RULING IDEAS
The Power of Ideology
Today
The importance of ideological understandings
Ideology and state institutions
Ideology as an illusionary bias
Ideology and cynical enjoyment
Ideology as an imaginary comfort
Essays and ideological critique
Why Ideology?
We are considering how society remains (reasonably) ordered and able to function despite its divisions
Moreover, society is reproduced without the direct need for violence or direct coercion and without overt conflict
Ideology, the ‘common sense’ through which we understand the world, is the means through which consent to this order is manufactured and maintained
Today we will focus specifically on the impact of ideology upon the divisions we have encountered, particularly social exclusion
What is Ideology?
Ideology is a system of ideas, or a way of thinking, that relies on supporting assumptions about how the world and how it should be
In the most basic sense ideology is a set of beliefs: our understanding of the cultural, economic, political and social ‘common sense’
Ideological practices are the processes through which ideology is entered into, creating our sense of ourselves and society
But is does ideology function to manipulate the truth or organise our thoughts?
Ideological Brands
What are the main positions being taken? Are they ideologically biased? What is the function of these ideologies? 1. 2.
To maintain the current order? To produce a true representation of the world?
Structures come to life
We experience ideology as the internal lens through which we view the world (an attitude towards the world), but ideology is created socially through social institutions and structures
We have our own ideological positions but these are taken within a pre-existing environment into which we are inducted: ideology entails shared viewpoints
Because of this, ideology is often thought of as both the internalisation of structure and the external representation of structures
Whilst we are born as individuals, we become ‘subjects’ on the basis of our ideological influences and the way we imagine and represent our world, as well as how we think it should be
Most of this process is unconscious – we don’t reflect on ideology, we just do because it feels ‘natural’ or common sense to us
What is your ideology?
While many ideologies can be given a political or cultural name e.g. liberal or conservative, we can simply think of them as ‘common sense’ attitudes about the world about which we have some attachment
In regards to employment, do you (strongly) agree/disagree that… 1. 2. 3. 4.
One of the reasons why people are unemployed is because they are lazy People without jobs should be obliged to take any job they are offered Some people are just smarter than others and that is why they have better paying jobs If women or minorities feel excluded from the work-place culture, they should conform to that culture to get ahead
Can you identify an ideological position that represents your ‘natural’ thoughts about unemployment
Why do you have this attitude?
Choosing Ideology
Our ideas, beliefs and attitudes do not ‘fall out of the sky’ upon us, nor do we often actively choose them
Instead we are socialised into certain ways of thinking at both a primary level and through ideological practices
We cannot instantly change our ideologies because we have some attachment to them
The question is whether ideology just happens, or is it manipulated by ruling interests
Ideological State Apparatuses
The French Marxist Louis Althusser argued that ideology is not just in our heads, but in our material practices – ideology is what we do
Ideology is embedded in state and social institutions, the ‘Ideological State Apparatuses’ (ISA’s), in what they do, rather than what they say e.g. Not ‘We are the police, we stop and search Black people’
Althusser argued that in order for society to be reproduced it is vital that we are able to perform our ‘duties’ independently, rather than being coerced
ISA’s ‘interpellate’ individuals as subjects of the ideological order, giving them an identity within the order
The University Apparatus
According to Althusser’s definition, universities are an ideological state institution
Universities are a material institution that reproduces ideology to which students are subjects
The university acts to reproduces ideology through its practices
The ‘employability agenda’ is an example of this process, whereby the role of education is make you more employable
How does Brunel influence your identity?
Ideological Policing
Althusser also acknowledged the role of the ‘Repressive State Apparatus’(RSA), such as the police, the law and the direct control of violence
However, the RSA is only invoked when society is threatened and the ISA is a more effective mechanism for maintaining order
Both of these mechanisms were reproduced in the 2011 riots: repression was evident during and after the riots, but order has been maintained through the dominant ideological ideas
Ideological Bias
The predominate view of ideology is as a (subjective) bias that prevents us seeing the (objective) truth
We think of ideologies as biased or unbalanced as opposed to rational analysis
It is a legitimate and powerful political strategy to call someone or something ‘ideological’
Therefore to critique an ideology is to show how it has manipulated a situation to give a false representation, often in an indirect way
Ideological Riots
As we have seen, many politicians argued that the 2011 riots were an example of ‘criminality’ or ‘greed’
Others have argued that the riots were caused by systematic injustices
One position is arguing that if social exclusion was a factor in the riots it is the fault of the excluded, the other that exclusion is caused by structural influences outside of their control
Both arguments have assumptions about how the world is and how it should be and both arguments present their analysis as neutral and objective
These ideological positions have been externalised in practices of communities and institutions, such as in the police and courts
Are either of these positions ideologically biased?
