providence, RI
INTRODUCTION
SUMMARY
Biofouling is the attachment of biofilms or biofouling organisms, such as algae, hydroids, tubeworms, bivalve molluscs, bryozoans and tunicates5 on unwanted places. Biofouling is usually found on the base of a boat or in other water submerged structures like a fishing net or pipe3. Biofouling can cause a surface or piece of machinery to malfunction, corrode, or fail. The removal, reduction, delay, or prevention of biofouling is known as a antifouling coating or an antifouling strategy. The most commonly used antifouler is a biocide or metal compound5 and many can be harmful to the surrounding ecosystem7.
12 Figure 3 shows the progression of biofouling if no prevention mechanisms are used. Reproduced with permission from Brine et al.
TOXIC ANTIFOULING SOLUTIONS The most commonly used antifouler is TBT, which is short for tributyltin4. TBT usually comes in the form of paint and is applied before the exposure to seawater, as it is used for the prevention of biofouling. However, international regulations and rules against the use of TBT have lessened the use of it, but instead have made the use of copper more common5.
Figure 1:
Scientists need to find the most cost efficient and effective antifouling solution that is non-toxic to marine life. Continued use of toxic biocides will affect marine life and continue to cause excess fuel cost for the military and independent companies. The most effective antifouling device would consider both the physical and chemical composition of the surface1. Advances in the biofouling boating/fishing industries could also lead to new advances in the biomedical industry as biofilm attachment to a medical device is a problem like biofouling.
FUTURE STEPS FUEL COST :
Every year, the navy spends over 600 million dollars on fueling their ships and submarines; however, to actually remove and prevent biofouling, the Navy spends almost one billion dollars each year 7,10,11. Biofouling organisms can add up to 15 percent drag on a military ship/boat and cost the military up to 30 percent more money in fuel7.
13 Figure 4 shows how the increase in concentration of TBTO in water causes abnormal growth of sea urchin embryos. When there is the largest amount of TBTO in the water, the embryo bursts. Between 10-6 and 10-9, the embryo experiences developmental delays, but when the concentration is 10-11, the embryoâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s development is normal. Reproduced with permission from Kobayashi et al.
NON-TOXIC ANTIFOULING SOLUTIONS So far, there are limited eco friendly antifouling solutions. Instead of using a type of eco-friendly, non-toxic chemical or cleaning product, scientists are trying to change the composition and surface structure of the hull of the boat5. Scientists are looking at the natural biofouling mechanisms of sharks, mussels, seaweed and crabs because each have their own way of preventing organism attachment1. Scientists have also tried placing another surface on top of the hull, such as one that is super-hydrophobic9. Scientists believe that if the hull does not come in contact with the water, then the biofouling organisms will not have contact with the hull and therefore not be able to attach2. Many of the new antifouling strategies are structures where the surfaces are mimicked from a surface that is naturally occurring in nature.
The next step for scientists is to test different types of surfaces for prevention of biofouling. Scientists are looking at natural antifouling mechanisms and other surfaces that may lead them to different advancements. If an antifouling surface shows to be affective on marine biofouling, medical devices will also be tested. Like biofouling, biofilm attachment to a medical device is a dangerous problem for humans. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This review was supported by Brown University in Providence in Rhode Island. Thanks to Christopher M. Ciarleglio for being corresponding author. References:
1 11 Figure 5 shows the potential surfaces that scientists are looking to mimic for biofoul prevention because of their natural antifouling ability. Figure 5a and Figure 5b are close up images of shark skin. Figure 5c is a mussel shell, and Figure 5d is a crab shell. Reproduced with permission from Magin et al. Figure 1 shows the different connections of operating and support costs of a ship. Figure 2 shows how as the degree of fouling increases, the cost of the ship also increases. Reproduced with permission from Shultz et al.
