IMAGINED COMMUNITIES
MIGRATION AND THE POLITICS OF EXCLUSION
Modular movements Social Divisions
Social Cohesion
Why is there order rather than disorder?
Differences, Division, Cohesion
This lecture marks a transition point in the module
Whilst we consider immigration at a cause of both difference and division, we are also examining the responses to that division
Specifically, how can different cultures with distinctly difference societal outcomes live together?
Our Questions
If Britain, and especially London, is so diverse and divided, how can social order and cohesion be achieved? Is it? State
and cultural management? (Week 8) Ideological manipulation? (Week 9) Community solidarity (Week 10)
Today How does the normative majority maintain social cohesion?
London and immigration
Developing social solidarity
Excluding the ‘Other’
Managing cultural differences
We will primarily focus on London
London Ethnicities In the 2011 census: ‘White
British’ were 45% of the population (of total 60% white)
‘Asian’
made up 20%
‘Black’
13%
London Immigration
Throughout it’s history, London has attracted migrants, although these migrants were predominately internal until around 1950
In 1851 38% of Londoners were born elsewhere
In 1948 the British Nationality Act was passed, creating the status of "citizen of the United Kingdom and Colonies" (CUKC) for people born or naturalised in either the United Kingdom or one of its colonies
Approximately 472,000 commonwealth immigrants arrived from 1955 to 1962
The Act allowed free migration for those within the Commonwealth, although fears of non-White immigration significantly reduced these freedoms
The majority of these migrants settled in London, both for greater economic opportunities and to join established ex-pat communities
The Rivers of Blood
In 1968 Conservative MP Enuch Powell gave the infamous ‘Rivers of Blood’ speech
Powell argued that areas of Britain were undergoing “total transformation to which there is no parallel in a thousand years of English history”
Evoking the prejudices of his constituents, Powell argued that immigrants were refusing to integrate into society and were receiving more privileges than ‘indigenous’ people
Powell also insinuated that continued migration and cultural tensions would led to widespread racial conflict
Although he was removed from power, Powell’s speech taped into popular discourse about changes in national identity, particularly from the working class
Race Riots
The 1958 Notting Hill race riots were caused by constant attacks on the Caribbean population of Notting Hill by White youths (‘The Teddy Boys’)
These riots were the catalyst for the Notting Hill Carnival and stronger cultural integration
The 1981 Brixton uprising/riot occurred in response to extreme deprivation, crime and suspicion of the police amongst the Black communities of Brixton
In response to suggestions that widespread unemployment were a cause of the riots, Margaret Thatcher replied, “What absolute nonsense and what an appalling remark ... No one should condone violence. No one should condone the events ... They were criminal, criminal”
Seem familiar?
Modern Migration
Britain’s entry into the EU opened up the country’s borders to citizens of EU member states
The expansion of the EU in 2004 changed the complexion of migration to the UK as poorer migrants from Eastern Europe arrived in large numbers
These migrants are often transient, seeking work opportunities rather than establishing new lives
Political Regrets
The current Conservative government has reduced immigration quotas and David Cameron has suggested that immigrants are a drain on public services
Labour leader Ed Milliband has expressed regret at his party’s previous migration policy
Restrictions on immigrants has become a populist position and fuelled the emergence of nationalist political movements
Would you ever emigrate to another country?
Sorry, we’re full!
Fear of immigration appears to be founded on the prospect of a change in who ‘we’ are – that ‘they’ will overwhelm our culture
But who are ‘we’ in the first place?
Identifying beyond ourselves
Social divisions are flattened when members identify with a (limited) larger cause “You
are not working class, you are English”
These identifications are often passionate and provide a sense of belonging that appeals to both the marginalised and those who benefit from social order
Our cultural access points might change, but they still function to maintain identity and solidarity
National solidarity
Those who live close to each other are expected to share common values
Without any cultural commonality, social relations are often defined by conflict over the right way to do things, or who benefits from existing arrangements
Whilst common points of identification can operate on a micro level, they are encouraged to extend to coincide with legal geographical boundaries
Non-UK Population in London by Nationality 160,000
140,000
120,000
100,000
80,000
60,000
40,000
20,000
0
The ‘Cricket Test’
“A large proportion of Britain's Asian population fail to pass the cricket test. Which side do they cheer for? It's an interesting test. Are you still harking back to where you came from or where you are?
”
Conservative UK Politician Norman Tebbit (1990)
Have you ever worked with people who don’t share the same values?
Segregation
Segregation is the physical and social separation of categories of people
Whilst segregation does not legally exist in Britain, it does occur through social, cultural and economic practices
Some ethnic communities become self-segregated, either rejecting the values and practices of the majority culture or being marginalised within them
Attempts by minority ethnic communities to establish cultural independence outside of majority norms are highly controversial
To what extent should immigrants ‘leave their culture at the door’?