Ideological Super-Structures
For Karl Marx ideological illusions were biased towards those in power, specifically the economic interests of the bourgeoisie
He argued that ideology was the super-structure that reflected the economic base: the ideas that legitimised economic exploitation
Ideological structures are able to maintain the system of production by providing explanations for its existence
Therefore ideology is not only biased, but deliberately manipulated for the benefit of powerful (economic) interests
False Consciousness
Marx suggested that the elementary function of ideology is when ‘they don’t know that they are doing it, but they are doing it’
Workers do not reject capitalism because they are not aware of their exploitation (a ‘false consciousness’) because of the ideological frameworks that dominates our thinking
Moreover, we are not aware of our biases because we think and feel in the way those in power want us to think: we might feel exploited by the economic system, but happily go shopping
Politicians act to create this ‘false’ consciousness, appealing to people in ways that support certain ways of thinking
Ruling Ideas
Beyond Marx’s economic analysis, the dominant ideology thesis suggests that one form of ideological common sense dominates a functioning society
We know this because certain ideas don’t make ‘sense’ within this functioning of ideology
This ideology is the ideology of the ruling elite, whether economic, political or otherwise – if the dominant ideology didn’t support the existing social organisation, there would be mass dissent (or mass repression)
As a consequence, if the common sense of society is that of the ruling class, then individuals will see the world through the eyes of the ruling classes
Thinking about an organisation you have been involved with, was the ‘common sense’ controlled by the most influential?
Hegemonic Battles
Italian Marxist Antonio Gramsci argued that society is not dominated by a single ideology but, instead, multiple ideologies battle for the place of ‘hegemony’
We might have the ideology of the elite battling with the ideology of the working class
Elections are fought through the battle for hegemony and the way we understand the world
The ruling class have an advantage in controlling the means through which these ideas are propagated via the corporate ownership of the media and the consequent profit motive
Bedroom Battles
The 2012 Welfare Reform Act made a number of changes to welfare, most notably reducing benefits to those who have an empty room in the house they are renting
Opposition campaigners have labelled this the ‘Bedroom Tax’
By contrast, the ruling Conservative Party have labelled it the ‘Spareroom Subsidy’
These competing positions are competing to dominate public understandings of the issue
Permitted Dissent
Hegemonic struggles, rather than a single dominant ideology, may actually strengthen the legitimacy of the ruling class and ideas
Ideology is strongest when it can acknowledge and contain dissent: protests can be held, committee’s formed, but the main ideology is maintained
These issues are presented as aberrations that can be resolved within the system, rather than exemplars of its failure
This process is most effective when there is a dominant ideology and no strong alternative explanations available: our only choice is reform and solutions within the system
Cynical Reason
Slavoj Žižek argues that Marx’s ideological maxim of ‘they don’t know what they are doing, but they are doing it’, should be reversed
‘They know what they are doing, but they are doing it anyway’
It is not that we don’t know that we are being exploited, or living an illusion, but we are cynical about it
We see ideological ‘distortion’ and believe that we are above it, but our actions don’t change
Ideological Elitism 
In the lecture on elitism I presented a range of statistics that revealed that women, ethnic minorities and the working classes were vastly under-represented in high-status social institutions

This conclusion appeared to be accepted by the majority of the class: you know it
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But no one seemed particularly bothered: you carry on regardless
Do you feel cynical, and why might that be?
A Necessary Illusion?
If ideology is how we relate to the world, cynicism is one way of reacting to contradictory information without having to change the way we act and, most importantly, feel
Ideology may express normative ideas about how the world should be, but it is also necessary to maintain our sanity
We resist when our ideologies are threatened and are shocked when something forces a change in our ideological subjectivity
Existential Security
In the absence of a determining reference point, ideology makes the world meaningful and comprehensible for us
Everyone sees the world through an ideological viewpoint: there is no escape from ideology
Because we can only see ideology through an ideological viewpoint, it is impossible to be biased: there are ideological positions, but no objective ideologies
Ideology functions by reduces a complex world into an understandable framework
Exclusive Ideologies
In order to perform this reduction, ideological perceptions exclude elements that threaten our understanding (the bits that don’t fit our common sense)
This social exclusion is the elementary operation of ideology: in order to secure ideological attachments we find someone to blame it on
In pre-Nazi Germany, Hitler presented the ‘Jew’ as the cause of all of Germany’s problems, thus reducing a complex crisis to an understandable situation
Likewise, immigrants and outsiders are often presented as the embodiment of our struggles to maintain our ideological identities
These fears are embodied in horror or action movies by a monster or villain
Have you been part of an organisation or in a situation that excluded people who didn’t fit into with the common sense attitudes?
Enjoy!
Žižek also argues that ideology is not something we just believe in, but have some emotional attachment to
Ideology not only allows us to have symbolic and imaginary attachments that secure our identities, but is often expressed in enjoyable ways
The mass media are one of the most prominent propagators of ideology, presenting ideas in an ideological way
The ‘cultural industry’ both ‘seduces’ us into consent and portrays ideological messages about who we are and how we should act
What are the ideological themes in The Dark Knight Rises?