1.Magin, C. M., Cooper, S. P. and Brennan, A. B. (2010). Non-toxic antifouling strategies. Materials Today, 13(4): 36-44. Retrieved June 18, 2014. 2. Callow, M. E. and Callow, J. A. (2002). Marine biofouling: A sticky problem. Biologist, 49: 1-5. Retrieved June 18, 2014. 3. Dobretsov, S., Dahms, H. and Qian, P. (2006). Inhibition of biofouling by marine microorganisms and their metabolites. Biofouling, 22: 43-54. Retrieved June 18, 2014. 4. Konstantinou, I. and Albanis, T. (2004). Worldwide occurrence and effects of antifouling paint booster biocides in the aquatic environment: A review. Environment International, 30: 235-248. Retrieved June 18, 2014. 5. Videla, H. A. (2002). Prevention and control of biocorrosion. International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation, 49: 259-270. Retrieved June 18, 2014. 6. Armstrong, E., Boyd, K. G. and Burgess, J. G. (2000). Prevention of marine biofouling using natural compounds from marine organisms.Biotechnology Annual Review, 6: 221-241. Retrieved June 20, 2014. 7. Youngblood, J. P. (2003). Coatings based on side-chain ether-linked poly(ethylene glycol) and fluorocarbon polymers for the control of marine biofouling. Biofouling, 19: 91-98. Retrieved June 18, 2014. 8. Flemming, H., Griebe, T. and Schaule, G. (1996). Antifouling strategies in technical systems: A short review. Pergamon, 34(5): 517-524. Retrieved June 18, 2014. 9. Marmur, A. (2006). Super-hydrophobicity fundamentals: Implications to biofouling prevention. Biofouling: The Journal of Bioadhesion and Biofilm Research, 22: 107-115. Retrieved June 18, 2014. 10. Schultz, M. P. (2007). Effects of coating roughness and biofouling on ship resistance and powering. Biofouling, 23(5): 331341. Retrieved June 18, 2014. 11. Schultz, M. P. (2011). Economic impact of biofouling on a naval surface ship. Biofouling, 27(1): 87-98. Retrieved June 18, 2014. 12. Brine, O., Hunt, L. and Costello, M. (2013). Marine biofouling on recreational boats on swing moorings and berths. Management of Biological Invasions, 4(4): 327-341. Retrieved June 20, 2014. 13. Kobayashi, N. and Okamura, H. (2002). Effects of new antifouling compounds on the development of sea urchin. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 44: 748-751. Retrieved June 18, 2014.
LOCATING THE SOURCE OF RETROGRADE AMNESIA AND REAFFIRMING THROUGH INDUCED TRAUMA AND BRAIN SURGERY JIA JIA ZHANG1,2 AND CHRISTOPHER M CIARLEGLIO1,2 1 SUMMER@BROWN, 2 DEPARTMENT OF NEUROSCIENCE, BROWN UNIVERSITY, PROVIDENCE, RI
INTRODUCTION Retrograde amnesia is characterized as amnesia in which the lack of memory relates to events that occurred before a traumatic experience. Oftentimes the affected persons experience little to no semantic impairment and more severe episodic impairment. The former causes people to have a deficiency in factual knowledge of the world or of themselves, while the latter is more resistant to recovery and impedes people from recollecting episodes prior to the injury. Semantic impairment improves with continual exposure to past information, but people who suffer episodic impairment are unable to “re-experience” it in a subjective perspective despite being retold past events. Those who develop retrograde amnesia usually retain their cognitive abilities, however, losing a part of one’s identity can pose serious problems. Furthermore, retrograde amnesia has been linked to numerous types of dementia including Alzheimer’s, Huntington’s, and Parkinson’s disease.
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN A
D
C
A
Figure 2 | Experiment Model 1. A) Human subjects will be stalked for a span of a month, with constant monitoring of their daily activities and experiences. B) At approximately 12:12 a.m. Arielle time, a recount of the day’s events including breakups and will be recorded and compared to notes taken down from the stalking. C) Voltage sensitive probes along with magnetoencephalography will record the cranial activity as the people report what they had done the whole day. D) Test subjects will be required to memorize a series of calculus formulas and useless words, and while they are committing the information to memory, voltage sensitive probes and a magnetoencephalography will be used to examine which regions of the brain are activated; this would indicate the location of semantic memory storage.
