DIVIDING THE FUTURE
Information, economy and environment
Today
Global divides: climate change and global migration
Digital divides
Course review
Final questions
Dying to be European
From 1988 to 2010, 13,417 people died around the maritime boundaries of the EU, around 6,500 in the Canal of Sicily from 1994-2012
The vast majority died while making the difficult journey from subSaharan Africa, in particular Ethiopia and Somalia, via North of Africa to make landfall on the southern islands of Greece, Italy, Span and Turkey or the coast of Yemen
Many were fleeing civil war and dire economic condition, but a new cause has emerged: climate change
Changing climate
Climate change refers to changes in the environment and includes both global changes and localised effects
Global warming is the specific process by which global temperatures are increasing through the accumulation of ‘greenhouse’ gases in the atmosphere
The Earth has an atmosphere of ‘Greenhouse gases’ (mostly water vapour, carbon dioxide and methane) that traps heat: heat from the Sun enters, some stays
If the planet didn’t have this atmosphere, like the Moon, it would be frozen
If the Earth had an atmosphere like Venus, which is 96% carbon dioxide (the Earth is around 0.03-0.04%), temperatures would be close to 500 degrees
The ‘Greenhouse’ effect
Emitting carbon
We are burning lots of carbon in fossil fuels (approx. 70% of all carbon emissions), creating carbon dioxide
CO2 has risen from 280 parts per million (ppm) in 1850 to 393ppm in 2013 (and has passed 400 at some points)
This creates a number of material and geo-political effects that are unevenly experienced across the world
Carbon Emissions: Long Term
Carbon Emissions: Short Term
The temperature is rising
The average temperature of the planet has risen by between .7 - .8 degrees since 1850
Changes are extremely varied, but are measured at 7,000 stations around the world
These figures are dated and temperature rises always lag behind emissions
Most predictions range between 2 and 6 degrees of warming, depending on our ability to reduce emissions and the reaction of the environment
Global Warming
Source: United States Global Change Research Program
The end of the world?
Films have often featured apocalyptic environmental scenarios
The world will not blow up, but it will make it significantly harder for some people to live in some places
Rising sea-levels will flood some areas More regular natural disasters will make living in some places unviable Rising temperatures will melt mountain snow, drying up rivers and ending vital sources of water Rising temperatures will make growing crops in some areas impossible
This will increase conflict over resources
And abrupt environmental changes are possible as unknown natural ‘thresholds’ are passed
Uneven effects
Climate change affects the world very differently
Wealthier nations have a greater capacity to adapt to climatic changes
Richer people are better able to purchase scarcer and more expense resources
Poorer areas of the world are the most affected by climatic changes
The poor poor
Low-lying Pacific Island will become uninhabitable due to rising sea-levels
Whilst some Northern areas will get wetter, desertification will increase in the subtropics
Melting mountain/glacier snow in Latin America and Asia will reduce water available for drinking, cleaning and growing food
Crop yields are likely to fall drastically in some areas, although it is possible they will rise over-all
Climate change and migration
The link between climate change and migration is controversial, with estimates ranging between 50 million and 1 billion
As environmental conditions change, some areas of the world will become more difficult to live in, because: Increased occurrence of natural disasters Reduced access to resources, specifically food and water, as well as the subsequent conflict over these resources Rising sea levels
Migration is thus a fundamental method of adaption to changes in the climate
How will this affect us? 
Because those most affected by climate change are the poorest, they are unlikely to have the resources to travel long distances
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Migration is likely to be internal and semi-permanent, placing more pressure upon already pressed resources
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Migration driven by environmental changes is most likely to affect the developed world through bids for asylum
Climate Change Refugees
United Nations Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees of 1951, a refugee is a person who "owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group, or political opinion, is outside the country of his nationality, and is unable to or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country
This doesn’t include climate change or economic factors
The International Organisation for Migration that "Environmental migrants are persons or groups of persons who, for compelling reasons of sudden or progressive changes in the environment that adversely affect their lives or living conditions, are obliged to leave their habitual homes, or choose to do so, either temporarily or permanently, and who move either within their country or abroad."
In November a man from Kiribati failed in his bid for asylum in New Zealand, a claim based on climate change and rising sea levels
Returning to Lampedusa
Whilst climate migration is likely to be over short distances, the Mediterranean Sea is the meeting point of the developed world and climate change refugees
Climate instability in the North of Africa is pushing people into Europe and the middle-east for a better life
Southern European countries, themselves, struggling economically and with the effects of climate change, are not equipped to handle these migrants
This has led to tragedies and draconian legislation, which is also being repeated in Australia
Does this concern you?
Digital Divides
Introducing the information age
The information age, now often referred to as the digital age, is the shift from the industrial economy to an economy based on the creation and exchange of information
Through the internet and digital technology, commonly called Information Communication Technology (ICT), our economies and cultural practices have been redefined
There is unequal access to both this technology and the benefits of the information age
This inequality is known as digital exclusion or the digital divide
Divides and Exclusions 
Digital exclusion is both a lack of access to ICT as well as capacity to use this technology
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The digital divide is the inequality between groups in regards to ICT
Mapping divides
As with all social divisions, the digital divide is uneven across groups, particularly in regards to; Class Ethnicity Gender
Age Geography
(urban/rural, West/rest)
See Rowena Cullen, (2001),"Addressing the digital divide", Online Information Review, Vol. 25 Iss: 5 pp. 311 -
Digital concerns
Digital exclusion is a significant concern for governments as it disconnects citizens from the information economy
Consequently many governments have focused on developing digital infrastructure and increasing ‘digital literacy’ (the ability to effectively use ICT)