Ideological Critique
If ideologies cannot be accused of bias, we are critiquing what they do, rather than whether they are true
In a cynical world, presenting people with evidence that contradicts their ideology is often ineffective
Moreover, people have a strong emotional attachment to their ideological commitments – we enjoy ideology
As a consequence, politics itself is quite cynical: how do you resist in the 21st century?
Ideological Summation
Ideologies are the views, beliefs and attitudes we take towards the world
Ideologies are also externalised in material or institutional processes to which we are ‘subjected’
Ideology functions through social exclusion of those who do not fit
We cannot ever escape ideology and thus the language of ‘bias’ becomes unproductive
Our age is marked by the cynicism of ideology
Next Week GOD SAVE THE QUEEN: RELIGION, COMMUNITY AND IDENTITY READINGS
Aldridge, A. (2006) Religion. In G. Payne (Ed.) Social Divisions (second edition), Basingstoke: Macmillan. Crow, G and Maclean, C. (2006) Community. In G. Payne (Ed.) Social Divisions (second edition), Basingstoke: Macmillan.
Essays: Basics
3000 words (+ or – 10%), due on Jan 13th at 3pm
Choose ONE of the options listed on BlackBoard
Submit one paper copy to the MJ centre and one through BlackBoard
Marking Criteria
Shows basic understanding of social differences, divisions and forms of resistance: make sure you define key concepts
Shows critical understanding of social divisions by being able to analyse and evaluate a range of positions and evidence
Is able to link together core themes: most questions require you to consider the interactions between class, ethnicity and gender
Makes an argument that answers the question, is logically structured, defended with referenced and authoritative evidence and is objectively and professionally written
Make an Argument
Tell me what you are going to argue, NOT just what you are going to discuss
The introduction to EVERY essay should have the statement ‘In this essay I argue that…’
You are welcome to argue any reasonable position, but make sure that it is supported by academic or official evidence, has in-depth reasoning and considers alternative perspectives in some detail
Asserting your Position
Hook the reader and tell them what they need to know about the debate
Context
Preview Thesis Statement
Tell the reader your process for responding the question
Tell them what you will be arguing
Conclusion
Argument Review
Tell them what you have argued
Summarise what you have discussed
Consequences Push beyond the bounds of the essay
Option One To what extent can the proportional over-representation of former ‘public school’ pupils at Oxbridge universities be understood as a form of elite privilege?
Make sure you establish what the over-representation of former public school pupils is at Oxbridge What do we mean by ‘elite privilege’? What other structural factors play a part, and how do they relate to elitism?
Option Two Critically discuss the structural influences upon (un)employment patterns in Britain. To what extent does individual agency play a role in these patterns?
Choose either or both of unemployment or employment
Do the foundational research, avoiding newspaper articles
What are the structural influences and how do they interact? (make sure you discuss the intricacies of the core concepts e.g. sex and gender, race and ethnicity, what is meant by class)
The core of the debate is the role of agency – is it structural influences of individual choices that influences patterns in un/employment?
Option Three To what extent do differences in gender, ethnicity and class influence health inequalities?
Ensure you have thoroughly researched health inequalities
What structural explanations are most effective, and how do they interact?
Again, ensure you consider basic definitions
Option Four Using examples from contemporary Britain, critically discuss the role of ideology in shaping social exclusion
What do we mean by ideology and social exclusion?
How does ideology change the way with think and act?
How do contemporary ideologies (which ideologies) conceptualise social exclusion and why? (is it because they are ruling ideas, or maybe ideology is naturally exclusive)
How do these ideological conceptions change social responses to social exclusion?
Relate this to both academic/official research and specific examples
Option Five Critically discuss the impact of digital media on social protest in different regions of the world
How (in what situations) has digital (social) media been used in protests (broadly defined)?
Has the impact of this media been different in different circumstances?
It would be beneficial to compare and contrast a few protests e.g. Arab spring, 2011 Riots, the Occupy movement
Option Six Critically discuss the possible future impacts of climate change on immigration to the ‘developed world’
Define the basic climate change situation on a global scale: use official sources
What impact is this likely to have in different areas of the world and on different economies?
Would people from effected areas be likely to migrate to developed countries? Go beyond yes or no
What is likely to happen if they do and why? Be critical and discuss a range of possibilities
Use specific examples
Option Seven Critically evaluate the impact of community identification upon social differences and divisions in contemporary London
Does community (what does this mean) identification make people more or less divided from society?
Do we ignore big divisions if we have smaller scale points of identifications?
Do community identifications produce a segregated and divided society?
Use London based examples, supported by authoritative evidence where possible
Option Eight Critically evaluate the impact of ethnicity upon participation in Higher Education in contemporary Britain
Higher education: university
Establish (through official statistics) what differences in participation exist: participation generally, across different subjects, different universities etc
How can we explain these differences? Is it race/biology, ethnicity and culture, economics and class?
I’m away Dec 12th to Jan 2nd