Intensity of Brain Activity
6
METHODS
5
Figure 4 | Activity levels in the brain when subjects are administered episodic memory test. The graph displays higher brain activity levels in the temporal lobe in comparison to the parietal, occipital, and frontal lobe.
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3
2
1
0
parietal lobe
temporal lobe
Days
occipital lobe
Recount of events from subject with portions of brain removed Dear Diary, Today I went to a suspicious room where there were knives and a suspicious looking surgeon person. After that I had a little headache and then went home and fell asleep. I think I am having a midlife crisis because I don’t remember anything but I still have yet to figure out how old I am and why I have a stranger’s license in a wallet that has been in my pocket. Notes from stalking The 50 year old subject signed up for the scientific experiment and then ate eggs, toast, rice, and an ample amount of twizzlers for breakfast. After eating, he proceeded to his office, and dazed off into space for a while. From there, a sac was placed on his head and he was escorted to the surgeon’s office in order to have the portion responsible for retrograde amnesia removed. The subject seemed a little disoriented after the procedure, but proved to be cognitively functioning so we set him free. Thereafter he went home and slept. As a side note, his wallet and ID were in his pocket
frontal lobe
Figure 5 | Sample of subject who had portions of brain removed. The subject’s journal revealed symptoms of retrograde amnesia as the man retells the day’s events. The diary indicates that he has no recollection of the trauma (surgery) and any events closely associated with it. It also demonstrates a loss of autobiographical memory along with average cognitive abilities. 6
Intensity of Hippocampus Activity
Hippocampus Activity after Repetition of a Memory Figure 6 | Hippocampus activity after the repetition of a past day’s events. The graph indicates a decreasing intensity of activity within the hippocampus after constant repetition of a particular day’s events. This suggests a become more independent from the hippocampus as coordinated replay strengthens corticocortical networks.
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Figure 8 | Percentage correct in the semantic memory test after and before hippocampectomy and trauma. There is little to no percentage change in the amount correct fort he semantic memory test before and after the hippocampectomy and trauma.
Figure 9 | List of symptoms and observations after the bookcase trauma and hippocampectomy. The similarity in symptoms after the trauma and hippocampectomy suggests that the hippocampus is responsible for retrograde amnesia.
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27‐Dec
1‐Jan
6‐Jan
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16‐Jan
21‐Jan
26‐Jan
31‐Jan
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Days
Brain Activity during a Semantic Memory Test 4.5 4
Intensity of Brain Activity
Magnetoencephalography: It is a non-invasive neurophysiological technique that measures magnetic fields generated by neuronal activity within the brain, and is used to investigate the basis of sensory processing and motor planning in the brain.
Figure 3 | Experiment Model 2. A) First subjects will undergo surgery to have the region where retrograde amnesia impacts removed. Following that, partially brainless subjects will be given episodic and autobiographical memory tests, asking them who they are and what they have done that day. B) Similarly, the same tests and monitoring will be administered but to subjects who had been traumatized from a bookcase to the head, specifically causing damage to the medial temporal lobe region.
RESULTS Brain Activity during an Episodic Memory Test
Voltage sensitive probe: the probe allows for realtime monitoring of neuron firing through a fluorescent element in the middle of a voltagesensing protein.
B
B
.
Animals: Human subjects will be used in the experiment from the age range of 20 to 50 and they will be administered episodic and semantic tests while being monitored by voltage sensitive probes and magnetoencephalography. In part two of the experiment, portions of their brains will be removed depending on what the first experiment exhibits as being responsible for retrograde amnesia. Another group of test subjects will experience an induced trauma through a hit with a bookcase aimed to damage the medial temporal lobe.
