Experimenting with informality

EXPERIMENTING WITH INFORMALITY

By Chris Gabe

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EXPERIMENTING WITH INFORMALITY

How can the hyper-complexity of informal growth be integrated into architectural design?

Chris Gabe

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Student: Chris Gabe Dissertation Tutor: Rachel Armstrong Student Number: 130267153 Submission Deadline: 22.01.16 Dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment for BA Honors in Architecture School of Architecture, Planning & Landscape

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Abstract

Experimenting with Informality: How can the hyper-complexity of informal growth be integrated into architectural design?

This essay plans to explore how the hyper-complexity of informal growth can be integrated into architectural design. Drawing from multiple examples, I will study the implementation of design into existing informal systems. I hope to finalize my argument with a re-evaluation of the architect and question their design approach to complex living systems

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Acknowledgements

I am grateful to Dr Clare Gabe, Dr Simon Gabe and Professor Rachel Armstrong for their inspiration and help.

I would also like to thank: Dr Tahera Ansari from St Marks Hospital, Mr Michael Waldrep from Urban-Think Tank Mr Khov Meas from Tonle Sap Authority Officer Sunheap from Kampong Kleang

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Contents

Abstract...............................................................................................................................

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Acknowledgements.........................................................................................................

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List of Figures .................................................................................................................

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1. Frameworks: Tissue Engineering

Introduction .......................................................................................................... 10 2. An Ecological Design Program: Interconnected Urban Complexity

The Old Paradigm: Ecological Architecture .................................................... 15

From a Microbe to a City: The Relevance of Interaction ............................. 17

Self Assembly vs. Direct Assembly ................................................................... 20 3. Informal Growth in an Informal Settlement

Fragility and Complexity in Kampong Kleang ................................................ 23

A Unique Urban Toolkit for Unique Informal Communities ....................... 27 4. The Theoretical Basis of an Architecture that Can Accommodate the Complexities of Interaction and Change

Avoiding Utopia: The Concept of Growth in Architecture ......................... 35 5. Frameworks: Growth Within a Scaffold

Tissue Engineering Intestine: The Scaffold Matrix ........................................ 41

The Unlikely Occupancy of Torre David ........................................................ 44

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6. Hyper-complexity: Architectural Pragmatics and Inevitable Imperfection

The Hyper-complexity of Hyperobjects .......................................................... 53

A World that Worlds Worlds .............................................................................. 57

Rethinking Informality in Architecture ............................................................ 63 7. Conclusion

Summary ............................................................................................................... 71

What Does This Mean? ...................................................................................... 72 Bibliography ..................................................................................................................... 74 Appendix 1

Interview with Dr. Tahera Ansari

Using Shell Lace Technology to Develop Tracheal Stents ............................ 78 Appendix 2

Interview with Officer Sunheap

An Insight into the Kampong Kleang Community ....................................... 86 Appendix 3

Interview with Khov Meas

The Welfare of Kampong Kleang and Other Villages

Surrounding Tonle Sap Lake .............................................................................. 88 Appendix 4

Interview with Michael Waldrep

Working with Informality Interviewee............................................................... 94

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List of Figures Front and Back Cover Perry Kulper, Fast Twitch, 2004 < http:// archinect.com/news/gallery/54767042/4/drawing-architecture-conversation-with-perry-kulper >[07.01.16] Figure 1.1 Benvironment, Venus Flower Basket Skeleton, 2013 <http://benvironment.org.uk/ post/39748147840/venusflowerbasket> [23.12.15] Figure 1.2 Tonkin Liu, Shi Ling Bridge, 2009 <http:// www.tonkinliu.co.uk/projects/shi-lingbridge>[23.12.15] Figure 2.1 Zvi Hecker, Heinz-Galinski-Schule <http:// www.zvihecker.com/projects/heinz_galinski_ schule-110-1.html#1>[23.12.15]

Figure 3.4 Gabe, Chris, Kampong Kleang Shop Constructed Beneath House During Dry Season, Personal Collection [21.07.15] Figure 3.5 Kounosu, Dharavi Slum in Mumbai, India, 2008 <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Dharavi_Slum_in_Mumbai.jpg> [23.12.15] Figure 3.6 The Polis Blog (Image Credit: BUDD DPU report), Bharat Janata Housing Cooperative <http://www.thepolisblog.org/2010/04/contested-urbanism-reclaiming-right-to.html>[23.12.15] Figure 3.7 LandL, Slums of Manila, <https://www.travelblog.org/Photos/2079562>[23.12.15] Figure 3.8 Annik, Maya, Favela Painting in Santa Marta, 2014 < http://mayaannik.com/always-throw-abbq/>[28.12.15]

Figure 2.2 Ananas Ă Miami, The Construction of the Nakagin Capsule Tower, 1970-1972 <http://www. ananasamiami.com/2011/05/nakagin-capsuletower-1720-by-kisho.html>[23.12.15]

Figure 4.1 Minimaforms, Emotive City by Minimaforms < http://minimaforms.com/#item=emotive-city >[28.12.15]

Figure 2.3 Science Source/Photo Researchers Inc, Staphylococcus Biofilm on the Inner Surface of a Needle <http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/118-a288/>[23.12.15]

Figure 4.2 Studio Intrex, Embryological House by Greg Lynn (1999), <https://studiointrex.wordpress. com/generative-systems-case-studies/>[28.12.15]

Figure 3.1 Gabe, Chris, Kampong Kleang Stilts Protect Houses from Changing Water Levels, Personal Collection [21.07.15]

Figure 4.3 Mike Chino, Mangal City by Chimera, 2010 < http://inhabitat.com/spiraling-skyscraper-podcity-for-a-future-london/ >[28.12.15]

Figure 3.2 Gabe, Chris, Kampong Kleang Stilted Street, Personal Collection [21.07.15]

Figure 5.1 Ansari, T & Gabe, SM. Figure 1. Intestine Tissue Engineering. In: Tissue Engineering Using Ceramics and Polymers (2nd Edition), ed. AR Boccaccini & PX Ma. (London: Elsevier Ltd, 2014), pp. 498-523.

Figure 3.3 Gabe, Chris, Kampong Kleang Stilted House, Personal Collection [21.07.15]

7 Figure 5.2 Ansari, T & Gabe, SM. Figure 2(a). Intestine Tissue Engineering. In: Tissue Engineering Using Ceramics and Polymers (2nd Edition), ed. AR Boccaccini & PX Ma. (London: Elsevier Ltd, 2014), pp. 498-523.

Figure 5.3 Ansari, T & Gabe, SM. Figure 2(b). Intestine Tissue Engineering. In: Tissue Engineering Using Ceramics and Polymers (2nd Edition), ed. AR Boccaccini & PX Ma. (London: Elsevier Ltd, 2014), pp. 498-523.

Figure 5.4 Metalocus (Image Credit: Iwan Baan), Improvised Gym in the Rooftop, 2012, <http:// www.metalocus.es/content/en/blog/torre-david>[28.12.15] Figure 5.5 Gupse Korkmaz, The Exterior of Torre David, 2015 < http://kot0.com/goge-uzanan-bir-isgalevi-torre-david/ >[28.12.15] Figure 5.6 Gupse Korkmaz, The Exterior of Torre David, 2015 < http://kot0.com/goge-uzanan-bir-isgalevi-torre-david/ >[28.12.15] Figure 5.7 Metalocus, Section by Urban Think Tank, 2012, <http://www.metalocus.es/content/en/blog/ torre-david>[28.12.15] Figure 6.1 Moma (Image Credit: Jo Noero, Noero Wolff Architects), Memory Box Working Section, 2010 <http://www.moma.org/interactives/exhibitions/2010/smallscalebigchange/projects/ red_location_museum_of_struggle>[28.12.15] Figure 6.2 Moma (Image Credit: Nelson Mandela Metro Municipality), Aerial View of Site (2007), 2010 <http://www.moma.org/interactives/exhibitions/2010/smallscalebigchange/projects/red_ location_museum_of_struggle>[28.12.15]

Figure 6.3 Moma (Image Credit: Iwan Baan), Museum Exterior, 2010 <http://www.moma.org/interactives/ exhibitions/2010/smallscalebigchange/projects/ red_location_museum_of_struggle>[28.12.15] Figure 6.4 Designer+Builder, Low-Income Housing by Balakrishna Doshi, 2013 < http://www.designerplusbuilder.com/beyond-mere-aesthetics-architecture-is-about-life/ >[28.12.15] Figure 6.5 Designer+Builder, Open Patio in the Low-Income Housing by Balakrishna Doshi, 2013 < http://www.designerplusbuilder.com/beyond-mere-aesthetics-architecture-is-about-life/ >[28.12.15] Figure 6.6 Dezeen (Image Credit: Cristobal Palma), Quinta Monroy Exterior Mid-Community Construction Phase, 2008 <http://www.dezeen. com/2008/11/12/quinta-monroy-by-alejandro-aravena/>[28.12.15] Figure 6.7 Dezeen (Image Credit: Cristobal Palma), Quinta Monroy Exterior Pre-Community Construction Phase, 2008 <http://www.dezeen. com/2008/11/12/quinta-monroy-by-alejandro-aravena/>[28.12.15] Figure 6.8 Dezeen (Image Credit: Cristobal Palma), Quinta Monroy Exterior Post-Community Construction Phase, 2008 <http://www.dezeen. com/2008/11/12/quinta-monroy-by-alejandro-aravena/>[28.12.15] Figure 6.9 Dezeen (Image Credit: Cristobal Palma), Quinta Monroy House Interior, 2008 <http://www. dezeen.com/2008/11/12/quinta-monroy-by-alejandro-aravena/>[28.12.15] Figure 6.10 Urban-Think Tank, Vertical Gym Chacao Interior <http://u-tt.com/project/vertical-gym/>[28.12.15]

8 Figure 6.11 Menocal, Cat Garcia (Image Credit: U-TT archive), Urban Think Tank’s Vertical Gym in Venezuela Revitalizes Region, 2013 <http:// www.designboom.com/architecture/urban-think-tanks-vertical-gym-in-venezuela-revitalizes-region/>[28.12.15] Figure 6.12 Urban-Think Tank, Anglican Church Exterior <http://u-tt.com/project/anglican-church/>[28.12.15] Figure 6.13 Demagazine (Image Credit: U-TT Archive), St Marys Anglican Church, 2011 <http://www. demagazine.co.uk/architecture/st-marys-anglican-church>[28.12.15] Appendix 1 Gabe, Chris. Lab Test at St Mark’s Hospital.

Personal Collection [08.12.15] Appendix 2 Gabe, Chris.Woman Walking, Kampong Kleang.

Personal Collection [21.07.15] Appendix 3 Gabe, Chris. Floating house, Kampong Kleang, Personal Collection [21.07.15] Appendix 4 Urban-Think Tank, Fábrica de Cultura: Grotão <http://u-tt.com/project/fabrica-de-cultura-grotao/> [14.01.16]

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CHAPTER ONE

Frameworks: Tissue Engineering

Introduction: It was 10 o’clock on a Tuesday morning and the cold winter sun was shining through the water-condensed windows of St Mark’s Hospital. I had been hurried through a maze of narrow hallways, lined with doors pinned with cheap plastic Christmas decorations. Locks clicked as a security pass opened the various doorways along my journey. I was lead into the office of Dr Tahera Ansari who had been anticipating my arrival, holding a fine specimen of a Euplectella, more commonly know as a Venus Flower Basket. This ocean dwelling glass sponge has inhabited the sea for up to 540 million years and exists up to 5,000 meters below sea level1. It has optimized maximum structural efficiency by utilizing layered glass filaments arranged vertically, horizontally and diagonally, forming a cylindrical cocoon (figure 1.1). It combines a range of mechanical constructional principles throughout the structure down to a microscopic level2 (appendix 1).

