WHO CONTROLS THE GLOBAL VILLAGE? Transnational media organisations
Today
The development of transnational media
Transnational (news) media and the global public sphere
Are the ruling ideas the ideas of the ruling elite? Essay question: To what extent do transnational news media corporations affect global cultural diversity?
Our purpose
To consider how a global media apparatus has developed…
…in order to critically analyse the impact of the dominant forces in that system….
…so that we can begin to consider the impact of these forces on global and local cultures
What is a transnational organisation?
Transnational organisations are primarily based in one country but also operate in other states
These organisations can be non-profit, political or corporate
The development of transnational corporations has been a significant element of globalisation as power moves beyond the reach of the nation-state
We are interested in the spread of global media organisations, primarily corporate (for profit) media
Transnational media
The development of transnational media corporations was the pivotal moment in this globalisation of culture
The global media system increased the representation of distant localities and the communication between these localities
These organisations allowed media to push beyond national boundaries, often filling the place of domestic media
In 1982 there were three channels in the UK!
The development of global media
Initial forms of media were local and nationally controlled
Through the interrelated development of global political economy and communications technology, media with a global interest was able to develop, even if it was locally based
The first steps were ‘wire-agencies’ such as Reuters, which sold international news to domestic newspapers
This news was gathered to meet the needs of Western interests for commercial gain
Initial steps
The most common initial forms of transnational media were in entertainment (movies) and radio
Hollywood films were extremely popular with foreign audiences, beginning a long trend in the transmission of American culture
Short-wave radio broadcasting was able to transcend local boundaries and regulation
Whilst these forms developed around World War I, global media did not begin to flourish until after World War II and the development of a global American hegemony
Global media, American media
At the forefront of American ideology was the free flow of information
Unlike much of Europe, America did not have public broadcasting tradition
It was thought that private interests best protected the freedom of speech
The enemy of free speech is government, not capital
This model has become increasingly transmitted across the world as public broadcasting became private
Growing intensity 
The construction of a truly global media system arrived with the rapid expansion of global capitalism in the 1980s and 1990s
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The spread of transnational corporations led to increased interest from globally-orientated advertisers
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Digital and satellite technology allowed for the instantaneous transmission of information
Consequently
The new global communications system was constructed for private profit rather than public service
A much wider range of media was available to people in various localities
Conversely, this diversity of sources came at the same time as a centralisation of ownership
Who cares? 
The increased concentration of global media has reduced the range of purposes in global media
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As media became more globally orientated, yet commercially focused, the way that the world is represented for us changed
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The reduction in the diversity of goals and sources of those organisations has had a significant affect on the public sphere
Locating the public sphere
The public sphere is the structures through which public opinions can be formed
Historically this might have been town squares or meeting halls
The media has extended this sphere, allowing greater public participation in understanding and producing public opinions
Where do you find out information about what is happening in the world?
Media and the public sphere
Ideally, the media play a vital role in the function of democracy through the operation of the public sphere
The public sphere is a space in which public issues can be debated, allowing for citizen participation in political and communal life
It is only by being informed that people can participate in the public sphere
Public broadcasting and the public sphere
Public broadcasting plays a vital role in many democratic systems
Lying outside of both commercial and governmental interests, it is positioned as an impartial source of information that serves the ‘public good’
The BBC is often considered to be the strongest example of this tradition
Nonetheless, these broadcasters are themselves becoming more commercialised
BBC World Service
Developed in 1932 as a radio service to communicate to the outreaches of the British Empire, it quickly diversified into different languages and mediums
Doesn’t carry advertising and is funded by the ‘Foreign and Commonwealth Office’
Is seen as both a form of Western propaganda and a liberating force from local censorship
Recent financial constraints have led to widespread reductions in service
BBC Worldwide The BBC has developed its own international commercial broadcasting service: BBC Worldwide is the commercial arm and a wholly owned subsidiary of the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC). We exist to maximise the value of the BBC's assets for the benefit of the licence fee payer by creating, acquiring, developing and exploiting media content and brands around the world. We also focus on creating value from BBC content and showcasing British talent both in the UK and international markets. In the past five years the company has invested over £1bn in the UK's creative sector making it a major supporter for this increasingly important part of the 'UK plc'. We also sell programmes and formats produced by more than 200 different UK independent producers. In 2011/12 the company saw sales rise by 5.4% to £1085m - exceeding the £1bn mark for a fourth year. BBC Worldwide's total returns to the BBC rose by 19% to a record £216m in 2011/12, taking the returns to over £1.3bn since 2004
Does public broadcasting exist in your country? Has it changed in your lifetime?
Profit and the public sphere
The commodification of media primarily serves private interests, rather than the specific the needs of active citizenship
Information is presented not to allow for public debate, but as a means to generate profit
Conversely, it is argued that private interests can compete to fill the informational needs of intelligent consumers
Capital seeks out and creates diversity it’s market place and media outlets can appeal to diverse range of interests
Globalisation as a private sphere
If global communications are primarily owned by a limited range of individuals, interactions in the ‘public’ sphere are privatised
Colin Sparks (1998, p.122) has argued that the ‘global public sphere should be replaced by the term imperialist, private sphere’
As a result of the private control of media and information, our conceptions of the world around us are dependent upon what is profitable for transnational media corporations
Media and (global) democracy
In Media Control (1997), Noam Chomsky presents two images of democracy:
Democracy as the ideal of citizen participation in public decision making
Democracy as a managed decision making process controlled by an elite
Does the global communications system allow for global participation in the production of culture, or is it simply a means of passing on dominant ideas?