DISCUSSION
3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0
Days perirhinal cortice
entorhinal cortice
hippocampus
Figure 7 | Brain activity during a semantic memory test. The results display higher activity within the perirhinal cortice and entorhinal cortice in comparison to the hippocampus. This suggests that basic sensory memory functions of the perirhinal and entorhinal cortices may be sufficient enough to support the formation of context-free semantic memories but not of context-rich episodic memories, which would require the additional processing provided by the hippocampal circuit.
Symptoms and Observations Reported Post Bookcase Inability to recall their identity Inability to recall anything near trauma Headache Confusion Able to retain new memories Cognitively functioning Slight bump on the head Symptoms and Observations Reported Post Hippocampectomy Inability to recall their identity Inability to recall anything near trauma Headache Confusion Able to retain new memories Cognitively functioning Stiches on the head
Surprisingly all my predictions were correct After continual repetition of reciting what had happened on one particular day, less activity was present in the hippocampus, as according to the multiple trace theory. The voltage sensitive probes also revealed high brain activity initially in the hippocampus, as research has shown for the hippocampus to have a time-limited role in the storage and retrieval of memory. The results also suggested that semantic memory and episodic memory are dissociable, with high activity in the the perirhinal and entorhinal cortices in comparison to the hippocampus. Furthermore, after hippocampectomy and traumas were performed and induced on the subjects, the average percentage correct on the semantic memory test did not significantly worsen. This also justifies the dissociation of episodic and semantic memory. The similarity in the results of the semantic memory test and symptoms of retrograde amnesia after the trauma and hippocampectomy suggest that the hippocampus is crucial to retrograde amnesia.
CONCLUSIONS Taken together, the results posed a strong correlation between the hippocampus and retrograde amnesia. Episodic memory and semantic memory are for the most part dissociable. Long term memory becomes independent of the hippocampus after constant repetition or added effort in trying to memorize events.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS All the test subjects will be forever remembered and loved. Thank you Dr. Chris Ciarleglio for allowing me to use your time and name in case the police come after me.
Epigenetic Programming Through Maternal Care 1
Shivali A Patel1,2 and Christopher M Ciarleglio1,2 Summer@Brown, 2 Department of Neuroscience, Brown University, Providence, RI
INTRODUCTION The experiences animals face early in life affect their metal health permanently. These experiences change their genes causing the way that they react to stress to change. A study done in rats shows that the glucocorticoid receptor changes due to maternal care. If a rat is given good care after birth its glucocorticoid receptor will change to result in better reactions to stress. In humans, bad experiences like child abuse cause a change in genes to increase the chances of suicide. We are saying that maternal care in any form affects animals in positive and negative ways. The results of early life experiences on the rest of life have been unknown. Here we show that they cause a change in the glucocorticoid receptor which effects the way animals react to stress.
METHODS Animals: Two mother rats and their baby pups were used in an experiment. Group A had an abusive mother who used maltreatment and group B had a mother who used maternal care. Before any data was collected, it was made sure of that group A had higher levels of the glucocorticoid receptor (GR). At the end of week 1, group B had higher levels of GR then group A because of the maternal care received. People: three groups of people were used in this experiment. They were all suicide victims. Group A had 12 people who were abused as children and group B had 12 people who weren't abused. Group C was controlled. Data on the expression and methylation levels of other hGR splice variants in the hippocampus and anterior cingulate gyrus was collected.
RESULTS
SUMMARY When a person has low levels of the GR it means that they can not handle stress as well so they have higher chances of depression and suicidal and other stress related problems. When a person has high levels of the GR it means that they are successful and can handle stress better. Maltreatment causes the baby’s genes to change negativity and puts him/her at higher a risk for stress related problems. Maternal care changes the genes positively causing the baby to react well to stress fro the rest of its life.
Figure 4 |This is the data that was collected and put into a bar graph from the experiment. It shows the levels of the total GR in 12 suicide victims with a history of child abuse, 12 control subjects and 12 nonabused suicide victims. This information tells us that the people in the group suicide abused had the lowest levels of the total GR. It makes sense since the abused victims didn’t receive maternal care which caused their GR to have low levels making it harder to handle stress.
