C O V E N T R Y, Third Time Unlucky A c i t y d e s t r o y e d by f u n c t i o n , w a r then symbolism
Chrissy C h r i sFitzPatrick s y F i t z•PPage a t r iNcok1
Coventry, Third Time Unlucky • Page No 2
Fig 1: Coventry, Whittle Arch designed by MJP Architects and engineer Whitbybird
C o v e n t r y, Third Time Unlucky A c i t y d e s t r o y e d by f u n c t i o n , w a r t h e n s y m b o l i s m
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank the two ladies who work within the Coventry Cathedral Tower who helped me find more information on The Phoenix Initiative. I would also like to thank Coventry’s History Centre who allowed me to look through some of the drawings and documents regarding the Phoenix Initiative.
Chrissy FitzPatrick University of Greenwich February 3rd 2017
Chrissy FitzPatrick • Page No 3
Fig 1: Coventry, Whittle Arch designed by MJP Architects and engineer Whitbybird
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank the two ladies who work within the Coventry Cathedral Tower who helped me find more information on The Phoenix Initiative. I would also like to thank Coventry’s History Centre who allowed me to look through some of the drawings and documents regarding the Phoenix Initiative.
Fig 2: The Three Spires, Coventry, Postcard, by A R Quinton
CONTENTS
Thesis Statement Abstract Introduction to the Phoenix Initiative Coventry Cathedral The Three Spaces Symbols Lose Their Symbolism Quality of Space
1 3 6 9 17 21 24
32 40 47 52 53 56
Warsaw Negative Symbolism Conclusion Photo references References Biography
T H E S I S S TAT E M E N T A regeneration project in Coventry, known as The Phoenix Initiative, reveals the dangers of adopting symbolism to regenerate a city. Symbolism rips away the importance of the city’s identity whilst also ignoring its economic, socio-cultural and physical environmental problems. This results in weak links between the concept and the final design.
Coventry, Third Time Unlucky • Page No 1
Fig 3: Coventry, Glass Bridge, by Alexander Beleschenko: Photo, Alexander FitzPatrick
ABSTRACT
I will be focusing on three spaces within the Phoenix Initiative project, Priory Gardens, Priory Place and Millennium Place, and attempting to understand how these spaces create a cohesive journey between Coventry Cathedral and the Transport Museum. These two polar destinations represent the symbolic Coventry and the city’s industrial heritage. The journey starts at Coventry Cathedral, where Coventry’s new identity as a city of peace and reconciliation was born, and ends in Millennium Place, located outside of the Transport Museum, a piazza of unity where everyone is meant to come together. It is my contention, however, that this journey places its focus too heavily on symbolism, instead of attempting to create functional, dynamic spaces, and ignores the city’s industrial heritage. Whilst symbolism within the landscape is a form of communication, its over-use in Coventry has resulted in a jumbled and confused message. I would also contend that the Phoenix Initiative has placed the desire to attract tourists to the city above the need to provide practical spaces to its residents. In contrast to this, Warsaw put the needs of its people first and was able to successfully regenerate the city whilst vastly improving the city’s infrastructure. In this thesis I will therefore also be examining this project and comparing and contrasting its success with that of Coventry. Coventry, Third Time Unlucky • Page No 3
Fig 4: Coventry Cathedral: Statue of Reconciliation, by Josefina de Vasconcellos
“Both sculptures remind us that, in the face of destructive forces, human dignity and love will triumph over disaster and bring nations together in respect and peace” (Message on the plaque) Chrissy FitzPatrick • Page No 4
Coventry, Third Time Unlucky • Page No 5
Fig 5: After the Blitz, the two charred beams that lay in a symbolic cross
I N T R O D U C T I O N TO T H E P H O E N I X I N I T I AT I V E
The Phoenix Initiative is an urban regeneration project that, according to its brief, looks at connecting Coventry’s historic centre with the more recent 20th Century motor industry that the city is famed for. (Demidowicz, 2010) The project was started in 1997, within a neglected part of the city, and was completed by 2004. The MJP journal describes this project as one of the most important regeneration projects since the post-war developments. (http://www.mjparchitects.co.uk, Accessed 12.12.16) The initiative takes the form of several spaces leading from Coventry Cathedral to Coventry’s Transport museum and MJP architects explained that this processional route is important “to amplify Coventry’s standing as the city of international peace and reconciliation, symbolised by the ruined and re-built cathedral.” (http://www.mjparchitects.co.uk, Accessed 12.12.16) During the events of World War II, Coventry’s most prominent symbol took the form of two charred roof beams, left behind after The Blitz that hit Coventry on the night of 14th November 1940. They had fallen perfectly in the middle of St Michaels Cathedral and settled in the form of the ecclesiastical cross.
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Fig 6: Coventry’s location within the UK
Coventry, Third Time Unlucky • Page No 7
Unite and reconnect the disconnected key elements of the city. Re-establish the ancient topography of the city Articulate both the past and vision for the future Facilitate the creativity of the diverse contributors “Aesthetic sophistication” (Jerrard et al, 2008)
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Plan 1: The Phoenix initiative’s location within Coventry
Design team objectives:
C OV E N T R Y C AT H E D R A L
The Phoenix concept, with its pertinent symbolism of resurrection and rebirth, originated from Basil Spence who, when explaining the architecture of the rebuilt St Michael’s Cathedral, stated:
“I saw the old cathedral as standing clearly for the sacrifice, one side of the Christian Faith and I knew my task was to design a new one which should stand for the Triumph of the Resurrection” (page 18, Spence, 1962) The essence of the Phoenix Initiative worked perfectly to communicate Coventry’s ambition to rise up out of the ashes of the cathedral into a new future. In order to understand the Phoenix Initiative, and evaluate its successes and failures, we must first understand what is meant by urban regeneration. Urban regeneration can be achieved by understanding the identity of a place and fixing problems within its geographical context, which should include economic, socio-cultural and physical environmental factors. Three key elements of ‘People’, ‘Business’ and ‘Place’ should combine to holistically improve the city on a wide scale. (Tallon, 2010) Coventry, Third Time Unlucky • Page No 9
Fig 7: Coventry St Michael’s Cathedral: old and new, by Basil Spence
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Tallon also categorises urban regeneration as communication through symbolism and, in this way, it can be argued that urban regeneration and symbolism are inextricably linked. When executed successfully, symbolism can work as an effective way to communicate ideas linking a city’s past to its future. As Rowntree and Conkey suggest, “A symbol may be viewed as a regulatory mechanism that constrains and controls the flow of information.“ (L. Rowntree, M. Conkey, p460) This paper intends to put forward, however, that the symbolism must be clear enough within itself to put forward these ideas without an individual having to have any prior knowledge of the city’s past. Indeed, Rowntree and Conkey also put forward the idea that “some landscape symbols are promoted to alleviate cultural stress through creation of shared symbolic structures that validate, if not actually define, social claims to space and time” (L. Rowntree, M. Conkey, p459) In this way, it would appear that urban regeneration utilising symbolism is intended to intrinsically link a location to its history.