Dr Ansari is the lead scientist, developing a new form of synthetic stent that responds to the body both histologically and mechanically. She explained that the team had received funding in November and planed to start work in January, alongside the 1

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Pratzil, P. Colloids and Interfaces: Secrets of the Venus’ Flower Basket < http://www.mpikg.mpg.de/1568722/Euplectella. pdf> [accessed 11.12.15] Pratzil, P.

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architecture firm Tonkin Liu.

This unlikely partnership developed after Dr Ansari attended a lecture at RIBA held by the architecture firm on Shell Lace Technology. She proposed the idea that this technology could be scaled down to create biological structures, utilizing the same structural principles, and process of development and testing. Shell Lace Technology is currently being used by the firm to produce bridges and pavilions. It follows the constructional principles of the Euplectellas optimizing maximum structural strength with minimum material usage (figure 1.2). The team are planning on first developing a trachea stent. This structure must achieve two levels of functionality; it must provide mechanical support for the trachea and provide protection from bacterial or fungal infections. These aims can be achieved through the examination of both the trachea

Figure 1.1: Venus Flower Basket Skeleton.

The Euplectella optimizes maximum structural efficiency utilizing layered glass filaments arranged vertically, horizontally and diagonally, forming a cylindrical cocoon.

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and the process of cellularization in the damaged tissue. The form will be part mechanical, part biological, built from a mucin-infused polymer. The mucin will protect against bacteria and influence the correct differentiation of cells in the damaged area. This semi-living polymer will be 3D printed into a tubular form covered in elliptical holes, with anchor points specific to the location of cartilage in the trachea. This has been proposed to create an architecturally manufactured biological framework that will assist the informal growth of cells within the trachea.3 The utilization of design to nurture informal growth sits at the heart of this essay.

Dr Ansariâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s stent is an example of a partnership between architectural design and an organic process that transgresses any biological metaphor or adopted design strategy.

Figure 1.2 Shi Ling Bridge.

Shi Ling Bridge by Tonkin Liu uses Shell Lace Technology to achieve maximum structural strength with minimum material usage.

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Dr. Tahera Ansari, Interview by Chris Gabe, Harrow, St. Markâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Hospital, 08.12.15.

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This school of thought does not seek absolute formalistic clarity but rather influences the independent construction of existing biological matter. Instead of looking to perfect the art of replication, this framework for informal growth empowers the existing living system and uses its existing functional complexities. Dr Ansari described how the project “involves going back to the basics again, and looking at the anatomy, and design something for the trachea, instead of scaling up and existing stent and just hope it works”4. I propose to explore the notion of an architectural framework that ‘involves going back to the basics’ in the context of contemporary urbanism, and the multilayered benefits of incorporating independent informal growth into architectural design.

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Dr. Tahera Ansari, Interview by Chris Gabe, Harrow, St. Mark’s Hospital, 08.12.15.

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CHAPTER TWO

An Ecological Design Program: Interconnected Urban Complexity

In this section I will begin with an ecological exploration of our urban environment, and the processes that lie at the heart of our cities. Following this section I will then continue to study the condition of informal settlements and the context in which this ideology may be relevant.

The Old Paradigm: Ecological Architecture The prospect of approaching the urban environment as an ecological system is becoming an increasingly common topic of conversation for architectural practices across the world. Academics such as Batel Dinur argue that, “a better understanding of these living processes may move architecture away from a perceived obsession with the static object, and into a more dynamic system”5, suggesting that in order to achieve a true sense of sustainability, architecture must utilize and draw from the same intricate interactions that are observed in the study of ecology. She argues that this “understanding of complex living systems can contribute not only to the way we analyse the world but also to the way we organize and construct it.”6.

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Dinur, B. Interweaving Architecture and Ecology–A Theoretical Perspective. Proceedings of the 6th International Conference of the European Academy of Design (2004) p.1 Dinur, p.1

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However, the notion of an ‘ecological architecture’ is no new concept. Learning from biological systems has influenced the designs of buildings, varying from Gaudi’s Sagrada Familia to Kurokawa’s Nakagin Capsule Tower (figure 2.2). Charles Jencks argues in ‘The Architecture of the Jumping Universe’ that “we now know the universe is more like the self repairing, self transforming butterfly than the nineteenth-century machine”7, and speaks of a fractal synthesis between the processes of nature in “the petals of Zvi Hecker (figure 2.1) and Frank Gehry, or the geological formations of Eisenman and Miralles”8. Though this does demonstrate a distinctive give-and-take between these two fields of knowledge, Batel argues that they do not fully embrace the notion of the implementation of urban ecological thought and are “only sculptural representations of certain abstract ideas” and “do not actually

Figure 2.1: Heinz-Galinski-Schule.

Heinz-Galinski-Schule by Zvi Hecker was designed in the form of a flower becoming a sculptural representation of an ecological system.

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Jencks, C. The Architecture of the Jumping Universe, Revised Edition, (West Sussex: Academy Editions, 1995), p. 160.

Jencks. p. 185.

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represent the continuous, complex processes that are manifested in living systems”9.

This is explored further by Salingaros, a mathematician and architectural theorist who argues, “Jencks and the deconstructivist architects … see only the end result of such processes and impose those images onto buildings”10. One could suggest that to fulfill this ideology, architects must engage with more complex strategies of design with a unique process of formation and change. This biological system of adaptability has been observed in the processes of urbanism.

From a Microbe to a City: The relevance of interaction Scientists Paula Watnick and Robert Kolter explored the commonality of the interaction in both bacteria in a biofilm and humans in a city in their paper ‘Biofilm, City of Microbes’ (2000). This paper examines the nature of microbial relationships within biofilm suggesting, “the natural biofilm is less like a highly developed organism and more like a complex, highly differentiated, multicultural community much like our own city”11.

Watnick and Kolter found that biofilms are constructed of “a multispecies microbial community harboring bacteria that stay and leave with purpose, share their genetic material at high rates, and fill distinct niches within biofilm”12. The key concept was that the microbes interact individually within their given context. The biofilm structure is shaped by the genetic compulsion of each individual bacterium to survive through a process of intercellular communication. This creates a complex structure unique to both the environment of the biofilm and the microbes that create it 9 Dinur, B. p.3 10 Salingaros, N. Anti-architecture and Deconstruction. (Germany: Umbau-Verlag, 2004), p.45 11 Kolter, R. and Watnick, P. Biofilm, City of Microbes. Journal of Bacteriology. 182.10 (2000), p2675-2679 (p.2675).

12 Kolter and Watnick, p.2675.

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Figure 2.2: The Construction of the Nakagin Capsule Tower.

Nakagin Capsule Tower by Kisho Kurokawa was inspired by cellular regeneration, consisting of detachable prefabricated capsules that attached to a central concrete tower.

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(figure 2.3). This study used the city as a metaphor to visualise biofilm development.

Schucter and Markx also observed in Biofilm Architecture that biofilms are found in both simplistic formations of homogenous cells and differentiated cells that have formed “elaborate morphological structures such as pillars or mushroom shapes with water channels in between for the exchange of materials within the biofilm and with the surroundings”13. These self-organised communities respond to the physical and chemical fabric of their surroundings through a complex form of communication called quorum sensing. This involves the production of “extracellular chemical signals by the cells that act on the cells themselves and their neighbours”14.

Figure 2.3: Staphylococcus Biofilm on the Inner Surface of a Needle.

This is a complex structure unique to both the environment of the biofilm and the microbes that create it.

13 Schuster, J and Markx, G. Biofilm Architecture. Adv Biochem Eng Biotechnol . 146, (2013) pp.77-96 (p 79).

14 Schuster and Markx, p.80.

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Self Assembly VS. Direct Assembly Schuter and Markx aimed to manipulate this understanding in the construction of synthetic biofilms. They created two categories. The first was self-assembly, which “makes use of genetic algorithms already in the cells, or genetic algorithms introduced into the cells by genetic engineering”15. The second is directed assembly that involves the immobilization of cells that are then “directed to predefined locations”. These constructed cells will grow, replicate and die. However, the format of the assembly will determine how the biofilm continues to metamorphose.

The degree of change to the biofilm structure, following assembly, will indicate how well-suited it is to its environment. It was understood that the self-assembled biofilm is less prone to change over time. However, the directed assembly biofilms was more prone to structural remodelling16. This suggests that the use of self-organisation in the architecture of biofilm generates a structure that is better acclimatised to its context. If one makes the connection between the biofilm and the city it could be argued that the facilitation of existing genetic algorithms and self-organisation could be a beneficial route of exploration when considering urban design.

Michael Batty pursues this ideology, suggesting that there has been a shift in thinking from “cities as machines” to “cities as organisms”17. He argues that science can expose order in the multileveled complexity of cities. This is based on the idea that one hundred years ago the physical form of cities was the “ultimate determinant of their social and economic functioning, and quality of life therein”. What he suggests now is that “cities are mirrors and microcosms of society and culture at large, with

15 Schuster and Markx, p.86.

16 Schuster and Markx, pp.89-90.

17 Batty, M. Building a Science of Cities. UCL Working Paper Series, 170, (2011), pp.1-15 (p.1)

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every viewpoint contributing something to their understanding”18. He put forward the idea that even though the “simplest physical systems can admit uncertainty in their predictions”, as illustrated by Chaos Theory, if the behavioral cycles in the multicellular structure of the urban environment are understood, patterns will begin to emerge. He absolves the city an notion of equilibrium, but suggests it is in constant flux evolving ‘mainly from bottom up as the product of millions of individual and group decisions with only occasional top down centralized action”19.

Batty’s studies are based in cybernetics, and though they emphasize spatial and interactive urban complexities, they do not consider urban materialism.

Matt Gandy continues this idea suggesting the urban ecology of the contemporary city exists in “state of flux and awaits a new kind of environmental politics that can respond to the co-evolutionary dynamics of social and bio-physical systems without resorting to the reactionary discourse of the past”20. In contrast to Batty, this explores an urban form that responds to both the social and material requirements of its context. He refers to a cyborg city, far from its science-fiction associations, calling for “a way of conceptualizing the body-technology nexus that underpins the contemporary city, but also as a corrective to those perspectives which seek to privilege the digital or virtual realm over material spaces”21. This hypothesizes a balance between technological development, ecology and materiality in urban development. One could suggest that Gandy’s city calls for a new architectural strategy, with a biotechnological sensitivity, which transgresses the outdated mechanical understandings of the environment.

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Batty, p.1.

Batty, p.2.

Gandy, M. ‘Urban Nature and the Ecological Imaginary’ in In the Nature of Cities: Urban Political Ecology and the Politics of Urban Metabolism, ed. By Heynen. N, Kaika. M, Swyngedouw. E (Oxon:Routledge, 2006), pp. 63-73 (p.72) Gandy, M. Cyborg Urbanization: Complexity and Monstrosity in the Contemporary City. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 29.1, (March 2005) pp. 26-49 (p.40).

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One could conclude that Dinur’s notion of a truly ‘complex living system’, can be achieved through the utilization of existing urban algorithms, as seen in Schucter and Markx’s self-assembled biofilm, which will in turn utilize the complex systems of interaction, materiality and ecological understanding that lie at the roots of our cities.

This realization is riddled with ambiguity; to explain this further I will draw from the example of Kampong Kleang.

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CHAPTER THREE

Informal Growth in an Informal Settlement

Fragility and Complexity in Kampong Kleang Kampong Kleang is a village in Cambodia bordering the Tonle Sap Lake. The location experiences a large topographical change each year as water levels can rise by 11 meters. This unique community employs distinctive, durable, innovative solutions for dealing with its environmental context, utilizing notions of structural informality and developmental flexibility.