CONCLUSIONS Taken together these data suggest that maternal care does change the genes of the babies. This information can help the medical field and mothers positively. People can use this information with there family lives
Table 1| This is a table showing some extra data that was collected. It is more information for the experiment.
Figure 5 |The data collected from the rats and the pups. It is representing group A and group B mothers and how they treated their baby pups differently. A visual of maltreatment vs. maternal care.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research was represented by Christopher M Ciarleglio
B
A D
Figure 1 | Experimental endpoints. A shows a mother rat taking care of a specific pup by liking it. B This is an image of the polypropylene cages the rats were kept in to control their environment and temperature.
References: 1. Fish, Eric W et al. “Epigenetic programming of stress responses through variations in maternal care.” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences1036.1 (2004): 167–180. Available: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1196/annals.1330.011/full. 2.McGowan, P O et al. “Epigenetic regulation of the glucocorticoid receptor in human brain associates with childhood abuse” (2009). Available: http://www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v12/n3/abs/nn.2270.html. 3.Labonte, B et al. “Differential Glucocorticoid Receptor Exon 1< sub> B</sub>, 1< sub> C</sub>, and 1< sub> H</sub> Expression and Methylation in Suicide Completers with a …” (2012). Available: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006322312001321. 4.Roth, T L et al. “Lasting Epigenetic Influence of Early-Life Adversity on the< i> BDNF</i> Gene” (2009). Available: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006322308015308. 5.Meaney, M J, M Szyf, and J R Seckl. “Epigenetic mechanisms of perinatal programming of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal function and health” (2007). Available: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1471491407000871. 6.Meaney, M J, and M Szyf. “Environmental programming of stress responses through DNA methylation: life at the interface between a dynamic environment and a fixed genome” (2005). Available: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3181727/.
Asperger VS Autism Kendal Hall1,2 and Christopher M Ciarleglio1,2 1 Summer@Brown, 2 Department of Neuroscience, Brown University, Providence, RI
Abstract Asperger syndrome (AS) is a nuerodevelopmental disorder .that is on the Autism Disorder Spectrum (ASD). It is very similar but different from autism. It is known by its trademark symptoms of difficulty with social situations, repetitive behaviors, interest in one subject, and a lack of theory of mind. This experiment will serve to show the distinct difference between autism and the Asperger syndrome. Hypothesis: There is a significant difference between asperger syndrome and
METHODS This experiment was done with 4,000 kids. All of the kids were under the Autism Disorder Spectrum but 1,500 of the kids had Asperger syndrome. We tracked their brain signals using electroencephalography For comparison we also 4,500 typical children. These children were between the ages of 2-12 years old and their diagnoses were made or reaffirmed within the month of the study.
Discussion Due to subjects being young children we had an issue with , frequent eye movement and muscle movement which can mess up tests. Also there is a lot of variables so a high percentage of chance.
RESULTS
CONCLUSIONS Table 1 Discriminant analysis of control versus autism spectrum disorders; Asperger’s syndrome classified passively Variables utilized = 23
Percent correct
Control
First 4: Fac15, Fac17, Fac2, Fac16 Control ASD
ASP
92.6 84.8
96.2a
A S D
513
4 1
65
3 6 5
1
In table 1 it classifies AS in to either the control group or in ASD group. 96 % of the AS group was classified as the ASD while 4 % were grouped in with the controls. This supports the idea that AS is in the autism disorder spectrum.
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Table 2 New discriminant analysis asperger’s syndrome versus autism spectrum disorders, controls excluded A S D
84.4
67
A S P
92.3
24
This experiment supports our hypothesis because it shows that there is different brain connections between kids with asperger and kids wit autism. It also backs the decision to classify asperger under the autism disorder spectrum.
On the other hand this table depicts AS verses ASD. This one does not have the controls at all in it. This one shows the differences between the two. In terms of the EEG scans.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
In this figure it charts the similarities and differences between the EEG of the different groups. In the green is all the kids with ASD. In the red is the kids with AS. All of the kids had weak connections to the language part of the brain. Only the kids with AS had strong connections in other parts of the brain that they other groups didn’t.