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Fig 8/9: Coventry: Hales Street, Old and New
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Plan 2: 1939 Model of new Civic Centre displayed in the Coventry of Tomorrow exhibition
Millennium Place
Priory Place
Prior y G
ardens
Holy Trinity Ch
urch
Old St Michael
s Cathedral
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It is interesting to note that a previous regeneration project was underway in Coventry before the start of World War II. This was to be a major rethink of the city, centred around Coventry’s influential role within the motor industry, providing roads that were more suited to the increasing amount of cars in the city. It was felt by some who were in power that it was embarrassing that a city producing such a large volume of vehicles was not able to facilitate them on their own roads and, as such, the motor industry had a massive influence on plans to remove most of the historic centre and streets.
A second regeneration project, Gibson’s Plan, proposed after the Second World War, would have seen the city rebuilt using timeless concrete buildings with a lot of open space around the buildings and parkland. Whilst only a small portion of these ideas were utilised, it is still said that the council used this plan as an excuse to destroy more of the historic centre, arguably doing more damage to Coventry then the Luftwaffe ever did. At this time, however, the phoenix, a symbolic bird, rose from the ashes of the cathedral floor in the form of that aforementioned ecclesiastical cross.
The cathedral is the epicentre of Coventry’s symbolism, with the remains of the old St Michael’s Cathedral acting as a reminder of destructive forces. The new futuristic brutalist cathedral now serves as a reminder of the peace that can be found despite this destruction, with its famous and optimistic painted glass and the contributions of local and famous artists. Art has played an important part in the Phoenix Initiative and an aim of the city’s regeneration is not only to classify Coventry as the city of peace and reconciliation but also to make it the city of art. We are therefore left with an influence of a symbolism created by faith, teaching the people of Coventry to forgive and therefore find peace in reconciling the tragedy with optimism and hope. Furthermore, the message reaches beyond the boundaries of the city and Coventry is now known as a city of peace and reconciliation, which cements the importance of its symbolic journey.
This paper, however, intends to examine whether the Phoenix Initiative’s overuse of symbolism has resulted in a jumbled and confused message, stripping the city of its industrial heritage. As previously mentioned, the three spaces that this paper will be examining are Priory Garden, Priory Place and Millennium Place.
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Plan 3: Coventry Model, in Coventry Transport Museum: Photo, Chrissy FitzPatrick
Public Bench by Jochen Gerz
Glass bridge and spiral ramp by MJP/ Whitbybird Artist: Alex Belechenko
Millennium Place with Time Zone Clock Artist: Francoise Schein
Priory Place by MJP
Whittle Arch by MJP/ Whitbybird
Water Window by Susannah Heron
‘Cofa’ Tree
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Priory Garden with glass cases
New Cathedral by Sir Basil Spence
Old Cathedral
Priory Place
The symbolic elements that I will look at, that MJP Architects and Rummey Designs have placed within these spaces are The Millennium Arch, known as Whittle Arch, Spiral Ramp, the Time Zone Clock, Public Bench, Future Monument, Waterwindow, ‘Cofa’ Tree and archaeological glass cases.
Priory Garden
The first space, priory Garden is located on the site of the former 11th century Benedictine priory church where legend has it that the The entire journey through these spaces is symbolic, all stemming Earl of Leofric and Lady Godiva were buried. “The linear plan of the from the cathedral’s symbolic beginnings. When the cathedral was garden reflects the plan of the priory church itself with walls, piers bombed it seemed as though a message had been left from God and nave all visible elements within the completed design.” (Phoenix and Basil Spence, the architect of the new cathedral, knew how Architecture Art Regeneration, 2004, p34) The space has also been used for important the message was that Provast placed on the back wall of dance and drama performances, which recall the medieval tradition the old cathedral; “Father Forgive”. of Coventry Mystery Plays. Chrissy FitzPatrick • Page No 16
Plan 4: Coventry Historic Map 1918: Photo, Chrissy FitzPatrick
Millennium Place
Fig 10: Priory Gardens
T H E T H R E E S PA C E S
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Fig 11: Priory Place
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Fig 12-14: Three spaces: Priory Gardens, Priory Place, Millennium Place
Glass Cases
‘Cofa’ Tree
Priory Gardens
Waterwindow
Priory Place Whittle Arch
Spiral Bridge & Public Bench Time Zone Clock (Removed)
Future Monument Sir Whittle Statue
Millennium Place
Coventry, Third Time Unlucky • Page No 19
Designed as a “sunken garden, Priory Garden is inserted into the excavated nave of the original Benedictine Priory”, it features a new lawn where the foundations of the Priory are exposed, as well as a floor sculpture by the artist Chris Browne depicting the Anglo Saxon landmark Cofa’s Tree, from which the name Coventry is believed to have derived. Chris Browne has stated that she wanted to “create a work of art that expressed my feelings for the city where I was born”. Acting as the etymological root of the city’s name, Cofa’s Tree symbolises the literal and metaphorical roots of the city and is a fitting starting point to the journey. Chris Browne describes it as “The walk of 1000 years.” (Phoenix
Millennium Place is a new public piazza that fans out from Priory Place and Whittle Arch and is intended as a space for open air concerts, arts and events. This space forms part of an extension into the Transport Museum and contains a spiral glass bridge by MJP with the collaboration of the artist Alexander Beleschenko, which leads visitors into the Priory Maze Garden of International Friendship. The other art installation within Millennium Place is Francoise Schein’s Time Zone Clock, which is a space where LED’s on the surface of the ground symbolise the geographical time zone lines of the planet.