Wooden houses rise above the ground on stilts protecting their inhabitants from flooding during wet season (figure 3.1). These wooden stilts create a unique vernacular form accommodating the fluctuate nature of the environment. Though the houses are isolated to transport via rafts and boats during wet season, during dry season these structures are left exposed (figure 3.2). This uninhabited stilted space beneath the houses creates a social sub-level that maximizes social interaction and creates space for the fabrication of shops, restaurants, workshops, lounges and playgrounds (figure 3.3). The multi-functional nature of this stilted area creates an interactive space where temporary structures can be easily constructed and equipment easily stored. Tonle Sap Lakeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s fish population in under increasing strain due to

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Figure 3.1: Stilted Houses in Kampong Kleang Wooden houses rise above the ground on stilts protecting their inhabitants from flooding during wet season.

Figure 3.2: Kampong Kleang Stilted Street During dry season the stilted structures are left exposed. Steep stairs connect the houses to the streets.

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over-farming, pollution and the chemical harm of pesticides on the ecology. The flexibility of personal construction has been vital when allowing the fisherman to diversify their professions as a result of government influence and decline in fish population (figure 3.4). As a result, Community Officer Sunheap (appendix 2) stated, villagers were diversifying their skills, and had started â&#x20AC;&#x153;to harvest grasshoppers and sell them to Thailand and make fishing nets and sell them to Vietnamâ&#x20AC;?22.

Figure 3.3: Kampong Kleang Stilted House This uninhabited stilted space beneath the houses creates a social sub-level that maximizes social interaction and creates space for the fabrication of shops, restaurants, workshops, lounges and playgrounds.

Kampong Kleang is not in ecological harmony with Tonle Sap Lake. The Tonle Sap Authorities (TSA) have been working with these communities to moderate the development of these villages to minimize subsequent environmental damage. The village is in an area of ecological fragility. On meeting with Khov Meas, Deputy Sectary General of TSA (appendix 3), he stated, â&#x20AC;&#x153;whilst we want these communities to flourish, we must restrict the amount of protected trees being cut down which

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Sunheap (Community policeman), interview by Chris Gabe, Kampong Kleang, 21.07.15.

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Figure 3.4: Kampong Kleang Shop Constructed Beneath House During Dry Season The flexibility of personal construction has been vital when allowing the fisherman to diversify their professions as a result of government influence and decline in fish population.

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is necessary for the development of roads.”23 They have encounter conflict when destroying illegal reservoirs in protected areas and attempting to preserve the flooded forest from deforestation24. Here one can observe a community that has a uniquely illustrative urban physical form that responds to the fluctuant nature of its geological context. Khov Meas stated that, “we (TSA) believe education is the most important factor for addressing environmental issues for sanitation and health”25. The villagers of Kampong Kleang live in poverty and new architectural intervention does not present a clear solution. This settlement epitomizes Dinurs ‘complex living system’ as their method of dealing with the ecological, social and micro-economic challenges of their environment have developed from generations of incremental informal growth. This community responds to both Batty’s theory social complexity, and Gandy’s ecological sensitivity. The fragility of this environment emphasizes the understanding that any new architectural form must engage with these influences. One asks how can architecture hope to engage with living systems as deeply as it would in the context of this fragile example. This brings us back to the ideas of Schuster and Markx in which the process of construction can either be influenced by direct or self-assembly.

A Unique Urban Toolkit for Unique Informal Communities Informal settlements, more commonly know as slums, are becoming a characteristic feature of developing urban communities. In 2001 it was reported that 924 million people lived in informal settlements. Over the next 30 years this is expected to increase to about 2 billion26. These settlements are a product of over population and 23

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Khov Meas (Deputy Secretary Genral of the Tonle Sap Authority), Interview by Chris Gabe, Personal Interview, Tonle Sap Authority Building, Phnom Penh, Cambodia, 04.08.15.

Khov Meas, Interview by Chris Gabe Khov Meas, Interview by Chris Gabe UN-HABITAT and United Nations Human Settlements Programme,The challenge of slums: Global report on human settlements 2003. (London: Earthscan Publications, 2003) p. xxv.

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mass poverty. Though it is easy to regard these settlements as unsustainable “they are the way in which one in every six people sustain themselves globally and they are in no way temporary”27. Though imperfect, it seems foolish to disregard such an existential urban form. Kim Dovey’s analysis of informal settlements describes them as “relatively high density, walkable, transit-oriented and car-free. They are often constructed from recycled materials with low embodied energy and passive heating/ cooling. The ways that high densities have developed adjacent to transit nodes and with walkable access to employment gives these cities a level of structural sustainability that urbanists in the formal city can only dream of.”28

Figure 3.5: Dharavi Slum in Mumbai ‘The productivity of informal settlements is highly dependent on the capacity of public space to absorb domestic and economic functions.’

Informal growth in these communities is a rapidly responsive system of development, nurturing local innovation, utilizing waste materials and creating a complex, interdependent social network amongst its residents. It is becoming increasingly 27 28

Dovey, K. Becoming places: Urbanism/architecture/identity/power. (Oxon: Routledge, 2010), pp. 79.

Dovey, K. Informalising Architecture: The Challenge of Informal Settlements (2013). Architectural Design 83, 82–89 (p.3).

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obvious that the replacement of these settlements with apartment buildings that are “separated from street networks, where newly designed semi-public space loses efficiency, productivity and sociality”29 (figure 3.6) is not the correct method for dealing with this form of poverty. A key factor is that the “productivity of informal settlements is highly dependent on the capacity of public space to absorb domestic and economic functions”30(figure 3.5). Improving living conditions for these communities can cause both architects and planners a great deal of difficulty. This because urban improvisation and constructional flexibility are essential in these communities. However urban planners and theorists have developed certain strategies to respond to these environments.

Kim Dovey suggests the use of an “incremental upgrading process with designs for the low-carbon city”31. This maintains the social fabric, and attempts to build on what already exists to create a more sustainable future. The incremental upgrading methodology cannot be applied to settlements that are built to exceptionally low standards (figure 3.7), suffer from flooding risk and are close to railways. Dovey argues that a solution lies in “forms of spatial thinking that link an understanding of incremental change and existing morphologies to a larger-scale strategy of transformational change”32. He claims that architects must enter this realm of informality with the ambition to “engage with issues of incremental upgrading of informal settlements”33. This will work with the existing informal urban methodologies currently in place. However for this to succeed a change in attitude must be established that eradicates architectures primacy of form.

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Dovey, p.2.

Dovey, p.2.

Dovey, p.4.

Dovey, p.5.

Dovey, p.6.

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Figure 3.6: Bharat Janata Housing Cooperative â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Newly designed semi-public space loses efficiency, productivity and sociality.â&#x20AC;&#x2122;

Figure 3.7: Slums of Manila The incremental upgrading methodology cannot be applied to settlements that are built to exceptionally low standards.

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Uday Athavankar describes the two extremes of slum development; in-situ upgrading and redevelopment. He argues that only using a single methodology would cause the city to “crumble under the weight of its own growth”34, and that redevelopment must decongest the city whilst facilitating growth and improve connectivity and infrastructure whilst maintaining a human scale. Though quick fixes will only create problems, so will idealist humanist schemes and designs that do not anticipate “slums in the making”35. He concludes with the principle that “regulations that link overall objectives of decentralization of dense urban settlements with slum redevelopment efforts could offer the much talked about win-win.”36 This combination of principles forms a specific strategy and will accommodate the growth of the city, whilst preserving the existing complexity of the informal living environment.

John Abbott depicts three different approaches. These include the development of infrastructural provision, a community-based scheme in which “this success appears to lie in a structured approach to community decision-making, particularly in the area of layout planning”37, and technology-based settlement planning using “advanced, computer-based spatial analysis techniques to generate a wide-ranging database covering different facets of settlement structure and organisation”38. He does not promote a single method of development, as “the reality of course is that informal settlements constitute extremely complex environments and for an approach to be successful it has to be able to deal with, and incorporate, this complexity”39. He believes that a variety of resources must be used to improve the living conditions of 34

35 36 37

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Athavankar, U. Think Bottom-up: Can You Use that in Mumbai Slum Upgrade? In: The Economy of Sustainable Construction. ed. Ruby, I. Andreas,R. and Nathalie, J (Berlin: Ruby Press, 2014) 165-170 (p.168) Athavankar, p.168.

Athavankar, p.170.

Abbott. J, An Analysis of Informal Settlement Upgrading and Critique of Existing Methodological Approaches, Habitat International, 26 (2002), 303-315 (p.312) Abbott, p313-314.

Abbott, p.314.

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Figure 3.8: Favela Painting in Santa Marta Favela painting is an example of incremental change that uses a new ‘style of thinking’.

the urban poor.

Edgar Pieterse argued in Building New Worlds “the crucial issue in practice is one of integrating social, spatial, economic and aesthetic issues within an expanded design framework”40. Although this form of architectural practice is in the process of development and it requires a shift towards a research and community based methodology in which “architects become identified by the style of their thinking more than by the style of their buildings”41 (figure 3.8). Dovey, Athavankar and Abbott describe the importance of exploring the existing fabric of informal settlements in redevelopment, ensuring that the projects are site-specific. They also demonstrate the requirement for a new role of the architect, where complex social 40

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Pieterse, E. Building New Worlds. In: Cynthia Smith Design with the Other 90% Cities (New York: Smithsonian Institute, 2011). p40-53.

Dovey, p.8.

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integration and incremental development surpasses obsession with finalised form.

Having studied the importance of using the existing complexity of informal settlements in their development, we begin to contemplate a transition from imposed urban design to an architectural symbiosis with the existing environment. However, as Dinur explored earlier in the essay, the concept of an architecture that engages with a deeper ecological urban synthesis of growth in the past has presented certain difficulties.

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CHAPTER FOUR

The Theoretical Basis of an Architecture that Can Accommodate the Complexities of Interaction and Change

Avoiding Utopia: The Concept of Growth in Architecture Experimental architects interested in cybernetics such as Theodore Spyropoulos promote social connectivity in architecture, drawing from the processes of cellular interaction. This is demonstrated in Spyropoulos’ design for the Emotive City, a self-organizing and mobile model for the contemporary city that responds with the everyday interaction of the public (figure 4.1). He states in ‘Adaptive Ecologies: Correlated Systems of Living’ that contemporary urban morphologies have become generic and are unable to adapt to the perpetually changing needs of the built environment. He argues, “architecture today must participate and engage with the information-rich environments that are shaping our lives by constructing computational frameworks that will allow for change, embracing a demand for adaptive models for living”42. For Spyropoulos, collective interaction becomes paramount in urban design, facilitating the spatial complexities of the city, shifting the focus away from architectural form, towards the process of formation. This was also theorized in Greg Lynn’s Embryological House (1997-2001), which explores the notion of ‘mass customization’. Lynn conceptualized a constructional concept where 42

Spyropoulos, T. ‘Constructing Adaptive Ecologies: Notes on a Computational Urbanism’. In: Adaptive Ecologies: Correlated Systems of Living. eds T. Weaver, P. Johnston (London: AA Publications, 2013) 10-23, p.11.

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buildings have the ability “to trace the evolution pattern of the human embryo”43.

The project is based on the generation of different iterations of the same ‘egg’ due to differing conditions (figure 4.2). This holds the potential to mathematically create a universal form of housing that can be moulded into the context of its surroundings, harmoniously adapting to altered circumstances. The Embryological Houses “employs a rigorous system of geometrical limits that liberate models of endless variations”44.

This idea continues the concept of abandoning the finalized constructional form, as each mutation is a functioning cog in an on-going process of change. The project “success lies in architects developing their own algorithm to address specifically their project”45. In its post-modern context, Lynn promoted a universal adaptability, with rules to be repeated within a design process to create a formalised informality. This portrays architectural innovation that can create a unique structure for an individual context, as explained by Chris Knapp when he says “such a project can embody the local, cultural specificity of a personally owned commodity, while maintaining identity in a global system of capital flows”46.

