Maud thesis 2014 chris hall

MA Urban Design Thesis Sheffield School of Architecture

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To develop an alternative housing strategy to the current green belt development, which provides market demanded homes with a sustainable access into Cambridge

This thesis addresses issues of housing supply and affordability in Cambridge. This work is based around a critique of housing development occurring on green belt land around the periphery of the city. Cambridge’s high housing demand caused by the Cambridge Phenomenon, combined with the lack of available land and need to protect its historic core, has caused house prices to soar above those of central London for the first time. The City Council’s desperate need to provide new homes has led to large scale green belt releases to accommodate new homes, however this has led to high priced homes being provided at higher than demanded densities, and at a pace which does not alleviate the demand. This thesis explores an alternative form of housing to provide the demanded homes closer to the required price and density, by exploring green infrastructure. This exploration allows for proposals which provide a sustainable route into Cambridge, allowing new homes to be built to meet the required housing target of Cambridge City, beyond the boundaries of the city as extensions of current settlements.

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REFERENCES

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Cambridge is a city known around the world for its university, and the high technology industry it has helped develop in the city. Located 60 miles north of central London, the city has been a prime location for high technology industry to cluster outside the capital, and the corridor between these two cities has become a major growth area for housing in an attempt to meet the country’s demand1. Much of this housing demand is focussed on Cambridge, where new jobs are plentiful, however the compact nature of the city, combined with a tightly drawn green belt to conserve the city’s historic core, has caused an unsatisfactory supply of housing, resulting in hugely inflated house prices.

Recent years has seen a growing critique of green belts as a measure to contain urban sprawl2 3 4, with Cambridge being a prime example of this critique5 6. Cambridge, in order to meet its housing demand, has utilised the powers of ‘exceptional circumstances’ within the National Planning Policy Framework to locate the majority of its new housing in peripheral sites around the city, on green belt land. Whilst green belts may struggle to contain cities of the modern era, green belt development on this scale, is neither desirable, nor fully planned. Cambridge City Council are suffering from exceptionally high housing targets in a compact city with little brownfield land. In an attempt to meet these targets, a holistic view of the city and its new housing locations have been abandoned in favour of short term target meeting. This is having a disastrous effect on the green land that not only contains the city but also provides the required setting for the high technology companies that are contributing to the increased housing demand.

This thesis asks how the 14,000 new homes that the city council require in their new local plan7, be located in a way which does not harm the green belt in the same manner as current housing development. The question suggests new housing should consider how its location is sustainable for the future beyond the end of this plan period (2031) in order to provide an alternative strategy towards meeting the housing demand. This also includes addressing the affordability of housing in the city, to ensure Cambridge can continue to grow into the future.

London, Stansted, Cambridge Consortium (LSCC), 2014. London Stansted Cambridge Consortium [online]. Available at: www.lscc.co (Accessed: 6/8/2014) 2 Amati, M. and Yokohari, M., 2006. Temporal Changes and Local Variations in the Functions of London’s Green Belt. Landscape and Urban Planning.

75(1-2). pp. 125-142 3 Natural England and Campaign to Protect Rural England, 2010. Green Belts: A Greener Future [online]. Available at: www.cpre.org.uk/resources/ housing-and-planning/green-belts/item/1956-green-belts-a-greenerfuture (Accessed: 15/4/2014) 1

Prior, A. and Raemaekers, J., 2007. Is Green Belt Fit for Purpose in a Post-Fordist Landscape? Planning Practice and Research. 22(4). pp. 579599 5 Morrison, N., 2010. A Green Belt Under Pressure: The Case of Cambridge: England. Planning Practice and Research. 25(2). pp. 157-181 6 While, A., Jonas, A. and Gibbs, D., 2004. Unblocking the City?

Environment and Planning A. 36(2). pp. 279-304 7 Cambridge City Council. 2014. Local Plan Review [online]. Available at: https://www.cambridge.gov.uk/draft-local-plan-2014 (Accessed: 26/8/2014) 4

CAMBRIDGE

STANSTED

London - Stansted - Cambridge growth corridor with the associated green belts

LONDON

Since their implementation in the 1947 Town and Country Planning Act, green belts have been a central feature of the British planning system8 9. The thinking behind them derived from Ebenezer Howard’s Garden City, where green space would exist alongside urban space, blending the two, providing a ‘public good’ of leisure space and clean air to urban residents10 11. However on their implementation, the objectives mentioned nothing of providing this public good. Instead green belts were to be implemented solely as a means to prevent urban sprawl and agglomeration of cities12. This is the manner in which green belts still exist today. Whilst the original ideals of leisure and recreation have been retrofitted back into green belt objectives, there is no requirement over land quality, leaving the green belt open to attack from developers who are able to ‘improve’ land quality through biodiversity improvements alongside new builds13.

It is not surprising therefore that green belts have been heavily criticised over recent years. The need to modernise policy has been lead by the Royal Town Planning Institute, who suggest the policy should be able to direct development, not just reflect it14. Green belts, especially in the case of Cambridge, have been heavily criticised due to the uplift in land values that they cause15. By limiting land supply, green belts naturally place a premium on the land within them, as well as creating desirable neighbourhoods adjacent to their boundary, where land is unlikely to be developed16. This premium on land within the green belt potentially pushes affordable homes beyond it, forcing less sustainable travel onto those who cannot afford the premium17. The critique of green belts even goes as far as suggesting alternative forms (see Amati, 200818), however the green belt benefits those who live within a city surrounded by it, which includes 60% of the UK population19, therefore the politics are too contested for large scale change to occur. In the case of Cambridge, the green belt not only benefits those within the city, but also provides the required attractive setting for the University and the high technology industry cluster to operate, therefore harming the green belt also risks harming these economic powerhouses.

Despite the risks, the desperate nature of the housing market in Cambridge makes it one of the few locations where green belt development is occurring. An alternative to green belt development is needed to ensure the attractive setting is maintained, but which also meets housing demand in an affordable and sustainable manner.

Longley, P., Batty, M., Shepherd, J. and Sadler, G., 1992. Do Green Belts Change the Shape of Urban Areas? A Preliminary Analysis of the Settlement Geography of South East England. Regional Studies. 26(5). pp.