Architecture Art Regeneration, 2004)
The artist Jochen Gerz has also designed a 45m long bench that sits against the curved outer wall of the fan. On the wall above this bench are hundreds of plaques with people’s names and a dates to symbolise Coventry’s friendships. (Phoenix Initiative Coventry, 2014) The last symbolic piece of artwork within Millennium Place is a further Jochen Gerz installation called Future Monument, which reconciles Coventry’s past enemies, naming them as friends. (Phoenix Architecture Art
Priory Place was designed to be a vibrant urban space featuring both retail and residential properties. As you move towards this space from Priory Garden a cascade of water is visible through a copper-lined window, designed to channel your view and draw you down the path along the wall and down the walkway into Priory Place. (Phoenix Architecture Art Regeneration, 2004, p51) This artwork, designed by Susanna Heron, is powered by the River Sherbourne and symbolises the Medieval mill race. (Phoenix Initiative Coventry, 2014)
Regeneration, 2004, p58)
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Fig 15-20: The Journey, From Priory Gardens
THE JOURNEY It would appear that the dominating symbolism utilised within the Phoenix Initiative is of a religious nature. As we have previously covered, the initiative was born from the destruction of Coventry’s cathedral and its most prominent symbol was the fallen ecclesiastical cross. Can such a seemingly one-note form of symbolism, however, hope to adequately convey the full weight of a city’s history? Poole was found to state that “It seems highly improbable that a singular “Big Idea” or overarching “concept” is capable of conveying the rich and duplicitous meanings that the landscape’s social, political, cultural, and natural systems innately hold” (Poole, 1994) The new regeneration, in the form of a symbolic journey, takes in Priory Garden, Priory Cloister, Waterwindow, Priory Place, Whittle Arch, Millennium Place, Coventry Transport Museum, Spiral Ramp, Glass Bridge and Priory Maze. The sculptures, architecture and landscape Coventry, Third Time Unlucky • Page No 21
The journey is important to memorialise the past and to present a future with themes of peace and reconciliation. A sense of legacy is conveyed within the project, especially with the symbolic word on a plaque reading, ‘Today I wish the work to live as long as time will’. With frequent vandalism, however, as well as the removal of certain elements of the initiative’s design, it doesn’t appear that the visitors or locals necessarily share this point of view. Maintenance has been a problem with the entire scheme, meaning that it has not lasted the test of time as was hoped, and have the problems of functionality. Chrissy FitzPatrick • Page No 22
Fig 21-26: The Journey, To The Garden of International Friendship
used within this journey are high quality and bold, as you would expect from a project with a £50million budget. However, it could be argued that the small detailing has not been fully thought through in order to ensure the longevity of the scheme and its quality in the future. The spaces do not seem to create useful or functional routes throughout the city and, as such, would appear to be rarely used by locals. In this way, the initiative would appear to be more closely aimed at tourists who may want to visit a few pleasant spaces on their journey across the city. The symbolic journey created by the Phoenix Initiative relies on a sense of way-finding to be truly successful but, with this lack of intuitive movement through the spaces, the design lacks a sense of busyness and therefore atmosphere.
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Plan 5: The Journey, concept sketch, 1998: A tool for explaining the concept to anyone concerned
SYMBOLS LOSE THEIR SYMBOLISM
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Fig 27: Artists Impression of Millennium Place at night: By Françoise Schein
As previously mentioned, Millennium Place was designed to be a large open space for the purpose of holding open air events, such as an outdoor cinema or car shows, as well as staging large events where stages and places for people to sit could be erected. The LED lights that form the Time Zone Clock, however, were found to be too intrusive within this space and so they have since been removed. The removal of these LED lights had the effect of destroying the intended symbolism of the Time Zone Clock and the ideas of peace and reconciliation, friendship and unification of the world have been lost. The once contemplative space seems confused. The lines and circular metal plates with the country’s name left on the pavers do not make sense and, in fact, destroy the dialogue of the entire space. Peace has not been restored to the area and has, in fact, been destroyed by the hand that made it. It could be argued that, had this space not relied so heavily on symbolism it may have been a lot more of a success.
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Fig 28: A lit window looking into the past, the old St Michael’s Cathedral
At night Millennium Place is very much in shadow, which reveals the importance of maintenance. Not only has the symbolism been lost, the public art has also been pushed to the background and perhaps even the safety within these spaces has been lost.
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Fig 29- 34: The Journey of Lights. The light, at the project completion and the darkness now
After ‘The Journey’ visitors experience during the day, the sun goes down and ‘The Journey’ becomes ‘The Journey of Light’. The lighting, done by Speirs and Major have said “ the Phoenix by night truly rises from the night-scape of the city to provide a beacon- light as a symbol of a new Coventry built out of the shadows of the past.” (Phoenix Architecture Art Regeneration, 2004) However, half of the lights no longer work to their original power and so perhaps, again, the message is lost. This is especially evident in the final space of Millennium Place where much of the artwork and sculptures are not lit up as they were intended, creating a void in what should be a busy space.
Fig 35: Priory Place, Priory Mill, Mill Race
Whilst these spaces are packed with artwork and sculptures, excessively reinforcing the symbolism through the art, unless you were to read up about Coventry and actively search for the meanings behind this artwork, the meanings are easily lost. The Waterwindow in Priory Place, for example, is supposed to symbolise the mill race that ran through the site from the River Sherbourne and continues to run under the square today. Whilst there is a line that says Priory Mill, as well as building block with Robert Rummey Designs on it, there is not a sign that adequately explains what this means or what it symbolises. A mill race is a channel of water that makes the mill wheel turn and, by not adequately explaining this, the intended symbolism is lost. The links to the city’s humble beginnings are then, by extension, lost themselves. Moreover, had the mill race itself not been channelled underground, and allowed to flow through Priory Place, it could have been incorporated as an element within the communal space that could have softened the otherwise hard landscape. As an art piece, the sound of the water emanating from the Waterwindow makes the place feel alive and moving even when the space is not crowded with people but, as a part of a cohesive journey, it doesn’t quite sit correctly. It seems to symbolise a wall and therefore a break between history and the future. The Waterwindow was also supposed to symbolise the visitor who, having passed through the cloister, representing the city’s past, looks through this window to the city’s future whilst having just moved through the past spaces. However, with nothing to adequately explain this, the artwork looks like it has simply been placed Coventry, Third Time Unlucky • Page No 27
The symbolic elements of the project do not help to counter any of the problems within the city. They do not create soft, warm spaces for people to retreat to, nor do they create practical routes for inhabitants of the city. The bridge within Millennium Place is difficult to get to as it has to be entered via a ramp, which is far off the desire line of where somebody would need to go. To provide better functionality, the bridge should offer a more direct route between spaces. Plus, once on the bridge there are no steps to get off, which could create a feeling of vulnerability, especially at night, as there is no easy way off. This is the main route up to the Cathedral from the car park and so the main route and essentially the start of the journey of the regenerated Coventry. However it isn’t obvious for the tourist, without signs or prior knowledge. Chrissy FitzPatrick • Page No 28
Fig 36: The main entrance to the Cathedral, No signs to say it is
into this space, rather than forming an integral part of the landscape itself, or acting as an important representation of the city’s past. The water also appears as if it is trying to cover up for the large divide, blinding the senses of its viewers.