Lynn’s attempt to create a constructional mathematical formula to determine different socio-environmental factors, and Spyropoulos’ proposal from a city formed by a system of interaction both convey the notion of a self-assembling, responsive urban metabolism. This however is no new architectural concept. It has 43

44

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Varma, R. The Embryological House--- Greg Lynn --- Body Diagraming <https://rahatvarma.files.wordpress. com/2010/11/body-diagram2.pdf> [accessed 26.11.15] Burns, K. Greg Lynn’s Embryological House Project: The “Technology” and Metaphors of Metorsmof Architecture <https://opus.lib.uts.edu.au/bitstream/2100/467/1/Burns_Greg%20Lynn.pdf>[accessed 26.11.15] Wintour, P. The Big Bang of Architectural Evolution (2015), <http://parametricmonkey.com/research/the-big-bang/> [accessed 26.11.15] Knapp. C, The end of prefabrication (2013), <http://www.australiandesignreview.com/fea tures/35295-the-end-of-prefabrication> [accessed 26.11.15]

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Figure 4.1: Emotive City by Minimaforms A self-organizing and mobile model for the contemporary city that responds with the everyday interaction of the public.

Figure 4.2: Embryological House by Greg Lynn The project is based on the generation of different iterations of the same â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;eggâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; due to differing conditions.

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been explored in the works of Louis Kahn, Superstudio, Archigram and Yona Friedman. It became the central theme of the Japanese Metabolist Movement in the 1970’s that “approached the city as a living organism consisting of elements with different metabolic cycles.”47 An example of this is the Nakagin Capsule Tower (1972) that aimed to encompass a sense of regeneration. The tower contained the prospect of cellular change with “each inhabitant would contributing to the construction of the building’s identity.” However the reality was that it was the architect “who merged all the decisions”48. One could argue that the tower failed because of a lack of user involvement. If one were to follow this concept then it could be suggested that the further development of technology to generate responsive algorithms that optimise user interaction holds the key to the architectural implementation of socially tuned hyper-complexity.

Spyropoulos’ Emotive City is a form of adaptive architecture that is based on an ecological systematic order of organization. Lynn too explores how architecture can create an open dialogue with an environment in continuous change. The capability for a system to “adjust its behavior in response to the environment in the form of self-adaptation”49 is a field of study that directly relates to architecture, software design and engineering. The implementation of feedback and control loops permits the potential for an environmentally responsive form and the fabrication of a bottom-up method of construction that starts with simple component parts and “aggregates them together in a way that allows an orderly pattern to emerge”50.

47 Lin. Z, Kenzo Tange and the Metabolist Movement: Urban Utopias of Modern Japan (Oxon: Routledge, 2010) p.2.

48 Magalhães. A, A Year in the Metabolist Future of 1972 (2014) <http://www.failedarchitecture.com/nak

agin/>[26.11.15] 49 Brun, Y et al. Engineering Self-Adaptive Systems Through Feedback Loops In Software Engineering for Self-Adaptive Systems, eds.

Cheng, B et al. (Berlin: Springer, 2009) pp.48-70

(p.49) 50 Talbott, K. Feedback Loop: Designing Complex Architecture (Milwaukee, Kyle William Talbott Publisher, 2010) p.28.

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Figure 4.3: Mangal City by Chimera Chimera’s proposal for Mangal City uses biomimetic principles to create a structure modeled on ‘mangrove trees, spiraling plant growth patterns, and the interaction of natural ecosystems’.

Instead of imposing a preconceived shape, this architecture will grow from a network of parts and their interactions, “designers still control the result, but in a radically different way”51. This is seen in Chimera’s proposal for Mangal City that uses biomimetic principles to create a structure modeled on “mangrove trees, spiraling plant growth patterns, and the interaction of natural ecosystems”52 (figure 4.3). This holds the potential to create a design that can “adapt, transform, mutate and adjust according to the specific urban and social character of the site”53, using technologically informed architectural flexibility. Whilst this works well to replicate the ‘interaction of natural 51 52

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Talbott, p.28.

Chino, M. Spiraling Skyscraper Pod City For a Future New York < http://inhabitat.com/spiraling-skyscraper-pod-city- for-a-future-london> [accessed 11.12.15] Chino.

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ecosystemâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, it does not use an existing system of growth. This method of approaching informal architecture is reliant on a central controlling program. One could argue that this does not engage with the existing ecological or urban systems, but mimics them. A new direction could be to absorb the existing informal complexity rather than reinvent it. This could form a more natural relationship between the two systems. To explore this idea further we shall return to the work of Dr Ansari.

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CHAPTER FIVE

Frameworks: Growth Within a Scaffold

Tissue Engineering Intestine: The Scaffold Matrix Here we will explore the development of synthetic frameworks for intestinal tissue growth. The medical condition Short Bowel Syndrome is a cause of intestinal failure, resulting in the inability of the intestines to absorb sufficient nutrients for the host to survive. Research institutes are currently developing techniques to make replacement small intestine with bioengineered tissue.

The process of creating a neointestine (tissue engineered intestine) involves the construction of a ‘scaffold matrix’ that replicates the three-dimensional form of the existing tissue. This should allow the local cells to populate the structure and multiply, creating new tissue. The morphological complexity of small bowel tissue creates a number of difficulties when attempting to do this. It must replicate the dual function of the organic tissue acting as both an absorptive surface and a barrier against the external environment 54. It must also facilitate the development of a vascular network, allowing a functional blood supply into and out of the scaffold 55.

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Ansari, T & Gabe, SM. Intestine Tissue Engineering. In: Tissue Engineering Using Ceramics and Polymers (2nd Edition), ed. AR Boccaccini & PX Ma. (London: Elsevier Ltd, 2014), pp. 498-523.

Nowocin. AK. et al. The Development and Implantation of a Biologically Derived Allograft Scaffold. Journal of Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine. 1 (2013), 1-9 (p.1).

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Figure 5.1: Illustration of the Structure of the Small Intestine The structural complexity of the bowel tissue including lymphatic and vascular networks, inverted muscle and mucosal layers.

One technique is to develop a synthetic tubular scaffold that fits between two segments of healthy intestine (figure 5.2). Various attempts have been made to create neointestine that have transferred stem cell cultures on to synthetic scaffolds56.

Synthetic scaffolds are interconnected porous networks (figure 5.3). The form is of vital importance as it determines the functional properties of the intestine along with cell migration and adhesion. The larger pores are responsible for the development of blood vessels and lymphatics and the smaller pores permit the diffusion of oxygen and nutrients in and out of the structure57. One could suggest that the synthetic scaffold holds a lot of potential to allow the manipulation of the form to fulfill different functions. This can be achieved by altering pore size, density and the overall shape of the tubular structure. Whilst it is appreciated that it is not possible to achieve the same level of complexity as the natural form, the aim is to encompass the 56 57

Ansari, T & Gabe, SM. p.5.

Ansari, T & Gabe, SM. p.7.

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Figure 5.2: Cross Sectional Electron Microscopy of a Synthetic Tubular Scaffold One technique is to develop a synthetic tubular scaffold that fits between two segments of healthy intestine.

Figure 5.3: Cross Sectional Electron Microscopy of a Synthetic Tubular Scaffold (High Magnification) Synthetic scaffolds are interconnected porous networks.

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essential components to enable the synthetic bowel to function well within a human system. Our next question is how can this strategy of designing that facilitates independent growth be interpreted into the world of urbanism and architecture?

The Unlikely Occupancy of Torre David: The previous example explored a method of encouraging growth by creating a biologically responsive scaffold matrix. This does not rely on mathematical principles designed to mimic the fundamental complexity of a prerequisite system, but rather nurtures the existing biological networks into growth and repair. This concept could be explored in the world of informal urbanism. An example of this system of framework driven growth can be found in the occupancy of Torre David.

Because of a series of bank closures in 1994, Venezuela’s financial sector was crippled. This resulted in the loss of funding for the half-complete construction of the new skyscraper Torre David. The undeveloped concrete frame of Torre David stood high above Caracas, abandoned for the next 13 years. On September 17, 2007 a group of squatters gathered outside the gates of Torre David, following their eviction from La Candelaria. Upon seeing such mass poverty the security guards decided to open the gates and thus marking the beginning of the occupation of Torre David.

This continued to develop into one of the worlds largest vertical squats (figure 5.4).

As years have passed this derelict building has been undergoing a process of transformation through its ongoing occupation (figure 5.5). The squatters begun “to modify and adapt the structure to their needs”58 (figure 5.6). An autocratic democracy was established in a “sequence of concentric circles of influence and 58

Brillembourg. A, Klumpner. H, Torre David: Informal Vertical Communities, (Zürich: Lars Muller Publishers, 2013) p.131.

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authority”59 creating a social order and an infrastructural functionality, with established floor managers, and a council. These members have created regulatory systems such as the organization of electricity bills, churches, playgrounds, shops and even an organised process of accommodation for new residents. The occupiers have utilized and modified the sewage pipes to “create working sanitation systems”60, and it has become recognized that each resident is responsible for the disposal of their own rubbish and waste. The residents have also created “a rather Rube-Goldbergian system of water distribution, supplied from a city water main”, and each fill their own tanks (“at least two (500-litre water tanks) per family”61 each week). The empty remains of Torre David, having slipped into bleak disrepair has become the home to up to 3,000 residents62 and has become the framework in which a collective of squatters have created a “genuine community, operating as a cooperative and structured with rules, procedures, and a bureaucracy that would not be foreign to anyone living in an upscale cooperative apartment building in cities like New York, Paris, and London”63 (figure 5.7).

The Design Firm, Urban-Think Tank (U-TT) noticed the potential to study this community in order to test the feasibility of using informality in an urban setting.

They argue that “among life’s certainties is rapid and unpredictable change” and that architects dealing with mass urbanism must adopt new principles of “resilience, adaptability, and transformability.”64 The firm adopted a system of infrastructural improvement for the vertical community to “enhance the safety, functionality, and

59 60 61 62 63 64

Brillembourg. A, Klumpner. H, p.148 Brillembourg. A, Klumpner. H, p.241.

Brillembourg. A, Klumpner. H, p.216.

Brillembourg. A, Klumpner. H, p.29 Brillembourg. A, Klumpner. H, p.145.

Brillembourg. A, Klumpner. H, p.334

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Figure 5.4: Improvised Gym in the Rooftop The squatters have begun “to modify and adapt the structure to their needs”

social vibrancy of the space.”65 This approach to an informal dwelling does not aim to replace existing homes but fundamentally improve the framework of their living conditions in order to allow the community to grow.

U-TT proposed methods of harvesting wind energy using low cost technologies which are “readily accessible to the users and require far less maintenance”66 and a revolutionary pumped pico hydro storage system. The team aims to improve the quality of living for the residents by creating a system of self sufficient, functional infrastructure within the buildings framework. The residents would “sustain the operations and maintenance of any intervention through their own initiative and efforts”67.

65 66 67

Brillembourg. A, Klumpner. H, p.335 Brillembourg. A, Klumpner. H, p.340 Brillembourg. A, Klumpner. H, p.350

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Figure 5.5: The Exterior of Torre David Torre David developed into one of the worlds largest vertical squats.

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Figure 5.6: The Exterior of Torre David (Higher Magnification) This derelict building has been undergoing a process of transformation through its ongoing occupation.