Controlling ideas
The way we see the world is not natural, but develops within social conditions – it is ‘socially constructed’
Our ‘common sense’ interpretations of the world might come from our family, or from our culture
Classical Marxist theory suggested that the ruling ideas were the ideas of the ruling (economic) elite
‘Western’ Marxists have argued that economic exploitation is masked within culture and the mass media
These ideas suggested that cultural norms, often propagated through news media and entertainment, both manipulated and ‘distracted’ citizens
Ideological Brands
Hegemony
Italian theorist Antonio Gramsci (18911937) argued that the bourgeoisie state ruled not only through the control of violence, but through the control of ‘common sense’
Gramsci extended the state to the ruling political and civil society
This socially pervasive common sense is hegemony
Hegemonic ideas make the rule of the elite appear natural and produce ‘consented’ coercion
Ideological fairness
Manufacturing consent
Chomsky argued that the mass media produce ‘systemsupportive’ propaganda without overt coercion
This ‘propaganda model’ does not suggest that owners necessarily personally manipulate content, but that the structural properties of corporate media produce strong tendencies
Instead, the media and individual journalists respond to structurally distorting ‘filters’ that determine what kind of news is reported
These systematic factors then influence the ‘common-sense’ understandings of audiences
Manufactured Consent
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2. 3. 4.
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With Edward Herman, in Manufacturing Consent (1989), Chomsky argued that the reporting of news was determined by:
Ownership and Profits Advertising for profit News Sources Flak and the Enforcers ‘Anti-Communism’
Ownership
The (sole) function of any corporation is to make a profit for its shareholders
Media corporations are no different: their function is to operate in a way that brings maximum financial returns for the owners
Editors are not inclined to produce news that threatens the interests of owners
Advertising
Advertising is the primary source of funding for most media outlets
The ‘product’ being sold is not news, but the readers/viewer of this news, which are then sold to advertisers
Consequently, in order to produce a maximum return, the presentation of information is generated in order to gain the most advertising revenue
The influence of advertising has become substantially stronger on the internet, where content is often generated with the sole purpose of generating advertising
What is the most attractive readership for newspapers to have? How could the media best attract this audience?
Sources
In order to gain access to information sources, journalists are forced into a ‘symbiotic’ relationship
Getting access to the ‘facts’ depends on the maintenance of a positive relationship with news sources
As newspaper profitability has fallen, and with it the supply of journalists, newspapers have become increasingly reliant on ‘official’ sources
Flat Earth News
Journalist Nick Davies’ book Flat Earth News (2008, p.52) conducted research on four major daily papers in the UK
Analysing 2,207 news stories, they found that 60% if all stories were wholly from ‘wire copy’ and 20% predominately based on these sources
‘Wire copy’ comes either from ‘Wire agencies’ such as the Associated Press or Reuters, or Public relations agencies
Davies argued that economic demands upon journalism prevented widespread investigative reporting and generated substantial conformity between news sources
We may be getting more global news, but it is from a similar range of sources
Flak
Media outlets are motivated to avoid widespread negative publicity and often fall prey to a ‘balance bias’
Controversial or ‘radical’ statements tend to be avoided in order to maintain a positive public image
This is particularly relevant in entertainment media
Avoiding controversy means maintaining the status quo
Anti-communism?
Written during the cold war, Manufacturing Consent focused on the conformity caused by appeals to the national interest
This role tends to be held by ‘the war on terror’ in the USA
Chomsky was suggesting that media, in order to appeal to their local markets, are unlikely to act against the national interests of these markets
Does this implicit appeal to social control and national order operate the countries in which you have lived?
The propaganda model
Chomsky and Herman argued that these systematic tendencies supports the existing elite
This elite is both corporate interests and the political establishment
The owners of corporate media do not individually dictate content, but the media system reproduces structural tendencies towards this conformity
However, this model has primarily focused on mass media
The grand expanse of the internet
The world wide web is inherently global, yet decentralised – it allows a wider diversity of voices and more audience participation
Conversely, the web is increasingly being centralised within media conglomerates
More than traditional mass media, the web runs on advertising revenue rather than subscriptions
The development of news media has challenged the profitability of traditional media, leading to fewer sources, more mergers and a greater focus on profitability
Critique
Leaves no room for anti-conformity, audience effects or individual agency
Does not take into account the role of public service broadcasting in many nations
The elite cannot simply produce news that directly benefits their interests, but must conform to the interests of the masses
The owners of capital are not homogenous; whilst they are orientated towards profit, there are different ways to do so
Self summary
How has the development of a global media system impacted upon the ‘global private sphere’?
What are the consequences of this for the ‘global village?’
Next Week Is your local global? Globalisation and cultural difference LECTURE READINGS
Chapter Four and Five, Rantanen (2005), ‘The Media and Globalization’ and Boaventura de Sousa Santos (2006) Globalizations. Theory Culture Society 2006 23: 393 SEMINAR READING
Lee, H. (1994). Globalization and cultural change. Current Sociology, 42(2), 26-63.