Pre- War (1920-30)
War Time (1940)
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Fig 37- 40: Coventry: Pre War, War Time and Post War images
Post-war (1960)
post-millennium
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Q U A L I T Y O F S PA C E The bridge looms over the garden, creating another strangulation similar to the unpopular ring road, and the spiral ramp seems to have no relevance to the scheme. It may be intended to symbolise a hugging emotion but this is not immediately obvious. Every symbolic element seems to strangle the final outcome of ideas, ignoring the quality of space and usability. There are no sign boards to walk you through the history of the area, or to explain the symbolism, which would help to keep tourists in the spaces longer. The part of the city that Millennium Place sits in seems very grey and there are new multi-storey buildings rising around the space even today. In time maybe this open space may become a haven but, with no soft landscaping, it naturally all comes across as very harsh and hard landscaped. Even if there is the garden beyond, this garden is strangled by the hard landscaping. Beyond this place as well, the high ring road and the land beneath sits uncomfortably to make the user and visitor feel unsafe. Coventry, Third Time Unlucky • Page No 31
Fig 41: Warsaw
Of Coventry’s twenty-six twin cities, Warsaw is the one that arguably possesses the most similarities. Like Coventry, Warsaw suffered from catastrophic bombing at the hands of Germany in World War II. The city was systematically destroyed once the conflict had ended as an act of revenge by Hitler’s forces and it is estimated that approximately 85% of the city was destroyed in the process. Like Coventry, Warsaw tried to rebuild itself but, unlike Coventry, the city decided to look back towards the pre-war landscape instead of using the concept of tabula rasa to create a new city. The actual plans for Warsaw were burnt when the city was destroyed so deciding to attempt to recreate the original city was a hard decision due to the difficulty in replicating all of the various elements of the city from memory.
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the Old Town: Photo, Mary Lussiana
WARSAW
anaissuL y raM ,otohP :nwoT dlO eht was raW :14 giF
Q U A L I T Y O F S PA C E The bridge looms over the garden, creating another strangulation similar to the unpopular ring road, and the spiral ramp seems to have no relevance to the scheme. It may be intended to symbolise a hugging emotion but this is not immediately obvious. Every symbolic element seems to strangle the final outcome of ideas, ignoring the quality of space and usability. There are no sign boards to walk you through the history of the area, or to explain the symbolism, which would help to keep tourists in the spaces longer. The part of the city that Millennium Place sits in seems very grey and there are new multi-storey buildings rising around the space even today. In time maybe this open space may become a haven but, with no soft landscaping, it naturally all comes across as very harsh and hard landscaped. Even if there is the garden beyond, this garden is strangled by the hard landscaping. Beyond this place as well, the high ring road and the land beneath sits uncomfortably to make the user and visitor feel unsafe. Coventry, Third Time Unlucky • Page No 33
WARSAW Of Coventry’s twenty-six twin cities, Warsaw is the one that arguably possesses the most similarities. Like Coventry, Warsaw suffered from catastrophic bombing at the hands of Germany in World War II. The city was systematically destroyed once the conflict had ended as an act of revenge by Hitler’s forces and it is estimated that approximately 85% of the city was destroyed in the process. Like Coventry, Warsaw tried to rebuild itself but, unlike Coventry, the city decided to look back towards the pre-war landscape instead of using the concept of tabula rasa to create a new city. The actual plans for Warsaw were burnt when the city was destroyed so deciding to attempt to recreate the original city was a hard decision due to the difficulty in replicating all of the various elements of the city from memory.
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Pre- War (1920)
War Time (1940)
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Fig 42-44: Warsaw: Pre War, War Time and Post War images
Post- War
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In the two spreads of Coventry and Warsaw, there are images by professor Stanislaw Lorentz - it’s pre-war director who after war tracing back to the pre-war, war-time and post-war, showing how [had] done everything to make sure the Castle is rebuilt.” (www.quora. the two cities decided to regenerate themselves. com, accessed 29.01.17) Warsaw was arguably the first city to rebuild its historic elements just as they were before war had decimated the city’s landscape. (http://culture.pl, accessed 26.01.17) In doing this, Warsaw partly rejected the urban renewal craze of the 1960’s and 1970’s and, instead of having new construction, which many could deem to be ugly, it decided to utilise historic buildings and designs. Warsaw rebuilt the city from scratch using Bernado Belotto’s paintings, 22 street scenes that were painted in the 18th Century. The act of rebuilding the city back to its roots was in itself symbolic and without the use of just symbolic elements within the landscape. (http://historynewsnetwork. org, accessed 29.01.17) The spaces, the architecture, the decisions on what building would be rebuilt meant the resurrection successful or not had strong and healing effects on the residents. There was not a symbolic element that sat alone in its own story. The collection of spaces and architecture completed the symbolic journey.
The castle was a controversial move for Poland as “The C18th was a golden age of enlightenment but Poland was an oligarchical republic with an elective king and, although constitutionally advanced, it was politically weak.” (http://www.jonestheplanner.co.uk, accessed 29.01.17) Most of Warsaw’s landscape, old and new stands for the political turmoil and represents communism, capitalism and socialism. Unlike Coventry, Warsaw’s re-structuring and resurrection reacted to the war in a political way and so rebuilds itself with a larger symbolism than Coventry. Coventry, already on the path of peace and reconciliation after finding the didactic charred wooden beams, decided to communicate through symbolism on a smaller scale, within artistic objects rather than a didactic city infrastructure.