438 9 Morrison, N., 2010. A Green Belt Under Pressure: The Case of Cambridge, England. Planning, Practice and Research. 25(2). pp. 157 10 Longley, et.al., 1992: 438 11 Amati, M., 2008. Green Belts: A Twentieth-Century Planning Experiment. In: Amati, M. (eds) Urban Green Belts in the Twenty-First Century. Aldershot: Ashgate. pp. 1-17 12 Longley, et.al., 1992: 438-439 8

Morrison, 2010: 159 Thomas, K. and Littlewood, S., 2010. From Green Belts to Green Infrastructure? The Evolution of a New Concept in the Emerging Soft Governance of Spatial Strategies. Planning, Practice and Research. 25(2). pp. 209 15 Morrison, 2010: 160 16 Munton, R., 1986. Green Belts: The End of an Era? Geography. 71(3). pp. 209 17 Ibid 18 Amati, 2008 19 Natural England and the Campaign to Protect Rural England, 2010 13

14

In order to understand why Cambridge is able to develop its green belt, an understanding of the ‘Cambridge Phenomenon’ is required. This describes the growth of the high technology cluster in the city from the 1950s onwards. In this short period, a new industry employing half of the population has emerged, contributing £13 billion to the UK economy as well as numerous internationally significant scientific discoveries20 21 22. Due to the compact historic nature of the city, it was quickly realised that some form of urban containment was needed. The 1950 Holford and Wright Plan (Map 02 overleaf) provided green containment as well as growth corridors north and south to allow the city to grow in a contained manner23. However, the green belt boundaries were instead imposed (Map 03), drawing extremely tight boundaries, preventing any growth of the city. Due to the success of the high technology cluster since, these boundaries have been constantly changing as the economic success of the cluster is valued above urban containment. These green belt boundaries have placed an extremely large premium on housing, which is 2.5 times more expensive than the UK average at £438,80524. Housing in the city is 14.7 times more expensive than the average Cambridge wage, despite Cambridge having a wage 12% higher than the UK average25. Clearly, the urban containment of Cambridge has had a huge effect on housing affordability. More green belt land has been released to tackle this (Map 04), however this is not without its issues, and is certainly not a sustainable solution for the future (could result in Map 05).

Cambridge Phenomenon, 2013. What is the Phenomenon? [online].

Available at: http://www.cambridgephenomenon.com/what-phenomenon/ (Accessed: 31/8/2014) 21 DueDil Blog, Date Unknown. Cambridge, Europe’s Most Successful Tech Cluster [online]. Available at: http://blog.duedil.com/post/37782025436/ cambridge-europes-most-successful-tech-cluster (Accessed: 31/8/2014) 22 Policy Network, 2014. The Power of Technology Clusters [online]. Available at: http://www.policy-network.net/pno_detail.aspx?ID=4720&title=Thepower-of-technology-clusters&utm_content=bufferce482&utm_ medium=social&utm_source=twitter.com&utm_campaign=buffer 20

(accessed: 30/8/2014) 23 Landscape Design Associates, 2002. Cambridge Green Belt Study [online].

Available at: https://www.scambs.gov.uk/content/cambridge-green-beltstudy (Accessed: 30/8/2014) 24 Zoopla, 2014. Property Values in Cambridge [online]. Available at: http:// www.zoopla.co.uk/home-values/browse/cambridgeshire/cambridge/ (Accessed: 6/7/2014) 25 Office of National Statistics, 2014. What are the Average Earnings Where You Work? [online]. Available at: http://www.neighbourhood.statistics.gov. uk/HTMLDocs/dvc126/ (Accessed: 30/8/2014)

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Green Belt Boundaries from 1996 Local Plan

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Green Belt Land Released from 2006 Local Plan

Possible Future Land Releases

The incoming Cambridge Local Plan identifies the green belt as an integral part of the landscape of the city within its vision (below) and seems to suggest innovative and more sustainable development patterns than green belt releases. However, this new vision is being applied to developments already being planned, or built out, to little effect. These developments follow the Great Kneighton example in Map 06, and are generally on released green belt land.

“The vision for Cambridge is of a compact, dynamic city, located within the high quality landscape setting of the Cambridge Green Belt. The city will draw inspiration from its iconic historic core, heritage assets and structural green corridors, achieving a sense of place in all its parts, with generous, accessible and biodiverse open spaces and well-designed architecture. Building on the city’s reputation for design excellence, Cambridge’s new development will be innovative and will promote the use of sustainable modes of transport, helping to support the transition to a more environmentally sustainable and successful low carbon economy. The city will continue to develop as a centre of excellence and world leader in the fields of higher education and research, and will foster the dynamism, prosperity and further expansion of the knowledge-based economy, while retaining the high quality of life and place that underpins that economic success. It will also grow in importance as a sub-regional centre for a wide range of services. Housing provision in the city will be of a high quality and will support the development and enhancement of balanced and mixed communities through provision of housing of a mix of sizes and types, including a high proportion of affordable housing. The Cambridge Local Plan 2014 seeks to guide and facilitate growth and the infrastructure required to support development, so that the city grows in a sensitive and sustainable manner. This will ensure that the high environmental quality of the city is protected and enhanced and that future developments offer a full range of opportunities to all.”

Vision for Cambridge 2014-203126

The Great Kneighton development (shown as the cluster of developments to the south west of Map 04, and shown in Map 06), is an example of the type of housing development which is currently occurring in Cambridge. Despite the new council vision, these developments involved major green belt releases in 2006, and the proposed housing will not be completed for many more years. It is a prime example of green belt development which proposes green improvements in order for development to occur, which in this case involves a 120 acre country park27.

The cluster of developments that make up Great Kneighton are supported by strong social infrastructure, however the green belt land was released to meet the affordability issues related to the Cambridge Phenomenon and the city’s urban containment. So far, housing which has been sold has been vastly over the city’s already over inflated average house price, with 4 bedroom homes on sale for an average of £775,00028.

This uplift in price could be attributed to the political nature of green belt development, and this site in particular. Map 06 shows the actor-network of the site. Powerful landowners exist in the area including the University, the Pemberton family and Grosvenor estates who have the power to negotiate which land will be sold, and at what price. The map shows land surrounding affluent residents has been saved, whilst land between Cambridge and the outlying village of Trumpington has been sold for development.

Cambridge City Council are in a weak position concerning control over what is built, due to the power of these landowners, affluent residents, developers and planners and the desperate need for housing to be built to aid affordability. This pressure seems too much, as expensive homes are being built, and the needs of the prospective residents, who have very little power over the situation, have been swept aside.

