IMAGINED COMMUNITIES
MIGRATION AND THE POLITICS OF EXCLUSION
Modular movements Social Divisions
Social Cohesion
Why is there order rather than disorder?
Our questions
If Britain, and especially London, is so diverse and divided, how can social order and cohesion be achieved? Is it? State
and cultural management? (Week 8) Ideological manipulation? (Week 9) Community solidarity (Week 10)
Differences, Division, Cohesion
This lecture marks a transition point in the module
Whilst we consider immigration at a cause of both difference and division, we are also examining the responses to that division
Specifically, how can different cultures with distinctly difference societal outcomes live together?
National solidarity, segregation, multi-culturalism and assimilation
Essay Questions Critically evaluate the impact of migration upon community identification in contemporary London To what extent has migration affected conceptions of social class in contemporary Britain?
London Ethnicities In the 2011 census: ‘White
British’ were 45% of the population (of total 60% white)
‘Asian’
made up 20%
‘Black’
13%
London Immigration
Throughout it’s history, London has attracted migrants, although these migrants were predominately internal until around 1950
In 1851 38% of Londoners were born elsewhere
In 1948 the British Nationality Act was passed, creating the status of "citizen of the United Kingdom and Colonies" (CUKC) for people born or naturalised in either the United Kingdom or one of its colonies
Approximately 472,000 commonwealth immigrants arrived from 1955 to 1962
The Act allowed free migration for those within the Commonwealth, although fears of non-White immigration significantly reduced these freedoms
The majority of these migrants settled in London, both for greater economic opportunities and to join established ex-pat communities
The Rivers of Blood
In 1968 Conservative MP Enoch Powell gave the infamous ‘Rivers of Blood’ speech
Powell argued that areas of Britain were undergoing “total transformation to which there is no parallel in a thousand years of English history”
Evoking the prejudices of his constituents, Powell argued that immigrants were refusing to integrate into society and were receiving more privileges than ‘indigenous’ people
Powell also insinuated that continued migration and cultural tensions would led to widespread racial conflict
Although he was removed from power, Powell’s speech taped into popular discourse about changes in national identity, particularly from the working class
Race Riots
The 1958 Notting Hill race riots were caused by constant attacks on the Caribbean population of Notting Hill by White youths (‘The Teddy Boys’)
These riots were the catalyst for the Notting Hill Carnival and stronger cultural integration
The 1981 Brixton uprising/riot occurred in response to extreme deprivation, crime and suspicion of the police amongst the Black communities of Brixton
In response to suggestions that widespread unemployment were a cause of the riots, Margaret Thatcher replied, “What absolute nonsense and what an appalling remark ... No one should condone violence. No one should condone the events ... They were criminal, criminal”
Seem familiar?
Modern Migration
Britain’s entry into the EU opened up the country’s borders to citizens of EU member states
The expansion of the EU in 2004 changed the complexion of migration to the UK as poorer migrants from Eastern Europe arrived in large numbers
These migrants are often transient, seeking work opportunities rather than establishing new lives
Closing the door
Following the global financial crisis and 2010 election, immigration has become a significant political issue in Britain
The rise of the United Kingdom Independence Party (UKIP) has been on the back of concern over ‘freedom of movement’ within the EU
Up to 77% of British people want to reduce immigration
David Cameron has suggested that immigrants are a drain on public services and pledged to reduce net migration to less than 100,000
Labour leader Ed Miliband has expressed regret at his party’s previous migration policy
Sorry, we’re full!
Fear of immigration appears to be founded on the prospect of a change in who ‘we’ are – that ‘they’ will overwhelm our culture
But who are ‘we’ in the first place?
How English are you? How English is your community?
Identifying beyond ourselves
Social divisions are flattened when members identify with a (limited) larger cause “We
are all just English”
These identifications are often passionate and provide a sense of belonging that appeals to both the marginalised and those who benefit from social order
Our cultural access points might change, but they still function to maintain identity and solidarity
National solidarity
Those who live close to each other are expected to share common values
Without any cultural commonality, social relations are often defined by conflict over the right way to do things
Whilst common points of identification can operate on a micro level, they are encouraged to extend to coincide with legal geographical boundaries
Non-UK Populations in London in 2013 by Nationality 140,000
120,000
100,000
80,000
60,000
40,000
20,000
0
The ‘Cricket Test’
“A large proportion of Britain's Asian population fail to pass the cricket test. Which side do they cheer for? It's an interesting test. Are you still harking back to where you came from or where
you are?
”
Conservative UK Politician Norman Tebbit (1990)
Have you ever lived with people who don’t share the same values?