Digital exclusion in education is a particular concern
Educational exclusion
Limits to accessing technology and information, whether because of a lack of skills or resources, have a major impact on students
Digital exclusion goes beyond the opportunity for access, but requires technical ability and information literacy, which are often established well before entry to university (Selwyn, 2004)
Ricardo Sabates (2008) found that 14-years from socially disadvantaged backgrounds were often unable to use ICT at home and thus struggled to use school technology
Digital education
Because of the importance of ICT for university study, those currently excluded will be more likely to be excluded from society
Modern economies require the production of workers skilled in the use of ICT for the job market
Digital exclusion further extends existing forms of social exclusion and stratification
Module review
Social differences are an essential element of the human experience – differences make us unique
By categorising these differences, however, we can see clear divides within society whereby those with certain differences suffer substantial disadvantage and *perhaps* injustice
Despite the regular reproduction of these divides, society generally manages to remain cohesive and ordered
What is the most influential division in Britain and why?
Week 2: Unemployment and Welfare
Class is at the core of sociological explanations of social stratification
Class is regarded as a structure that produces social patterns and influences human behaviour
However, there is considerable debate around class, primarily - Is class determined by economic (structural) or cultural (agency?) differences?
Unemployment and Agency
Under the conservative cultural conception of class unemployment and poverty are caused by a ‘dependency culture’ and poor choices
By contrast to this agency approach, structural sociological theories like Marxism insist on the social influences on unemployment
Moreover, culture itself is not chosen, but is something we are born into
Our understanding of unemployment and poverty drives social and political responses, particularly in relation to the welfare state
But class is not the only structural influence – we may also consider the interaction of ethnicity, health and gender
Week III: Elitism and Equality
Elitism occurs when a small minority has a disproportionate influence over the majority of the population
Elitism can occur through economic inequality, but is often maintained by cultural practices and cultural capital that favour the existing elite Inequalities
within universities are often cited as an example of this elitism
Equality and egalitarianism are appealing ideas, but the mechanisms for achieving them can often undermine the original aims
Week IV: Gender Discrimination
Women are clearly disadvantaged in public life, but the explanations for this disadvantage are varied
Is it that our bodies are naturally different, which leads to different social roles?
But, if gender is socially constructed, what structural factors could lead to these disadvantages?
Specifically, are social institutions and structures gendered towards men (including economic factors), or is it a case of direct discrimination?
Week V: Race and ethnicity
We rejected the idea that race was a fixed biological difference, despite popular conceptions
Nonetheless, if it is not biological, why are there such clear social divisions between ethnicities?
These divides are not simply a struggle between two groups: there are very different outcomes for different ethnicities
Ethnicity, as a cultural construct, cannot be separated from institutional and structural factors, particularly class and the economy
Week VI: Health, illness and society
Despite overall health quality rising, divisions in health outcomes for different groups are rising
How we socially construct health has a significant affect on our biological health
There are significant differences between ethnicities and across classes
Health is often considered a highly gendered issue, although men fare worst on most measures
How socially defined are our bodies?
Changing themes
The second half of the course predominately considered the structural practices that produce social cohesion
We discussed:
The integration of minorities Nationhood and the state Ideology The community
Week VIII: Immigration and Exclusion
Both the UK and London have experienced substantial migration after WWII, which has produced significant unrest
Immigrants, particularly those who don’t seem to be like ‘us’, are positioned as a threat to our sense of ‘us’ and our way of life
Despite attempts to avoid segregation and integrate migrants, governments have recently turned away from multiculturalism because ‘extremists’ don’t accept ‘our’ values
Here our conceptions of migrants are vital to their inclusion within society
Week IX: Ideology
Whilst states are defined by their monopoly over violence within a given territory, this monopoly is rarely revealed
Ideology is the socially constructed ‘common sense’ through which we view the world
One of the primary means through which power is maintained is by having the common sense ideology of the elite be the common sense of the masses
Ideology, and our identities, are also secured by the identification of something they are not – often through the exclusion of the immigrant or outsider
Week X: Religion as community 
Communities provide a strong point of identification for many people
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This identification can help to increase social solidarity within society, or produce social segregation between communities
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Religious communities are social differences that often leads to enduring and passionate social divisions
Week XI: Social Protest 
Resistance, a form of agency, is part of everyday life, but some forms are more powerful than others

Both democracy and capitalism allow for resistance and conflict within certain boundaries, but democratic participation appears to becoming increasingly impotent

As a response, direct protest is becoming more prevalent, particularly through social media
Week XII: Dividing the future 
The global effects of climate change are unevenly distributed and produce significant humanitarian and security concerns for the future

Whilst climate migration is often internal, the developed world is increasingly forced to encounter difficult decisions in relation to asylum seekers
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Digital divides and exclusion in regards to the use of ICT are a major issue for governments and universities, particularly in regards to education and social exclusion
What are your major concerns about the essays?
Final thoughts
Answer the question: provide a thesis statement
Support your answers with robust and reliable evidence (be careful with the internet!)
Theoretical positions Academic research Official statistics and research publications
Lecture recordings can be accessed through the Panopto link on Blackboard
Please complete the course evaluation
Thank you and good luck If you need help, just ask!