We’d like to thank C.M. Ciarleglio for allowing us to use his lab and funds. We’d also like to thank the children and their parents for their participation in this study.
://www.biomedcentral.com/content/pdf/17 41-7015-11-175.pdf http://www.autismspeaks.org/science/scie nce-news/study-supports-viewasperger-syndrome-distinct-formautism http
The Effect of Prenatal Maternal Stress 1
Arielle Van den Ende1,2,, and Christopher M Ciarleglio1,2 Summer@Brown, 2 Department of Neuroscience, Brown University, Providence, RI
INTRODUCTION In January 1998 100 mm of freezing rain hit Quebec, Canada. The Natural Disaster allowed for testing to be done on mothers who were pregnant during the storm. We measured the levels of objective and subjective stress using tests call the Storm 32 and The Impact Scale of Events test. We aimed to show that the more intense the levels of subjective and objective stress are the higher the risk that the offspring will become autistic and have deficiencies in their motor skills.
RESULTS Experiment 1: Autism:
SUMMARY Experiment 2: Motor Function
Predictor variables
Bilateral Coordination : p value
Visual Motor Index: p value
Neonatal intensive care unit
0.022
0.099
Sex of child
0.232
0.329
Timing of exposure (days)
0.142
0.005
Objective hardship
0.015
0.049
Subjective distress
0.007
0.209
Sex timing of exposure (days)
0.041
0.043
Objective hardship subjective distress
0.058
0.072
Predictor Variables
B value
P value
Postpartum depression
-0.022
0.007
Life events ( 6 months)
-0.015
0.078
Child’s sex
0.075
0.214
Timing of Exposure (Days)
-0.001
0.157
Objective hardship
-0.065
0.001
Subjective distress
-0.027
0.001
objective hardship x subjective distress
0.002
0.019
objective hardship x timing of exposure
0.000
0.061
Prenatal Stress whether caused by a natural disaster or not will have adverse affects on the offspring in the womb. This presents a problem because our society is filled with stressors that our ancestors did not experience. The risk for prenatal stress are high and as such mothers must be aware of the potential of prenatal stress.
METHODS Experiment 1: Sixty eight mothers were asked to fill out the Autism Spectrum Screening Questionnaire while they were still pregnant. Six years after the storm the children were evaluated for autism using the same questionnaire
CONCLUSIONS
Experiment 2: Eighty nine mothers took the storm 32 and the Impact of events test to asses their level of subjective and objective stress during pregnancy. Eleven and a half years later their offspring were assess for bilateral coordination and visual motor index using the Beery-Buktenica Develpmental Test and the Bruininks Oseretsk Test of motor proficency
D
Figure 1 | Shows that stress affect the Hypothalamic Adrenal Pituitary (HPA) axis which in turn affects the glucocorticords which then travels through the placenta and affects the fetus
Discussion •Neonatal care = significant for bilateral coordination •postpartum depression= significant for autism •Timing of the stressor= significant for visual motor index •objective hardship= significant for autism •Subjective stressor= significant for bilateral coordination •subjective distress= significant for autism •Sex timing of stressor= significant for bilateral •objective distress x subjective hardship= significant for autism coordination and visual motor index •Explanation of results: •Explanation of results: • The stress can affect the programming of the hypothalamic • cortisone levels increase in late pregnancy pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis. Problems with the HPA is • stress increases cortisone levels - affects proven to cause cognitive disorders underlying structures in the fetus that are key to • The stress can also alter a gene in the mother that will bilateral coordination and visual motor index make the offspring more prone to autism. • Excess cortisone increases exposure to testosterone • leads to asymmetry of the corpus callosumdeficiency in visual motor functions and bilateral coordination
Subjective and Objective Stress increase the chance that the offspring will develop autism and or Motor Function deficiencies
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research was supported by NIH/NIMH F31 MH080547 to CMC, and NIH/NIMH P50 MH078028 to DGM and R. D. Blakely.