Cambridge City Council, 2014 Countryside Properties, 2011. Great Kneighton Vision [online]. Available at: http://www.greatkneighton.co.uk/index.php?public/great-kneighton (Accessed: 15/7/2014) 28 Countryside Properties, 2011. Great Kneighton New Homes [online].

26 27

Available at: http://www.greatkneighton.co.uk/index.php?public/newhomes (Accessed: 15/7/2014) 29 PRP Architects, 2011. Masterplanning Brochure [online]. Available at: http://issuu.com/prparchitects/docs/prp-mp-ud-l-brochure-2011 (Accessed: 31/8/2014)

Clay Farm Development at Great Kneighton29

INFLUENCE OF STAKEHOLDERS

GREEN BELT PROTECTION GROUPS

PERSPECTIVE RESIDENTS

CURRENT LAND USERS

LOCAL RESIDENTS

PLANNING CONSULTANTS

CITY COUNCIL

AFFLUENT RESIDENTS

DEVELOPERS

LANDOWNERS

UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE

Actor-Network behind the Great Kneighton Development

A key methodology this thesis is using to understand the affordability issues surrounding housing is using real individuals. The people below are a sample of workers in Cambridge who are currently searching for housing. The information provided for these reflect the real individuals (besides their names). These individuals help explain clearly, the type and price of homes that are demanded in the city, and show the struggles to find a home to meet these demands.

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Group of friends renting a shared house in the city as they can’t afford their own 1 car owned between the group Individual salaries around 21,000 24,000 (+/- 10%) Looking to live on their own, without the need to share

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Early 20s pharmacist Looking to move out of his parents home into his own Single graduate salary and means this is unaffordable Cycles to work Earnings around £23,000 (+/- 10%)

• •

• •

Mid 20s Bioengineer and her IT manager boyfriend Forced to commute 50 minutes by car on overloaded roads to work and back as cannot afford to live nearer Household income around £45,000 (+/10%) Looking to live nearer, in a home which could support a family

• • • • •

Mid-30s highly trained computer engineer for ARM and his new wife Looking to start a family Rented for 9 years in Cambridge, been searching for a house for over a year Household income around £40,000 (+/- 10%) Looking for family home with garden

The graph below provides some explanation as to why the characters are struggling to find affordable homes in Cambridge. Housing completions during the current plan period (Local Plan 2006) has been much lower than the required rate, leaving a deficit between demand and supply, causing further price increases. This slow build rate favours developers for this very reason. This completions rate has been projected onto the next plan period, showing a deficit of 7250 homes, on top of the current deficit, exacerbating the affordability crisis further.

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The high cost of purchasing green belt land from powerful landowners, combined with the pressure of a high housing target and large deficit has also caused high dwellings per hectare (dph) being seen in the completed homes, in order for developers to maximise profits. The 2012 Annual Monitoring Report recorded 92% of new developers being built at 50 dph or higher30, rather than the demanded family homes with gardens.

AN

HOUSING DEMAND 30-40 dwellings per hectare Affordable homes with gardens

F 7250

NEW HOUSING SUPPLY 50+ dwellings per hectare Expensive detached homes and flats

Cambridge City Council, 2012. Annual Monitoring Report December 2012 [online]. Available at: https://www.cambridge.gov.uk/sites/www.cambridge.gov. uk/files/documents/2012_AMR.pdf (Accessed: 30/8/2014) 30

Bringing this research together creates a complex tapestry of actors and influences involved in the supply of new housing in the city. Placing this project carefully within this debate is key to ensure this work does not get lost within the broader theoretical context.

In order to understand if Cambridge can meet its new housing target in a more sustainable manner, this project will look to design an alternative form of housing development to provide market demanded homes for prospective residents to protect the green belt which is vital to the city. This should be achieved in a manner which meets the new Local Plan Vision and does not negatively impact the green belt. In order to achieve this, the project will not consider the green belt debate any further, and accept the green belt has its limitations, however it is vital for the success of the high technology cluster and University. The project will use the example individuals to develop a demand in which new housing should aspire to. The limitations caused by the house building industry is a very real problem, and should be addressed by a design if possible, however with an understanding that failures of capitalism cannot always be solved through design.

To meet the Council’s vision through design, green infrastructure will be explored. The idea of green infrastructure is open-ended and up for interpretation.

This project will use Newman and Jennings’ Cities as Sustainable Ecosystems31 work to provide a “holistic guiding framework”32 towards providing a sustainable design (shown right). This will allow green infrastructure to be used to design sustainably, not as an alternative, but to support and improve what is currently occurring in Cambridge33.

This project has used this framework and further research to develop a green infrastructure ‘recipe’ for housing development:

Cities as Sustainable Ecosystems Framework34 • Setting a vision • Achieving long term economic and social security • Protecting and restoring biodiversity • Minimising ecological footprint • Model cities on ecosystems • Create a sense of place • Empower and foster participation • Create co-operative networks • Sustainable production and consumption • Strong governance to ensure continual improvement

Using Green Infrastructure as a means to provide housing that meets the current and future housing demand, in a manner which is affordable and appropriate to those who need it, and does not negatively affect the land on and adjacent to its location now, or in the future.

This definition will use the Cities as Sustainable Ecosystems framework to define green infrastructure development, alongside the earlier characters to describe affordable and appropriate housing.

Newman, P. and Jennings, I., 2008. Cities as Sustainable Ecosystems: Principles and Practices. London: Island Press 32 Newman and Jennings, 2008: 3 31

33 34

Thomas and Littlewood, 2010: 209 Newman and Jennings, 2008: 4

URBED: LIVERPOOL KNOWLEDGE QUARTER35

OLIN: PATCHWORK - PHILADELPHIA, USA36

Urbed, 2014. Liverpool Knowledge Quarter [online]. Available at: http://urbed. coop/projects/liverpool-knowledge-quarter (Accessed: 26/6/2014) 36 Olin, 2011. Living City Design Competition [online]. Available at: http:// www.theolinstudio.com/blog/living-city-design-competition/ (Accessed: 26/6/2014) 35

The reasoning behind Cambridge City Council’s decision to build on green belt land as edge extensions to the city derive from the ‘need’ to build new homes within the city boundaries, or as close as possible to them, rather than building beyond the green belt. This ideal is based off green belt critique mentioned previously, where housing development of the past has been pushed beyond the green belt, causing issues of unsustainable travel patterns caused by the commute, leading to higher levels of pollutants released into the atmosphere. Cambridge saw this type of development in the 1990s, where new homes were pushed beyond the green belt to the north east city of Ely which boasted cheap land prices and therefore affordable homes could be built here37. This aspiration did not last however, as shortly after homes were completed, it was clear these residents did not have the easy road access into Cambridge as promised, as they were added on top of the 40,000 other workers who travel into the city every day on the historic road network38. The models of compaction and edge extension do however incur high land costs, and therefore high dwellings per hectare has been seen, which is not meeting demand, as can be seen in the Great Kneighton development.