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Figure 5.7: Section by Urban Think Tank Torre David developed “a bureaucracy that would not be foreign to anyone living in an upscale cooperative apartment building in cities like New York, Paris, and London”

“The fact that Torre David is, as we have noted before, a continually changing, evolving organism is perhaps its least unexpected feature. The “growing building” is a phenomenon we have observed throughout our exploration of the informal, not only in Caracas but also in other mega-cities. The only truly static element in Torre David is the concrete structure- everything else is in flux. The process of perpetual change makes Torre David singularly useful as a framework from which the future of urban architecture can emerge.”68

U-TT aims to “shift the focus of contemporary architectural practice away from its preoccupation with form, toward a marriage of design with social impact”69. This 68 69

Brillembourg. A, Klumpner. H, p.351 Brillembourg. A, Klumpner. H, p.371.

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development is evocative of a similar sense of urban assembly to Spyropoulos’ concept of the Emotive City, however it rejects the principle of an external controlling body, relying on the development of existing systems of interaction, materialitism and innovation. This alternative urban framework offers a form of urbanism separated from mechanical, cybernetic or even bio-technical strategies, focusing on principles of empowerment, innovation, freedom and individual stakeholder involvement. Christian Schmid argues that Torre David is not “to be regarded not so much as an individual building, but rather as part of the city”70.

Though this example of incremental change is slow and these environments are not free of crime, health risks, injustice and insecurity, U-TT promotes this design mentality as a more pragmatic approach to take in this environment because “the city is a place in constant flux. And so, urban development is, by definition, a process that requires constant innovation and inventiveness”71.

Unfortunately in 2014 “government officials and armed soldiers began evicting the first of thousands of squatters who have been living in the half-built skyscraper”72.

Some of the residents were glad with one woman reporting “she was hoping to be moved within the week as sewage and cement had begun to leak in through the top of her home”73. The tower will be restored to its original purpose and residents relocated to new social housing. U-TT summarized the informal settlement stating that through their research they found “neither a den of criminality nor a romantic utopia. Torre David is a building that has the complexity of a city”74. They reported 70 Schmid, C. ‘Afterward’ In Torre David: Informal Vertical Communities. eds Brillembourg. A, Klumpner (Zürich: Lars

Muller Publishers, 2013) p.385..

71 Schmid. C, p.387.

72 AP, Squatters evicted from Venezuela’s Tower of David skyscraper (2014) < http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/

southamerica/venezuela/10986134/Squatters-evicted-from-Venezuelas-Tower-of-David-skyscraper.html> [26.11.15].

73 AP, Squatters evicted from Venezuela’s Tower of David skyscraper (2014) < http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/

southamerica/venezuela/10986134/Squatters-evicted-from-Venezuelas-Tower-of-David-skyscraper.html> [26.11.15].

74 Urban Think Tank, On the Future of Torre David (2014) <http://torredavid.com/> [26.11.15]

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that the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;governmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s actions are not motivated by commercial interest, but rather by humanitarian concernsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;75. Whilst this example holds some interesting urban ideologies, the result of Torre David illustrates the many obstacles architects will face when attempting to explore this partnership between design and informality.

75

Urban Think Tank, On the Future of Torre David (2014) <http://torredavid.com/> [26.11.15]

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CHAPTER SIX

Hyper-complexity: Architectural Pragmatics and Inevitable Imperfection

In this essay I have hoped to demonstrate methods of optimizing informality and growth into architectural design. The concept that has begun to emerge is that the optimization of informality requires a new urban toolset, achieved through both a step away from architecturally determined form, and a step towards the critical analysis of existing urban systems and their empowerment. This strategy begins to look through the lens of the ecologist, attempting create a framework in which growth forms the heart of an informal urban ecosystem. This section will evaluate this partnership, making reference to existing architectural projects that explore this principle.

The Hyper-complexity of Hyperobjects Timothy Morton regards himself as an object-oriented ontologist and perceives the world from a non-anthropocentric perspective. He believes that the notion of ‘earth’ is commonly perceived as being isolated from human intervention in its natural virgin state. The ‘actual Earth” has been “marked by the decisive human ‘terraforming’ of Earth” 76. Paul Crutzen and Eugene Stoermer describes the mankind’s environmental 76

Morton, T. Hyperobjects: Philosophy and Ecology after the End of the World (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2013), p.4.

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Figure 6.1: Memory Box Working Section The Red Location Museum of Struggle (2005), designed by Noero Wolff Architects in Port Elizabeth, South Africa, is a museum that was but in an informal settlement.

influence to epitomize the anthropocene which is a result of the “many other major and still growing impacts of human activities on earth and atmosphere, and at all, including global, scales”77. This suggests that human intervention is a fundamental part of the world’s metabolic process; ignorance of this clouds our understanding of the condition of our surroundings. Morton also explores the notion of ‘hyperobjects’.

These are ‘things that are massively distributed in time and space relative to humans”78. In other words they are anything from a plastic bag to all the nuclear waste on the planet that exists or is going to exist as a product of the anthropocene.

Morton argues that these hyper-objects caused the end of the virgin ‘earth’ described 77 78

Crutzen, P, J. Stoermer, E, F. The “Anthropocene”. IGBP News Letter. No. 41. May 2000. pp.17-18. p.17.

Morton, T. The Ecological Thought (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2010), p.130-135

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Figure 6.2: Aerial View of Site The site had previously been one of the centers of the antiapartheid movement in 1948 and after the Second Boer War.

Figure 6.3: Museum Exterior The project aimed to become a social â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;anchorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; bringing services such as an art center and a market hall into the area.

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earlier. He states, “it ended in April 1784 when James Watt patented the steam engine, an act that commenced the depositing of carbon in Earth’s crust – namely, the inception of humanity as a geophysical force on a planetary scale” 79. This theory exposes a deep-rooted pragmatism, avoiding the “possibility of transcendental leaps “outside” physical reality” and the recognition of “hyperobjects force us to acknowledge the immanence of thinking to the physical”80. This perspective avoids the speculation of a utopian ‘solution’, which is paramount when addressing informal settlements. Whilst these communities are fundamentally imperfect, an architecture that can respond to it and influence its development has the potential to be an effective system of improvement.

This pragmatic perspective is of key relevance when contemplating the construction of a framework for informal growth. For instance The Red Location Museum of Struggle (2005), designed by Noero Wolff Architects in Port Elizabeth, South Africa, is a museum that was built in an informal settlement (figure 6.1). The ambition was to ‘assist the poor and oppressed black community”81 in the area. The site had previously been one of the centers of the antiapartheid movement in 1948 and after the Second Boer War (Figure 6.2). Precautions were taken through the design process to integrate the building into its surrounding context such as a community-based project committee that met weekly throughout construction. The project aimed to become a social ‘anchor’ bringing services such as an art center and a market hall into the area (Figure 6.3). This would generate a local economy, stimulating the surroundings to develop, and reducing social tension and political conflict. Whilst this sounds promising a news report in 2014 stated that the museum 79 Morton, T. Hyperobjects: Philosophy and Ecology after the End of the World (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press,

2013), p.5.

80 Morton (2013), p.4.

81 Lepik. A, Small Scale Big Change: New Architectures of Social Engagement. (Basel: Birkhäuser, 2010), p.52.

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had to be “closed due to community protests”, and that “the building has now been stripped by people helping themselves to electrical wiring, water pipes, power sockets, fencing and wooden fittings for their shacks.” A community leader was reported to have questioned “why build a house for dead people when us the living do not have a roof over our heads?”82. This epitomizes an architecture that took ‘transcendental leaps outside physical reality’. This idealist design had not judged the requirements of the surrounding context. This was designed in the vision of an external controlling body and serves as a demonstration for the dysfunctionality that can follow from a lack of social pragmatism. I would like to draw a parallel between Morton’s concept of the ‘virgin earth’ and the ‘actual earth’ to the disparity between self and directed forms of assembly explored in the study of biofilm. The integration of form in the development of self-assembly avoids the potential for disengagement resulting from utopia directed designs.

A World that Worlds Worlds A more contemporary philosophical approach is explored by Donna Haraway who recognises that development is shaped by the person, the environment and time forming a complex layered urban system hence ‘it matters what stories tell stories. It matters what thoughts think thoughts. It matters what worlds world worlds”83. She makes use of the Gaia hypothesis, invoked by James Lovelock, where the earth and all its inhabitants are viewed from space as a cohesive metabolic system. This auto-poetic theory conveys the geological forces and the living forces as being merged into one system of existence where they both respond to each other accommodating collapse as it does growth. In her article ‘Anthropocene, Capitalocene, 82

83

Unspecified. PE residents force anti-apartheid museum to close (2014), <http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/PE- residents-force-anti-apartheid-museum-to-close-20140731> [accessed 4th Nov 2015].

Haraway, D. Anthropocene, Capitalocene, Chthulucene: Staying with the Trouble (2014), <https://vimeo.com/97663518> [accessed 04 Oct 2015].

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Figure 6.4: Low-Income Housing by Balakrishna Doshi Doshi prioritized public space and interaction in design to ensure that a network of exchanges, and interactions are established in the streets surrounding his buildings

Figure 6.5: Open Patio in the Low-Income Housing by Balakrishna Doshi Natural lighting animates this public space and the patio area gave the families space to build and open businesses or workshops outside their houses.

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Plantationocene, Chthulucene: Making Kin’, Haraway seeks to “make possible partial and robust biological-cultural-political-technological recuperation and recomposition, which must include mourning irreversible losses”84. This progression of thought illustrates recognition of our surroundings as imperfect. However within this perception there is the possibility of improvement, achieved through a partnership between cultural, social, ecological, material and technological thought.

This can be applied to architecture to create a more dynamic form of construction, utilising the unstable complexities of an informal urban context. Balkrishna Doshi incorporates a sense of instability through the creation of more flexible living environments. He applied this principle when designing social housing as he observed that “the dysfunctionality of modern neighborhoods comes from the fact that they deprive their inhabitant of flexibility of use, as well as of the possibility of expanding, and that they impose lifestyles that are cut off from common practices”85.

This recognition depicts the fundamental floor in the application of western social housing schemes into the context of informal settlements. He prioritized public space and interaction in design to ensure that a network of exchanges, and interactions are established in the streets surrounding his buildings, supplying the occupants with “services, solidarity, and freedom to build”86 (figure 6.4). In his project Program for Low-Income Housing in Aranya, Bangladesh (1983-1986) he designed six neighborhoods, with grouped housing, each house with an open patio. Natural lighting animates this public space and the patio area gave the families space to build and open businesses or workshops outside their houses (figure 6.5).

84

85 86

Haraway, D. Anthropocene, Capitalocene, Plantationocene, Chthulucene: Making Kin. Environmental Humanities. 6 (2015), p159- 165 (p.160).

Lepik, p.31.

Lepik, p.31

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Figure 6.6: Quinta Monroy Exterior Mid-Community Construction Phase Elemental planned to use the concept of constructional flexibility to create social housing scheme with a very small budget.

This concept of constructional flexibility merges cultural expression, innovation, the use of local materials and social engagement together with the influence of the individual. Architecture Firm Elemental continued this notion in their project Resorption of a Shantytown for 100 Families (2004), in Chile (figure 6.6). Having bought a plot of land originally inhabited by an informal community that was in the process of being redeveloped by the government, the firm planned to create a social housing scheme with a very small budget. In order to maximise available resources the firm came up with the idea of building half a medium size house, rather than a whole small house. The inhabitants would then complete this semi-built dwelling using workshops supplied by the architecture firm (figure 6.7). This created an urban flexibility in social housing and aimed to revitalise the innovation and informality that

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Figure 6.7: Quinta Monroy Exterior Pre-Community Construction Phase In order to maximise available resources the firm came up with the idea of building half a medium size house, rather than a whole small house. The inhabitants would then complete this semi-built dwelling using workshops supplied by the architecture firm.

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Figure 6.8: Quinta Monroy Exterior Post-Community Construction Phase This project aimed to revitalise the innovation and informality that existed in the previous settlement.