Multiculturalism 
Multi-cultural responses to ethnic diversity emphasise the equal expression of cultures

Multiculturalist policies both recognise and value cultural differences, suggesting that diversity makes for a more vibrant society

This often involves direct support from state organisations to promote minority cultures
State multiculturalism
Multiculturalism focuses on difference rather than the sameness that defines national identity
Consequently, the patriotic binds that hold together divided societies are viewed as unproductive forms of social exclusion: national identity produces an ‘us’ that ‘Others’ the excluded
Multiculturalists argue that a cohesive society cannot be achieved through a singular normative horizon, but through the inclusion of differences
As a consequence, the only shared values need to be tolerance for the values of others
Multiculturalism in Schools
Our spontaneous individual attitudes tend towards an acceptance of cultural diversity
Everyone has the right to express themselves and their culture (within an agreed framework)
These ethics are actively taught in schools through ‘citizenship’ and ‘religious education’ (RE)’, along with an active engagement with minority cultures
Should minority cultures be actively promoted within London?
Multi-Cultural Tensions
David Cameron directly rejected multiculturalism in 2011, stating that we need a ‘muscular liberalism’ that enforced universal values
Cameron’s fear, shared by many, is that some ethnic cultures have rejected the universal normative framework of the nation, which can lead to ‘extremism’
Multiculturalism and segregation can be similar in result, even if the aims are entirely different
Assimilation and the Melting Pot
Assimilation is the process by which minorities gradually adopt patterns of the dominant culture
This approach values social cohesion above cultural expression, although it removes direct discrimination
But assimilation assumes the superiority of the dominant culture, often producing institutional racism
What ‘we’ do has precedence over what ‘they’ do
Integrating Immigrants
Much of the concern over immigration is that immigrants don’t embrace the local culture and thus reduce social cohesion
The practicalities of assimilation require employment, learning of the national language and integration into education
Language proficiency has a strong influence on integration into the local society
Whilst assimilation may place the emphasise on the immigrant adapting to the local culture, in practice it requires the ‘host’ society to provide opportunities and resources for this to occur
Should the government provide free English language classes for immigrants?
Assimilated Housing
Housing, or geographical integration, is one of the strongest markers of assimilation and integration
Although strong differences remain, many London boroughs and neighbourhoods are very ethnically diverse
These areas provide examples of segregation, multiculturalism and assimilation
Some of this diversity can be attributed to the presence of council housing
Is your neighbourhood segregated, multicultural or assimilated?
Council Housing
Council housing is a form of public housing traditionally supplied by councils for working class people
There was major investment in council housing following the bombing of World War II
This led to the developments of a large range of ‘council estates’ and ‘tower blocks’
Council housing remains significantly cheaper than private housing
Recent Developments
Much council housing was privatised in the ‘right to buy’ scheme of the 1980s, causing a shortage of council houses and privately driven gentrification
There are significant waiting lists for council housing
As a consequence, council housing is a controversial social issue, often evoking debates around the rights of immigrants to access public services
Is your neighbourhood becoming more or less diverse?
Citizenship
In the absence of distinct cultural commonalities, citizenship actively creates a commitment to a shared community
Citizenship binds together the shared values of the imagined national community into a legal framework
A citizen is a full (legal) member of a political community, with rights granted by the state and obligations to the state
Citizenship also provides membership within a defined community that should become a source of identity
Citizenship thus become an attempt to enforce shared values and a commitment to society
Beyond formal inclusion
Whilst citizenship allows for formal equality, this status ignores social inequalities
We may have the same rights, but not the same opportunities
We can also be formal citizens, but not identify with the community
Despite legal equality, some values are more influential than others
Targeting the excluded
Beyond the assimilation, the celebration and the integration of immigrants, governments actively seek to integrate those thought to be at risk of social exclusion
Whilst the primary cause of this social exclusion may be economic, the remedies are to provide the social capital and opportunities for individuals
One common way to do so is ‘positive action’, which is a regular feature of higher education
These policies are part of a wider effort to maintain social cohesion
Being Positive
‘Positive Discrimination’ is to select someone on the basis of their social characteristics and is illegal in the UK
‘Positive action’, or targeted encouragement to special groups, became legal in April 2011
These measures focus on equality of outcome rather than equality of opportunity
But the ultimate aim to is to produce equality of opportunity for social mobility
Positive Action at University
Widening participation: Targeted activities and programmes to encourage participation in higher education
Universities are able to charge maximum fees if they target underrepresented groups on the basis of social mobility
“Access without support is not opportunity” (Engstorm and Tinto)
These endeavours are direct attempt to assimilate ‘vulnerable’ groups (class, ethnicity, disability) into the benefits of the majority culture
If you were working for a service for vulnerable asylum seekers, would you:
a)
b)
Try to develop their links with their local culture in the community? Focus on integrating them into British culture?
Summary
Immigrants are a key element of the make-up of London
These immigrants often threaten our sense of ‘who we are’ by living lives outside of the normative majority, either practically or normatively
Attempts to assimilate these minorities risk causing further social exclusion, although they may be vital for maintaining social cohesion
Alternatively, formal citizenship attempts to set the boundaries of the national community
Next Week RULING IDEAS: THE POWER OF IDEOLOGY READING Pierson, C. (2011) The Modern State (3rd Ed.) (Chapter One) Routledge: London.