This raises the question of whether development beyond the green belt could exist in a more sustainable manner, for example, through the support of forms of green infrastructure, in particular, a sustainable route into Cambridge. Sustainable transport may not be viable in a dispersal situation where new housing is added to a number of smaller settlements, due to numerous sustainable routes needing to be added.

However, it would be viable in a new settlement situation, where low land costs could provide market demanded housing, land lost could be off-set through biodiversity improvements and travel into the city could be managed through a new sustainable route.

37 38

Morrison, N., 1998. The Compact City: Theory Versus Practice - The Case of Cambridge. Journal of Housing and the Built Environment. 13(2). pp. 169 Ibid

New Housing Locations39

Cambridge Association of Architects, 2008. Cambridge Architecture Gazette CA57 [online]. Available at: http://issuu.com/ribacaa/docs/cambs_ arc_2008_57 (Accessed: 31/8/2014) 39

Despite national planning guidance being wholly unsupportive of new settlements over the past few decades, the exceptional circumstances of the Cambridge region has meant 3 new settlements have emerged, from Bar Hill in the 1950s, to Cambourne in the 1980s and now Northstowe due to break ground in 2014. These new settlements have provided new housing for the South Cambridgeshire District Council, however, could green infrastructure help facilitate viable housing for Cambridge City, beyond its boundaries in these locations?

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Bar Hill’s modernist and traffic centric planning strategy is clear to see when looking at a site plan. Vehicles enter the settlement through the single access off the busy A14, and are forced to negotiate the site via a ring road. This ring road is necessary as the cul-de-sacs that solely define movement in the resident area do not allow for permeation. Pedestrians are forced into inviting Theand urban form of Bar Hillthereflects the it was alleys passageways to traverse site, as the ringperiod road does not provide a pathway.

built. Located on the busy A14, Bar Hill was designed for the car, with this being its only Houses towards their respective cul-de-sac, for non-car owners. accessface for inwards, the settlement, making it unhabitable meaning arrival into the site along the ring road means you are Beyond with this,high thegarden urbanwalls, formandreplicates dominance, with a ring confronted no activity.this This car allows cars to travel at high speed around the site, and locks pedestrian road and cul-de-sacs which prevent permeability. The poor quality activity within it. urban realm may well be the main factor attributing to the settlements Bar Hill’s outdated urban realm, desperate40need for services, social £221,000 average house price , less than half of Cambridge City’s, and infrastructure and connectivity, alongside its apparent neglection from redevelopment plans, in an thecurrent settlement remains oneplace of the thesite few in intriguing the region which has seen a position as a potential development site. population decline in recent years.

Zoopla, 2014. Property Values in Bar Hill [online]. Available at: http://www.zoopla.co.uk/home-values/barhill/ (Accessed: 25/7/2014) 40

The urban form at Cambourne is distinctly different from that at Bar Hill, and shows more post-modern principles in the urban realm. The most obvious of these is the ‘village form’ in which the settlement exists in, a direct connection to the ideas of New Urbanism. Due to the rarity of developments being planned from the ground up in recent years, Cambourne has grown up within the public eye, and therefore, planning for it has been sensible and considered.

The settlement exists as 3 ‘villages’; Lower, Upper and Greater

South Cambridgeshire’sCambourne. second The newemphasis town,onCambourne built developing in thiswas manner has to been to create a community from its new residents.

This has arguably different urban principles, and the difference can be clearly seen. been achieved well, with the help of Cambourne Community The settlement still exists along a major A road, however thisart,ishobbyist, not Centre, Cambourne multi-faith Church, numerous sports and cultural clubs and societies and a vibrant high street with the only access into the settlement. Cambourne supports 3 unique every amenity and service necessary for its residents. The success lies deeper however. It lies in the understanding communities, as well asalso a range of than localthisservices and amenities which of the need for social infrastructures such as the 4 primary schools, allows a community to develop, includingschool a number of sportcrèches and hobbyist planned secondary and numerous due to the settlements extremely high birth rate.

It is this understanding clubs to integrate residents. The recognition that young families would the planners had that young couples will be the majority of the homeowners, which the allowed the correct social infrastructure to be the main demographic has allowed correct social infrastructure be planned which has ensured the success of Cambourne socially. to be planned, including more primary schools and its own secondary thisofsettlement still resembles Barwith Hill inaterms of its school. There is also anHowever element biodiversity involved, nature relationship to a major A road. Cambourne does boast various reserve and a number ofaccesses walkingand anda cycling number routes. of walkingThe andsettlement cycle routesholds through biodiverse areas, however the residents still41 rely heavily on their 10,000 people, with an cars average house price of £219,000 showing even in order to work. The housing typology and reliance on culde-sacs again could be critiqued, however is abe step in the in relatively successful developments, thealsoprice does not needitto high. right direction, and it managed this step whilst also keeping house prices contained at £219,000 average1.

1

Zoopla, 2014. House Prices in Cambourne [online]. Available at: http://www. zoopla.co.uk/house-prices/cambourne/ [Accessed: 05/08/14]

Zoopla, 2014. Property Values in Cambourne [online]. Available at: http://www.zoopla.co.uk/home-values/ browse/cambourne/?category=residential&q=cambourne&search_source=nav (Accessed: 5/8/2014) 41

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Northstowe Proposal Plan 42

Gallagher, 2012. Northstowe Development Framework [online]. Available at: https:// www.scambs.gov.uk/sites/www.scambs.gov.uk/files/documents/NS_Development%20 framework%20document_lr_08.12.pdf [Accessed: 05/08/14]

The proposed development of Northstowe takes a huge leap again towards a more sustainable new settlement. The concept suggests around 4,500 low density, low energy consumption homes, which have a sustainable route into Cambridge via the new guided busway. The masterplan suggests a plethora of green infrastructures to support the development, negating the transport issues seen at Cambourne.