Figure 6.9: Quinta Monroy House Interior By abandoning western style public housing methods, an urban framework was created that permitted unique residential development.

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existed in the previous settlement (figure 6.8). By abandoning western style public housing methods, an urban framework was created that allowed the development of expressive architectural forms (figure 6.9). This method is seen as a “public investment rather than a public expense. As the houses are added to over time, they gain value and their rather stark original design is softened through occupation and use”87. These houses were first valued at US$7,50088 and following development are worth US$20,00089. Haraway’s attention to rethinking and promoting a ‘world that worlds worlds’ has begun to emerge in this alternative approach to social housing.

Rethinking Informality in Architecture Joel Mckim makes an interesting observation on how to create more pragmatic and socially and environmentally suitable infrastructural architecture in his essay ‘Radical Infrastructure? A New Realism and Materialism in Philosophy and Architecture’.

He describes a shift in principles from the “design of individual signature buildings towards the organization of complex, overlapping and often transnational systems of energy, transportation and natural ecology”90. He describes contemporary infrastructure to have an increased relevance, agreeing with the likes of Keller Easterling who argued that the current architectural focus on infrastructure is inspired by ‘radical changes to the globalized world’91. This notion of accommodating change and embracing developmental complexity depicts a large shift away from the convention of an architectural primacy of form, towards one that embraces a more complex informality.

87 Awan, N. Schneider, T. Till, J. Spatial Agency: Other Ways of Doing Architecture (Oxon:Routledge, 2011) p.142.

88 Aravena, A. ‘Elemental: A Do Tank’, Architectural Design, 10.1002 (2011), pp.32-37 (p.32) 89 Aravena. A, p.32.

90 McKim, J. ‘Radical Infrastructure? A New Realism and Materialism in Philosophy and Architecture’, in The Missed

Encounter of Radical Philosophy with Architecture, ed. By Lahiji, N (London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2014), pp.133-148 (p.

133) 91 Easterling, ‘Disposition and Active Form,’ in Infrastructure As Architecture: Designing Composite Networks, ed. By Stoll, K

and Lloyd, S. (Berlin: Jovis, 2012), pp.96-99 (p. 96)

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McKim conveys a sense of cynicism towards the orthodox hierarchy of objects and appears inspired by Jane Bennett’s ability to “dismantle or disrupt the ontological dualism of life and matter, human and non-human, and organic and inorganic”92.

McKim is suggesting that Bennett’s “shared materiality of all things”93, represents a key consideration for architects in the modern world. One must step away from the transience of style and the unsustainability of quick-fix solutions, to tune into a sense of interconnectedness where infrastructural creation responds to a deeper worldly synthesis. This architecture will consist of a “complex assemblage of actants… rather than a single root source of efficacy, we are confronted with a ‘swarm of vitalities at play”94. When applied to the development of architectural design it presents a refusal to simplify complex problems and seeks to understand the essential workings of this intricately integrated urban ecosystem. An example of this style of infrastructural framework is Urban-Think Tank’s design for a Vertical Gynmasium typology in Caracas, Venezuela (2004, 2007). These are based on sites that were originally a single football pitch. Influenced by the informal method of ‘stacking’ U-TT created a structure that rises above the spatial constraints of the densely packed surroundings to create a fitness complex with facilities ranging from basketball courts to a climbing wall (figure 6.10). The project was a success and “is bristling with activity during day and nighttime hours, welcoming an average of 15,000 visitors per month, and has helped lower the crime rate in this barrio by more than 30 percent since its inauguration“95 (figure 6.11). In the same location they have also employed a series of prefabricated, steel modular stairs through the settlements. This is because stairs have a multi-functional purpose, serving as “meeting spaces and living rooms, 92 93 94 95

Mckim, p. 139 Bennett, J. Vibrant Matter: A Political Ecology of Things (Durham: Duke University Press, 2010), p.13.

Bennett, p.32.

Brillembourg, A. Klumpner, H. Moderating Urban Density (2006) <http://u-tt.arch.ethz.ch/wp-content/up loads/2011/08/aedes_U-TT__impri.pdf> [accessed on 31 December 2015] p.12.

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Figure 6.10: Urban Think Tank’s Vertical Gym in Venezuela Revitalizes Region Influenced by the informal method of ‘stacking’ U-TT created a structure that rises above the spatial constraints of the densely packed surroundings to create a fitness complex with facilities ranging from basketball courts to a climbing wall.

Figure 6.11: Vertical Gym Chacao Interior The Vertical Gym “has helped lower the crime rate in this barrio by more than 30 percent since its inauguration“

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places for conversation, games, domestic drama and daydreaming”96. Urban ThinkTank stated that this solution of “quick stair connections in dense areas, becomes a cheap alternative to bring together the private and public infrastructures of the city”97.

These small projects do not aim to ‘solve the problem’, but embrace the city as a ‘complex assemblage of actants’, using its urban typology to make subtle improvements to the citizens quality of life.

Graham Harman argues that objects have a sense of permanency in their interchangeability and suggests that “objects may change rapidly; they may be perceived differently by different observers; they remain opaque to all efforts of knowledge to master them. But the very condition of all change, perspectives, and opacity is that objects have a definite character that can change, be perceived, and resist”98. Considering this point McKim questions how can “we begin to connect to the image of the world that Harman and Morton present us with – a weird world consisting of object upon object, and nothing more?”99. The answer is a defeatist ‘we never can’. However within this understanding a sense of enlightenment is acquired.

The complexity of our world, of human interaction, of emotion, of place, and preference can never truly be controlled in design. McKim continues, “we may relate to objects (including infrastructural resources), interpret them, combine with them to form larger objects, but we will never master them”100. The environment in which we live is in dynamic flux and the world of architecture an essential part of this.

Architectural intervention in these complex urban ecosystems must facilitate change rather than attempt to create it. As McKim suggests “new materialism and 96 97 98 99 100

Brillembourg and Klumpner, p.16.

Brillembourg and Klumpner, p.16.

Harman, G. ‘The Well-wrought Broken Hammer’, New literary History, 43.2 (2012), 183-203 (p.195).

McKim, p.145.

McKim, p.145.

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object-oriented approaches may provoke a different form of encounter, one based on rethinking rather than instrumentalizing infrastructural assumptions”101.

Growing Flexible Housing (2005) in Caracas by U-TT portrays this form of architectural rethinking and complex urban engagement. Influenced by their work with Torre David, a concrete frame was constructed next to a church with electricity, drinking and wastewater facilities on each level (figure 6.12). The responsibility of building a dwelling on the various floors is left to the users. It also “incorporates a kindergarten, a cafe, meeting halls and several shops, giving the premises space to create a working non-profit church community”102. This framework can be extended upwards if more housing space is required. The form of the building will evolve and change, based of the future of its inhabitance and demand. A local-economy will also be generated in the associated businesses due to the concentration inhabitance (figure 6.13). This architectural practice empowers the developer because they are the “designer, builder and occupant all at once, the houses are idiosyncratic, reflecting a unique combination of factors: the stage of growth of the structure, the building materials and the decorations”103. Having contacted Michael Waldrep (Appendix 4) from U-TT he stated that although the growing house prototype seems better placed in developing world contexts where the needs are greater and the government rules laxer, if it was “given a chance in more highly developed places, enabling residents and users to have more of a role in designing and constructing their homes, it would have a number of benefits.”104 Waldrep continued to argue that “if we were not to take into account informal architecture in our conception of and work for cities at this moment, we would be 101 102 103 104

McKim, pp. 147-148 Brillembourg and Klumpner, p.22.

Brillembourg and Klumpner, p.22.

Waldrep, M, Interview by Chris Gabe, Email, 02.12.15

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Figure 6.12: Anglican Church Exterior Influenced by their work with Torre David, a concrete frame was constructed next to a church with electricity, drinking and wastewater facilities on each level.

Figure 6.13: St Marys Anglican Church A local-economy will also be generated in the associated businesses due to the concentration inhabitance.

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ignoring, by some estimates, 95% of the housing built worldwide—an irresponsible and ignorant decision. Incremental architectural development is providing housing, however imperfectly, for hundreds of millions of people, and so its impact can be neither overestimated nor quickly summarized”105. This incorporation of the most globally used building typologies into a strategy of improvement is a very important principle and agrees directly with the development of materialist and object-oriented approaches to urban design.

Morton’s hyper-pragmatism, Haraway’s acceptance of urban instability and McKim’s radical infrastructure all have a distinctive relevance to the urban context of engaging with the hyper-complexity of informality. These concepts are echoed in the alternative designs of U-TT, Elemental and Doshi, which are some of the many projects that have begun to approach these urban situations with a new set of strategies. This involves a deep constructional engagement with the existing urban systems, and relies on a form of development that is dependent on habitation and use. Whether boosting existing connection, or creating a framework for informal development this approach to design does not seek to replicate, mirror, interpret or understand the condition of urban metabolism, but function within it. One could suggest that this influences a socially, ecologically and materially responsive architectural form that transgresses the limitations of mechanical, cybernetic and bio-technological systems.

105

Waldrep, M, Interview by Chris Gabe, Email, 02.12.15

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CHAPTER SEVEN

Conclusion

Summary: To conclude, Dr. Ansari exposed the possibility to use design to prompt the informal growth of cells and the emergence of frameworks as a solution to deal with the hyper-complexity of living systems. By drawing parallels between the biofilm and the city we can begin to understand it as an interactive and responsive system. Gandy and Batty remind us that these systems are inherently complex and in a state of constant flux. The illustrative fragility of Kampong Kleang demonstrates the importance of engaging with the ecological, social and micro-economic challenges that lie at the heart of urban settlements. This requires a new perception of the architect identified by the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;style of their thinking more than by the style of their buildingsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;. Previous attempts to synthesis an ecological complexity into architectural design has taught us that forms shaped in the vision of the designer creates a dichotomy between the synthetic imposed system and its surrounding urban context.

Revisiting Dr Ansariâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s work with intestine tissue generation and the case study of Torre David, promotes the implementation of a framework to advocate the extension of the existing living system into a structure that can influence, but not control, informal growth. Having speculated the benefits of an urban-ecological

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approach to design the fundamental instability of the world begins to emerge, one that can be met with a deep-rooted pragmatism that seeks not to mirror or understand the urban system, but work within it.

What does this mean?

We must ask the question a final time; â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;How can the hyper-complexity of informal growth be integrated into architectural design?â&#x20AC;&#x2122; The answer is simple: it cannot. The realization of a building design that inherently contains the same level of complexity as an informal living system is impossible because it relies on the influence a local community. However it is in this recognition that novel strategies can emerge such as the fabrication of frameworks for informal growth. This concept is an experimental solution but the implementation of this idea can lead to both a deeper contextual engagement and the empowerment of the user by embracing local innovation, materiality and interaction, permitting an inherent flexibility and adaptability within a fundamentally unstable world.

Word Count: 8499

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Athavankar, U. Think Bottom-up: Can You Use that in Mumbai Slum Upgrade? In: Ruby,I. Andreas,R. and Nathalie, J The Economy of Sustainable Construction. (Berlin: Ruby Press, 2014).

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Batty, M. Building a Science of Cities. UCL Working Paper Series, 170, (2011), pp.1-15 (p.1) Bennett, J. Vibrant Matter: A Political Ecology of Things (Durham: Duke University Press, 2010).

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Brillembourg. A, Klumpner. H, Torre David: Informal Vertical Communities, (Zürich: Lars Muller Publishers, 2013).

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Easterling, K. ‘Disposition and Active Form,’ in Infrastructure As Architecture: Designing Composite Networks, ed. By Stoll, K and Lloyd, S. (Berlin: Jovis, 2012).