Segregation
Segregation is the physical and social separation of categories of people
Whilst segregation does not legally exist in Britain, it does occur through social, cultural and economic practices
Some ethnic communities become self-segregated, either rejecting the values and practices of the majority culture or being marginalised within them
Attempts by minority ethnic communities to establish cultural independence outside of majority norms are highly controversial
To what extent should immigrants ‘leave their culture at the door’?
Multiculturalism 
Multi-cultural responses to ethnic diversity emphasise the equal expression of cultures

Multiculturalist policies both recognise and value cultural differences, suggesting that diversity makes for a more vibrant society

This often involves direct support from state organisations to promote minority cultures
State multiculturalism
Multiculturalism focuses on difference rather than the sameness that defines national identity
Consequently, the patriotic binds that hold together divided societies are viewed as unproductive forms of social exclusion: national identity produces an ‘us’ that ‘Others’ the excluded
Multiculturalists argue that a cohesive society cannot be achieved through a singular normative horizon, but through the inclusion of differences
As a consequence, the only shared values need to be tolerance for the values of others
Multiculturalism in Schools
Our spontaneous cultural attitudes tend towards an acceptance of cultural diversity
Everyone has the right to express themselves and their culture
These ethics are actively taught in schools through ‘citizenship’ and ‘religious education’ (RE)’, along with an active engagement with minority cultures
From September ‘British values’ are required to be actively promoted in schools
Should minority cultures be actively promoted within London?
Multi-Cultural tensions
David Cameron directly rejected multiculturalism in 2011, stating that we need a ‘muscular liberalism’ that enforces universal values
Cameron’s fear, shared by many, is that some ethnic cultures have rejected the universal normative framework of the nation, which can lead to ‘extremism’
Multiculturalism and segregation can be similar in result, even if the aims are entirely different
Assimilation and the melting pot
Assimilation is the process by which minorities gradually adopt patterns of the dominant culture
This approach values social cohesion above cultural expression, although it removes direct discrimination
But assimilation assumes the superiority of the dominant culture, often producing institutional racism
What ‘we’ do has precedence over what ‘they’ do
Integrating immigrants
Much of the concern over immigration is that immigrants don’t embrace the local culture and thus reduce social cohesion
The practicalities of assimilation require employment, learning of the national language and integration into education
Language proficiency has a strong influence on integration into the local society
Whilst assimilation may place the emphasise on the immigrant adapting to the local culture, in practice it requires the ‘host’ society to provide opportunities and resources for this to occur
Should the government provide free English language classes for immigrants?
Assimilated Housing
Housing, or geographical integration, is one of the strongest markers of assimilation and integration
Although strong differences remain, many London boroughs and neighbourhoods are very ethnically diverse
These areas provide examples of segregation, multiculturalism and assimilation
Some of this diversity can be attributed to the presence of council housing
Is your neighbourhood segregated, multicultural or assimilated?
Council Housing
Council housing is a form of public housing traditionally supplied by councils for working class people
There was major investment in council housing following the bombing of World War II
This led to the developments of a large range of ‘council estates’ and ‘tower blocks’
Council housing remains significantly cheaper than private housing
Recent developments
Much council housing was privatised in the ‘right to buy’ scheme under Thatcher during the 1980s, causing a shortage of council houses and privately driven gentrification
There are significant waiting lists for council housing
As a consequence, council housing is a controversial social issue, often evoking debates around the rights of immigrants to access public services
Should immigrants have a right to council houses?
Citizenship
In the absence of distinct cultural commonalities, citizenship actively creates a commitment to a shared community
Citizenship binds together the shared values of the imagined national community into a legal framework
A citizen is a full (legal) member of a political community, with rights granted by the state and obligations to the state
Citizenship also provides membership within a defined community that should become a source of identity
Citizenship thus become an attempt to enforce shared values and a commitment to society
Beyond formal inclusion
Whilst citizenship allows for formal equality, this status ignores social inequalities
We may have the same rights, but not the same opportunities
We can also be formal citizens, but not identify with the community
Despite legal equality, some values are more influential than others
If you were working for a service for vulnerable asylum seekers, would you:
a)
b)
Try to develop their links with their local culture in the community? Focus on integrating them into British culture?
Summary
Immigrants are a key element of the make-up of London
These immigrants often threaten our sense of ‘who we are’ by living lives outside of the normative majority, either practically or normatively
Attempts to assimilate these minorities risk causing further social exclusion, although they may be vital for maintaining social cohesion
Alternatively, formal citizenship attempts to set the boundaries of the national community
Next Week RULING IDEAS: THE POWER OF IDEOLOGY READING Pierson, C. (2011) The Modern State (3rd Ed.) (Chapter One) Routledge: London.