Warsaw rebuilt the city as it was, almost in defiance of its communist defeats from Germany and Russia. It reconnected the locals to its roots, it reconnected them to rebuild themselves and they therefore “Yet there was one symbol of the city which communists never really built back the city’s identity. Warsaw knew what it should become agreed to rebuild - that was the Royal Castle. It was rebuilt thanks and was rebuilt to enable them to explore the future. The streets to the national crowdfunding collection, using some gaps in the law are very powerful, unlike those seen in Coventry. Coventry, Third Time Unlucky • Page No 37
Fig 45-46: Warsaw, Historic Centre and Coventry’s alternative future of Concrete
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Fig 47: Warsaw: Image of The CBD and Palace of Culture and Science looking from the Old Town
N E G AT I V E S Y M B O L I S M
The negative form of symbolism that can be seen, looking in to the past, can be best represented by the Palace of Culture and Science. This is a huge building, gifted to the city by the Soviet Union to the People of Poland and dominating the cityscape; even today it remains the tallest building in the country, which was built at the same time as the reconstruction of the historical centre was going ahead. The Palace of Culture and Science was designed and built by the Soviets as reconciliation, but was the last form of control they could leave in Poland and was also billed out to the Polish People. At least Coventry didn’t have negative symbolism that demonstrated unequal power within the city. Rebuilding the Warsaw city was popular, as it represented the removal of the power that the Soviets had held over the city. “The city was built as a symbol of elective authority and tolerance.” (whc.unesco.org, accessed 29.01.17) Whether it was this that made the rebuilding of the historic Warsaw more popular, or simply the act of rebuilding in itself that acted as the catharsis that the Poles needed, is unclear, but it certainly seemed to help when revitalising a city full of life and commerce. “The rebuilding and repopulating of the nation’s capital was a hugely symbolic act; the Nazis had tried to obliterate Poland entirely and the defiant rebuilding of Warsaw from the ashes was crucial to restoring national and cultural identity’. (www.jonestheplanner.co.uk, accessed 29.01.17) Chrissy FitzPatrick • Page No 40
Fig 48: Warsaw, a very well used space. A connective experience to the past
Warsaw, therefore, created a form of memorialisation simply by recreating a part of Warsaw as it was prior to the war. “It is a reborn place of remembrance, a monument to the importance of the past for the present”. Unlike Coventry, they didn’t look to rebuild art forms or create any specific memorials, the city itself was enough of a memorial and, at the same time, they thought about a new infrastructure, one which would truly benefit the people of Warsaw. This resulted in the creation of the “Trasa W-Z” route (linking the east of the city to the west), which is one of the busiest central thoroughfares of Warsaw. Even though Warsaw didn’t create a full replica of the city, it was authentic and did meet the socio-culture, economic and physicalenvironmental problems. Unlike Coventry, it decided to recreate the city, instead of destroying its identity. Coventry used the excuse of the destruction during the war to develop a new street layout, therefore destroying the historic fabric and, by extension, destroying the city’s identity. There are many similarities between Coventry and Warsaw. They both have historic city centres, they are both by some degree subjected to the 1970’s modernist, fast growing societies that needed housing to cater for the population growth and so the Coventry, Third Time Unlucky • Page No 41
outskirts of Warsaw, like Coventry, have a very brutalist feel with cheap housing blocks. Its core historic centre, however, was its success. The symbolic rebuild included a whole area of returning, authentic looking architecture, albeit false, which incorporated new public and private spaces full of light and hope. “Warsaw needed what Owen Hatherley calls the ‘simulcra’ of replica reconstruction to cope with the hideousness of its immediate past history”. (http://www.jonestheplanner.co.uk, accessed 29.01.17) Coventry, with its historic elements dispersed messily across the city, depicts a city full of confusion. The artistic symbols of the future, full of peace and reconciliation, do not seem enough in comparison to Warsaw. Coventry has not taken into account the socioeconomic advantages of creating collected spaces of similar uses. Even though Gibson’s plans were radical, they could have been better and there would have been more of a continuity in design, with segregated spaces, open and light, with retail and business together creating a commercial centre. Although some of it was implemented, the full plan was never completed. One could argue that this was a lucky escape for the historical buildings. But as it has been stated before, now all that is left are two regenerations that are incomplete leading into a confusing landscape that does not sit together creating an uncomfortable and confused aesthetic to the city. Chrissy FitzPatrick • Page No 42
Fig 49: One of Coventry’s events held in Millennium Place, Outdoor Cinema
When taking into consideration the approaches to design and regenerating a city, it is prudent to question the practice, their approach and experience in regeneration projects. Even though MJP Architects were a big part of the project team, and coordinating the spaces and art work, the focus will be on the landscape architects ,Robert Rummey Designs. The company ethos is as follows. “We are a team of masterplanners, urban designers, architects and landscape architects. Designers of the environment and urban places with a particular expertise in complex regeneration, public realm and high quality implementation and detailing.” When looking at their other projects, it is obvious that they are completed to a very high standard. They have many other projects that are regeneration orientated. But in creating this holistic symbolic journey, required cooperation from many different groups of people. If more than one person or group have varying design principles, this could lead to inconsistences within the journey as a whole, removing thematic continuity, intuitive wayfinding and connection to the narrative. This therefore leads on to a confusing landscape, that miscommunicates the “overarching “concept”” (Poole, 1994) and misdirects the challenges of regeneration. Coventry, Third Time Unlucky • Page No 43
Warsaw seems a lot more photogenic than Coventry does. This leads on to interrogate the aesthetics of the place.
Comparing Coventry to Warsaw serves to highlight even more the failings and successes of both projects. In Coventry pulling together a part of the city that was rendered forgotten was a good plan and the landscape feels both modern and refreshing. The project doesn’t quite feel like it sits nicely within the city, however, and it is still located on the outskirts of the main movement zones through Coventry, which means that it has become a quiet route used mainly by tourists. There are not many places that would be useful for sitting and eating lunch for the locals or workers. Millennium Place, for example, is too open and the shape and coordination of its boundary makes this space feel very open and not really welcoming. The orientation of space makes one feel vulnerable, which is likely to have contributed to a decision to move. Local knowledge that was collected on visits to the city revealed that the open air cinema has moved into the cathedral grounds, where there is a more contained and intimate experience. Chrissy FitzPatrick • Page No 44
Fig 50: Historic Spon Street with a very modern IKEA building in the background
It is interesting to note though, that however you choose to regenerate a city, whether it is through symbolism, rebuilding a city from scratch, or by creating a complete replica, the result is essentially the same. Either way there will be a memorialisation of the past and an element of looking to the future and, in the end, this is why it is so important to consider the aesthetics and the use of spaces and the infrastructure.