Gandy, M. Cyborg Urbanization: Complexity and Monstrosity in the Contemporary City. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 29.1, (March 2005).

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Interviews Dr. Tahera Ansari. Interview by Chris Gabe, Personal Interview, Harrow, St. Markâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Hospital, 08.12.15.

Mr. Khov Meas (Deputy Secretary Genral of the Tonly Sap Authority), Interview by Chris Gabe, Personal Interview, Tonle Sap Authority Building, Phnom Penh, Cambodia, 04.08.15.

Officer Sunheap (Community policeman), Interview by Chris Gabe, Personal Interview, Kampong Kleang, 21.07.15.

Mr. Michael Waldrep, Interview by Chris Gabe, Personal Interview via Email, 02.12.15.

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Appendix 1

retain.

Using Shell Lace Technology to Develop Tracheal Stents

So there is a framework that is left behind. But this framework lacks mechanical integrity. One of the ways I usually explain it to people is that you have a house and the house has bricks.

Those bricks are actually what is causing the problem so the idea is to take out every single brick but leave the cement framework as pristine as you possibly can, and the re-implanting the bricks. The new bricks are the ones that are going to create the function. You have the form but the bricks are coming in to create the function. Now it’s a functional piece of architecture in the sense that it’s a home or a house that will work on its own.

Interviewee: Dr. Tahera Ansari Location: Harrow, St. Mark’s Hospital, Date: 08.12.15 Type: Personal Interview Interviewer: Chris Gabe Can you tell me about some of the difficulties you have had when creating scaffolds from decellularized tissue?

“The main question we are asking is ‘how do you take the cells out of the tissue but leave the framework behind and make sure that you don’t damage the framework?’ Because it’s the interaction between whatever is on that framework and the cells that will give you function.

There are many different ways of creating those scaffolds. You can use the vascular arcade, so to clear out everything or you can use a simple agitation motion, which from an architectural principle it would be like shaking a building with a seismic shock to clear things. Whilst this is quite destructive, if there is a gentle sonic movement to it, we can actually destroy the cells without destroying the framework too much. The framework is highly flexible, it is durable, there are lots of different components in it, its not just one structure. That again is similar to a housing network as the houses are not going to all be made out of one material, they all have lots of different components that come together. But it is about being selective in what you want to

The analogy between that and what we are doing with trading organs is exactly the same. You have got the framework and the next step is to locate the cells, or bricks. You can either go and get them manufactured or you can manufacture them yourself. Manufacturing them yourself gets over the problem of trying to integrate cells that don’t belong to that person. Its like saying, well those bricks don’t actually belong in that house, they are the wrong shape, or the wrong size, or the wrong format. So we need to find a way to get the cells from that person in a sufficient quantity and integrate the cells into the framework. You can’t just force things in. At the moment we have a very crude method of just dropping together and hoping that something will happen. Whereas what you really want is a way of getting the cells to start communicating with the scaffold to create a more coordinated process of

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cellularization” Would you use cells from a different host or extract them directly from the patient?

“You would extract them from the patient because the cells are recognized as self and we wouldn’t then need to give them strong immunosuppressant drugs which is the major problem in any transplant and you would constantly have to be on this drug to masks the markers on the cells to stop the body from recognizing it.

The idea then would be to grow a piece of lung tissue, or a bowel tissue. You could either take some cells from a healthy area and then scale them up, or I would take some stem cells and get them to start differentiating into the cells that we need, but the signals they need are quite complicated. The options are to either force them to change, or supply them with signals, which the cells recognize, and they voluntarily change, rather than me shoving everything down this road and saying ‘Change! Change!

Change!’ The problem with the forced approach is that you always get a resistance. But if it is voluntary, it’s a more holistic and natural way of doing it and it is more likely the outcome is going to be better suited for what we want.

However the process of cellularising the scaffold is difficult to scale up to such a level that we have sufficient cells to repopulate something like bowel tissue.

It would like having this huge slum area and trying to get it filled up as quickly as possible without creating chaos. You can

bring everybody and dump them there, but because the social fabric has not been established, and all the things we have mentioned have not had time to actually take hold, its likely there will be more chaos and damage than there is going to be anything functional that will come out of it.

The idea with the stent work came from a scaffold that we developed for the trachea. Nobody truly has the technology to take the cells out without damaging the framework. It is simply impossible.

One of the reasons is that the cells are so well integrated to that scaffold or to the membrane, when you destroy them it ruptures. You always get this rupturing effect. We use detergents to break down the fat in the cells, to remove the cells, but that does damage the scaffold. What happens is that you get the scaffold, you do the biomechanics that say its fine, and then bring in the cells and one of two things can happen; if you have done a bad job the cells will destroy the scaffold as they see it as something which is dead.

If the scaffold is not badly damaged then they will repair it but the problem is that as they repair it, the biomechanics of it start to change and this can cause disfunctionality.

We need to give the trachea some sort of support while it goes through this remodeling phase. But all the stents that you look at today for the trachea are scaled up from blood vessel stents. The problem is that the trachea and the blood vessel do two very different jobs. One has fluid in it, one does not. So the idea was that can we go back to first

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principles and design something that is specifically for the trachea. The reason we set up the consultation with the architects and engineers is that I happened to go to a talk at RIBA on shell lace technology. They came up with this concept of using very little materials to create very strong structures.

The questions I posed was, “can you scale it all down? Can we use something very similar to create something for biological structures?” The answer was yes, you could start using shell lace technologies to mathematically model, test and create a medical device. And that is where the whole stent project developed from.”

What are you mainly looking at creating stents for?

“This is the first project the architecture firm is involved in and they would be creating a stent for the trachea.

In your trachea, the cells need to be exposed to air. The existing trachea stents are scaled up from vascular stents and have a lining in them so you don’t get air going in. That’s fine when you have a normal piece of tissue, but the problem arises when you tissue engineer tissue, because it isn’t quite living yet. The implanted cells need to be both exposed to air and protected from bacteria. The idea was that we would create something that does two jobs. One, give it mechanical support while it undergoes this process of turning back into living tissue. Two, provide a barrier to stop the surface of it being attacked from bacterial, fungi and everything else. You can put the patient in an intensive care

unit, but you cannot keep them there for six month. Its not cost effective or ethically the thing we would want to do. The idea was that we would take something like the shell lace technology, which will be full of holes.

This is a different way of designing something, rather than scaling up an existing stent, which doesn’t work because they start moving, it will start dig into the tissue and bacteria latch onto it and cause problems. Whilst this solves the problem of the trachea not falling apart but you have created other clinical problems which are not very well tolerated in terms of quality of life for the patient. We want to get something that does two jobs at once, but it involves going back to the basics again, and looking at the anatomy, and design something for the trachea, instead of scaling up and existing stent and just hope it works.”

When you said it would offer some sort of bacterial protection for the developing cells, is that by providing a physical barrier?

“The idea is partly to create a physical barrier. The material that we have chosen is part biological in its own right, and part polymer to give it mechanical strength. The idea is that you can get synthetic mucin to protect and coat the stent to both protect the tissue from bacterial infections and to help the cells differentiate towards the cell type that is on that surface in the first place because they need to produce that mucin to survive. It is trying to do two jobs at once.”

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You said it is going to be made from a ‘living polymer’, how is this made?

“The scaffold itself is not going to have cells in but the biological activity will help us attach the mucin. What we have done is taken the cartilage from a pigs ear, mush it down until you have the collagen format you need. Then take another polymer and a bridging agent, or a crosslinker. Link these two together first, and crosslink with that and you get another material. It will then have biological activity so the cells will recognize it. This would then be 3d printed into a particular shape. At the moment this would be a tube and another tube slightly smaller with lots of elliptical holes in it. Every now and again two holes would align to create strut so they do not separate. You would then have a thin cavity between the two tubes.

You could then start putting the mucin on the inner and outer surfaces. This structure would allow airflow through it as it is completely open, but there is also enough mechanical strength. You could then start giving it a helical twist, so that the structure would slot into the trachea and anchor into place on the rings of cartilage. But that is just one idea, it may be that down the line we change it and it doesn’t work for whatever reason. But initially the idea is that you are giving it mechanical strength, its not going to migrate and you are going to address the problem of bacterial accumulation as well. It is also a living tissue so it is not going to degrade.”

Would these structures be permanent?

“No, but there may be patients where their tissue cannot regenerate for whatever reason, and then the stent can stay in permanently. So the idea is that you can give it to someone who needs a brand new trachea, or you can give it to someone you needs a little bit of reinforcement. The job is exactly the same.”

Would the stent be easy to extract?

“This is one of the things, we have not quite figured out. We need to make it almost collapsible. So you can deploy it, but then there needs to be a way of getting it out.”

Would the tissue grow into the stent?

“No, that one of the things we would not want to happen, so actually having a surface lined with mucin will prevent this happening. If the cells grow onto the stent, its removal would cause a lot of trauma to the tissue.

We just got the funding to start it. It will run for 12 months to develop a prototype, if that works out then we will start producing it and 3d printing it, and then putting it into pre-clinical models just to see how it effective it is.”

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Appendix 2 An Insight into the Kampong Kleang Community Interviewee: Sunheap Title: Community Policeman Location: Kampong Kleang Date: 21.07.15 Type: Personal Interview Interviewer: Chris Gabe and Sara Kelly What is the healthcare like in Kampong Khleang?

The hospital has improved in recent years. We currently have a team of nurses working in the village that provide healthcare.

Is hygiene a big issue?

Hygiene is taught to younger generations but it is still an issue in the elders. Villagers are starting to learn to cover their food to prevent flies from spreading disease, which is a step in the right direction.

Has tourism helped raise awareness to problems with hygiene?

Yes, they have started to learn about hygiene from foreigners that come to the village. National Government Organisations have also helped to supply the community with clean water.

Is flooding a big issue?

Floods can cause damage to local homes but it depends how much the water level rises each year.

What is the main religion in this community?

Most people are Buddhist. There are some Christian villagers who worship within their own home. Sometimes Christian foreigners come and play music by the fresh water supply. This gives them the opportunity to express their faith.

How had tourism affected Kampong Khleang?

It has had a positive influence.

Reductions in the number of fish make it more difficult to earn a living as a fisherman. Lots of people are looking for alternate career paths and tourism opens lots of job opportunities.

What other job opportunities are there?

The villagers have started to harvest grasshoppers and sell them to Thailand and make fishing nets and sell them to Vietnam.

What is your occupation?

I am a policeman and organise the tours of the floating villagers.

What jobs are there in tourism?

Tourism jobs include working in the markets, doing boat trips and sorting out the expenses. It costs $20 for a boat trip, the money then goes to the Tourism Association which then distributes the money throughout the village. This money can be used to develop the villageâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s facilities. There is also a scheme in place that supplies family members of those that have died with 100,000 RIEL.

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Why did tourists start coming to this village in particular?

Before, there were no roads. No one came here, as it was too swampy. Since the roads have improved more tourists can come and visit. This brings in more money to the community.

When did the bridge start being developed?

The bridge is a continuous development and is being funded by Van Visal.

Who is Van Visal?

He is from Thailand that has funded a lot of development in the village including the bridge and the roads. This has helped improve our link to Siem Reap, which makes healthcare more available and brings in more tourism.

What do you think of the prime minister Hun Sen? I donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t like him. He favours the Vietnamese people who live on the lake by allowing them to illegally live there.

What do you think of these Vietnamese communities in the f loating villages?

They are responsible for the decrease in fish population, which has a large impact on the village.

Is theyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;re much conflict between the Cambodian and Vietnamese communities?

There is no real hatred between the two communities.

Do many people come here to research?

Japanese and French researchers come here often for months at a time but I do not know what they are studying.

There was a French writer that came here and wrote a book on the culture of the village. He interviewed the town and studied the way people lived.