Northstowe is a proposed low carbon settlement, planned to hold a However, the development of this settlement was held up by the financial further 10,000 population in the 3 local centres.

It has beentodeveloped crisis, and only now are detailed proposals starting be released.using Due it is currently unknown how the urban realm aaround housinglink will a numbertoofthis, green infrastructure principles, including sustainable exist, as well as what type of housing will be developed and if it will even into Cambridge through the newly built guided busway. The settlement work as a low consumption settlement. has recognised the success of Cambourne’s social infrastructure, by a settlement with 3 local centres, 7 primary proposingThe7 concept primaryplan andshows 1 secondary school for its relatively small schools, a secondary school and a strong linkage to the guided busway. population. these network of green spaces which This Alongside suggests a focus on is the asocial infrastructure that Cambourne had.

Despite Northstowe betweenfrom two settlements, ‘green seperation’ unfortunately separate the existing development the neighbouring villages. has been used to keep this current settlements seperate to the new. The The success of Northstowe can only be guessed at this however it impact of this could be interesting, as they could act point, as a barrier against thetwo newsettlements. development. has seemingly addressed the issues seen in the previous

Considering the three settlements and their strengths and weaknesses, Bar Hill stands out as a site which has the potential to be retrofitted to become a viable and sustainable location for new housing development to provide housing towards Cambridge City Council’s target of 14,000 new homes by 2031. Bar Hill’s outdated urban realm, cheap house prices, proximity to the green belt and location along the A14 provide a useful canvas to work with. For this to occur, a more detailed site analysis is needed.

BAR HILL RING ROAD

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UK Average House Price ÂŁ170,00

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Bar Hill was developed to alleviate the housing target of South Cambridgeshire District Council. It was therefore built to meet the housing needs of South Cambridgeshire, and the settlement is seen as outdated and undesirable to those wishing to buy in Cambridge City. In order for it to become a viable new housing location, the settlement needs to be re-imagined and retrofitted to allow for sustainable growth and new infrastructure features as well as easy access into the city and to ensure development does not harm the green setting in which it is located.

The analysis has identified some key opportunities that could aid this retrofit towards becoming a revived new housing location supported by green infrastructure. The key opportunities are marked on the drawing right which shows a current housing area in the site. Small changes to the current housing area will help improve the current infrastructure ready for new homes to be developed nearby.

Eradicating cul-de-sacs Reducing car dependency

Permeating the ring road

Providing a high street

Providing sustainable access into Cambridge

Opening up pedestrian ‘backbones’

Development Opportunities

The strategy for re-imagining Bar Hill is based off a combination of observed needs, and an integration of Newman and Jenning’s guiding principles for creating a sustainable ecosystem from development (see page 24). The diagram overleaf (Map 17), maps out these ideals. The ideals in white, have been developed solely from the analysis, whilst the ideals in green combine analysis directly with the Newman and Jenning’s strategies. These ideals have been brought together into 6 strategies which will inform change in Bar Hill. The first 4 of these link to direct changes, allowing strategy 5 (new housing) to occur.

All these strategies come together in order for a strong community to be facilitated, a key goal in the success of new housing. This becomes the sixth and final strategy. These strategies have been analysed first at a general scale, before being placed into the Bar Hill context.

Mapping the Strategy

The first strategy concerns designing a new movement pattern away from car dominance, towards a more sustainable, walkable settlement, promoting public transport, cycling and walking.

This has been analysed in terms of road layouts, pedestrian dominant environments and parking culture.

VAUBAN, FREIBURG: New neighbourhood with walking and cycling priority. 70% of residents live without a private car, and those that do have to park away from their homes in a purchased space with an additional monthly fee44.

Paved, shared space mews to reduce car dominance, added by speed restrictions New hierarchy of key routes, linking routes and local routes Eradicating cul-de-sacs to enhance community integration

Parking communally near homes to allow more communal garden space

Ensuring ease of walking and cycling over car travel Homes should address the street

Movement Strategies Visit Copenhagen, 2014. Strøget [online]. Available at: http://www.visitcopenhagen.com/city/shopping/ stroget (Accessed: 31/8/2014) 44 New York Times, 2009. In German Suburb, Life Goes On Without Cars [online]. Available at: http://www. nytimes.com/2009/05/12/science/earth/12suburb.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0 (Accessed: 31/8/2014) 43

COPENHAGEN: Strøget is Copenhagen’s car-free shopping area. Previously, these streets were car dominated until the were retrofitted in 1962 for pedestrians and cyclists, sparking the start of Copenhagen’s move into a cycling and walking orientated city43.

WILMSLOW, CHESHIRE: Parking for this rural terrace is opposite to not affect the communal front garden space, however cars can still be clearly seen for a matter of security.

In order for a new movement pattern to benefit from improved pedestrian and cycle routes, a local centre is needed to minimise the need for a car to use necessary services and amenities. A local centre ensures residents have shops and services within walking distance, and also provides a community hub for the area. An American concept of ‘Sprawl Repair’ can help create local centres from car dominant and character lacking urban form45. In this case, Bar Hill’s B8 industrial zone provides the perfect canvas and location for Sprawl Repair.

45

Sprawl Repair, 2010. Sprawl Repair [online]. Available at: www.sprawlrepair.com (Accessed: 31/8/2014)

SPRAWL REPAIR: A USA based initiative to combat urban sprawl through retrofitting underutilised blocks into walkable, mixed use communities.

Sprawl Repair

Services such as post office and GP surgery

Commercial and residential mix to provide economy and an active neighbourhood

Warehouses

Superstore Car Parking Smaller Retail Units

Evening social economy of restaurants and pubs Retained building recommissioned as a new community hub with space for clubs to exist New retail opportunities

Active frontages through addressing roads, enhancing walkability

The implementation of a new movement pattern and local centre helps support new housing development. However, providing sustainable routes into key locations outside the settlement aids development to become a key housing location for the future. Sustainable routes provide the opportunity of blending the boundary between rural and urban, transforming grey and concrete areas into green routes which link to wide open spaces, into housing and local centres.

Movement structure should be support by high quality and biodiverse green spaces alongside them, to provide an attractive and pleasurable environment

Natural long grasses and wildflowers below tree lined routes provide a low maintenance, high quality setting, which also attributes to natural drainage and biodiversity improvements

Imagining Sustainable Routes

Urban greening strategies do not need to end with sustainable routes, but could also incorporate sustainable architectures. Green roofs, walls, communal gardens and other reduced consumption, increased production elements should be promoted in the urban realm. This promotes a low consumption, high local production area for new housing to be sustainably supported now, and in the future, with minimised environmental effects.