There are many modern approaches to this design that have had to be rethought for it to become successful. The amount of symbolism packed into one space, especially where that space is too large and open, feels like it was a last minute afterthought or a place to fit in all the ideas that weren’t considered for the rest of the scheme. The historic part of the journey seems more successful than the modern parts as it connects better with the historic past and sits in context to its surroundings. The symbolism is not lost here. The glass cases show you the preserved historical layers that clearly communicate the possible locations of the St Mary’s Cathedral piers. The didactic elements of the cathedral’s cross of nails and peace and reconciliation, however, are not necessarily shown here, but in Millennium Place. We must question where the surrounding, hugging elements are that serve to make you feel welcome and where all the events are to bring people together in friendship. Within today’s trend for political unrest, racism and religious fears, where is Coventry’s symbolism? The city should be the capital of peace and reconciliation and have spaces that truly represent and approach the ideals of coming together. With such a diverse society, placing a few plaques on a wall and having a rather confusing monument doesn’t seem enough. A garden that is hidden away behind the main discourse of the city, next to a very unforgiving ring road that sits high on the skyline, trapping you in, and then a hashed up landscape below that makes you feel quite uneasy. If the symbolism was truly to be the focus of renewal and homage to Coventry’s history the initiative, needed to think more like Warsaw. Rebuild from the roots and consider the aesthetics to reconnect oneself to the place. Be bold, show strength in the pillars of the past, and have a strong core that can then be worked around instead of a messy network of new and old with no identity and no clear message of what Coventry is and what it stands for. It is important to note that, of the designers involved in the Phoenix Initiative, Rummey Design is based in Sevenoaks, three hours away from Coventry, whilst MJP Architects are based in London. Most of their design inspiration, therefore, would have come from their research whereas, in Warsaw, the people who rebuilt the city were locals or heavily focussed within the heritage and detail of the build. “Warsaw’s citizens returned by the thousands to help in the reconstruction following the motto ‘the entire nation builds its capital’” (laprogressive.com, accessed 29.01.17)
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Fig 51: Non-Descript landscape under the ring road in Covetry
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CONCLUSION
This paper reveals the dangers of using symbolism to drive a project forward because, without careful consideration of the designs, functionality, longevity of the landscape and the aging processes, the overall schemes will not communicate effectively to allow the users to engage with the landscape. Berleant’s “Participatory model of aesthetic experience” recognised the role experience played in bonding humans to their cultural and ecological environment and acknowledged that those bonds of concern were the prerequisite for transforming feelings into values.” (Meyer, 2000) Therefore, the spaces and their functions become confused, disorientating and disconnected. The journey through Coventry has been compromised by the complexity and depth of its symbolism. The journey itself does not take that long to get from the Cathedral to Millennium Place and there are not that many opportunities for the visitor to stop for long periods of time. Millennium Place, which seems like it should be an end destination, is not as, once the visitor has been around the Transport Museum, they will then go on to spend time in the Garden of International Friendship.
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Fig 52: Rebuilt Krakowskie Przedmiecie Street. Photograph: Daryl Mersom for the Guardian
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Fig 53: I Many Syrian cities have been reduced to rubble, Deir az-Zor
The more information there is about the project and the translations of symbolism the more depth and understanding is achieved. But it needs to be more like Warsaw with its signs to guide the visitor through the experience and the journey. The journey is so much more than Coventry’s past of destruction and reconciliation. Coventry is its people, its businesses and its spaces. The way Warsaw rebuilt itself was formed with the use of the three rules of design, Utilitas, Firmitas and Venustas. It pulled together its identity, meaning that the local residents had something sturdy to work with and to create work for themselves and the beauty that came with the historic, intricate buildings and the unity and aesthetics, meant that the residents could connect with the familiar surroundings. The buildings were all similar in their design and nature and so countered what the Poles were used to; they offered a sense of indifference. The power was not within one symbolically masculine building, but worked together in unison to create a powerful image of strength. The language of the landscape is so powerful that symbolic elements do not need to be applied to understand the identity of the place or the story of the city. The conclusion is that the city can regenerate eventually, but it cannot be forced through the symbolism that perhaps only half of the citizens may follow, believe in or understand. Not every city can completely rebuild itself, but the understanding of re-rooting the identity and having pride for where you live, considering every complex element of what it means to live and connect with the surroundings, is key. Perhaps in the future cities that have been destroyed, in places like Syria, will decide whether they will construct new designs or rebuild the old. Either way, there will inevitably be forms of symbolism within the landscape. As for the industrial peak and the damage caused within Coventry, as Steve Hochstadt says, “More recently, considerable funds have been used to remove those architectural mistakes and to invest in the recovery of unique local architectural history as, in Poland and elsewhere, reconstruction of local history means the recovery of local pride. The past lives on in old buildings physical reminders of the accomplishments of our predecessors”. (http://historynewsnetwork.org, accessed 29.01.17)
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Fig 54: View through the spiral Bridge looking at Whittle Arch