Do many tourists come and stay at this guesthouse?

About 3 people stay in this guesthouse each month. There is another guesthouse up the road but it is slightly bigger and charges the same price.

It is very quite here at night. Is there much community space in the village such as a town hall?

It is usually quiet at night as fishermen start as early as 3am. We also only have electricity until 10pm so it gets much quieter after that. However sometimes the villagers without jobs get drunk and play music very loudly, which disturbs the whole town. There is a community center but people only go there if they have problems.

Does it hold events?

No not really, most people wake up at 5am because of all the motorboats and do not stay out late.

Would it be safe for us to walk around at nighttime?

You can walk anywhere at daytime, it is very safe but not at night. There are gangsters that might mistake you for their enemy.

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Do the children go to school?

Some children go to school but some refuse, as they want to earn a living to support their families.

Do many people not have jobs in the village?

As the fishing population is going down more and more people do not have jobs.

A lot of people are moving away from the village to start farming soybeans, as it is better money. Also the price of fish here has increased. Each day it could be a different price depending on how much is caught that day.

As interpreted by Chris Gabe and Sara Kelly

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Appendix 3 The Welfare of Kampong Kleang and Other Villages Surrounding Tonle Sap Lake.

Interviewee: Khov Meas Title: Deputy Secretary General of Tonle Sap Authority Location: Phnom Penh Date: 04.08.15 Type: Personal Interview Interviewer: Chris Gabe and Sara Kelly What difficulties have you had working with the communities on the Tonle Sap lake, to improve its ecology?

There have been difficulties working with the people living on the lake, an example of this, is trying to preserve the flooded forest. We have meetings with the communities around the forest, which is a zone 3 protected area, they agree to keep it safe and that the trees are important for anchoring their homes.

However, when they leave the meeting room, they return home and cut down the protected trees.

Are the floating villages legal or illegal?

The floating villages are technically legal, however it is a grey area. Whilst their placement is legal, a lot of their fishing activity can be deemed as being illegal and it is very difficult to control due to their isolation. There are 11 areas of floating villages. When the water increases, they move their homes to the bank, and they return when the water decreases again. These villages are constantly

moving and therefore it is very difficult to keep track of which areas they are fishing in.

What can you tell us about the development of the fishing communities?

There are 3 different types of fishing villages, the first is land based, the second is half land-half water and the third live on the water permanently. This third category is the cause for most concern as their pollution has become a significant environmental issue and they have the least access to education and clean water.

There are some primary schools in these communities, which promote education to the younger generations as well as schooling about sanitation and health, however the lack of secondary schools results in the older children becoming less educated. This development scheme should help educate the children about ecological welfare, however, is it still an issue within the adult community. An example of this is seen in households throughout these communities that dispose of their rubbish by throwing it directly into the lake.

Is there any conflict between the floating and stilted villages?

The stilted villages work on both the land and on the lake, where as the floating villages only fish. The conflicted interest between these two communities can result in some conflict. In 2011, the government created designated fishing areas on Tonle Sap Lake. As a result, areas which had previously been used by a single community are now legally open to all other communities on the lake, which had a knock on effect. For example,

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some families relocated and encroached on a different communities previously established area to find better fish, and on occasion, used illegal machinery. Conflict can also arise within a community due to the development of fishing administrations. These control several communities within an area and attempt to make them unite in order to reduce the amount of illegal fishing.

Favouritism within the fishing communities can be an issue as the better land can often be designated to their relatives. As expected, this can upset the villagers and undermine the authority of the fishing administrations.

What can you tell us about the plans to develop dams on tributaries to the lake? And what effect will this have on the environment of the lake?

These dams will have a high impact on Tonle Sap Lake and are regulated by the Cambodian National Mekong Community. There is a water war with conflict from China, Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam, all fighting to harvest hydroelectric power. The Tonle Sap Lake absorbs around 20% of the Mekong flooding every year, and the dams will affect the lakes natural flood cycle. It is essential that the level of fishing productivity is maintained on the lake as it annually produces up to 500,000 tonnes of fish for Cambodia. With 1.7million people living on the lake and 11 catchment areas, there are 3 million people benefitting off Tonle Sap. Any development of dams should be heavily monitored so that is does not majorly affect the fishing productivity within the lake.

Will improving the road quality, help the land based fishing communities develop?

This is a very problematic subject, especially in zone 3 communities, as whilst we want these communities to flourish, we must restrict the amount of protected trees being cut down which is necessary for the development of roads.

There are difficulties developing these communities socially as there are so many rules and regulations given from the government that serve to protect the lake. Another major factor to think about is flooding, as the water raises almost 10meters in the wet season, which can damage or destroy road development leading into the flooded zones.

How happy are the people in these communities?

Well, we asked them if they wanted to move, and many said they did not. This was because they would find it difficult to live on land and they were reluctant to leave their heritage behind them. There is one on going project we are conducting on Tonle Sap Lake, involved in moving people from Kampong Chhnang on to land to test the area to see if there are any improvements in the ecology and to see if any social issues arise.

Would they be forced to leave if they didnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t want to?

If the floating villages were to relocate on to land, this would be beneficial to the health and welfare of the lake.

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How much has the increase in litter pollution affected the lake?

We’re currently undergoing a continuous project, where 3 provinces have been contacted for research on waste removal. The team wants to write a report on waste generation on the lake.

The waste produced by the floating and stilted villages majorly affects the water quality. Pesticides and chemical fertilisers from the fields also affect the toxicity of the water however budgeting problems have slowed down the project.

project came to an end after only 1 year.

Is the use of pesticides a big issue?

Pesticides are used in zones 1,2 and 3 on rice plantations but the farmers don’t know what quantities of chemicals to use sufficient for their crop, due to lack of education. We tested the water and found 11 different chemicals. This excess was because the farmers were gaining their only usage information from the stores they buy them from. As a result, the shops are manipulating farmers into buying more products than they need.

How has tourism affected these communities?

Tourism has encouraged better hygiene, as industries such as the floating restaurant in Chong Kneas must maintain a certain level of sanitation. Villagers have developed floating vegetation gardens to grow and supply tourists with fresh fruit and vegetables. It also brings in a lot of money to the community but it must be ensured that they know how to benefit from tourism to earn a profit.

How can education help improve the quality of life for these communities and the health of the lake?

There are 3 key issues, human waste, litter and pesticides. On average, a family of 5 share a single toilet that disposes waste directly into the lake. And international organisation called ‘Learn to Live’ conducted a project that supplied the homes on the floating village with waste tanks. These were transported to a main disposal unit that was then taken away. During this project, the villager’s fuel was paid for and proved a success, however, due to lack of funding the

How is the money made from tourism distributed?

The money made through tourism is first distributed through the community and is then spent on environmental concerns.

What do you think is the key solution to these problems?

We believe education is the most important factor for addressing environmental issues for sanitation and health. Moving the floating community villages on land and supplying training to help them change their environment will also have a large impact. Encouraging tourism activity and minimising the impact it has on the environment is also important.

How effective is the healthcare in the floating villages?

Some have healthcare, some don’t. The biggest healthcare issue for those who live on the lake is the sanitation of water.

Lower class families do not understand the dangers of using the lake water to drink and cook with. In the developed settlements on the lake, fresh water is

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readily available. This issue is predominantly found in the more detached areas. There are several ongoing projects to build clean water stations in these areas.

How easily available is medical advice?

Medical advice is difficult to find in the more dispersed communities. In Chomp Trou the villagers must travel up to 30-40 minutes to reach the closest settlement in the hope of finding healthcare.

However, this is no guarantee and they may need to travel further to find a healthcare centre.

What improvements have been made to supply the villagers with fresh water?

Many of the floating villagers have filter tanks on the side of their homes however this is still water from the lake and can remain contaminated after filtration. The collection and use of rainwater is not utilised as much as it could be.

What future do you see for Tonle Sap Lake?

The government runs all authorities/ organisations working with the lake; any legal decisions have to be passed through them. As a result, we must all work together to improve the sustainability of the communities utilising the lake. The ministry of environment has joined with the ministry of education in order to design a syllabus to teach environmental protection to students throughout Cambodia. This investment in future generations should help improve the environmental health of the

inhabitants of Tonle Sap Lake.

What is the best way for zone 3 communities to develop?

Environmental impacts must be minimised before allowing for change.

This process is government controlled which makes it difficult for communities to develop whilst protecting their environment. This is a problem for the lake communities, as they have limited accessibility to natural resources. With the decreasing fish population, many zone 3 fishermen are turning to rice farming which involves cutting down protected trees to make space for their paddy fields. Whilst we want to encourage a better quality of life for those living in these areas, they can not encourage this form of growth as it will impose on protected areas.

Do any of these communities use renewable energy?

No, these communities are very undeveloped. Unsustainable energy resources are predominantly used. This includes the increasing amount of motorboat pollution having a continued detrimental effect on the Tonle Sap Lake.

As interpreted by Chris Gabe and Sara Kelly

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Appendix 4 Working with Informality Interviewee: Michael Waldrep Employment: Urban-Think Tank Date: 11.12.15 Type: Email Interviewer: Chris Gabe Concepts such as the Open Building Prototype provides a framework for urban growth without controlling physical development. This gives the occupier a flexibility to construct, interact and modify their dwelling.

Whilst this form of housing development is complimentary to the socio-economic structure of an informal settlement, do you think it can be implemented into a more formalised and developed communities?

We’re firm believers in the demonstrated design abilities of people around the world. And while the principles of the Open Building are most often found in developing world c ontexts, where housing needs are greater and government rules laxer, we’re convinced that the benefits of this sort of city-building are clear. If given a chance in more highly developed places, enabling residents and users to have more of a role in designing and constructing their homes would have a number of benefits.

Interesting studies, looking at countries as different as Peru and the United States, done by John F.C. Turner in the 1970s have come to similar conclusions.

Mass urbanism is an ever-pressing issue for architects around the globe.

How do you see the use of incremental architectural development affecting mass cities in the future? Will a multi-layered social fabric compliment the urban lifestyle of people across the globe.

Global urbanisation is a defining challenge for our generation, and for those to come. The way in which architects and planners design cities now will have repercussions both within our field and across society for a century or longer. If we were not to take into account informal architecture in our conception of and work for cities at this moment, we would be ignoring, by some estimates, 95% of the housing built worldwide—an irresponsible and ignorant decision. Incremental architectural development is providing housing, however imperfectly, for hundreds of millions of people, and so its impact can be neither overestimated nor quickly summarized.

How do you believe architects should approach the implication of mass urbanism?

Carefully. No, so this is a massive question, and we can’t presume to speak for the entire field—there are many solutions, as befits the innumerable contexts across the globe. We believe in taking action to help people wherever possible, to applying lessons learned from decades of experience in Venezuela and elsewhere to the different challenges which we’re presented opportunities to address, and that small, strategic designs can have big, positive

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effects.

The Japanese metabolizes aimed to create a similar sense of selfgeneration in the 1960â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s. Some argue that it failed because the process of generation was in the vision of the architect rather that the user. Many U-TT projects embrace the constructional abilities of the occupier. This is a frightening prospect to planners and developers.

How can these professionals responsible for building learn to have faith in the innovation and capability of the user.

I canâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t speak too much to the Metabolists, as theyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;re far from my area of expertise.

As far as learning to respect clients and non-professional builders, I would say that architects need only listen.

With the success of the Torre David Gran Horizonte, are architectural professionals beginning to understand the potential to be found in informal settlements. What aspects of this influence are having the biggest impact?

There are still huge sections of the industry that have little interest and understanding of informal settlements, and for many, it may not be pertinent.

However, especially in academia, there is a growing interest in informal architecture, and we believe its a rich source of inspiration and education for architects working in a number of contexts around the world.

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