Green Roof

Green Wall

Communal Garden Private Terrace Sustainable Architectures for Housing

Applying these 4 strategies to Bar Hill can help re-imagine the settlement towards becoming a low consumption, high production area which can sustainably support new housing and provides a sustainable route of travel into Cambridge. The strategy masterplan shows how this could manifest itself.

Strategy Masterplan for Bar Hill

The site analysis for Bar Hill suggested the need to reduce car dependency at the site to aid a changing mentality towards alternative travel routes, allowing new non-car owning residents to live in Bar Hill and still have access into Cambridge and the surrounding area.

An entirely new movement pattern has been developed to create a more legible, permeable and walkable settlement.

Shared space roads have been promoted across the whole settlement, as part of a new road hierarchy which is addressed by the homes adjacent to it.

Re-Orientated Homes Communal Parking

Eradicated Cul-de-sacs Paved, shared space roads reduce car dominance by reducing speeds and allowing pedestrians and cyclists along them Access to homes via local routes or mews

New Movement Pattern for Bar Hill

To support the new movement structure, the housing adjacent to the roads should address it, rather than turn its back on it to aid community cohesions and provide ‘eyes on the street’ security.

To achieve this, back garden fences which would become the front, should be opened up, providing more communal garden space. The same could be achieved at the back, allowing overlooking onto new communal parking spaces, whichever way the house orientates. The orientation change also provides an opportunity for green architectures to be retrofitted and local food production to be explored.

Current fencing preventing any engagement with the road

Both on the ring road and along culde-sacs

SHARED SPACE MEWS

SHARED SPACE MEWS COMMUNAL GARDEN

FENCING REMOVED

Altering Housing Orientation

Current 2 lane Carriageway

The sketches here illustrate the changes proposed to the roads around Bar Hill. The two way carriageway which in many places has no pedestrian route, could be developed into a shared space, single level, paved carriageway to reduce car speed and allow the safe and convenient movement by all methods of transport.

Cycle and Pedestrian Space

Proposed Main Carriageway

Cycle and Pedestrian Space

Due to the promotion of more sustainable transport methods, a single carriageway for cars could be used, however space is provided if cars need to pass, as pedestrians and cyclists will be prompted to traverse along the sides of the road

Re-imagining Road Use

FUTURE HOUSING SITE

NEW POTENTIAL ACCESS TO NEIGHBOURING LOLWORTH

BUILDINGS ORIENTATED ONTO STREET AND WITHIN

FUTURE HOUSING SITE

RET FOR

HOUSING SITE

NEW NODE CREATED

TAINED BUILDINGS R RE-USE

NEW POTENTIAL HIGH STREET

As explained earlier with Map 19 (page 61), Bar Hill has a great opportunity to create a new community heart, through the redevelopment of the warehouses which make up the industrial zone, and the adjacent superstore and its oversized car park. A new local centre could emerge from here, providing local shops, services, amenities and community facilities which are of a more reasonable scale and density to the current settlement, and provide walkable facilities for Bar Hill.

Planning a New Local Centre

As shown in Cambourne, providing the right balance of social infrastructure is vital to the success of a settlement to facilitate a strong community. Bar Hill should follow this example, by providing a new communal hub through a change of use of the large superstore building. This centre could serve as a social hub, providing the space for sports teams to compete, as well as hobbyist clubs and other social groups.

Alongside this, adequate schooling should be provided, with multiple primary schools (PS) for the expected and current population, as well as a secondary school (SS), following the example of Cambourne and Northstowe.

Establishing Social Infrastructure

Perhaps the most important design element to consider is providing a sustainable route into Cambridge.

The current widening of the A14 outside Bar Hill does nothing to provide a future sustainable access into the city. Utilising this new space for a dedicated cycle path alongside a new guided bus route would provide a more adequate transport route in Cambridge for the future.

A14 Carriageway Westbound (out of Cambridge)

A14 Carriageway Eastbound (into Cambridge)

Proposed Green Barrier

Proposed Guided Busway

The guided busway can provide fast and reliable travel for all, in a dedicated lane which will be unaffected by the rush hour traffic, providing an incentive to use it.

Proposed Cycle/Pedestrian Pathway

For those who wish to cycle the 6 miles into the city, a dedicated cycle path could be established away from the motorway to provide a pleasant environment. This could be further improved through possible architectures such as cycle stops, repair shops, cafes, as well as ample lighting.

A New Sustainable Route into Cambridge

Key routes around Bar Hill should also be subject to ‘greening’, in order for them to become attractive environments to encourage walking and cycling along these shared routes (as shown in Map 20). These key routes are important to also link the various green spaces around Bar Hill together.

Sustainable Routes Across Bar Hill

The exploration of sustainable architectures within new housing design aids a reduction in consumption mentalities for new residents of Bar Hill. Green roofs and walls could provide a green aesthetic to the area, alongside efficient housing designs.

As previously suggested, housing will surround communal gardens to promote communal living. Private terraces could aid the success of these, by providing small spaces in which residents could relax when they feel they need to.

Within current housing, those targeted for orientation changes are in a good position to retrofit sustainable elements.

Private Terrace

Communal Gardens

Green Roofs and/or Photovoltaics

Water Recycling Green Walls

Sustainable Architecture for Housing

The greening of Bar Hill not only promotes reduced consumption, but also an ethos on local production. The local centre provides space for a produce market to exist, where produce which is grown locally could be sold or gifted to the community. This produce could be grown in communal allotment spaces which can be provided as part of the housing estates. Rather than private allotments which exist in leftover spaces around cities, these communal allotments could be the most active spaces of the neighbourhood, and therefore deserve their place at the centre of the neighbourhood. Plots will not be individual, rather shared between roads, or blocks and gardened as part of a communal activity which is self-governed to promote local cohesion. An example of how food production plots could exist within the current urban form is shown right, within space created through promotion of communal gardens.

Locating Community Allotments Within Current Housing Area

The local centre also be a part of the greening strategy. New buildings should be designed with green roofs and green walls to promote lower consumption in the area. These buildings could exist as examples of excellence, and therefore should also include elements of energy production and water recycling.

At the heart of a new local centre could be a local produce market.