Fig 1 Fig 2 Fig 3 Fig 4 Fig 5 Fig 6 Fig 7 Fig 8 Fig 9 Fig 10 Fig 11 Fig 12 Fig 13 Fig 14 Fig 15-20 Fig 21-26 Fig 27 Fig 28 Fig 29 Fig 30 Fig 31
PHOTO REFERENCES
Coventry, Whittle Arch designed by MJP Architects and engineer Whitbybird: Photo By Chrissy FitzPatrick The Three Spires, Coventry: Postcard, by A R Quinton Coventry, Glass Bridge, by Alexander Beleschenko: Photo By Alexander FitzPatrick Coventry Cathedral: Statue of Reconciliation, by Josefina de Vasconcellos: Photo By Chrissy FitzPatrick After the Blitz, the two charred beams that lay in a symbolic cross: Photo By Unknown (Old Postcard or Print) Coventry’s location within the UK Coventry St Michael’s Cathedral: old and new, by Basil Spence: Photo By Chrissy FitzPatrick Coventry: Hales Street, Old and New: Photo By Chrissy FitzPatrick Coventry: Hales Street, Old and New: Photo By Unknown (Old Postcard or Print) Priory Gardens Priory Place Three spaces: Priory Gardens, Priory Place, Millennium Place: Photo By Unknown Three spaces: Priory Gardens, Priory Place, Millennium Place: Photo By Unknown Three spaces: Priory Gardens, Priory Place, Millennium Place: Photo By Chrissy FitzPatrick The Journey, From Priory Gardens : Photo By Chrissy FitzPatrick The Journey, To The Garden of International Friendship: Photo By Chrissy FitzPatrick Artists Impression of Millennium Place at night: By Françoise Schein A lit window looking into the past, the old St Michael’s Cathedral: Photo By Chrissy FitzPatrick The Journey of Lights. The light, at the project completion and the darkness now: by AWM The Journey of Lights. The light, at the project completion and the darkness now: by Blogger-mynn The Journey of Lights. The light, at the project completion and the darkness now: Chrissy FitzPatrick • Page No 52
Fig 32-34 Fig 35 Fig 36 Fig 37-39 Fig 40 Fig 41 Fig 42-44 Fig 45 FIg 46 Fig 47 Fig 48 Fig 49 Fig 50 Fig 51 Fig 52 Fig 53 Fig 54 Fig 55 Plan 1 Plan 2 Plan 3 Plan 4 Plan 5
The Journey of Lights. The light, at the project completion and the darkness now: Photo By Chrissy FitzPatrick Priory Place, Priory Mill, Mill Race: Photo By Chrissy FitzPatrick The main entrance to the Cathedral, No signs to say it is: Photo By Chrissy FitzPatrick Coventry: Pre War, War Time and Post War images: Photo by Unknown Coventry: Pre War, War Time and Post War images: Photo by Malc McDonald Warsaw the Old Town: Photo, Mary Lussiana Warsaw: Pre War, War Time and Post War images: Photo by Unknown (Old Postcard) Warsaw, Historic Centre and Coventry’s alternative future of Concrete: By blogger SWEENEYSEAS Warsaw, Historic Centre and Coventry’s alternative future of Concrete: Photo: Chrissy FitzPatrick Warsaw: Image of The CBD and Palace of Culture and Science looking from the Old Town: By Krzysztof Romanowski Warsaw, a very well used space. A connective experience to the past: Photo: Unknown One of Coventry’s events held in Millennium Place, Outdoor Cinema: Photo: Covwntry Telegraph Historic Spon Street with a very modern IKEA building in the background: Photo: Unknown Non-Descript landscape under the ring road in Covetry: Photo: Chrissy FitzPatrick Rebuilt Krakowskie Przedmiecie Street. Photograph: Daryl Mersom for the Guardian Many Syrian cities have been reduced to rubble, Deir az-Zor, pictured in 2013 Photo: Reuters / Khalil Ashawi View through the spiral Bridge looking at Whittle Arch: Photo: Alex FitzPatrick Gibson’s Plan of the City 1955: Photo: Unknown The Phoenix initiative’s location within Coventry- By Coventry Council Tourism 1939 Model of new Civic Centre displayed in the Coventry of Tomorrow exhibition- Photo: Unknown Coventry Model, in Coventry Transport Museum: Photo, Chrissy FitzPatrick Coventry Historic Map 1918: Photo, Chrissy FitzPatrick The Journey, concept sketch, 1998: A tool for explaining the concept to anyone concerned: By MJP Architects Coventry, Third Time Unlucky • Page No 53
Fig 45: Warsaw, Historic Centre and Coventry’s alternative future of Concrete: By blogger SWEENEYSEAS
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REFERENCES
Coventry History Centre and Archive(2010) George Demidowicz Coventry’s Phoenix Iniative. Available at: http://ihbc.org.uk/context_ archive/76/pheonix/coventry.html (accessed 29 Jan 2017) History News Network Steve Hochstadt (2016) The Destruction and Rebuilding of Warsaw. Available at: http://historynewsnetwork.org/ blog/153807 (Accessed 29 Jan 2017) Jones the Planner, Adrian Jones (2016) Warsaw doesn’t know how good it is . Available at: http://www.jonestheplanner.co.uk/2016/04/ warsaw-doesnt-know-how-good-it-is.html (accessed 29 Jan 2017) LA Progressive, Steve Hochstadt (2016) The Destruction and Rebuilding of Warsaw. Available at: https://www.laprogressive.com/warsawrebuilt/ (Accessed 29 Jan 2017) MJP Architects (2014) Phoenix Iniative Coventry. Available at: http://www.mjparchitects.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/ (Accessed 24 Jan 2017) Quora, Craig Heile (2013) Why was the Soviet Union keen to rebuild Warsaw in 1945? Available at: https://www.quora.com/Why-was-theSoviet-Union-keen-to-rebuild-Warsaw-in-1945 (accessed 29 Jan 2017) Unesco(2014) Historic Centre of Warsaw. Available at: http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/30 (accessed 18 Jan 2017) Tim LambertLocal Histories, A Brief History of Coventry. Available at: http://www.localhistories.org/coventry.html (Accessed 17 Jan 2017)
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The Guardian, Daryl Mersom (2016) Story of cities #28: how postwar Warsaw was rebuilt using 18th century paintings. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2016/apr/22/story-cities-warsaw-rebuilt-18th-century-paintings (accessed 18 Jan 2017) Rowntree.L.B and Conkey.M.W. Symbolism and The Cultural Landscape. Annals of the Association of American Geographers: Blackwel Publishing Limited Poole. K (1994) “Context vs. Concept: Reconstituting the Generation of Form and Content in Landscape Architecture.” Proceedings of the Council of Educators in Landscape Architecture Annual Symposium. Mississippi State University Tallon, A. (2010). Urban regeneration in the UK. 1st ed. London: Routledge. Basil Spence (1962) The Phoenix at Coventry, The building of a Cathedral by its architect Basil Spence. New York City: Harper & Row Jerrard.R and Hands.D (Ed. 2008) Design management Exploring field work and applications. Oxon:Routledge MJP, Rummey Designs (architects, artists and authors)(2004) Phoenix Architecture/ Art/ Reneration. Shoreditch High Street, London: Black dog Publishing Limited Extract Elizabeth K. Meyer (2000) The Post-Earth Day Conundrum:Translating Environmental Values into Landscape Design: An extract from Environmentalism in Landscape architecture, edited by Michel Conan, Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, Washington, D.C
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Fig 30: The Journey of Lights. The light, at the project completion and the darkness now: by Blogger-mynn
BIBLIOGRAPHY Websites BBC, Frank Whittle (1907 - 1996) Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/whittle_frank.shtml (Accessed 29 Jan 2017) CIty Metric, Jonn Elledge (2016) “The council destroyed more than the Blitz”: For the third time in a century, they’re rebuilding Coventry Available at: http://www.citymetric.com/fabric/council-destroyed-more-blitz-third-time-century-theyre-rebuilding-coventry-2553 (accessed 17 Jan 2017) Coventry Cathedral (2017) The Community of the Cross of Nails – Growing together in hope. Available at: http://www. coventrycathedralorg.uk/ccn2/ (accessed 29 Jan 2017) Coventry Cathedral (2017) Our reconciliation ministry – Growing together in hope. Available at: http://www.coventrycathedral.org.uk/ wpsite/our-reconciliation-ministry/ (accessed 29 Jan 2017) Coventry History Centre and Archive(2010) George Demidowicz Coventry’s Phoenix Iniative. Available at: http://ihbc.org.uk/context_ archive/76/pheonix/coventry.html (accessed 29 Jan 2017) Coventry History Centre and Archive(2010) George Demidowicz Coventry’s Phoenix Iniative. Available at: http://ihbc.org.uk/context_ archive/76/pheonix/coventry.html (accessed 29 Jan 2017) Coventry Transport Museum, History of Coventry Transport Museum. Available at: (http://www.transport-museum.com/about/the_ history_of_the_museum.aspx (accessed 29 Jan 2017) Chrissy FitzPatrick • Page No 58
Wikipedia(2017) Phoenix. Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenix (Accessed 16 Jan 2017) Fondation Le Corbusier (1957) Extrait de Le Corbusier, Oeuvre complète, volume 6, 1952-1957, Villa de Madame Manorama Sarabhai, Ahmedabad, India, 1951. Available at: http://www.fondationlecorbusier.fr/corbuweb/morpheus.aspx?sysId=13&IrisObjectId=5459&sysLa nguage=en-en&itemPos=67&itemCount=78&sysParentName=&sysParentId=64 (Accessed 17 Jan 2017) Historic Coventry, Blog. Available at: http://www.historiccoventry.co.uk/postwar/postwar.php (Accessed 19 Jan 2017) History News Network Steve Hochstadt (2016) The Destruction and Rebuilding of Warsaw. Available at: http://historynewsnetwork.org/ blog/153807 (Accessed 29 Jan 2017) Jones the Planner, Adrian Jones (2016) Warsaw doesn’t know how good it is . Available at: http://www.jonestheplanner.co.uk/2016/04/ warsaw-doesnt-know-how-good-it-is.html (accessed 29 Jan 2017) LA Progressive, Steve Hochstadt (2016) The Destruction and Rebuilding of Warsaw. Available at: https://www.laprogressive.com/warsawrebuilt/ (Accessed 29 Jan 2017) MJP Architects (2014) Phoenix Iniative Coventry. Available at: http://www.mjparchitects.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/ (Accessed 24 Jan 2017) NZ History, Alexander Turnbull Library, Basil Spence’s first pencil impression of the Beehive. Available at: http://nzhistory.govt.nz/media/ photo/beehive-drawing-basil-spence (Accessed 19 Jan 2017) Quora, Craig Heile (2013) Why was the Soviet Union keen to rebuild Warsaw in 1945? Available at: https://www.quora.com/Why-was-theSoviet-Union-keen-to-rebuild-Warsaw-in-1945 (accessed 29 Jan 2017) Coventry, Third Time Unlucky • Page No 59
Unesco(2014) Historic Centre of Warsaw. Available at: http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/30 (accessed 18 Jan 2017) Tim LambertLocal Histories, A Brief History of Coventry. Available at: http://www.localhistories.org/coventry.html (Accessed 17 Jan 2017) Sir Basil Spence Archive Project. Available at: http://www.basilspence.org.uk/work (Accessed 19 Jan 2017) The Guardian, Daryl Mersom (2016) Story of cities #28: how postwar Warsaw was rebuilt using 18th century paintings. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2016/apr/22/story-cities-warsaw-rebuilt-18th-century-paintings (accessed 18 Jan 2017) Coventry Cathedral (2011) Coventry Cathedral World War II History Available at: www.coventrycathedral.org.uk-wpsite-wp-downloadsResources-Resource (Accessed 29 Jan 2017) The Gaurdian, Matt Weaver (2007) Let’s be frank about Spence. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/society/2007/oct/16/ communities (Accessed 17 Jan 2017)
Books Rowntree.L.B and Conkey.M.W. Symbolism and The Cultural Landscape. Annals of the Association of American Geographers: Blackwel Publishing Limited Lynch.K. (1960) The Image of the city. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press Poole. K (1994) “Context vs. Concept: Reconstituting the Generation of Form and Content in Landscape Architecture.” Proceedings of the Council of Educators in Landscape Architecture Annual Symposium. Mississippi State University Chrissy FitzPatrick • Page No 60
O’Brien.D and Matthews.P (2016) After Urban Regeneration, Communities, policy and place Symbolism and the cultural landscape. Univeristy of Bristol: Policy Press Tallon, A. (2010). Urban regeneration in the UK. 1st ed. London: Routledge. Waterman.T (2009) The fundamentals of landscape architecture. Lausanne: AVA Academia Spence.B (1950) Campbell.L, Glendinning.M, Thomas.T (ed. 2012) Buildings & Projects. London: RIBA Publishing Basil Spence (1962) The Phoenix at Coventry, The building of a Cathedral by its architect Basil Spence. New York City: Harper & Row Wright.F.L and Le Corbusier (1994) The Romantic Legacy Etlin. Manchester: Manchester University Press Jerrard.R and Hands.D (Ed. 2008) Design management Exploring field work and applications. Oxon:Routledge Ciechanowski.J.M (1974) The Warsaw Rising of 1944. London: Cambridge University Press MJP, Rummey Designs (architects, artists and authors)(2004) Phoenix Architecture/ Art/ Reneration. Shoreditch High Street, London: Black dog Publishing Limited Extract Elizabeth K. Meyer (2000) The Post-Earth Day Conundrum:Translating Environmental Values into Landscape Design: An extract from Environmentalism in Landscape architecture, edited by Michel Conan, Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, Washington, D.C Coventry, Third Time Unlucky • Page No 61
Video Dan Cruikshank- Resurrecting History- Warsaw- http://www.dailymotion.com/video/x3gto06 Most of the historic photos for Coventry come from this website: https://www.historiccoventry.co.uk/memories Word Count: 5667 Fig 55: Gibson’s Plan of the City 1955
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dribybtihW Fig ree42-44: nigne dnWarsaw: a stcetihPre crAWar, PJM War yb dTime engisand ed hPost crA eWar lttihW images ,y rtnevoC :1 giF
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Fig 1: Coventry, Whittle Arch designed by MJP Architects and engineer Whitbybird
Fig 42-44: Warsaw: Pre War, War Time and Post War images