Sustainable Architecture Within a New Local Centre

With the development of a local centre, sustainable routes into Cambridge, reduced car dominance and minimised environmental effects, new housing can be developed. Following the retrofit of the roads, a new housing typology has been considered, one which is pedestrian centric, and more communal than Bar Hill’s current cul-desac culture. This housing typology has been developed with consideration of the Accordia development in Cambridge46.

The drawing right shows terraced ‘townhouses’ which sit alongside a local route. Homes here are accessed off the path, however the private back garden space has become communal space to encourage communal living. Innovative private space could be designed into the blocks, perhaps via a terrace which could also act as a green roof.

Individual cycle parking can be provided with each unit, with discreet car parking available but separate from the house.

46

FCBStudios, 2009. Accordia [online]. Available at: http://fcbstudios.com/work/view/accordia (Accessed: 31/8/2014)

ACCORDIA - CAMBRIDGE: This housing scheme in the heart of Cambridge combines high quality new homes with shared streets, communal gardens and private courtyard space to provide a successful, pedestrian centric, communal housing scheme which provides a great model for future housing. The scheme however, due to its location, and like many new housing schemes in Cambridge, is priced well above the average house price and is therefore affordable to only few.

Suggestion for a New Housing Typology

It is important, when re-imagining an entire settlement, that a key outcome of the proposal is the formation of a strong community. The current layout of Bar Hill prevents this currently, through the privatisation of its cul-de-sacs, the requirement to drive and the lack of a local communal node. The strategies laid out have attempted to not only provide the right environment for new housing to exist in a manner which is sustainable, affordable and desirable for those who need it, but also so a strong community can be facilitated through a new local centre, social infrastructure, and the integration of communal activities from the wider scale, right down to the very local scale. Bethune writes that by doing this, a social immune system can be developed that helps communities to thrive, rather than become increasingly privatised, where he says a third of residents could pick their neighbours out of a police line up47. This social immune system aids individuals to consume less, produce more and be healthier within themselves, whilst also facilitating the growth and strengthening of the community as a whole48.

47 48

Bethune, B., 2014. The End of Neighbours [online]. Available at: http://www.macleans.ca/society/the-end-of-neighbours/ (Accessed: 28/8/2014) Ibid

Visualising the Strategy

The re-planning of the industrial area, north of the proposed local centre for housing provides 250 new homes for Bar Hill at 30 dwellings per hectare, using a typology based around Map 33 and makes up Phase 1. The new social infrastructure and local centre allow for more homes to be supported, which requires more space to be sourced. The land west of this site could provide this space. The site provides over 40 hectares of land, capable of supporting 1,000-1,500 news homes, dependant on density, within the plan period (Phase 2 and 3).

With a sustainable route into Cambridge, sustainable new housing and a well serviced and socially supported settlement, more new housing be sourced at the site, to meet Cambridge’s housing needs.

This could be achieved through new housing sites such as these or by retrofitting or redeveloping the current housing stock (Phase 4). Through this, Bar Hill could start to become a housing location for the future, not just to meet the housing targets seen currently.

Phasing Plan for Housing

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New Green Infrastructure Including Guided Bus Route

Despite the green belt critique, it has been shown that green belt popularity makes challenging them a risk for politicians, therefore large scale change to the policy is unlikely to occur. Due to this, and the unsustainable nature of current green belt development, Cambridge needs to find a way to meet its housing demand in a more sustainable manner for the future. Sustainable transport can support this, however, as seen in the proposal, it requires locating its housing demand outside of the Cambridge City Council boundary. A holistic housing view such as this Bar Hill example provides market demanded homes for the characters (page 20-21), at an affordable price (due to cheaper land values), and within easy access of the city and its jobs. Whilst Bar Hill cannot supply all the required housing in favour of creating a new community, it provides a more sustainable option to either support the current system, or help develop a new one. In any case, it is also important to not only try to address demand, but also supply the right type of houses, that are demanded and affordable, and sustainable for the future, which this proposal has attempted. A design such as this also provides the opportunity for self-build plots to emerge, in order to challenge the current failures of private developer reliant buildings.

This proposal opens up the debate towards holistic housing targets which could be integrated within a holistic green infrastructure strategy, providing affordable, market demanded homes, to the Cambridge region as a whole. This helps to ensure the future success of the area can be supported in a sustainable manner to allow continued growth of the Cambridge Phenomenon, which is not only important locally, but nationally and internationally also.

How can 14,000 new homes be accommodated for Cambridge in a way which sustainably supports the green belt protecting the city? This proposal shows how appropriate new homes can be proposed which support the green belt, however Bar Hill cannot support all 14,000. Instead, the proposal can act as a concept, which would need to be replicated and managed carefully and holistically. Realistically, these homes would only provide a proportion of the need, with the rest coming from current practices, despite this proposal meeting the City Council’s vision for future development (page 16).

Reflecting back on this project, the complexity of the issue in reality, and the lack of progression towards a solution by Cambridge City Council created a huge task for this project to achieve. Meeting housing demand and addressing affordability in Cambridge has been an ever growing issue since the start of the Phenomenon in the 1950s, the political, social and economic make up of the city hinder a solution some what, however this does not change the fact that the issue should be addressed, for which this project attempted.

The real strength of this project I believe lies in the alternative approach taken in the solution. Where the council has tried to address the solution through short term green belt releases, this project looks long term towards a more sustainable future solution, and derives a settlement concept for housing at Bar Hill, which could be expanded on and located elsewhere to provide a greater percentage of the total housing demand. Since this project has been completed, the 2014 Wolfson Prize has been announced, with David Rudlin of URBED winning for his garden city housing extensions (Uxcester) on current cities including Cambridge. His project, like this one, proposes small urban extensions along garden city principles to provide new housing for cities, linked to the main city through sustainable transport routes such as the guided bus in Cambridge. This project shares many similarities with Uxcester, and the interest around the prize winning design provides some evidence that this project could be expanded and utilised as an alternative to the current housing strategy for Cambridge.

Again the complex nature of the project and the limitations of the thesis has prevented exploration of a number of themes, including a self-build strategy to combat private developer reliance. What has been learnt from this is that housing solutions are never straight-forward. This project has attempted to take a politicised and contentious topic and provide a legible and implementable solution. While I feel the solution here works in the small scale and within the confines of the thesis, the strategy needs more expansion in order to become a strategy which provides a larger amount of housing in alternative locations to the current green belt development in Cambridge.

Amati, M., 2008. Green Belts: A Twentieth-Century Planning Experiment. In: Amati, M. (eds) Urban Green Belts in the Twenty-First Century. Aldershot: Ashgate. pp. 1-17 Amati, M. and Yokohari, M., 2006. Temporal Changes and Local Variations in the Functions of London’s Green Belt.

Landscape and Urban Planning. 75(1-2). pp. 125-142 Bethune, B., 2014. The End of Neighbours [online]. Available at: http://www.macleans.ca/society/the-end-of-neighbours/ (Accessed: 28/8/2014) Cambridge Association of Architects, 2008. Cambridge Architecture Gazette CA57 [online]. Available at: http://issuu.com/ ribacaa/docs/cambs_arc_2008_57 (Accessed: 31/8/2014) Cambridge City Council, 2012. Annual Monitoring Report December 2012 [online]. Available at: https://www.cambridge.gov. uk/sites/www.cambridge.gov.uk/files/documents/2012_AMR.pdf (Accessed: 30/8/2014) Cambridge City Council. 2014. Local Plan Review [online]. Available at: https://www.cambridge.gov.uk/draft-local-plan-2014 (Accessed: 26/8/2014) Cambridge Phenomenon, 2013. What is the Phenomenon? [online]. Available at: http://www.cambridgephenomenon.com/ what-phenomenon/ (Accessed: 31/8/2014) Countryside Properties, 2011. Great Kneighton New Homes [online]. Available at: http://www.greatkneighton.co.uk/index. php?public/new-homes (Accessed: 15/7/2014) Countryside Properties, 2011. Great Kneighton Vision [online]. Available at: http://www.greatkneighton.co.uk/index. php?public/great-kneighton (Accessed: 15/7/2014) DueDil Blog, Date Unknown. Cambridge, Europe’s Most Successful Tech Cluster [online]. Available at: http://blog.duedil.com/ post/37782025436/cambridge-europes-most-successful-tech-cluster (Accessed: 31/8/2014) FCBStudios, 2009. Accordia [online]. Available at: http://fcbstudios.com/work/view/accordia (Accessed: 31/8/2014) Gallagher, 2012. Northstowe Development Framework [online]. Available at: https://www.scambs.gov.uk/sites/www.scambs. gov.uk/files/documents/NS_Development%20framework%20document_lr_08.12.pdf [Accessed: 05/08/14] Landscape Design Associates, 2002. Cambridge Green Belt Study [online]. Available at: https://www.scambs.gov.uk/content/ cambridge-green-belt-study (Accessed: 30/8/2014) London, Stansted, Cambridge Consortium (LSCC), 2014. London Stansted Cambridge Consortium [online]. Available at: www.lscc.co (Accessed: 6/8/2014) Longley, P., Batty, M., Shepherd, J. and Sadler, G., 1992. Do Green Belts Change the Shape of Urban Areas? A Preliminary Analysis of the Settlement Geography of South East England. Regional Studies. 26(5). pp. 437-452 Morrison, N., 1998. The Compact City: Theory Versus Practice - The Case of Cambridge. Journal of Housing and the Built Environment. 13(2). pp. 157-179 Morrison, N., 2010. A Green Belt Under Pressure: The Case of Cambridge: England. Planning Practice and Research. 25(2). pp. 157-181 Munton, R., 1986. Green Belts: The End of an Era? Geography. 71(3). pp. 206-214

Natural England and Campaign to Protect Rural England, 2010. Green Belts: A Greener Future [online]. Available at: www.cpre. org.uk/resources/housing-and-planning/green-belts/item/1956-green-belts-a-greener-future (Accessed: 15/4/2014) Newman, P. and Jennings, I., 2008. Cities as Sustainable Ecosystems: Principles and Practices. London: Island Press New York Times, 2009. In German Suburb, Life Goes On Without Cars [online]. Available at: http://www.nytimes. com/2009/05/12/science/earth/12suburb.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0 (Accessed: 31/8/2014) Office of National Statistics, 2014. What are the Average Earnings Where You Work? [online]. Available at: http://www. neighbourhood.statistics.gov.uk/HTMLDocs/dvc126/ (Accessed: 30/8/2014) Olin, 2011. Living City Design Competition [online]. Available at: http://www.theolinstudio.com/blog/living-city-designcompetition/ (Accessed: 26/6/2014) Policy Network, 2014. The Power of Technology Clusters [online]. Available at: http://www.policy-network.net/pno_detail. aspx?ID=4720&title=The-power-of-technology-clusters&utm_content=bufferce482&utm_medium=social&utm_ source=twitter.com&utm_campaign=buffer (accessed: 30/8/2014) Prior, A. and Raemaekers, J., 2007. Is Green Belt Fit for Purpose in a Post-Fordist Landscape? Planning Practice and Research. 22(4). pp. 579-599 PRP Architects, 2011. Masterplanning Brochure [online]. Available at: http://issuu.com/prparchitects/docs/prp-mp-ud-lbrochure-2011 (Accessed: 31/8/2014) Sprawl Repair, 2010. Sprawl Repair [online]. Available at: www.sprawlrepair.com (Accessed: 31/8/2014) Thomas, K. and Littlewood, S., 2010. From Green Belts to Green Infrastructure? The Evolution of a New Concept in the Emerging Soft Governance of Spatial Strategies. Planning, Practice and Research. 25(2). pp. 203-222 Urbed, 2014. Liverpool Knowledge Quarter [online]. Available at: http://urbed.coop/projects/liverpool-knowledge-quarter (Accessed: 26/6/2014) Visit Copenhagen, 2014. Strøget [online]. Available at: http://www.visitcopenhagen.com/city/shopping/stroget (Accessed: 31/8/2014) While, A., Jonas, A. and Gibbs, D., 2004. Unblocking the City? Environment and Planning A. 36(2). pp. 279-304 Zoopla, 2014. Property Values in Bar Hill [online]. Available at: http://www.zoopla.co.uk/home-values/bar-hill/ (Accessed: 25/7/2014) Zoopla, 2014. Property Values in Cambourne [online]. Available at: http://www.zoopla.co.uk/home-values/browse/cambourne /?category=residential&q=cambourne&search_source=nav (Accessed: 5/8/2014) Zoopla, 2014. Property Values in Cambridge [online]. Available at: http://www.zoopla.co.uk/home-values/browse/ cambridgeshire/cambridge/ (Accessed: 6/7/2014)

MA Urban Design Thesis Sheffield School of Architecture